7

School improvement in the

context of the special school
for children with emotional
and behavioural difculties
BOB SPALDI NG University of Liverpool,UK
NI COLE KASTI RKE University of Cologne,Germany
SVEN J ENNESSEN University of Cologne,Germany
ABSTRACT This article examines the issues which are particular to the
development and improvement of schools for children and young
people with emotional and behavioural difculties. Key issues such as
team formation and teamwork, cooperation, problem solving capabili-
ties and the schools capacity to take ownership of the change process
are analysed against the background of a case study of one EBD school.
The process of change in this school is tracked through the evolution
of the ownership of change and the dynamics involved in that process.
Introduction
The literature on school improvement, even in respect of special edu-
cational needs, has focused largely on mainstream education (Hopkins et
al., 1994; Reynolds et al., 1996) and there has been less consideration of
the development and improvement issues pertinent to special schools,
especially those for children with emotional and behavioural difculties
(Cole and Visser, 1998; Cooper, 1993). In this article we would like to
explore the way in which one particular school has undergone a process of
evolution and change, identifying through this one case study factors per-
tinent to improvement.
Schools for children with EBD have to be particularly open to change
and offer exibility of response. This is after all what is distinctive about
such schools in contrast to most mainstream schools.This implies regular
review and involvement in the process of change. All those within the
school who are involved in this process will have their own perceptions
and responses; some may choose to ignore it, or may even feel insulted or
\r+i cii
Emotional and
Behavioural Difculties
\vcirb 2001
SAGE Publi cati ons
London,ThousandOaks,CA
andNewDelhi
voi 6(1) 7-18: 015700
1363-2752 (200102)6:1
E
B
D
KEYWORDS
emotional and
behavioural
difculties;
school
improvement;
special school
02spalding (ds) 8/1/01 1:26 pm Page 7
personally threatened by it. Nonetheless coming to terms with change is
an imperative in a school which is subject to intense pressures from both
within and without. In the literature on school improvement reference is
often made to the permanently changing nature of the society in which we
live and of which school is a part (Fullan, 1993). Schools for children with
emotional and behavioural difculties often experience these changes with
particular resonance. Factors such as hyperactivity, the consequences of a
materially focused society, changes in patterns of family living and drug
abuse are examples of factors which impact with particular force upon
these schools. Levels of unemployment, changes in the pattern of working
life as well as:
the reduced size of households, divorce rates, changing leisure patterns all lead
to children spending more and more of their time engaged with the mass
media. (Philipp, 1996, p. 13)
It can be the case that real change occurs on a covert level rather than within
the manifest structure of school life, so that very often the area in which
change is most played out is in the informal system:
So that the apparently paradoxical situation emerges of a constantly changing
inner pattern within the single school, whilst the school system as a whole
maintains relative stability. (Horster, 1996, p. 12)
The responsibility for dealing with this level of change within the school
lies primarily in the hands of the staff and senior management themselves.
They can choose either to live with these shifts and changes or move into
a position where they seek to become more consciously aware of them and
use them as an opportunity to foster development.
The special school has had to face particular changes and structural
reforms within the past few years.The moves towards greater inclusion, the
encouragement of outreach work, the introduction of an academically
oriented curriculum at the centre of development and the demands for
improved standards of learning and qualication have all exercised their
particular pressures (DfEE, 1998). The special school can embrace such
changes and mould them into an opportunity for further development, and
one of the major vehicles for doing this is the process of school improve-
ment. The school can either undertake this process on their own, or take
advantage of special needs consultancy and support (Spalding et al., 1996)
which offers external assistance in the identication of blind spots as well
as optimizing points for development within the school as a whole.
School improvement implies no standard programme for school
development, and no correct way to develop improvement strategies.That
is, school improvement is not a closed system but rather can:
EMOTI ONAL AND BEHAVI OURAL DI FFI CULTI ES 6(1)
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be understood as a cluster of theoretical elements taken from organisational
psychology, analytic and hermeneutically orientated diagnostic techniques and
aspects of communications sociology. There are also aspects of decision
making and group dynamic training processes, and all of this is as a matter of
principle differentially applied to different cases. (Rolff, 1980, quoted in
Steuer, 1983, p. 117)
There is no one school improvement process by which innovation in a
school can be supported and developed; rather a repertoire of processes and
elements of strategies can be applied according to need.The eventual aim
of school improvement is to enable the school to solve its own problems.
