com
Table 1 Cu + – Cu Cu
V3
THE THERMOCOUPLE J3 +
V1
–
J1 +
V1
–
J1
Cu Cu + + T
+ + V1 J1
v V1 J1 v –
– + – –
Cu Cu V2 C + –
–
V2
Voltmeter
J2 J2
T=0°C
Ice Bath
EXTERNAL REFERENCE JUNCTION Z
Figure 5 The copper-constantan thermocouple shown in
Figure 5 is a unique example because the copper wire
One way to determine the temperature of J2 is to is the same metal as the voltmeter terminals. Let’s use
physically put the junction into an ice bath, forcing its an iron-constantan (Type J) thermocouple instead of the
temperature to be 0˚C and establishing J2 as the copper-constantan. The iron wire (Figure 6) increases
Reference Junction. Since both voltmeter terminal the number of dissimilar metal junctions in the circuit, as
junctions are now copper-copper, they create no both voltmeter terminals become Cu-Fe thermocouple
thermal emf and the reading V on the voltmeter is junctions.
proportional to the temperature difference between J1
and J2.
V3 J3
Now the voltmeter reading is (see Figure 5): -+
V = (V1 - V2) ≅ α(tJ1 - tJ2) +
v V1
If we specify TJ1 in degrees Celsius: –
-+
TJ1 (˚C) + 273.15 = tJ1 V1 = V
Voltmeter V4 J4
if V3 = V4
then V becomes: i.e., if
V = V1 - V2 = α [(TJ1 + 273.15) - (TJ2+ 273.15)] TJ3 = TJ4
= α (TJ1 - TJ2) = α (TJ1 - 0) JUNCTION VOLTAGE CANCELLATION
V = αTJ1 Figure 7
We use this protracted derivation to emphasize that If both front panel terminals are not at the same
the ice bath junction output, V2, is not zero volts. It is a temperature, there will be an error. For a more precise
function of absolute temperature. measurement, the copper voltmeter leads should be
By adding the voltage of the ice point reference extended so the copper-to-iron junctions are made on
junction, we have now referenced the reading V to 0˚C. an isothermal (same temperature) block:
This method is very accurate because the ice point
Isothermal Block
temperature can be precisely controlled. The ice point is J3
used by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) as the Cu
fundamental reference point for their thermocouple Cu Fe
+
tables, so we can now look at the NBS tables and v T1
directly convert from voltage V to Temperature TJ1. – Fe C
Cu V2
Voltmeter Cu
J3 J4
TREF
Fe
Cu
+
v J1
–
Ice Bath
Cu C
Fe REMOVING JUNCTIONS FROM DVM TERMINALS
J4 Figure 8
J2
The isothermal block is an electrical insulator but a
good heat conductor, and it serves to hold J3 and J4 at
Ice Bath the same temperature. The absolute block temperature
is unimportant because the two Cu-Fe junctions act in
IRON-CONSTANTAN COUPLE opposition. We still have
Figure 6 V = α (T1 - TREF)
Z-22
Reference Circuit
Let’s replace the ice bath with another isothermal This is a useful conclusion, as it completely eliminates
block the need for the iron (Fe) wire in the LO lead:
Isothermal Block
Cu Fe
Cu Fe
+
HI
v J3 J1
J3 J1 Cu C
–
LO Cu Fe C
Voltmeter J4 J REF J4
TREF Isothermal Block
TREF
ELIMINATING THE ICE BATH
Figure 9a EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Figure 11
The new block is at Reference Temperature TREF, and
because J3 and J4 are still at the same temperature, we Again, V = α (TJ1 - TREF), where α is the Seebeck
can again show that coefficient for an Fe-C thermocouple.
V = α (T1-TREF) Junctions J3 and J4, take the place of the ice bath.
These two junctions now become the Reference
This is still a rather inconvenient circuit because we
Junction.
have to connect two thermocouples. Let’s eliminate the
Now we can proceed to the next logical step: Directly
extra Fe wire in the negative (LO) lead by combining
measure the temperature of the isothermal block (the
the Cu-Fe junction (J4) and the Fe-C junction (JREF).
