Consumer Behavior Models in Tourism Analysis Study Muhannad M.A Abdallat, Ph.D.

Assistant Professor Hesham El Sayed El - Emam, Ph.D. Assistant Professor

Department of Tourism and Hospitality, Faculty of Tourism and Archeology King Saud University ABST ACT

The theories of consumer decision-ma ing process assume that the consumer!s purchase decision process consists of steps through "hich the #uyer passes in purchasing a product or service$ Ho"ever, this might not #e the case$ %ot every consumer passed through all these stages "hen ma ing a decision to purchase and in fact, some of the stages can #e s ipped depending on the type of purchases$ The reasons for the study of consumer!s helps firms and organi&ations improve their mar eting strategies #y understanding issues such as' 1 The psychology of ho" consumers thin , feel, reason, and select #et"een different alternatives (e$g$, #rands, products)* 2 The psychology of ho" the consumer is influenced #y his or her environment (e$g$, culture, family, signs, media)* 3 The #ehavior of consumers "hile shopping or ma ing other mar eting decisions* 4 +imitations in consumer no"ledge or information processing a#ilities

influence decisions and mar eting outcome*

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Ho" consumers! motivation and decision strategies differ #et"een products, that differ in their level of importance or interest that they entail for the consumer* and 1 Ho" mar eters can adapt and improve their mar eting campaigns and mar eting strategies to more effectively reach the consumer$

!.!Consumer Behavior The study of consumer #ehavior focuses on ho" individuals ma e decisions to spend their availa#le resources (time, money, effort) on consumption-related items (Schiffman and Kanu , ,--.)$ The field of consumer #ehavior covers a lot of ground$ According to Solomon (,--/), consumer #ehavior is a study of the processes involved "hen individuals or groups select, purchase, use, or dispose of products, services, ideas, or e0periences to satisfy needs and desires$

The official definition of consumer #ehavior given #y 1elch (,--2) is 3the process and activities people engage in "hen searching for, selecting, purchasing, using, evaluating, and disposing of products and services so as to satisfy their needs and desires!$ 1ehavior occurs either for the individual, or in the conte0t of a group, or an organi&ation$ 4onsumer #ehavior involves the use and disposal of products as "ell as the study of ho" they are purchased$ Product use is often of great interest to the mar eter, #ecause this may influence ho" a product is #est positioned or ho" "e can encourage increased consumption$
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Andreason (,-/6) proposed one of the earliest models of consumer #ehavior$ This model is sho"n in Figure 5$,$The model recogni&es the importance of information in the consumer decision-ma ing process$ 7t also emphasi&es the importance of consumer attitudes although it fails to consider attitudes in relation to repeat purchase #ehavior$

"i#ure !.$ Andreason, A. %$&'( Attitudes and Consumer Behavior) A De*ision Model in +e, esear*h in Mar-etin# %ed. l. Preston.. /nstitute o0 Business and E*onomi* esear*h, 1niversity o0 Cali0ornia, Ber-eley , pp$,/, 7ndepende nt personal sources 7nformatio n storage

7nformation
Advocate imperson al sources
7ntrinsic attri#utes 90trinsic attri#utes

Disposition

Direct e0perience

7ndepende nt imperson al sources Advocate personal sources 2ther *ustomer

Price availa#ility

: " n er s hi p

De*ision-ma-ers

Feed#ac s

A second model, "hich concentrates on the #uying decision for a ne" product, "as proposed #y %icosia (,-./)$ This model is sho"n in Figure 5$5$ The model concentrates on the firm<s attempts to communicate "ith the consumer, and the consumers< predisposition to act in a certain "ay$ These t"o features are referred to as Field :ne$ The second stage involves the consumer in a search evaluation process, "hich is influenced #y attitudes$ This stage is referred to as Field T"o$ The actual purchase process is referred to as Field Three, and the post-purchase feed#ac process is referred to as Field Four$ This model "as critici&ed #y commentators #ecause it "as not empirically tested (=altman, Pinson and Angelman, ,-.8), and #ecause of the fact that many of the varia#les "ere not defined (+unn, ,-.;)$ Perhaps, the most fre>uently >uoted of all consumer #ehavior models is the Ho"ard-Sheth model of #uyer #ehavior, "hich "as developed in ,-/-$ This model is sho"n in Figure 5$8$ The model is important #ecause it highlights the importance of inputs to the consumer #uying process and suggests "ays in "hich the consumer orders these inputs #efore ma ing a final decision$ The Ho"ard-Sheth model is not perfect as it does not e0plain all #uyer #ehavior$ 7t is ho"ever, a comprehensive theory of #uyer #ehavior that has #een developed as a result of empirical research (Horton, ,-2;)$ Schiffman and Kanu (,--.) mentioned that many early theories