A school as an institution should be able to grow and develop as a think-
ing, self-monitoring and self-guiding institution (Fullan, 1993).
The issues in schools for children with emotional and behavioural dif-
culties do however tend to be quite distinctive, particularly with reference
to staff consistency, emotional barriers to accessing the curriculum, group
management and interpersonal relations. In terms of the school improve-
ment process, the areas for development particular to schools for children
with emotional and behavioural difculties can be summarized as the
following.
The curriculum and its delivery
The demands on the curriculum in the EBD school focus not only around
breadth and coverage, but also crucially around relevance. Motivation is the
key and will often depend upon the provision of choice and engagement
as well as the creation of opportunities to foster autonomy and indepen-
dence in learning (QCA, 1998). Differentiation has to take into consider-
ation a very wide spectrum of abilities, as well as a variety of specic
learning difculties and blocks in both approaches and attitudes to learn-
ing (Rayner, 1998).Assessment and reporting have to be sensitively gauged
in order to negotiate the delicate balance between positive feedback and
appropriate challenge. Indeed the question of setting appropriately high
expectations is a particularly taxing one, testing as it does the complex and
often negative relationship that children with EBD have to their own poten-
tial and self-esteem (Greenhalgh, 1994). Given the ever increasing expec-
tations of children in mainstream education, and the competitive nature of
the youth employment market, the integration of full status pre-vocational
as well as academic validated courses further taxes staff expertise, subject
competence and timetabling (Dearing, 1996). Somewhere in the midst of
all this, the personal, social, moral and emotional curriculum has to remain
pivotal, addressing as it does the major decit areas in childrens develop-
ment (Marchant, 1995).
SPALDI NG ET AL.: SCHOOL I MPROVEMENT
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Clarity around the issue of boundaries
The creation of a secure and holding environment in which constructive
learning can take place presupposes a particularly high level of teamwork,
clarication and consistency in the enforcement of ground rules, and
constant review of incentives and consequences available in the schools
repertoire (Greenhalgh, 1994). No school for children with emotional and
behavioural difculties can simply set up a system and let it run: it is in a
constant state of ux and negotiation, and must inevitably maintain a
degree of exibility in response to individual needs. Maintaining open
systems of communication and the clear expression of what staff really feel
about shared practices and procedures takes time time to listen to others,
and time to come to a true consensus.Time is at a premium in a climate
which imposes considerable demands in terms of accountability and paper-
work.
The fostering of a positive school climate
Allowing children and young people enough space to be who they really
are, whilst at the same time developing relationships of trust sufcient to
challenge those aspects of themselves which are not socially appropriate, is
a challenging aspect of the teachers work. This has also to be achieved
without the risk of alienation or loss of dignity. Structures in terms of
behavioural management systems can help, but it is often the informal net-
works of relationships within the school which really support or under-
mine this aspect of the work (Januszewski, 1995).
The case study presented in this article attempts to come to terms with
these underlying tensions in the life of the EBD school, which are often the
ones which can prevent it from responding appropriately to need.
We would like to explore the development of this particular school for
children with emotional and behavioural difculties over a period of 7
years within the framework of the following assumptions about the
process.
The growing awareness of the people working in the school that the
school is a social organization and capable of reframing its own
movement and development The ability of the organization to move
forward depends to a large degree upon the process of awareness on both
an individual and a collective, systemic level (Fullan, 1993).The individuals
involved in school life can, by being aware of what for them are the great-
est priorities, communicate them to others and hence allow the school as
a social organization to realize itself and move forward. They can see the
school as dynamic and capable of reforming not only through outer forces,
but also through inner changes and organizational reform. Hence, instead
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of seeing conicts as person focused, the perception could shift to acknow-
ledge the structural dependencies within the school and the effect these
have upon the way that the institution functions.A further important aspect
of awareness lies in the clear formulation of shared aims and the under-
standing that the school itself has a need to develop (Spalding et al., 1996).
The formation of teams and the potential of teamworking The team
is a fundamental element in the process of improvement or development
of an organization. It is through effective teamworking that increased ef-
ciency is measured and it forms a key element in the ability of the school
to work with problems and nd solutions to them.This perception is justi-
ed by French and Bell (1977) with the assumption that the working group
is for most people the psychologically most meaningful environment in
which to seek group acceptance and recognition. Complementarity of
support and sufcient space to allow for development rather than the strict
imposition of priorities determined by a hierarchy are preconditions for
team development.The level of engagement on the part of staff in in-service
and development events, the opening up of constructive criticism, and the
depth of debate are some further criteria against which effective team
building can be judged (Hanko, 1999).
