8.

04 Quantum Physics We then have | a H 1 = H |0 H |0 = H, a +a 1 0 |0 = h a +a h 2 3 = h a |0 2 3 = h | 1, 2

Lecture XIX

(19-1) (19-2) (19-3) (19-4) (19-5)

i.e., | 1 = a |0 is also an energy eigenstate, but with eigenenergy 3 h instead of 1 h 2 2 = a is also an energy eigenstate, but with for |0. Similarly, we can show that |2 |1 5 energy 2 h etc. Consequently, we can construct a ladder of (yet to be normalized) energy eigenstates |n by n |n = a |0 (19-6) with 1 En = n + h. 2 (19-7)

a ( a ) is called the lowering (raising) operator, it lowers (raises) the energy by h .

Figure I: a , a are sometimes called ladder operators since they take us up and down the ladder of energy eigenstates. When describing a monochromatic electromagnetic eld quantum mechanically, we can associate the frequency with a harmonic oscillator of that frequency. For noninteracting particles (such as photons) a state with n photons can be associated with the n-th eigenstate of the HO with n. The ground state then corresponds to an Massachusetts Institute of Technology XIX-1

8.04 Quantum Physics

Lecture XIX

empty mode (no photons, n = 0), however there is still a nite energy 1 h that 2 we associate with vacuum uctuations of the electromagnetic eld. In this context, a and a are called creation and annihilation operators, respectively, since they create and annihilate photons, or more generally, arbitrary non-interacting bosonic particles.

Normalization of HO energy eigenstates

Let us assume that the ground state |0 is already chosen to be properly normalized: 0|0 = 1. Note. Remember that 0|0 denotes 0|0 = dxu 0 (x)u0 (x).

How long is the state | 1 = a |0?

1|1 = a 0|a 0 |a 0 = 0|a a |0 = 0|a a +a a |0 = 0| a, = 0|1 + a a |0 =1

(19-8) (19-9) (19-10) (19-11) a |0 = 0 (19-12) (19-13)

The state | 1 is already normalized, so we can write: |1 = a |0 normalized eigenstate (19-14)

What about | 2 = a | 1 = a |1?

2| 2 = a 1|a 1 a |1 = 1|a a + 1 |1 = 1| a |0 + 1 = 1|a = 1|1 + 1 =2 Massachusetts Institute of Technology a |1 = |0

(19-15) (19-16) (19-17) (19-18) (19-19) (19-20) XIX-2

8.04 Quantum Physics Then the properly normalized second excited state is 1 1 2 |2 = |2 = a |0. 2 2

Lecture XIX

(19-21)

n We can show, in general, (see PS) that the length squared of the state |n = a |0 is n |n = n!. Consequently, the n-th normalized eigenstate is 1 n |n := a |0 . n! We can also show (see PS) that n|n 1, a |n = n + 1|n + 1. a |n = (19-23) (19-24) (19-22)

From operators back to spatial wavefunctions

The condition on the ground state |0, a |0 = 0, reads in position space using our denition of the annihilation operator, x p m i a = +i = x + p, (19-25) p0 2 h x0 2 hm au 0 (x) = m i h x+ u0 (x) = 0 2 h 2 hm i x mx + h u0 (x) = 0. x
m 2

(19-26) (19-27)

h x h The simple DE has the solution u0 (x) = ce 2 with normalization 1 = c2 m . Consequently, the normalized ground-state wavefunction is 1 m 4 m x2 h u0 (x) = e 2 . (19-28) h

The normalized n-th eigenstate can be obtained from 1 n |n = a |0 n! or 1 un (x) = n! m i h x 2 h 2 hm i x n u0 (x). (19-30) XIX-3 (19-29)

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8.04 Quantum Physics

Lecture XIX

Commutators, Heisenberg uncertainty, and simultaneous eigenfunctions

h The fact that p = in the position representation (or x = ih p in the momentum i x representation) implies p x (x) = p x (x) = x p (x) = x p (x) , (19-31)

i.e., x and p do not commute. Dene the dierence between p x and x p as the commutator p, x =p x x p. (19-32) h (c-number) p, x = i B =A B B A is an operator. The commutator is linear. In general, A, 1 + c2 A 2 , B = c1 A 1 , B + c2 A 2 , B c1 A Here: (19-33)

