Arsenic in Bangladesh

Evidence Based Environmental Policy and Management 1: 1-?
(2007)
Blue Gold: A Deadly Gift
Evaluation of the removal of naturally occurring arsenic from

groundwater in Bangladesh via a household filtration system based
upon a composite iron matrix
Ame Alexandra Plant

Environmental Studies, School of Geography, Environment and Earth Sciences,
Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington, New Zealand.
Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 1

University of Wellington, New Zealand
Evidence Based Environmental Policy and Management 1: 1-? (2007)
Abstract
High concentrations of naturally occurring arsenic are found in the groundwater of Bangladesh. A
wide range of technologies have been created to remove arsenic from drinking water. The SONO
filtration system is a household level technology, and through coagulation, filtration and precipitation
processes the arsenic is transformed from its potentially deadly soluble form into an insoluble solid
that is exposed of as waste. The system is highly effective in its removal of arsenic and currently
provides safe drinking water to millions. Such an achievement provides a small step in the direction
of achieving the Millennium Development Goal of providing clean safe drinking water to a larger
majority of the population. The system provides an affordable short term solution
Keywords: Bangladesh, arsenic removal, household level, Filtration, Composite Iron Matrix,
contamination, groundwater
Introduction
Water, ‘blue gold’ is finite, all the water that will ever be is, right now (National
Geographic, 1993). The freshwater that we as the human race depend on amounts to
0.01% of all water on earth, illustarted below in figure 1 (Miller, 2005). With global
trends set to see a human population of nine billion in 2050 the importance of water
security is imminent (Crop Life International , 2004). The United Nations has
addressed this threat in their Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) under goal
seven, a difficult task in which they have stated “it will require extraordinary efforts”
to achieve (United Nations, 2008).
Figure 1: The distribution of the World's water resources with emphasis on the distribution of
fresh water.
Source from (Lannoe, 2007)
A pressing issue of the global water crisis is concerned with water quality as it is the
quality of water that determines its purpose (Department of the Environment: Water
Heritage and the Arts, 2008). Many pollutants of both human and natural origin
contaminate water undermining its quality (Miller, 2005). The effect on humans
specifically can be devastating. The United Nations states that contaminated
drinking water and poor sanitation kill 1.5 million children a year (United Nations,
2008). The contamination of water supplies via anthropogenic processes is generally

easy to rectify once the cause has been identified. Identifying contamination via
natural processes on the other hand is much more difficult (Miller, 2005).
One such problem is the contamination of water with arsenic. The effects on its
consumers are horrific; acute poisoning results in diarrhea, vomiting, convulsions
and blood in urine which may later be followed by coma or death. Chronic
poisoning causes skin lesion, abnormal growth, and cancers. There is a great deal of
concern about the later form of poisoning as it may take up to ten years before any
symptoms are revealed (A. H Welch et al, 2003).
This was the case for millions of people in Bangladesh. For years the people of
Bangladesh had suffered epidemics of cholera, typhoid and dysentery as a result of
drinking from pools and streams that where contaminated with harmful microbial
pathogens (Baxter, 1998)
During the 1970s UNICEF and the Government of Bangladesh encouraged its
people to drink water from tube wells (Anwar, 2007). These tube wells accessed the
abundant reservoirs of groundwater below their feet and promised high quality
water. Regrettably the water contained the deadly poison arsenic (A. H Welch et al,
2003). By 1993 when the first symptoms of arsenic poisoning began to appear there
were millions of tube wells throughout Bangladesh supplying water to around 90%
of its population (BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Water scarcity: A looming crisis?,
2004).
The British Geological Survey was asked to test a proportion of these wells for
arsenic contamination. The results indicated that approximately fifty percent of the
tube wells tested were over the World Health Organization standard of ten parts per
billion. In many cases the concentrations were greater than 200ppb (British
Geological Survey). In addition hazardous concentrations of arsenic have been
detected in forty seven of sixty four districts (SOES/DCH, 1998). The Government,
UNICEF and others had to counteract their initial approach and encourage people
not to drink from contaminated groundwater (Baxter, 1998).
Millions of people are at risk from arsenic poisoning and the majority of those
concerned are completely unaware of the daily hazard they face. Arsenic itself is
colourless, odourless, and tasteless even in high concentrations requiring special
chemical tests to detect its presence in drinking water (Lepkowski, 1999). Added to
these problems are the socio-economic background of Bangladesh and the
overwhelming dependence of its people on groundwater (DPHE/Danida, 1999).
In view of the above factors there is an urgent need for a suitable treatment system
for the removal of arsenic from groundwater. Socio-economic conditions of
Bangladesh demand low-cost, easy to use, convenient, small treatment units that can
be implemented in households and communities (Saha, 2001).