The development of cooperative approaches to working in school
rather than a predominantly individualized ethos Effective co-
operation within teams very often depends upon a sense of ones own iden-
tity within the group in terms of allocated role and status, as well as a shared
sense of complementarity with others, and shared ground rules such as a
free and frank exchange of views.
Steuer (1983, p. 148) notes a variety of core elements for improved
cooperation within the school staff. These extend from the exchange of
classroom materials and practices, over the shared planning of lessons, to
cross-curricular planning and shared experiences in the form of obser-
vation of one anothers classes, and mutual staff consultation.
The adoption of the notion that problems can be directly confronted
and dealt with as opportunities for new development, rather than
necessarily as obstacles The ability to develop problem solving skills
is one of the core aims of the improvement process (Nicholls, 1997;
Schein, 1969). Not only individuals within the organization, but also the
institution itself can nd approaches and processes to work in an anticipa-
tory way with problems and cooperate in terms of their resolution.
A fundamental presupposition for such changes is the assumption that
the development of the school can be facilitated through collective as well
SPALDI NG ET AL.: SCHOOL I MPROVEMENT
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as individual learning and that a climate of trust is essential for this process.
The capacity of the school to become an independent problem solver
increases when the working groups in the school have become familiar
with strategies for resolving conicts and acknowledge the affective
elements involved in conict and problem resolution.At this stage problem
solving groups eventually emerge as a matter of course in the various areas
of school life (Hanko, 1999).
The opportunities for curricular change and organizational change
are to be found within the school, at times with support from outside
A specic problem or difculty will often form the starting point for the
school development process. This is often the point at which an external
consultant can play a particular role. The consultant can assist with the
analysis which forms a part of the overall school development process and
assist in making the issues manifest (Spalding et al., 1996).
The school development process can compensate for decits in the
schools functioning which have often been the result of maladaptation and
inexibility of response to internal or external pressures.There is a need on
the part of certain schools to address imbalances within normal school life,
as well as approaching difculties which arise from innovations or new
frameworks of working within the system as a whole.
In the following case study we would like to explore the issues outlined
above in the practical reality of special needs consultancy with one school
for children with emotional and behavioural difculties.
The case study
The case study relates to the development of a school for children with
emotional and behavioural difculties in a local educational authority
(LEA) in an industrial area in the North West of England. It covers a period
of 7 years in the development process.
1
In order to trace the process we
take a historical overview of the preconditions which contributed to the
perceptions and dynamic in place at the time of the consultancy itself.
Historical background
In 1990 there were eight teachers working in the school as well as the head-
teacher and deputy.The 45 pupils all came from socially deprived areas and
the majority were 1416 years old. In this particular LEA there were two
schools for children with emotional and behavioural difculties at the
secondary phase; one tended to take pupils whose difculties were rather
more of an internalized nature such as self-aggressive tendencies, depres-
sion, emotional difculties, etc, The school described here took those
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youngsters who on the whole tended to act out and whose behaviour was
more antisocial. At this time the Code of Practice (DfE, 1994) had not yet
been fully developed and the referral procedures tended to be rather more
haphazard. One characteristic of this particularly asocial group of pupils
was the tendency to bring gang conicts, as well as family problems and
interfamilial conicts, into the school environment.There was also a high
rate of youth criminality and the attendance rate for the whole school
population was on occasions below 50%.The strong gang mentality within
the school allowed a particular power and control ethos to develop. The
headteacher at the time attempted to control the situation with a very
tightly structured system which evolved into an authoritarian leadership
style and a tight hierarchical organization within the school team. A high
rate of staff turnover meant that the headteacher maintained a power
monopoly over all the important decisions within the school.This particu-
lar leadership style led to the blocking of any exchange and complemen-
tary support amongst the school team. On the whole the school emanated
an ethos and atmosphere of helplessness and resignation in the face of the
difculties confronting it.
Awareness and team formation
With the appointment of four new experienced teachers who were put in
on promoted scales to improve the standing and work of the school, a new
element was introduced. The aim of the local education authority was to
improve the quality and professionality of the staff. At the same time
changes in funding for in-service training allowed for a two-day session to
look at developing the curriculum and structure of the school.A facilitator
who had a particular expertise in working with group dynamics in pro-
fessional teams led this in-service course.