Reference Junction) and use that information to
We can do this by first joining the two isothermal
compute the unknown temperature, TJ1.
blocks (Figure 9b).
Block Temperature = TREF
Cu Fe
HI
Cu J3
J1 Fe
J3
LO + +
Cu Fe C v V1 J1
J4 – –
J REF J4 C
Voltmeter Cu
Isothermal Block @ TREF RT
JOINING THE ISOTHERMAL BLOCKS
Figure 9b EXTERNAL REFERENCE JUNCTION-NO ICE BATH
Figure 12
We haven’t changed the output voltage V. It is still
V = α (TJ1 - TJREF ) A thermistor, whose resistance RT is a function of
Now we call upon the law of intermediate metals (see temperature, provides us with a way to measure the
Appendix A) to eliminate the extra junction. This absolute temperature of the reference junction.
empirical “law” states that a third metal (in this case, Junctions J3 and J4 and the thermistor are all assumed
iron) inserted between the two dissimilar metals of a to be at the same temperature, due to the design of the
thermocouple junction will have no effect upon the isothermal block. Using a digital multimeter under
output voltage as long as the two junctions formed by computer control, we simply:
the additional metal are at the same temperature: 1) Measure RT to find TREF and convert TREF
to its equivalent reference junction
Metal A Metal B Metal C Metal A Metal C voltage, VREF , then
=
2) Measure V and add VREF to find V1,
and convert V1 to temperature TJ1.
Isothermal Connection This procedure is known as Software Compensation
because it relies upon the software of a computer to
compensate for the effect of the reference junction. The
Thus the low lead in Fig. 9b: Becomes:
isothermal terminal block temperature sensor can be
Cu C
any device which has a characteristic proportional to
Cu Fe C = absolute temperature: an RTD, a thermistor, or an
integrated circuit sensor.
TREF
It seems logical to ask: If we already have a device
TREF that will measure absolute temperature (like an RTD or
thermistor), why do we even bother with a
LAW OF INTERMEDIATE METALS
thermocouple that requires reference junction
Figure 10
Z-23
compensation? The single most important answer to
this question is that the thermistor, the RTD, and the
integrated circuit transducer are only useful over a Fe
Cu Fe + Cu Fe
+ Cu Fe
T T +
C C T
v v
Fe
= = C
Cu Fe Cu Fe
– – Cu
– + Cu
– RT
+
Cu
-
0°C
Z-24
OMEGA TAC-Electronic ice point™ and
Thermocouple Preamplifier/Linearizer Plugs
into Standard Connector
OMEGA Electronic ice point™ Built into Thermocouple Connector -”MCJ”
Cu Fe
9th order 5th order 8th order 8th order 9th order 7th order
a0 0.104967248 -0.048868252 0.226584602 0.263632917 0.927763167 0.100860910
a1 17189.45282 19873.14503 24152.10900 179075.491 169526.5150 25727.94369
a2 -282639. 0850 -218614.5353 67233.4248 -48840341.37 -31568363.94 -767345.8295
a3 12695339.5 11569199.78 2210340.682 1.90002E + 10 8990730663 78025595.81
a4 -448703084.6 -264917531.4 -860963914.9 -4.82704E + 12 -1.63565E + 12 -9247486589
a5 1.10866E + 10 2018441314 4.83506E + 10 7.62091E + 14 1.88027E + 14 6.97688E + 11
a6 -1. 76807E + 11 -1. 18452E + 12 -7.20026E + 16 -1.37241E + 16 -2.66192E + 13
a7 1.71842E + 12 1.38690E + 13 3.71496E + 18 6.17501E + 17 3.94078E + 14
a8 -9.19278E + 12 -6.33708E + 13 -8.03104E + 19 -1.56105E + 19
a9 2.06132E + 13 1.69535E + 20
NESTED POLYNOMIAL FORM: T = a0 + x(a1 + x(a2 + x (a3 + x(a4 + a5x)))) (5th order)
where x is in Volts, T is in °C
NBS POLYNOMIAL COEFFICIENTS
Table 4
The calculation of high-order polynomials is a time- All the foregoing procedures assume the
consuming task for a computer. As we mentioned thermocouple voltage can be measured accurately and
before, we can save time by using a lower order easily; however, a quick glance at Table 3 shows us that
polynomial for a smaller temperature range. In the thermocouple output voltages are very small indeed.