(19-34)

Other useful relations

A = A, B B, B, C =A B, C + A, C B A

(19-35) (19-36)

Simultaneous eigenfunctions
Consider a free particle. The plane waves (x) = eikx are simultaneous eigenfunc 2 k2 tions of energy with eigenvalue h , 2m 2 2 ikx h 2 k 2 ikx ikx = h He e = e , 2m 2m x2 k, and of momentum with eigenvalue h pe ikx = h ikx e = hke ikx . i x (19-38) (19-37)

Note. If we had chosen cos(kx), sin(kx), these would have also been energy eigenh2 k 2 functions with eigenvalue , but not momentum eigenfunctions. 2m Massachusetts Institute of Technology XIX-4

8.04 Quantum Physics

Lecture XIX

However, since cos(kx) and sin(kx) are degenerate (i.e., have the same energy eigenvalue), it is possible to choose linear combinations of degenerate eigenstates eikx = cos(kx) i sin(kx) that are simultaneous eigenstates of momentum. In the potential well, on the other hand, the energy eigenstates were not simultaneous eigenstates of momentum. In general, we have: , B have a set of simultaneous eigenTheorem 19.1. Two Hermitian operators A functions if and only if they commute. Proof. Assume a complete set {uab } of simultaneous eigenfunctions is found, i.e., ab = auab Au ab = auab Bu (19-39) (19-40)

B ]uab = (ab ba)uab = 0 for all eigenfunctions [A, B ] = a, b, eigenvalues. Then [A, 0. See Gasiorowicz, 5-4. will have a denite outcome when a measurement Since only an eigenstate of A is made, this means that A and B can always be simultaneously made zero of A and B commute. only when A Theorem 19.2. One can prove that in any chosen state ,
2 2 (A)2 (B ) i[A, B ]

(19-41)

, B . for any two Hermitian operators A Proof. see Gasiorowicz, online supplement SA. For x , p , we have 1 h 2 2 2 ( p ) iih = , (19-42) (x)2 4 4 where the RHS does not depend on the state . This is another derivation of the Heisenberg uncertainty relation xp h . 2

The Schr odinger equation in three dimensions

(r) = E (r) H with p 2 = p 2 2 2 x+p y +p z Massachusetts Institute of Technology (19-44) XIX-5 SE in 3D (19-43)

8.04 Quantum Physics h h h in the position representation p = , , i x i y i z 2 2 2 2 The SE then reads = x2 + y2 + z2 , h 2 2 + V (r) (r) = W (r) 2m

Lecture XIX (19-45)

SE in 3D

(19-46)

Spherically symmetric potential

If the potential is spherically symmetric, V (r) = V (r), then it is convenient to work in spherical coordinates, where we can write 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 = 2+ + + cot + (19-47) r r r r2 2 sin2 2 We dene an operator via L = h 2
2

2 1 2 + cot + . 2 sin2 2

(19-48)

will be the operator associated with angular momentum. L 2 = 2 2 2 L + r2 r r h 2 r2 (19-49)

Since V (r) does not depend on , , we try an ansatz. (r) = R(r)Y (, ) Then, h 2 2 h 2 2 2 + V (r) (r) = + V (r) R(r)Y (, ) 2m 2m r2 r r L2 + R(r)Y (, ) 2mr2 = ER(r)Y (, ) (19-51) (19-52) (19-53) (19-50)

As before, when deriving the time-indepenedent SE, we divide by R(r)Y (, ) = 0. h 2 2 2 1 L2 = + + V ( r ) R ( r ) + R(r)Y (, ) (19-54) Y (, ) 2mr2 2m r2 r r =E (19-55) Massachusetts Institute of Technology XIX-6

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Lecture XIX

The LHS can only be a constant for all , if the second term does not depend on , . We arrive at two equations: 2 L const Y ( , ) = Y (, ) = EL (r)Y (, ) 2mr2 2mr2 1 h 2 2 2 const + + V ( r ) R ( r ) + =E R(r) 2mr2 2m r2 r r h 2 2 2 const + + V (r) + R(r) = ER(r) 2mr2 2m r2 r r where EL = function.
const 2mr 2

(19-56) (19-57) (19-58)

is the energy associated with the angular dependence of the wave-

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XIX-7