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Chapter 9

Quantitative Methodology II Correlational Research

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The Nature of Correlational Research

Correlational research is also known as associational research. Relationships among two or more variables are studied without any attempt to influence them. Investigates the possibility of relationships between two variables. There is no manipulation of variables in correlational research.

Correlational studies describe the variable relationship via a correlation coefficient

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Three Sets of Data Showing Different Directions and Degrees of Correlation

(A) r = +1.00 X 5 4 3 2 1 Y 5 4 3 2 1 X 5 4 3 2 1 (B) r = -1.00 Y 1 2 3 4 5 X 2 5 3 1 4 (C) r=0 Y 1 4 3 5 2

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Purpose of Correlational Research

Correlational studies are carried out to explain relationships among the variables or to predict likely outcomes. If a relationship of sufficient magnitude exists between two variables, it becomes possible to predict a score on either variable if a score on the other variable is known (Prediction Studies). The variable that is used to make the prediction is called the predictor variable. The variable about which the prediction is made is called the criterion variable.

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Purpose of Correlational Research

For example, we can predict a person with a high GPA in high school would be likely to have a high GPA in college. Predictor variable: High school GPA, criterion variable: College GPA. Both scatterplots and regression lines are used in correlational studies to predict a score on a criterion variable. A predicted score is never exact. Through a prediction equation, researchers use a predicted score and an index of prediction error (standard error of estimate) to conclude if the score is likely to be incorrect.

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Scatterplot Illustrating a Correlation of +1.00

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Prediction Using a Scatterplot

Regression line Y = a + bX

The regression line is used as a basis for prediction. A teacher with a score of 10 on expectation of failure would be predicted to have a class with a score of 9 on amount of disruptive behavior.

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Simple Linear Regression

Yi = 0 + 1Xi
_ _

( x x)( y y ) ( x x)
i i _ 2 i

0 y 1 x
_

Where x is the mean of the x values, y values.

y is the mean of the

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Basic Steps in Correlational Research

Problem selection Choosing a sample

Determining design and procedures Collecting and analyzing data Interpreting results

Selecting or choosing proper instruments

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Problem Selection

The variables selected for correlational study should be based on a sound rationale growing out of experience and theory. The researcher should have some reasons for thinking certain variables may be related. Clarity in defining variables will avoid many problems. Three major types of problems are the focus of correlational studies:
(1) Is variable X related to variable Y? (2) How well does variable P predict variable C? (3) What are relationships among a large number of variables, and what predictions can be made that are based on them?

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Sample

Sample for a correlational study should be selected carefully and if possible randomly. Identify an appropriate population. The minimum acceptable sample size for a correlational study is not less than 30. Sample size of smaller than 30 may not give an inaccurate estimate of the degree of relationship. Samples larger than 30 are much more likely to provide meaningful results.

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Instruments

The instruments used to measure the two or more variables must yield quantitative data. Whatever instruments used must yield reliable scores. The instruments must show evidence of validity. If they do not truly measure the intended variables, then any correlation that is obtained will not indicate the intended relationship.

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Design and Procedures

The design of the correlational study: Subject A B C Two (or more) scores are obtained from each individual in the sample, one score for each variable of interest. The pairs of scores are then correlated and the resulting correlation coefficient indicates the degree of relationship between the variables.
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O1

O2

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Data Collection

The instruments used are administered in a single session or in two sessions one immediately after the other. In a prediction study, the measurement of the criterion variables often takes place sometime after the measurement of the predictor variables.

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Data Analysis and Interpretation

A correlation coefficient is produced, with value between -1.00 and 1.00. The closer the coefficient is to +1.00 or -1.00, the stronger the relationship. If the sign is positive, the relationship is positive indicating that high scores on the one variable are accompanied with high scores on the other variable. If the sign is negative, indicating the high scores on the one variable tend to go with low scores on the other variable. Coefficients that are near to 0.00 indicates no relationship exists between the variables.

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What Do Correlation Coefficients Tell Us?

The meaning of a given correlation coefficient depends on how it is applied. Correlation coefficients below .35 show only a slight relationship between variables. Correlations between .40 and .60 may have theoretical and/or practical value depending on the context. Only when a correlation of .65 or higher is obtained, can one reasonably assume an accurate prediction. Correlations over .85 indicate a very strong relationship between the variables correlated.

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