A variety of technologies have been used for the removal of Arsenic from
groundwater, including:
1. Co-precipitation with ferric chloride
2. Absorptive filtration and exchange resins
3. Ion exchange
4. Membrane processes like reverse osmosis
High iron concentrations may decrease the effectiveness of the above technologies.
As ferrous iron will be oxidized and form a ferric hydroxide coating upon surfaces,
or in the case of number four above block the pores of membranes (Hering J. G,
1996) (McNiel, 1997) (Sorg, 1978). The ‘Bucket Treatment Unit’ (BTU) developed
by DPHE-Danida will be the focus of this literature based research report (Owen,
2001).
Aim
The aim of this study is to evaluate the removal of naturally occurring arsenic from
groundwater in Bangladesh via a household filtration system which is based upon a
composite iron matrix.
_____________________________________________________________
Objectives
Answering this question necessitated breaking the task down into three information
seeking objectives as follows:
1) What is the Bucket Treatment Unit and how does it operate?
2) Determine the arsenic removal capacity of the SONO filter
3) Determine the social aspects of the SONO filter:
• The management of spent material
• The manufacturing and distribution
• The social acceptability

Methods
Each objective requires the same procedure of obtaining information when searching
databases. Thus the methods of searching literature for information on each
objective will be the same.
........................................................................................................................................
Sample set and Procedure
a) Search Databases
• Search engines Google, Yahoo, AltaVista, and Ask.com (useful for
acquiring basic information surrounding the objective)
• Google Scholar peer reviewed papers, thesis, books and abstracts
from professional societies (useful for more reliable sources of
information)
• Subject Gateways BUBL, Intute: Science, Education and
Technology, Intute: Health and Life (academically reliable
information.)
• Books Worldcat (access to electronic books)
• Databases science research.com, web of knowledge / web of
science, water resources abstracts
• Journals Directory of Open Access Journals
• News Sources: EureaAlert, New Scientist, BBCi: Science and
Nature (keep up-to-date on subject.
Before searching will ensure that the correct source has been chosen. To do so i will
simply ask; does it have full text? Does it cover the right subject matter? Does it
contain peer reviewed information?
The next step in gathering information for each objective will involve being prompt.
P-presentation: How is the information communicated? If pages are not clearly
communicated then no more time will wasted upon them
R-Relevance: information may not be relevant to my search due to; the
geographical aspects, level (too basic or too specialized), emphasis.
O-Objectivity: good information should be devoid of bias and be well balanced
presenting information on both sides of an argument
M-Method: the way information is produced; an opinion, research, reviews of
research.

P-Provenance: who produced it where did it come from provides useful clues its
reliability; authors, organisations.
T-Timeless: The date of production/publish important indicator of reliability. Thus
any information that does not have a date will not be considered for this report.
..................................................................................................................................................
b) Key Words
Objective 1: Household, Filtration, System, Arsenic, Bangladesh
Objective 2: Removal capacity, Arsenic, Bangladesh, Filtration, System, household
Objective 3: Management, waste, material, manufacturing, distribution, social, cultural,

acceptable, benefits, arsenic removal, Bangladesh, household
........................................................................................................................................
C) Search Limits
Objective 1: Terminology has proven to hinder some searches as BTU is the

simplest terminology the technology is known by and used throughout this study.
The technology has various names. Very specific search provides a limited number
of peer reviewed journals.
Objective 2: Due to the specific nature of the report, the geographic location and
socio-economic nature of the study area in addition to the fact that the technology
was only created in 2001, there were very limited papers addressing the issue in
focus.
Objective 3: the barrier of language means that the peer reviewed literature sourced
from Bangladesh is written by those who can afford an education; it is therefore
difficult to truly state the social aspects of the SONO filter with certainty that what
we read is correct.
...............................................................................................................................................
Sample Set and Procedure

D) Rational of limits
Objective 1: As the bucket treatment unit is fairly new technology and a specific
topic all literature available was thoroughly researched.

Objective 2: The scarcity of the quantity of peer reviewed literature, although the
few papers providing the in depth information needed where of high quality.
Therefore all relevant information was thoroughly studied.
Objective 3: Those who are educated are voices for their country and people, and
are informers of the crisis in which they face daily. Other peer reviewed literature
where compiled of author from less bias nations.
E) Key Content
Objective 1: Structure and operation of the SONO filter system
Objective 2: Effectiveness of SONO filter system in reducing arsenic concentrations
Objective 3: Manufacture, distribution, management and social acceptability of
SONO filter
F) Focus
Objective 1: Basic illustrations and descriptions of how the SONO filter operates
Objective 2: Graphs and Tables from key sources illustrating how effective the
SONO filter is at removing arsenic from ground water.
Objective 3: Qualitative descriptions and illustrations of the social factors
surrounding the SONO filter
Results
Objective 1: What is the Bucket Treatment Unit and how does it operate?
The BTU is a two-stage, pour-collect filtration system and was developed with
Bangladeshi villagers in mind. The BTU consists of two 40-litre plastic buckets and
illustrated below in figure 2. The top bucket is red in colour and contains the
composite-iron matrix (CIM) in between two layers of sand. The bottom bucket is
green in colour and has a simple sand and charcoal filter that cleans the water of iron
and other impurities that may have drained from the first bucket (Figure 2) (A.
Hussam, 2001) (Rasul, 2002).

Figure 2 A schematic representation of the Bucket Treatment Unit

Source from (A. Hussam, 2001)
To produce clean drinking water groundwater is collected from a local well and
poured into the upper red bucket which contains 32 kg of material. The water filters
down through 10 kg of course river sand which are obtained from local river
sediments and thoroughly washed before use. The course sand layer contains 95%
SiO2 and acts as a filter oxidising soluble iron.
The product of iron oxidation is the precipitate Fe(OH)3 (s) which is effectively
trapped in the sand (A. Hussam, 2001). The course sand layer also provides
mechanical stability by stabilising the flow of water. In addition this layer reduces
the production of fine particles. This results in a low probability of the pores spaces
between the sand grains clogging up, and a higher probability of the sand layer
lasting for longer without compromising the quality of water (Mortoza, 2008).
The water then passes through 5-10 kg of the composite iron matrix (CIM) which
contains 92-94% Fe. The CIM is manufactured iron turnings obtaining from local
industries. The turnings are washed and treated to enhance HFO formation. The CIM
is the surface upon which ions of elements such as arsenic are captured and
immobilized.