software for one data acquisition system, the Examine the requirements of the system voltmeter:
thermocouple characteristic curve is divided into eight
THERMOCOUPLE SEEBECK DVM SENSITIVITY
sectors, and each sector is approximated by a third- TYPE COEFFICIENT FOR 0.1˚C
order polynomial.* (µV/˚C) @ 20˚C (µV)
E 62 6.2
Temp.
J 51 5.1
K 40 4.0
R 7 0.7
S 7 0.7
T 40 4.0
{
a
REQUIRED DVM SENSITIVITY
Voltage
Table 5
Even for the common type K thermocouple, the
voltmeter must be able to resolve 4 µV to detect a
0. 1˚C change. The magnitude of this signal is an open
2 3
invitation for noise to creep into any system. For this
Ta = bx + cx + dx reason, instrument designers utilize several
CURVE DIVIDED INTO SECTORS fundamental noise rejection techniques, including tree
Figure 18 switching, normal mode filtering, integration and
guarding.
* HEWLETT PACKARD 3054A.
Z-26
PRACTICAL THERMOCOUPLE MEASUREMENT
Noise Rejection
C DVM
C HI
+ Tree
Signal (20 Channels)
– Switch1
+ +
= –
Signal
DVM
~
= Signal
DVM
–
20 C C HI C HI
Noise ~ C
Sour ce Noise ~ ~
Source
Next 20 Channels Stray capacitance to noise
source is reduced nearly
C 20:1 by leaving Tree
Tree Switch 2 open.
Switch2
TREE SWITCHING
Figure 19
Tree Switching - Tree switching is a method of Guarding - Guarding is a technique used to reduce
organizing the channels of a scanner into groups, each interference from any noise source that is common to
with its own main switch. both high and low measurement leads, i.e., from
common mode noise sources.
Without tree switching, every channel can contribute
noise directly through its stray capacitance. With tree Let’s assume a thermocouple wire has been pulled
switching, groups of parallel channel capacitances are through the same conduit as a 220 Vac supply line. The
in series with a single tree switch capacitance. The capacitance between the power lines and the
result is greatly reduced crosstalk in a large data thermocouple lines will create an AC signal of
acquisition system, due to the reduced interchannel approximately equal magnitude on both thermocouple
capacitance. wires. This common mode signal is not a problem in an
ideal circuit, but the voltmeter is not ideal. It has some
Analog Filter - A filter may be used directly at the
capacitance between its low terminal and safety ground
input of a voltmeter to reduce noise. It reduces
(chassis). Current flows through this capacitance and
interference dramatically, but causes the voltmeter to
through the thermocouple lead resistance, creating a
respond more slowly to step inputs.
normal mode noise signal. The guard, physically a
Integration - Integration is an A/D technique which floating metal box surrounding the entire voltmeter
essentially averages noise over a full line cycle; thus, circuit, is connected to a shield surrounding the
power line related noise and its harmonics are virtually thermocouple wire, and serves to shunt the interfering
eliminated. If the integration period is chosen to be less current.
than an integer line cycle, its noise rejection properties
are essentially negated.
Since thermocouple circuits that cover long distances
are especially susceptible to power line related noise, it
VIN VOUT
is advisable to use an integrating analog-to-digital
converter to measure the thermocouple voltage.
Integration is an especially attractive A/D technique in t t
light of recent innovations which allow reading rates of
48 samples per second with full cycle integration.