concerning consumer #ehavior "ere #ased on economic theory, on the notion that individuals act rationally to ma0imi&e their #enefits (satisfactions) in the purchase of goods and services$ A consumer is generally thought of as a person "ho identifies a need or desire, ma es
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a purchase, and then disposes of the product during the three stages in the consumption process in Figure5$5 (Solomon, ,--/) !.!.$ +/C2S/A M2DE3 This model focuses on the relationship #et"een the firm and its potential consumers$ The firm communicates "ith consumers through its mar eting messages (advertising), and the consumers react to these messages #y purchasing response$ +oo ing to the model "e "ill find that the firm and the consumer are connected "ith each other, the firm tries to influence the consumer and the consumer is influencing the firm #y his decision$ Field ,

Su#field , Firms Attri#ute ?essage 90posure

Su#field 5 4onsumers Attri#utes (9specially

Attitude

Predisposition

and evaluation

Search

Field 5' Search And evaluation :f mean@end(s) relation( s) (Preaction field)

90perience ?otivation
4onsumption Decision (Action)

Field ;' Feed#ac

Purchasin g 1ehavior "i#ure!-!. +i*osia Model o0 Consumer De*ision Pro*esse Sour*e) +i*osia, %$&4'..

Field 8' Act of Purchase

The %icosia model is divided into four maAor fields' "ield $) The *onsumer attitude based on the 0irms5 messa#es. The first field is divided into t"o su#fields$ The first su#field deals "ith the firm!s mar eting environment and communication efforts that affect consumer attitudes, the competitive environment, and characteristics of target mar et$ Su#field t"o specifies the consumer characteristics e$g$, e0perience, personality, and ho" he perceives the promotional idea to"ard the product in this stage the consumer forms his attitude to"ard the firm!s product #ased on his interpretation of the message$ "ield !) sear*h and evaluation The consumer "ill start to search for other firm!s #rand and evaluate the firm!s #rand in comparison "ith alternate #rands$ 7n this case the firm motivates the consumer to purchase its #rands$ "ield 6) The a*t o0 t he 7ur*hase The result of motivation "ill arise #y convincing the consumer to purchase the firm products from a specific retailer$ "ield 8) "eed ba*This model analyses the feed#ac of #oth the firm and the consumer after purchasing the product$ The firm "ill #enefit from its sales data as a feed#ac , and the consumer "ill use his e0perience "ith the product affects the individuals attitude and predisposition!s concerning future messages from the firm$

The %icosia model offers no detail e0planation of the internal factors, "hich may affect the personality of the consumer, and ho" the consumer develops his attitude to"ard the product$ For e0ample, the consumer may find the firm!s message very interesting, #ut virtually he cannot #uy the firm!s #rand #ecause it contains something prohi#ited according to his #eliefs$ Apparently it is very essential to include such factors in the model, "hich give more interpretation a#out the attri#utes affecting the decision process$ !.!.! H29A D-SHETH M2DE3 This model suggests three levels of decision ma ing' 1. The first level descri#es the e0tensive pro#lem solving$ At this level the consumer does not have any #asic information or no"ledge a#out the #rand and he does not have any preferences for any product$ 7n this situation, the consumer "ill see information a#out all the different

#rands in the mar et #efore purchasing$ 2. The second level is limited pro#lem solving$ This situation e0ists for consumers "ho have little no"ledge a#out the mar et, or partial

no"ledge a#out "hat they "ant to purchase$ 7n order to arrive at a #rand preference some comparative #rand information is sought$ 3. The third level is a ha#itual response #ehavior$ 7n this level the consumer no"s very "ell a#out the different #rands and he can

differentiate #et"een the different characteristics of each product, and he already decides to purchase a particular product$ According to the Ho"ard-Sheth model there are four maAor sets of varia#les* namely'

a. /n7uts. These input varia#les consist of three distinct types of stimuli (information sources) in the consumer!s environment$ The mar eter in the form of product or #rand information furnishes physical #rand characteristics (significative stimuli) and ver#al or visual product characteristics (sym#olic stimuli)$ The third type is provided #y the consumer!s social environment (family, reference group, and social class)$ All three types of stimuli provide inputs concerning the product class or specific #rands to the specific consumer$ 7nputsPerceptual 4onstructs :utputs Stimuli display
+earning 4onstructs