Iron hydroxide has a remarkable capacity to capture ions of other elements. This is
because of its molecular structure illustrated below in figure 3 which is full of gaps.
Figure 3: The molecular structure of iron (III) hydroxide, (the ball within the shaded green
area is iron; blue = oxygen; white = hydrogen) note the openess of the structure.
Source (Clark, 2003)
Effectively, hydrogen atoms are remote enough from iron and oxygen in the
structure for them to produce localised positive charges at the surface of the mineral.
Consequently negatively charged anions can attach to the surfaces of the iron
hydroxide by adsoption. Iron (III) hydroxide therefore acts like a ‘chemical mop’
(Pierce, 1982).
The water then flows through a second layer of course sand (10kg) before being
manually taped and piped through plastic tubing to the second green bucket (Wilkie,
1996) (A. Hussam, 2001).
The water is filtered through a third layer of course sand (10 kg) which retains any
iron leached from the first bucket. The following layer contains wood charcoal that
is obtained from the firewood used for cooking.
The charcoal absorbs any organic matter, and although passive to As this layer
provides better tasting water. The water then flows through 9kg of fine sand derived
from rivers and acts as a fine filtration system designed to catch ant residual particle.
Finally the water passes through 3.5 kg of brick chips, obtained from local
manufactures. The brick chips stabilise water flow before being manually tapped
into any container below (A. Hussam, 2001) (Yuan, 2006) (Raven, 1998).
The structure itself consists of two 40 litre buckets made of food-grade high density
polypropylene buckets. These buckets are produced by local plastic modelling
industries and are fitted with a top cover to reduce further contamination and are
moulded with outlets for the flow control taps. The flow controllers are made of

either moulded plastics or metal taps and control the flow of water through the
system. Lastly a metallic filter stand made by local welders provides support for the
buckets and completes the Bucket Treatment Unit (A. Hussam, 2001).
Objective 2: Determine the arsenic removal capacity of the unit
The BTU was tested with contaminated groundwater by Hussan and Munir from six
different tube wells in six different households; Fatic, Caurtpara, Zia, Alampur,
Kaliskhnpur and Juniadah (A. Hussam, 2001). The CIM removed the inorganic
arsenic through a series of possible reactions which are visible in appendix D for
reference.
The results indicate that arsenic concentrations ranging from 32-2423 ug/L where
entered in to the filtration system. The potable water that had been filtrated on the
other hand only contained between <2 ug/L (which is the detection limit) to 8+/-4
ug/L of arsenic. Table one below illustrates the results obtained from BTU in the six
districts.
Table 1: results from six BTU filter monitored for approximately 2-5 years in active use by
householders in the Kushtia District Bangladesh
Extracted from (A. Hussam, 2001)
Therefore the optimum arrangement of the sand, CIM, and charcoal layers removes
the arsenic ions effectively. The BTU is also unique in its ability to decrease arsenic
concentration with increasing water yield as illustrated below in figure 4 (Adeel,
2001).

Figure 4: BTU filter performance at filter 5 (table 1) illustrating the decrease in waste arsenic
against water yield
Source (A. Hussam, 2001)
Hassun et al attribute this quality to the generation of new complexation sites on the
CIM through insitu iron oxidation (rust) (A. Hussam, 2001) (Orville, 1977).
The BTU was extensively for the effective filtration of arsenic by Hussan et al,
USEPA, WHO, and the Government of Bangladesh the results of which are
illustrated in table 2 below.
Table 2: Comparisons of arsenic concentration in groundwater after filtration from a BTU (or
otherwise known as SONO filter) USEPA, WHO, and the Bangladesh Government.
Extracted from (A. Hussam, 2001)
Of the 590,000 L of groundwater that where filtered through the BTU at the six
locations identified in table one, the filtered water met the institutions
recommendations for the amount of arsenic present in drinking water (Adeel, 2001).
The BTU effectiveness at removing arsenic from groundwater decreases by 20-30%
per year due to the clogging of pore spaces in sand layers. In such an event the flow
rate of water through the BTU decreases indicating that the upper sand layers need
to be replaced (A. Hussam, 2001).