ANALOG FILTER
Figure 20
Z-27
Distributed 220 VAC Line
Capacitance
HI
LO
Distributed
Resistance Without Guard
DVM
HI
LO
Z
Without Guard Guard
DVM
Junction: Fe - Pb, Sn - C = Fe - C
GRADIENT PRODUCES VOLTAGE
Figure 26
SOLDERING A THERMOCOUPLE
Figure 25 to be drifting, then replacing the thermocouple junction
alone would not solve the problem. We would have to
A poor weld can, of course, result in an open replace the entire shaded section, since it is the source
connection, which can be detected in a measurement of the thermocouple voltage.
situation by performing an open thermocouple check.
This is a common test function available with Thermocouple wire obviously can’t be manufactured
dataloggers. While the open thermocouple is the perfectly; there will be some defects which will cause
easiest malfunction to detect, it is not necessarily the output voltage errors. These inhomogeneities can be
most common mode of failure. especially disruptive if they occur in a region of steep
temperature gradient. Since we don’t know where an
imperfection will occur within a wire, the best thing we
Decalibration can do is to avoid creating a steep gradient. Gradients
Decalibration is a far more serious fault condition than can be reduced by using metallic sleeving or by careful
the open thermocouple because it can result in a placement of the thermocouple wire.
temperature reading that appears to be correct.
Decalibration describes the process of unintentionally
altering the physical makeup of the thermocouple wire Shunt Impedance
so that it no longer conforms to the NBS polynomial High temperatures can also take their toll on
within specified limits. Decalibration can result from thermocouple wire insulators. Insulation resistance
diffusion of atmospheric particles into the metal caused decreases exponentially with increasing temperature,
7
by temperature extremes. It can be caused by high even to the point that it creates a virtual junction.
temperature annealing or by cold-working the metal, an Assume we have a completely open thermocouple
effect that can occur when the wire is drawn through a operating at a high temperature.
conduit or strained by rough handling or vibration.
The leakage Resistance, RL, can be sufficiently low to
Annealing can occur within the section of wire that
complete the circuit path and give us an improper
undergoes a temperature gradient.
voltage reading. Now let’s assume the thermocouple is
not open, but we are using a very long section of small
5 Refer to Bibliography 5 diameter wire.
9 Refer to Bibliography 9
7 Refer to Bibliography 7
Z-29
(Open)
To DVM RL
LEAKAGE RESISTANCE
Figure 27
RS RS
To DVM RL
T2
RS T1 RS
VIRTUAL JUNCTION
Figure 28
Z
If the thermocouple wire is small, its series resistance, wire. It generally is specified over a much lower
RS, will be quite high and under extreme conditions RL temperature range than premium grade thermocouple
< < RS. This means that the thermocouple junction will wire. In addition to offering a practical size advantage,
appear to be at RL and the output will be proportional to extension wire is less expensive than standard
T1 not T2. thermocouple wire. This is especially true in the case of
platinum-based thermocouples.
High temperatures have other detrimental effects on
thermocouple wire. The impurities and chemicals within Since the extension wire is specified over a narrower
the insulation can actually diffuse into the thermocouple temperature range and it is more likely to receive
metal causing the temperature-voltage dependence to mechanical stress, the temperature gradient across the
deviate from published values. When using extension wire should be kept to a minimum. This,
thermocouples at high temperatures, the insulation according to the gradient theory, assures that virtually
should be chosen carefully. Atmospheric effects can be none of the output signal will be affected by the
minimized by choosing the proper protective metallic or extension wire.
ceramic sheath
Noise - We have already discussed line-related noise
as it pertains to the data acquisition system. The
Galvanic Action techniques of integration, tree switching and guarding
The dyes used in some thermocouple insulation will serve to cancel most line-related interference.
form an electrolyte in the presence of water. This Broadband noise can be rejected with the analog filter.
creates a galvanic action, with a resultant output The one type of noise the data acquisition system
hundreds of times greater than the Seebeck effect. cannot reject is a dc offset caused by a dc leakage
Precautions should be taken to shield thermocouple current in the system. While it is less common to see dc
wires from all harsh atmospheres and liquids. leakage currents of sufficient magnitude to cause
appreciable error, the possibility of their presence
Thermal Shunting should be noted and prevented, especially if the
thermocouple wire is very small and the related series
No thermocouple can be made without mass. Since it
impedance is high.