Significative

7ntention

Purcha

se a$ Buality #$ Price c$ Distinctive d$ Service e$ Availa#ility Sym#olic a$ Buality #$ Price c$ Distinctive d$ Service e$ Availa#ility Social a$ Family #$ Ceference groups c$ Social class ?otives

4onfidence :vert search 7ntenti on

Attitude Stimulus am#iguity 1rand 4omprehension 4hoice 4riteria

Attitud e

1rand 4ompr ehe n- sion

Attention

Attenti on

Perceptual #ias

"i#ure !-6 A Sim7li0ied Des*ri7tion o0 the Theory o0 Buyer Behavior Sour*e) Ho,ard, and Sheth,P76! %$&'&.
-

b.

Per*e7tual and 3earnin# Constru*ts,

The central part of the model deals "ith the psychological varia#les involved "hen the consumer is contemplating a decision$ Some of the varia#les are perceptual in nature, and are concerned "ith ho" the consumer receives and understands the information from the input stimuli and other parts of the model$ For e0ample, stimulus am#iguity happened "hen the consumer does not understand the message from the environment$ Perceptual #ias occurs if the consumer distorts the information received so that it fits his or her esta#lished needs or e0perience$ +earning constructs category, consumers! goals, information a#out #rands, criteria for evaluation alternatives, preferences and #uying intentions are all included$ The proposed interaction 7n #et"een the different varia#les in the perceptual and learning constructs and other sets give the model its distinctive advantage$ *. 2ut7uts The outputs are the results of the perceptual and learning varia#les and ho" the consumers "ill response to these varia#les (attention, #rand comprehension, attitudes, and intention)$ d. E:o#enous%E:ternal. variables 90ogenous varia#les are not directly part of the decision-ma ing process$ Ho"ever, some relevant e0ogenous varia#les include the importance of the purchase, consumer personality traits, religion, and time pressure$
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The decision-ma ing process, "hich Ho"ard-Sheth ?odel tries to e0plain, ta es place at three 7nputs stages' Significance, Sym#olic and Social stimuli$ 7n #oth significative and sym#olic stimuli, the model emphasi&es on material aspects such as price and >uality$ These stimuli are not applica#le in every society$ Ehile in social stimuli the model does not mention the #asis of decision-ma ing in this stimulus, such as "hat influence the family decisionF This may differ from one society to another$ Finally, no direct relation "as dra"n on the role of religion in influencing the consumer!s decision-ma ing processes$ Celigion "as considered as e0ternal factor "ith no real influence on consumer, "hich give the model o#vious "ea ness in anticipation the consumer decision$

!.!.6 E+;E3-<233AT-B3AC<9E33 M2DE3 This model "as created to descri#e the increasing, fast-gro"ing #ody of no"ledge concerning consumer #ehavior$ This model, li e in other models, has gone through many revisions to improve its descriptive a#ility of the #asic relationships #et"een components and su#components, this model consists also of four stages*

"irst sta#e) de*ision-7ro*ess sta#es The central focus of the model is on five #asic decision-process stages' Pro#lem recognition, search for alternatives, alternate evaluation (during "hich #eliefs may lead to the formation of attitudes, "hich in turn may
,,

result in a purchase intention) purchase, and outcomes$ 1ut it is not necessary for every consumer to go through all these stages* it depends on "hether it is an e0tended or a routine pro#lem-solving #ehavior$ Garia#les Decision 7nformation 7nfluencing 7nput Process Precision Processing Process
Pro#lem Cecognition 90posure 7nternal search Search 7ndividual 4haracteristi cs ' ?otives Galues +ifestyle Personality

Attention ? Stimuli' ?ar eterDominate d, other

?

1eliefs

Alternati ve evaluati on

Attitud e

Social 7nfluenc es '