Objective 3: Determine the social aspects of the SONO filter:
• The management of spent material
• The manufacturing and distribution
• The social acceptability
The Management of Spent Material
Spent materials are contaminated with high concentrations of toxics (Noyes, 1993).
Thus the process and complexity of waste disposal affect their technical viability,
cost, and social acceptability (Prosun Bhattacharya, 2007). At present, the only way
to identify toxic waste is to leach the solid material under ‘laboratory’ conditions, to
determine if the levels of toxic species released into the environment exceed
regulatory limits (Timbrell, 2002).
In this case the spent material was apparently nontoxic with less than 5 ug/L of
arsenic in all forms (NEA, 2007). The arsenic ions that have collected in the used
sand and CIM are in their oxidized form and are firmly bound with solid CIM,
producing an insoluble product. The disposal of which has been is therefore safe
according to Hassan et al.
The wastes produced are disposed of on land. The Environmental Protection Agency
has a recommendation of 2 kg of disposed arsenic per hectare of land. NEA
(National Academy of Engineering) and Hussan et al have corresponded this to
mean that 10 million liters of water with a concentration of 200mg/L of arsenic can
be disposed of over a hectare of land (Khan, 2000). From such results the evidence
indicates the safe disposal and easy disposal of arsenic contaminated water collected
form the SONO filter.
The Manufacturing and Distribution
The large-scale manufacture and distribution of the apparatus was primarily funded
through local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), local governments, and
international institutions (e.g., UNICEF).
The filter itself is manufactured by an NGO which uses indigenous materials for its
construction, although the CIM requires an appropriate licensing agreement. They
have been disturbed on a large scale via transportation of the units using flat bed
trucks and filter distributers in villages, which use flat bed rickshaws (Jakariya,
2007).
Once the filter system has been delivered the set up of the filtration system requires
consumers to follower simple guidelines, in doing so the set up of the system can be
completed within 20 minutes with potable water available within 3hrs. In some

cases the filter system has been scaled up by connecting adjacent units. This practice
has enhanced the flow rate for small communities (Abul Hussam, 2008). The filters
are now present in many social institution; primary and secondary schools, homes,
villages, restaurants and cafes. Estimates sate that around half a million people all
over Bangladesh are benefiting from the SONO filtration system (A. Hussam, 2001).
Social Acceptability
At a cost of $35 to $40 for five years, the equivalent of the one-month income of a
village laborer in Bangladesh, SONO is one of the most affordable water filters
available on the market. Monthly payment schedules available through the NGOs
that distribute the filters can make them even more affordable (Abul Hussam, 2008).
Unlike other technologies available the SONO filters do not require additional
chemicals or consumables. The estimated operating cost therefore is no more than
$10 over a five year period. In addition this cost is only in the event of the flow
controller being replaced, which has been stated to be a rare (Abul Hussam, 2008).
One unit can meet the needs of two families for drinking and cooking water for at
least five years. Provided that the instructions provided are followed the filter
system will be self mostly self maintained providing clean, soft water (A. Hussam,
2001).
Studies have shown that water collection and maintenance of the SONO filter are
done mostly by women, who enjoy the system as they do not have to walk long
distances to and from arsenic-free well (Bagla, 2003). Many people who had drunk
from the filtered water for two years or more showed some improvement in
arsenical reported a general sense of well-being and improvement in health (Hering
J. G, 1996).
The filter has a flow rate of 20 liters per hour, which produces enough water for
drinking, cooking, and other purposes. Hussan et al during their studies found no
social or cultural stigma associated with the dissemination or use of the filter
“except the reluctance to share filter water with neighbors” (A. Hussam, 2001).
Unfortunately there is still a large number of people who are unaware of their daily
consumption of arsenic and thus many NGOs have implemented training and
cultural programs to encourage and motivate people to drink arsenic free water
(Khan, 2000).
Concerns expressed in the search limits regarding the validity of the peer reviewed
literature researched where highlighted. Unease regarding the legitimacy of the
experiments conducted with the SONO filter and its waste disposal where strongly
expressed. Many believed a different filtering process was used to gain recognition
and verification from such organisations as WHO. Others were interested in the
unmonitored disposal of waste upon the land and feared the consequences of such
activities on the environment and their future health (Husain, 2007).

Analysis and Discussion
In 2000 world leaders from across the globe put their differences aside and came
together at the United Nations Headquarters in New York. During this conference
the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were born (WHO, 2008). In total there
are eight goals.
The management of water quality impinges directly or indirectly on all eight of the
MDGs (WHO, 2008). The United Nations filed the water quality problem into Goal
7 labelled under Target 10; “Half by 2015 the proportion of people without
sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation”. (United Nations,
2008)
The target is for people to have improved access to safe drinkable water by 2015. By
safe drinkable water they refer to the percentile of the population with access to at
least 20 litres of water a person per day from an improved source within one
kilometre of a person’s dwelling (The World Bank, 2008).
The two spheres of a problem compiled in target 10 are one of the same. By
improving basic sanitation the quality of water in that area will also be improved and
vice versa to have adequate sanitation facilities safe water is needed.
The achievement of such a goal would be a miracle, and the United Nations
addresses how difficult a task this really is; ‘with half the world without basic
sanitation, meeting the MDG target will require extraordinary efforts’ (United
Nations, 2008).
Since the establishment of the target Bangladesh does not seem to have benefited.
Table 9.1 and 9.2 below where been constructed from information sourced by the
UN in working towards the achievement of Goal 7 Target 10.
Proportion of the population

using improved drinking sources
Mean 80.6 80.3 80.6 81
Total 78 78 79 80
Urban 88 87 86 85
Rural 76 76 77 78
Figure 9.1 Table illustrating the proportion of the Bangladeshi population that have access to
improved drinking water.
Source derived from (United Nations Statistics Division, 2007)
Proportion of the population