takes energy to heat any mass, the thermocouple will
slightly alter the temperature it is meant to measure. If
the mass to be measured is small, the thermocouple Wire Calibration
must naturally be small. But a thermocouple made with Thermocouple wire is manufactured to a certain
small wire is far more susceptible to the problems of specification, signifying its conformance with the NBS
contamination, annealing, strain, and shunt impedance. tables. The specification can sometimes be enhanced
To minimize these effects, thermocouple extension wire by calibrating the wire (testing it at known
can be used. Extension wire is commercially available temperatures). Consecutive pieces of wire on a
wire primarily intended to cover long distances between continuous spool will generally track each other more
the measuring thermocouple and the voltmeter. closely than the specified tolerance, although their
Extension wire is made of metals having Seebeck output voltages may be slightly removed from the
coefficients very similar to a particular thermocouple center of the absolute specification.
type. It is generally larger in size so that its series If the wire is calibrated in an effort to improve its
resistance does not become a factor when traversing fundamental specifications, it becomes even more
long distances. It can also be pulled more readily imperative that all of the aforementioned conditions be
through a conduit than can very small thermocouple heeded in order to avoid decalibration.
Z-30
Documentation - It may seem incongruous to speak Zone Box Test - A zone box is an isothermal terminal
of documentation as being a source of voltage block of known temperature used in place of an ice bath
measurement error, but the fact is that thermocouple reference. If we temporarily short-circuit the
systems, by their very ease of use, invite a large number thermocouple directly at the zone box, the system
of data points. The sheer magnitude of the data can should read a temperature very close to that of the zone
become quite unwieldy. When a large amount of data is box, i.e., close to room temperature.
taken, there is an increased probability of error due to If the thermocouple lead resistance is much greater
mislabeling of lines, using the wrong NBS curve, etc. than the shunting resistance, the copper wire shunt
Since channel numbers invariably change, data forces V = 0. In the normal unshorted case, we want to
should be categorized by measure and, not just channel measure TJ, and the system reads:
number.6 Information about any given measure and, V ≅ α (TJ - TREF)
such as transducer type, output voltage, typical value
But, for the functional test, we have shorted the terminals
and location, can be maintained in a data file. This can
so that V=0. The indicated temperature T’J is thus:
be done under computer control or simply by filling out
a pre-printed form. No matter how the data is 0 = α (T’J - TREF)
maintained, the importance of a concise system should T’J = TREF
not be underestimated, especially at the outset of a Thus, for a dvm reading of V = 0, the system will
complex data gathering project. indicate the zone box temperature. First we observe the
temperature TJ (forced to be different from TREF), then
we short the thermocouple with a copper wire and make
Diagnostics sure that the system indicates the zone box
Most of the sources of error that we have mentioned temperature instead of TJ.
are aggravated by using the thermocouple near its
temperature limits. These conditions will be TREF
Cu
encountered infrequently in most applications. But what Fe
Cu
about the situation where we are using small +
thermocouples in a harsh atmosphere at high v Copper Wire Short TJ
– C
temperatures? How can we tell when the thermocouple Cu
is producing erroneous results? We need to develop a Voltmeter Cu
reliable set of diagnostic procedures. Zone Box
Isothermal Block
Through the use of diagnostic techniques, R.P. Reed
has developed an excellent system for detecting faulty SHORTING THE THERMOCOUPLE AT THE TERMINALS
Figure 30
thermocouples and data channels.10 Three components
of this system are the event record, the zone box test, This simple test verifies that the controller, scanner,
and the thermocouple resistance history. voltmeter and zone box compensation are all operating
correctly. In fact, this simple procedure tests everything
Event Record - The first diagnostic is not a test at all,
but the thermocouple wire itself.
but a recording of all pertinent events that could even
remotely affect the measurements. An example would Thermocouple Resistance - A sudden change in the
be: resistance of a thermocouple circuit can act as a
warning indicator. If we plot resistance vs. time for each
MARCH 18 EVENT RECORD set of thermocouple wires, we can immediately spot a
10:43 Power failure
10:47 System power returned sudden resistance change, which could be an indication
11:05 Changed M821 to type K thermocouple of an open wire, a wire shorted due to insulation failure,
13:51 New data acquisition program
16:07 M821 appears to be bad reading
changes due to vibration fatigue, or one of many failure
mechanisms.