4omprehensi on Perception

: 4ulture Ceferenc e
C
7ntenti on

group

H Family Hielding@ Acceptance Purchas e Situatio nal 7nfluenc es

Cetention :utcomes 90ternal search

Dissatisfaction

Satisfaction

"i#ure !-8.The En#el-<ollat-Bla*-,ell Model o0 Consumer Behavior. Sour*e) En#el , Bla*-,ell, and Miniard,%$&&(. 7a#e +o &( Se*ond sta#e) /n0ormation in7ut At this stage the consumer gets information from mar eting and nonmar eting sources, "hich also influence the pro#lem recognition stage of the decision-ma ing process$ 7f the consumer still does not arrive to a
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specific decision, the search for e0ternal information "ill #e activated in order to arrive to a choice or in some cases if the consumer e0perience dissonance #ecause the selected alternative is less satisfactory than e0pected$ Third sta#e) in0ormation 7ro*essin# This stage consists of the consumer!s e0posure, attention, perception, acceptance, and retention of incoming information$ The consumer must first #e e0posed to the message, allocate space for this information, interpret the stimuli, and retain the message #y transferring the input to long-term memory$ "ourth sta#e) variables in0luen*in# the de*ision 7ro*ess This stage consists of individual and environmental influences that affect all five stages of the decision process$ 7ndividual characteristics include motives, values, lifestyle, and personality* the social influences are culture, reference groups, and family$ Situational influences, such as a consumer!s financial condition, also influence the decision process$

This model incorporates many items, "hich influence consumer decision-ma ing such as values, lifestyle, personality and culture$ The model did not sho" "hat factors shape these items, and "hy different types of personality can produce different decision-ma ingF Ho" "ill "e apply these values to cope "ith different personalitiesF Celigion can e0plain some #ehavioral characteristics of the consumer, and this "ill lead to #etter understanding of the model and "ill give more comprehensive vie" on decision-ma ing$
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!.!.8 Bettman5s /n0ormation Pro*essin# Model o0 Consumer Choi*e 1ettman (,-.-) in his model descri#es the consumer as possessing a limited capacity for processing information$ He implicate that the consumers rarely analy&e the comple0 alternatives in decision ma ing and apply very simple strategy$ 7n this model there are seven maAor stages$ Sta#e +o. $) Pro*essin# *a7a*ity 7n this step he assumes that the consumer has limited capacity for processing information, consumers are not interested in comple0 computations and e0tensive information processing$ To deal "ith this pro#lem, consumers are li ely to select choice strategies that ma e product selection an easy process$ Sta#e +o. !) Motivation ?otivation is located in the center of 1ettman model, "hich influence #oth the direction and the intensity of consumer choice for more information in deciding

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?otivation Ioal hierarchy Perceptual encoding Scanner Attention and interrupt mechanisms interrupt interpretati on and response

Perceptual

Processi ng capacity

7nformation ac>uisition and evaluation

?emory search

Scanner and interrupt mechanisms

90ternal search

7nterrupt interpretati on and response

Scanner Decision Processes and interrupt mechanisms

7nterrupt interpretati on and response

4onsumption and learning processes

Scanner and interrupt mechanisms

7nterrupt interpretati on and response

"i#ure !.( the Bettman /n0ormation-Pro*essin# Choi*e Sour*e) Bettman. %$&4&.. P7 8=!

Model o0 Consumer

1et"een the alternatives ?otivation is provided "ith hierarchy of goals! mechanism that provides a series of different su#-goals to simplify the choice selection$ This mechanism suggests that the consumers o"n e0perience in a specific area of mar et and he doesn!t need to go through the same hierarchy every time to arrive at a decision, "hich ma e this mechanism serves as an organi&er for consumer efforts in ma ing a choice$ %o concern "as given on religious motives, and ho" religion may motivate the consumer in his decision$ ?ost of the general
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theories of motivation such as ?aslo"!s hierarchy of needs (,-.D) emphasi&es self-achievement, the need for po"er, and the need for affiliation$ Sta#e +o. 6) Attention and 7er*e7tual en*odin#. The component of this step is >uite related to the consumer<s goal hierarchy$ There are t"o types of attention* the first type is voluntary attention, "hich is a conscious allocation of processing capacity to current goals$ The second is involuntary attention, "hich is automatic response to disruptive events (e$g$, ne"ly ac>uired comple0

information)$ 1oth different types of attention influence ho" individuals proceed in reaching goals and ma ing choices$ The perceptual encoding accounts for the different steps that the consumer needs to perceive the stimuli and "hether he needs more information$ Sta#e +o. 8) /n0ormation a*>uisition and evaluation 7f the consumer feels that the present information is inade>uate, he "ill start to loo for more information from e0ternal sources$ %e"ly ac>uired information is evaluated and its suita#ility or usefulness is assessed$ The consumer continues to ac>uire additional information until all relevant information has #een secured, or until he finds that ac>uiring additional information is more costly in terms of time and money$ Sta#e +o. () Memory 7n this component the consumer eeps all the information he collects, and it "ill #e the first place to search "hen he need to ma e a choice$ 7f
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this informations is not sufficient, no dou#t he "ill start loo ing again for e0ternal sources$ Sta#e +o. ') De*ision Pro*ess This step in 1ettman!s model indicates that different types of choices are normally made associated "ith other factors, "hich may occur during the decision process$ Specifically, this component deals "ith the application of heuristics or rules of thum#, "hich are applied in the selection and evaluation of specific #rand$ These specific heuristics a consumer uses are influenced #y #oth individual factors (e$g$, personality differences) and situational factors (e$g$, urgency of the decision)* thus it is unli ely that the same decision #y the same consumer "ill apply in different situation or other consumer in the same situation$