using improved sanitation facilities

Mean 33.3 34.3 36.3 38.3
Total 26 28 32 36
Urban 56 34 51 48
Rural 18 21 26 32
Figure 9.2 Table illustrating the proportion of the Bangladeshi population that have access to
improved sanitation facilities
Source derived from (United Nations Statistics Division, 2007)
A larger proportion of the population have access to safe drinking water than they do
sanitation. Overall both are improving very gradually. There are noticeable trends in
both table 9.1 and 9.2. Notice how in both cases the rural areas have significantly
less access than the urban areas, but they are improving. In contrast the urban areas
are declining steadily.
The SONO filtration system is evidently still in high demand and needs to be further
distributed to those areas experiencing the worst affects. Interestingly the connection
between water quality and sanitation also influences the filter system. Someone of
poor hygiene operating the filtration system will surely contaminate the supply and
those others who drink from it.
A reduction in illnesses from pathogenic bacteria has been observed through the
simple practice of pouring five litres of hot water into each bucket every month. In
areas where illness is high, this protocol can be followed once a week. It seems
apparent now that one cannot be addressed without the other; water quality and
sanitation. For the effective operation of the SONO filtration system a certain
standard of hygiene is needed.
The system itself consists of two 40 L buckets through which water is filtered. The
water passes through a sequence of course and fine sands, wood charcoal, brick
chips and the CIM. Through the combination of coagulation, filtration and
precipitation processes the arsenic in the groundwater is converted from its soluble
potential deadly state to a safe insoluble solid.
The effectiveness of which was illustrated by the results obtained by Abdul Hussan,
2001.The filter was proved to be highly successful by reducing the arsenic
concentration to well below the detectable limit of 2ug/L in some cases.
This therefore provides a useful mechanism which can reduce the concentration of
arsenic in groundwater providing safe drinking water to its consumers. The
proportion of the population using the filtering system therefore have access to clean
safe drinking water contributing a small step toward achieving the Millennium
Development Goal 7.
In addition to the effectiveness of the system in producing high quality water that is
within the recommendations made by the WHO, the social aspects of the filtering
system needed to be addressed.

The concept of arsenic poisoning is reacted to differently all over Bangladesh due to
the majority of citizen being ill informed of the nature of the problem.
Many people view skin lesions, a product of chronic arsenic poisoning, as being
contagious. Those exhibiting the defects become socially excluded.
Furthermore new technology may be looked upon with caution as many people ran
from the villages crying ‘devils water is coming’ when the first tube wells where
sunk, and many consider that had they listened to their instincts then there
communities may have been saved from chronic arsenic poisoning.
Granted some citizens in various literatures have expressed their concerns regarding
the filtration system and its operation, although most after continued use of the clean
drinking water have expressed feelings of physical and mental well-being.
The SONO filter system has been welcomed by the majority of the nation and has
been incorporated into; schools cafes and restaurants. The easy construction,
maintenance and disposal of the waste material makes the units user friendly, and by
adjoin units parallel, can provide small communities with safe drinking water.
Although a short term solution this technology provides good quality drinking water
for many and is the basis for many other NGO incentives and initiatives the most
pressing of which are highlighted in the diagram below.
Figure 5: other initiatives and incentives of NGOs

Source (Ahamed, 2008)

Conclusion and Recommendations
To conclude, the household filtration system is extremely effective at removing

naturally occurring arsenic from groundwater. The technology is simple and yet
effective, through following a set of instructions the filter systems can be
constructed, maintained, and disposed of in a cost effective and user friendly manor.
The CIM is key to the filters success. The spaces available in the iron hydroxide
molecules sets up chemical attractions and in effect traps soluble (potential deadly)
arsenic and converts it into an insoluble (safe) solid waste product.
The SONO filtration system acts as a short term solution which can help toward the
United Nation Goal of increasing the number of people who do not have access to
safe drinking water.
Recommendations
1. The SONO filtration system should be stronger structurally and the quality
of the buckets improved to prevent damage.
2. Re assessment of the time in which the water is required to be in contact with
the CIM (which is currently 3hrs) should be a continuous processes as the
filter system ages.
3. The Filtration system should be promoted in those areas that are suffering
from the worst arsenic poisoning
4. Alternative water treatment systems should be region specific depending on
the geography of arsenic contamination in specific areas. Therefore area
specific water characteristics should be known and researched.
5. All personnel who which to operate the filtration system should be trained in
basic hygiene.
The above recommendations are toward a short term solution. A United effort
should be enforced whereby research is conducted in the aim to address the core
of the problem; to understand the genesis of arsenic contamination in the
groundwater of Bangladesh. Only when the source and origin of the problem has
been completely addressed and researched can a long term solution be produced.

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the well. Retrieved Aug 01, 2008, from Poison in the well:
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Appendix A: Response to Proposal
Although the initial proposal meet several of the necessary requirements some key
changes were made. Outlined below are the recommendations from the marker
followed by the changes made in response.
1. The finally report was required to be much shorter than the Preliminary
Analysis submitted.
• Much of the information in the proposal was provided for the lay
reader, this majority of this material has been cut from the finally
report, with additional information being provided in the appendix for
those readers who wish for a little more reading.
2. The aim of the proposal was much too ambiguous for the requirements of the
assignment.
• My approach to the proposal has been modified to assess what
options are available to Bangladesh in terms of mitigating the
problem.
The aim of the issues was revised from i) to ii):
i) An investigation into the genesis of arsenic that contaminates
the groundwater of Bangladesh. The study will take an Earths
Systems Approach and thus be focused into four separate
compartments; atmospheric, hydrological biological,
lithological. The compartments will not remain closed as with
further study the interconnections between them will become
apparent
ii) The aim of this study is to evaluate the removal of naturally
occurring arsenic from groundwater in Bangladesh via a
household filtration system which is based upon a composite
iron matrix
3. The final report needed to produce a; very tight, very focused and very-in-
depth analysis of one aspect of the issue covered in the proposal.