Figure 29
For example, assume we have the thermocouple
We look at our program listing and find that measurand measurement shown in Figure 31.
#M821 uses a type J thermocouple and that our new data We want to measure the temperature profile of an
acquisition program interprets it as a type J. But from the underground seam of coal that has been ignited. The
event record, apparently thermocouple M821 was wire passes through a high temperature region, into a
changed to a type K, and the change was not entered into cooler region. Suddenly, the temperature we measure
the program. While most anomalies are not discovered rises from 300°C to 1200°C. Has the burning section of
this easily, the event record can provide valuable insight the coal seam migrated to a different location, or has
into the reason for an unexplained change in a system the thermocouple insulation failed, thus causing a short
measurement. This is especially true in a system circuit between the two wires at the point of a hot spot?
configured to measure hundreds of data points.
10 Refer to Bibliography 10
Z-31
switched on and the voltage across the resistance is
To Data measured again. The voltmeter software compensates
Acquisition T1 for the offset voltage of the thermocouple and
System calculates the actual thermocouple source resistance.
Special Thermocouples - Under extreme conditions,
we can even use diagnostic thermocouple circuit
T = 1200˚C T = 300˚C configurations. Tip-branched and leg-branched
BURNING COAL SEAM thermocouples are four-wire thermocouple circuits that
Figure 31 allow redundant measurement of temperature, noise,
voltage and resistance for checking wire integrity. Their
If we have a continuous history of the thermocouple
wire resistance, we can deduce what has actually
respective merits are discussed in detail in REF. 8.
Z
Only severe thermocouple applications require such
happened.
extensive diagnostics, but it is comforting to know that
there are procedures that can be used to verify the
R integrity of an important thermocouple measurement.
t1 Time
Leg-Branched Thermocouple
THERMOCOUPLE RESISTANCE vs. TIME
Figure 32
The resistance of a thermocouple will naturally
change with time as the resistivity of the wire changes
due to varying temperature. But a sudden change in
resistance is an indication that something is wrong. In
this case, the resistance has dropped abruptly, Tip-Branched Thermocouple
TS T1 Summary
In summary, the integrity of a thermocouple system
Short can be improved by following these precautions:
CAUSE OF THE RESISTANCE CHANGE • Use the largest wire possible that will not
Figure 33 shunt heat away from the measurement area.
The new junction will measure temperature Ts, not T1. • If small wire is required, use it only in the region
of the measurement and use extension wire for
The resistance measurement has given us additional
the region with no temperature gradient.
information to help interpret the physical phenomenon
detected by a standard open thermocouple check. • Avoid mechanical stress and vibration which
could strain the wires.
Measuring Resistance - We have casually • When using long thermocouple wires, connect
mentioned checking the resistance of the thermocouple the wire shield to the dvm guard terminal and use
wire as if it were a straightforward measurement. But twisted pair extension wire.
keep in mind that when the thermocouple is producing a • Avoid steep temperature gradients.
voltage, this voltage can cause a large resistance • Try to use the thermocouple wire well within its
measurement error. Measuring the resistance of a temperature rating.
thermocouple is akin to measuring the internal
• Use a guarded integrating A/D converter.
resistance of a battery. We can attack this problem with
a technique known as offset compensated ohms • Use the proper sheathing material in hostile
environments to protect the thermocouple wire.
measurement.
• Use extension wire only at low temperatures and
As the name implies, the voltmeter first measures the only in regions of small gradients.
thermocouple offset voltage without the ohms current • Keep an event log and a continuous record of
source applied. Then the ohms current source is thermocouple resistance.
Z-32
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