At the start of the in-service training the underlying conicts emerged
in an intense discussion which focused mainly around the leadership style
in the school. The newly appointed staff felt their potential considerably
restricted by this style.The extremely emotionally charged nature of the dis-
cussion on the rst day ended up with the withdrawal of the headteacher
from the discussion altogether. It was only on the second day that the head-
teacher declared himself ready to reopen discussions and suggested a
change in leadership style, proposing the team adopt collective responsi-
bility for the development of an alternative approach to running the school.
Following this cathartic turning point, the staff started to work out how
this would function in practice.The responsibility for the individual areas
within the school was to be delegated to various individual staff members
and regular weekly staff meetings would take place with rotating facilita-
tors, agendas and minute taking.
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In terms of curriculum and classroom practice various changes also
emerged. It was decided to pilot a change from the regular curriculum and
to attempt integrated project work which could be planned and organized
by the school as a team. Each project would have a cross-curricular focus
and would be coordinated and prepared by one particular member of staff.
It was also planned that team teaching would be introduced in some of the
classes.
The in-service training days allowed sufcient space for the underlying
points of view and pent-up feelings of staff to emerge, leading to individual
and team awareness.The security or holding offered by the presence of a
consultant further facilitated the airing of the conict, and ensured that the
group didnt collapse or go under as a result. A shift away from hier-
archical control towards team empowerment had been set in gear.
Cooperation
A team was now developing which was at the early stages of cooperating
and a school identity was emerging. The work of the staff was gaining in
terms of professionality. However there was still a high degree of dissatis-
faction.The rst problems developed in relation to the decision-making pro-
cesses and lack of a clear perspective or sense of direction.The team teaching
initiative proved difcult to implement largely on account of personality
difculties amongst staff and problematical grouping of the pupils. At this
stage the classes which ran in the morning, focusing largely on key skills and
subject knowledge, were very problematic and proved very difcult to
manage. On the other hand the activities and more open-ended curriculum
that was offered in the afternoon were experienced as very positive.
Given these new developments the school decided to undertake a
further period of in-service training and also decided to work with another
external consultant.This coincided with the headteacher nding a new pos-
ition and leaving the school.The deputy head was then appointed as acting
headteacher.
As part of the new in-service and consultancy programme the consul-
tant spent two days in the school observing lessons and the process of
school life overall.As a result of these observations various themes emerged
for the consultant:
The staff at this time comprised a group of very experienced and com-
mitted teachers who were in fact held back by the structural factors and
communication blockages within the system in the school as a whole.
In most classes the learning was directly teacher led, and focused pri-
marily on whole group and whole class teaching without any oppor-
tunities for choice or the development of autonomy.
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The concentration span of the pupils and their level of motivation for
learning were very limited.
The dynamic amongst the pupil group was very negatively directed and
various confrontations and conicts from outside the classroom were
acted out within it.
A sizeable proportion of the class period tended to be taken up with
sorting out the various conicts and behavioural difculties that were
taking place within the group.
The level of pupil attendance remained low.
In order to prepare for the planned in-service training the consultant met
with school staff to run a preparatory session on teamworking and team
formation and it was in the process of this initial consultation that the
extreme dissatisfaction of all staff with the current situation within the
school became transparent once again.
Problem solving
The main role of the school consultant during the in-service training ses-
sions was to feed back his own observations of the life of the school in
relation to the educational task, whilst also allowing the emotional aspects
of the discussion sufcient ventilation.The mood of dissatisfaction emerged
once more and became the focus of discussion at the beginning of the two
in-service days. Strong and at times conicting views were expressed, but
this time the focus was no longer the leadership style.The issue now was
the identity of the school itself and the development of a coherent school
concept which would move them on in terms of enhancing learning,
behaviour and professional development. Eventually a form of consensus
was reached and the team was able to develop its own concept for moving
forward which in the course of the in-service training was nicknamed
the monopoly model.The main feature of this model involved an under-
lying shift in the form of the school day. A menu system was developed
by which pupils would organize their own programme for work com-
pletion in a variety of subject focused resource bases.The classrooms were
to be changed into resource centres, one for each of the curriculum areas
and staffed by the coordinator for that subject in the school. It was within
these resource centres that the pupils would spend their 20-minute periods
in order to complete the programme of work which had been individually
prepared for them. It was hoped that the elements of choice offered to the
students with regard to when they could visit the various resource bases
might increase motivation and a sense of autonomy, and that the 20-minute
period might come closer to addressing a realistic concentration span. It
was also anticipated that this would foster individualized work and defuse
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the negative effect that the group tended to have on learning.At the end of
the morning the pupils would calculate the merits gained for the work
completed in the resource bases and compare it to the scores that staff had
given them.At lunchtime they would meet once more with their tutors and
the merits gained in the morning activities would determine participation
in afternoon options.The afternoon activities and options were organized
within a curriculum framework but had a primary focus on experience and
enjoyment.