• To make this key change the aim of my report focused on one method
of mitigating the problem of arsenic contamination in the
groundwater of Bangladesh
4. The introduction needed to be broken up into paragraphs for easier reading

and should include illustrations to add variety for the reader.
• The above recommendations were carried out not only throughout the
introduction but maintained throughout the report.
5. Basic spelling and grammar mistakes

• The mistakes within in the text where rectified to the best of my
ability in the hope of producing a more coherent piece of writing.


Appendix B: Periodic Table (College, 2008)

_____________________________________________
Appendix C
Arsenic it Occurrence and Effects
A Brief Introduction in to the Chemistry of Arsenic

Arsenic behaves as a metal being shiny, soft and malleable and electrically
conductive. But it also has properties associated with non-metals as a result of being
in Group V of the periodic table. Here it sits below Nitrogen and phosphorus and
above antimony and bismuth on the boundary between metals and non-metals
exhibiting properties of both as a consequence (IUPAC, 2008). Arsenic has an
unusually large range of oxidation sates (oxidation and reduction are discussed in
Chapter 2) commonly -3, +3 and +5. Under normal circumstances arsenic comes
into contact with organisms in aqueous solutions (dissolved in water) as arsenate
ions (AsO4-3) in its 5+ state (Orville, 1977).
Negatively charged arsenate ions can adhere tightly to the surfaces of some common
minerals where their molecular structure produces a positive charge. Asinine gas is
by far the most toxic form of arsenic followed by dissolved arsenite and then
arsenate compounds. The elemental form of arsenic is the least toxic, which is a
powerful statement as taking just small quantities of the element can be fatal (A. H
Welch et al, 2003).
Arsenic in the Earth’s Crust

The bulk of arsenic in crustal rocks resides in sulphide minerals such as pyrite
(FeS2) by replacing the sulphur ion (Ra Bonewitz, 2005). Arsenic plays virtually no
role in the dominant silicates of the Earth’s crust and mantle. In fact it is one of the
least abundant elements in the rocks of the continental crust with something of the
order of 0.00021% (Mathematica, 1999). The relative abundances of the elements in
the Earth’s crust are shown below in Figure 4.2.1

Plot of abundances of elements in the Earth’s crust on a sorted scatter with a log scale. The y-
axis is the percentage of the elements in the Earth’s crust relative to the abundance of silicon
(set arbitrarily at 10^6/1million).
Source (Mathematica, 1999)
Arsenic contamination of Water

In natural waters concentrations are generally well below 10ppb (parts per billion),
the WHO recommended maximum for safe drinking water (WHO, 2001). The
oxidising conditions of the modern Earth’s surface favour +3 and +5 oxidation states
(Lee R. Kump, James F. Kasting, Robert G. Crane, 2004). Thus arsenic in modern
water will occur as arsenite and arsenate ions, which are more soluble than their
negatively, charged counter parts.
Arsenic has all of the attributes of an element which first came into contact with
organisms after the Earth’s surface become dominant with oxidising conditions. Due
to its low crustal abundance throughout Earth’s history arsenic has rarely come into
contact with organic matter, thus its prime candidate for having retained its deadly
poisonous effects is ‘by virtue of its rarity’ (International Labour office, 1930).
4.4 Decreasing the Distance between Arsenic the Human Population

The human population has gradually been increasing its connection with the deadly
poison. This lethal element has over time had many uses for the human race and
become a waste product of many practices. Arsenic is the by-product from metal
mining for industries, for instance the mining of gold produces between 7500-100
000 tonnes of the element every year (WHO: International Program on Chemical
Safety, 1992). Astonishingly arsenic is used as a growth promoter for pigs and
poultry in some areas, albeit in very small quantities (Sperling, 2005) (INCHEM,
1982). Its potency to all life forms has been harnessed for its use in rodenticides,
wood preservatives and tanning (Levy, 2004). Recently it has been found to be an
effect treatment against some malignant diseases such as leukaemia. It has been
shown that it can be used to encourage programmed death of the cancerous cells (A .
Evens, 2004).
The Effect of Arsenic on Human Health

Once arsenic is ingested into the system it rapidly combines with the haemoglobin
molecule in blood cells and thus travels through the body via the circulatory system
(Meharg, 2005). It accumulates in organs and tissues by the substitution with other
elements. An example of this process is the substitution of phosphate by arsenic on
Adenine Triphosphate (ATP). ATP plays a fundamental role in the transfer of energy
in both animals via respiration, and plants via photosynthesis. Within twenty four
hours arsenic redistributes itself to the skin, liver, Kidney and Spleen (Meharg,
2005) (Table 3.1).
Symptoms of acute arsenic poisoning by high dose begin with headaches, confusion,
and dizziness. As the poison develops, the breath may smell like garlic and the

fingernails change colour (Lundberg, 1998). Later symptoms include diarrhoea,

vomiting, blood in urine, cramping muscles and finally a coma followed by death
(Kevin J. Knoop, 2002). If recognised at an early stage, acute arsenic poisoning a
can be treated by chelation therapy. The treatment involves administrating
compounds with exploit arsenics desire to bond with other elements to gain a stable
structure. Arsenic is more strongly attracted to the chemicals administrated than to
the biochemical elements in the cell structure of the animals and plants. It is then
expelled from the cell rapidly. Unfortunately such treatment is; expensive, time
consuming and does not reverse the damage already done (Kevin J. Knoop, 2002).
The symptoms of chronic arsenic poisoning develop through gradual build up of
arsenic in the system, from repeated small dose such as drinking arsenic
contaminated water (Wilson, 2008). The general term for the effects is arseniasis.
The most obvious early signs are complaints of itchy skin, skin lesions on the hands
and feet which tend to develop gang green infections and dark blotches on the skin,
which eventually turn cancerous. Arsenic is now known to cause cancer of the lungs,
liver, kidney and bladder, although the link to arsenic is not immediately noticeable.
It can also affect the nervous system causing numbness and eventually muscular
paralysis and loss of coordination (Wilson, 2008).
Arsenic clearly poses a threat as a drinking water contaminant across the globe.
Natural aquifers now used for drinking water in; Argentina, Bangladesh, Cambodia,
Chile, China, Ghana, Hungary, Inner Mongolia, Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand,
Philippines, Taiwan, the USA and Vietnam have been found to contain worrying
concentrations of arsenic (Wilson, 2008). Below is a world map that highlights some
of these areas as being at risk from arsenic poising.
1 US Unknown 8 India 1,000,000

2 Mexico 400,000 9 Bangladesh 50,000,000
3 Chile 437,000 10 Thailand 1,000
4 Bolivia 20,000 11 Vietnam Millions
5 Argentina 2,000,000 12 Taiwan 200,000
6 Hungary 20,000 13 China 720,000

7 Romania 36,000 14 Nepal Unknown

A map and additional text illustrating the number of people across the globe that are at risk
form arsenic poisoning
Source (Pearce, 2003)
From the map it is clear that the fifty million people at risk from arsenic poisoning in
Bangladesh is the largest in the world.
_____________________________________________
Appendix D
The Geography of Bangladesh and its Groundwater

The Geography of Bangladesh
Bangladesh is the World’s most low-lying major country. It lies at the head of the
Bay of Bengal on the great Northern plains of the Indian peninsular, between the
Himalaya, central India and Myanmar (Burma) (Central Intelligence Agency, 2008).
A map illustrating the location of the chosen study area, Bangladesh

Sourced from (Central Intelligence Agency, 2008)
Nearly all of the 133 910 square kilometres (sq km) of land remains below one
hundred meters, a great deal of it never reaching a few meters above sea level. As
illustrated on figure 5.1.1, most of the country is situated on the interlocking deltas
of the two great rivers; the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, that flow from the
Himalaya and the major tributary called the Meghan. All discharge into the Bay of
Bengal. The Ganges connects with the Brahmaputra, and then joins the Meghan,

which drains part of Northeast India, giving the total area of both land and sea to be
144 000 sq km (Central Intelligence Agency, 2008).
Almost 10% of Bangladesh seems to be covered by river channels and much of the
country is cyclically inundated with flood waters during the monsoon season
(Baxter, 1998). The climatic extremes experienced by the country due to its global
location (figure 5.1.1) causes high river flow, sea-level surges and catastrophic
floods. After the floods have calmed deposits of fertile silt are left behind. The
agricultural exploitation of the fertile silt supports the eighth largest population of
the world (Baxter, 1998).
The Creation of the Bangladeshi Groundwater Supply

Since the Himalaya began to rise around 50 million years ago when the Indian
subcontinent collided with Asia through plate tectonics, their growing elevation has
encouraged the monsoon climate of South Asia. The monsoon period can produce
precipitation up to six meters in a few months in Northeast India and over one meter
in the Himalaya foothills (Valdiya, 2001). The result, the Ganges-Brahmaputra-
Meghan river system comprises the third largest source of freshwater discharge into
the world’s oceans (Tamil Nadu, Kerala, 1979). The annual volume of flow is 795
billion cubic meters; this is equivalent to 318 million Olympic sized swimming
pools.
The flow is not continuous but highly seasonal in nature. The seasonality and
volume of the flow affects sediment transport, and has done so over geological time
(Asit K. Biswas, 2001). To illustrate the rivers effects on sediment load in 2006 the
sediment carried to the delta during the monsoon period of that year reached 13
million tonnes of sediment (Anwar, 2007). This is the highest sediment load carried
by any large river in the world. It is therefore no wonder that there is a surplus of
sediment beneath Bangladesh in which to contain abundant quantities of
groundwater.
Tapping into the Groundwater