The implementation phase
At the end of the summer term the pupils themselves were involved in the
renovation and reorganization of the classrooms into resource areas, which
included repainting and reorganizing the rooms as well as the collective
purchase of carpets and new furnishings.
Staff carried out the initiation of the changes in the organization of the
school, the school day and the curriculum during the summer holidays.
The process of involving all staff and pupils in the reform programme
reinforced relationships between teachers and pupils and helped lay the
foundations for the development of the new system at the beginning of the
new school year.The new regime would not have succeeded without com-
plete consensus, both manifest and covert. It was the task of the consultant
to ensure that this point was reached.
The new school year began with a honeymoon period during which
there was a signicant reduction in the level of behavioural disturbance and
concomitant improvement in attendance.The feeling of staff and pupils that
they had together managed to turn the school and atmosphere around led
to an increased enthusiasm and improved engagement.The synergy devel-
oped through this feeling of engagement in this new initiative developed
a greater openness to learning and identication with the school as a whole.
The setting up of resource based learning, together with the oppor-
tunity to organize their own timetables, led to much greater motivation,
involvement and autonomy on the part of the pupils.The shortening of the
concentration span to 20 minutes also allowed pupils to focus down more
effectively on short targets and increased considerably the volume of work
completed. The resource based system also allowed for much greater dif-
ferentiation and the drawing up of individual educational planning, hence
moving the focus away from group and towards individual learning. Many
of the youngsters developed a feeling which they communicated to
teachers that they were beginning to learn properly for the rst time.
The devolution of the responsibility for the behaviour of pupils in a
structured way to the collectively operated system also relieved individual
tutors of feelings of personal responsibility for the behavioural problems
EMOTI ONAL AND BEHAVI OURAL DI FFI CULTI ES 6(1)
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that developed.The points system which related to childrens attainment in
the morning sessions allowed them to gain some objectivity and degree of
distance from the behavioural difculties. Moreover, the staff team as a
whole discussed disturbing behaviour and solutions were found on a
collective rather than individual level. The new distribution of roles and
responsibilities developed satisfactorily and lead to greater socializing
amongst the team.
The consolidation phase of the consultancy
The furthering of the development process of the school was carried
through by the consultant sporadically with reviews. However, the process
had enabled the new acting headteacher to work within a system which
functioned well and allowed for autonomous growth and development.
The new system experienced an initial honeymoon period, but after a
5-year period there was a need to review what had been developed. With
the introduction of new members of staff who had not had ownership of
the initial developments, there had been an increase in group teaching.
Hence in the second round of in-service training a growing division
emerged amongst the staff between those who had initially been involved
in the developments and the new members of staff who no longer saw a
need for the system in that form.The newer members of staff also tended
to emphasize the academic learning aspects of the curriculum rather than
to focus heavily on the social and emotional aspects. Hence new themes
and tensions had emerged as the subject for the consultancy, and the cycle
of development and improvement took a different course.
Conclusions
It is often the case, particularly in EBD schools, where the pressures on
interpersonal dynamics are particularly intense, that schools are not able to
improve and develop without support.An external independent consultant
is often in a position to reect back to the school team their particular issues
and guide them through the developmental steps that need to be taken. In
terms of organizational development the motor is the preparedness of the
school to open up to change. It is not only the external directives and
changing frameworks which inuence the quality of what happens in
school, but above all a sense of inner dissatisfaction with the way that things
are done and a willingness to address this and engage in the conict and
debate that emerges before true consensus can be achieved. In many
respects this mirrors directly the demands we make on the children and
young people in EBD schools, and models for them, on an institutional
level, the path to growth and development.
SPALDI NG ET AL.: SCHOOL I MPROVEMENT
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Notes
1. One of the authors, Bob Spalding, acted as consultant to the school for ve of
these years.The data used in this case study were collated as observations during
his period of consultancy, and through interviews with the staff of the school.
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