Fifty years ago Bangladesh faced epidemics of cholera, dysentery and typhoid which
killed a quarter of a million children a year (Mortoza, 2008). Such annual
catastrophes where caused by drinking from highly contaminated ponds and rivers.
To reduce the death toll an alternative source of water supply was needed. The
answer, tube wells. Tube wells accessed the abundant reservoirs of groundwater
trapped under the sediments of Bangladesh (Mortoza, 2008). The groundwater’s
promised pristine quality, straight from the snows and mountain streams of the
Himalayas hundreds of kilometres to the north.
Great suspicion greeted those first wells in rural villages. The first deep well sunk
for agriculture left people running from the villages crying “Devils water is
coming”, “Devils water is coming” (Blas, 2007). During the 1970s extensive
campaigns where launched by UNICEF and the Bangladeshi Government to educate
people and popularise tube wells. During this period a large number of tube wells
were sunk. Like many inventions the technology was simple, wholes where dug into
the Bengal Delta (figure 5.1.1) and long tubes where sunk through the sediments

into the abundant reservoirs of underground water. The simplicity and affordability
of technology led villages to dig their own private wells. Within three decades
millions of tube wells throughout Bangladesh where dug (Bagla, 2003).
The villages may have been right! In 1993 doctors began to notice a growing
number of skin lesions known to be a symptom of arsenic contamination due to
recent studies undertaken in neighbouring West Bengal India. With more than 2-5
million tube wells supplying 95% of the population with ‘safe’ drinking water the
extent of the possible epidemic at hand was horrifying. The groundwater turned out
to be far from safe, contaminated with something colourless, odourless and tasteless,
naturally occurring arsenic (Owen, 2001).
Researching the Extent of the problem

In 1997 the British Geological Survey (BGS) were asked to investigate how many
of these wells were contaminated with unacceptable levels of arsenic. The World
Health Organisation (WHO) had a recommended maximum concentration of 10 pbb,
the Bangladeshi standard was set five times higher than this at 50 ppb (Anwar,
2007). Regardless of either recommended guideline the results uncovered by the
BGS where sickening. More than 50% of all the tube wells tested where above the
WHO recommendation, and more than 27% were higher than the Bangladeshi
maximum concentration (British Geological Survey, 1999).
The difficulties in assessing the risk from poisoning by arsenic arise with the well-
well variability in arsenic concentrations. The variations make it difficult to predict
what concentrations of arsenic can be expected to be found on a local scale (British
Geological Survey). In addition it has been noted by some researches that one
survey per well is not enough as those tested to be safe have over time become
contaminated. Approximately 30% of all wells tested as safe have now followed this
path (Jakariya, 2007).
Despite the above something had to be done. UNICEF in 1998 began a long process
of trying to prevent people from drinking contaminated well water. The same people
they had previously convinced to put their sceptic ideas to rest and drink from the
waters of the wells. Those wells that where tested where either painted red for
contaminated or green for safe (Zaman, 2001).
The problem is even more widespread than initially thought. Rice the staple diet for
millions throughout Bangladesh is grown in paddy fields deliberately flooded with
arsenic contaminated water. Research has shown that both the soils and the rice
contain high levels of arsenic. Through their diet alone millions are exposed to the
maximum recommended daily intake of arsenic, on top of this they are drinking the
water (Meharg, 2005).

The Origin of the Arsenic Pollutant
Scientists have investigated many theories and are still debating the exact
mechanism by which arsenic safely locked up in rocks become freed into the water
supply (Anwar, 2007).
Thus it remains a mystery as to how water from the world’s highest mountain range
that has been filtered over hundreds of kilometres of sand and silt, and has not seen
the light of day for hundreds of years can poison an area the size of New Zealand.
Without an understanding of the exact causes of the problem no solution can provide
a long term solution.
Appendix E: Possible Chemical reactions


Arsenic in Bangladesh

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Arsenic in Bangladesh

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Evidence Based Environmental Policy and Management 1: 1-?

Blue Gold: A Deadly Gift

Evaluation of the removal of naturally occurring arsenic from

Ame Alexandra Plant

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 1

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 2

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 3

4. Membrane processes like reverse osmosis

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 4

Sample set and Procedure

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 5

Sample set and Procedure

Objective 1: Household, Filtration, System, Arsenic, Bangladesh

Objective 2: Removal capacity, Arsenic, Bangladesh, Filtration, System, household

Objective 3: Management, waste, material, manufacturing, distribution, social, cultural,

Sample set and Procedure

Objective 1: Terminology has proven to hinder some searches as BTU is the

Sample Set and Procedure

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 6

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 7

Figure 2 A schematic representation of the Bucket Treatment Unit

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 8

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 9

Objective 2: Determine the arsenic removal capacity of the unit

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 10

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 11

Objective 3: Determine the social aspects of the SONO filter:

• The management of spent material

• The manufacturing and distribution

• The social acceptability

The Management of Spent Material

The Manufacturing and Distribution

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 12

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 13

Analysis and Discussion

Proportion of the population

Proportion of the population

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 14

using improved sanitation facilities

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 15

Figure 5: other initiatives and incentives of NGOs

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 16

Conclusion and Recommendations

To conclude, the household filtration system is extremely effective at removing

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 17

A . Evens, M. .. (2004). The potential of arsenic trioxide in the treatment of

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 18

Central Intelligence Agency. (2008, Aug 07). CIA---The World Factbook --

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 19

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 20

S, A. A. (2008). National Acedemy of Engineering. Retrieved Oct 16, 2008, from

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 21

United Nations. (2007). International Year of Sanitation 2008 - Water Quality.

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 22

Zaman, A. (2001, March). BANGLADESH: Which way now? - NI 332 - Poison in

Appendix A: Response to Proposal

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 23

4. The introduction needed to be broken up into paragraphs for easier reading

5. Basic spelling and grammar mistakes

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 24

Published by the School of Geography Environment and Earth Science Victoria 25

Appendix B: Periodic Table (College, 2008)

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