Sta#e +o. 4) Consum7tion and 3earnin# Pro*ess 7n this stage, the model discusses the future results after the purchase is done$ The consumer in this step "ill gain e0perience after evaluating the alternative$ This e0perience provides the consumer "ith information to #e applied to future choice situation$ 1ettman in his model emphasi&e on the information processing and the capacity of the consumer to analy&e this information for decision ma ing, #ut no e0planation "as given a#out the criteria #y "hich the consumer accepts or refuses to process some specific information$

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!.!.( Sheth-+e,man ;ross Model o0 Consum7tion ?alues According to this model, there are five consumption values influencing consumer choice #ehavior$ These are functional, social, conditional, emotional, and epistemic values$ Any or all of the five consumption values may influence the decision$ Garious disciplines (including economics, sociology, several #ranches of psychology, mar eting and consumer #ehavior) have contri#uted theories and research findings relevant to these values, (Sheth et al$ ,--,)$ 9ach consumption value in the theory is consistent "ith various components of models advanced #y ?aslo" (,-.D), Katona (,-.,), Kat& (,-/D), and Hanna (,-2D)$ Five consumption values form the core of the model'

Functional Galue

4onditional Galue

Social Galue

4onsumer 4hoice 1ehavior

9pistemic 9motional Galue Galu e

"i#ure !-') The 0ive values in0luen*in# Consumer Choi*e Behavior Sour*e) Sheth, +e,man, and ;ross %$&&$. P7$(&-$4= The 0irst value) "un*tional value To Sheth et al. (,--,) the functional value of an alternative is defined as'

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JThe perceived utility ac>uired from an alternative for functional, utilitarian, or physical performance$ An alternative ac>uires functional value through the possession of salient functional, utilitarian, or physical attri#utes$ Functional value is measured on a profile of choice attri#utes$J Traditionally, functional value is presumed to #e the primary driver of consumer choice$ This assumption underlies economic utility theory advanced #y ?arshall (,2-D) and Stigler (,-6D) and popularly e0pressed in terms of Jrational economic man$J An alternative!s functional value may #e derived from its characteristics or attri#utes, (Fer#er, ,-.8) such as relia#ility, dura#ility, and price$ For e0ample, the decision to purchase a particular automo#ile may #e #ased on fuel economy and maintenance record$ 1y identifying the dominant function of a product (i$e$, "hat #enefits it provides), mar eters can emphasi&e these #enefits in their

communication and pac aging$ Advertisements relevant to the function prompt more favora#le thoughts a#out "hat is #eing mar eted and can result in a heightened preferences for #oth the ads and the product, (Solomon ,--/*,/D)$ Kat& (,-/D) developed the functional theory of attitudes$ He identifies four attitudes #ased on the functional values' ,) Utilitarian function$ The utilitarian function is related to the #asic principles of re"ard and punishment$ Ee develop some of our attitude

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to"ard products simply #ased on "hether these products provide pleasure or pain$ 2) Galue-e0pressive function$ Attitude that performs a value-e0pressive function e0presses the consumers! central values or self-concept$ A person forms a product attitude not #ecause of its o#Aective #enefits, #ut #ecause of "hat the product says a#out him or her as a person$ 3) 9go-defensive function$ Attitude formed to protect the person, either from e0ternal threats or internal feelings, perform an ego-defensive function$ 90ample of this function is deodorant campaigns that stress the dire, em#arrassing conse>uences of #eing caught "ith underarm odor in pu#lic$ 4) Kno"ledge function$ Some attitude is formed as a result of a need for order, structure, or meaning$ This need is often present "hen a person is in an am#iguous situation or is confronted "ith a ne" product$ The se*ond value) So*ial value Sheth et al. (,--,*,/,) defined social value of an alternative as' JThe perceived utility ac>uired from an alternative association "ith one or more specific social groups$ An alternative ac>uires social value through association "ith positively or negatively stereotyped

demographic, socioeconomic, and cultural-ethnic groups$ Social value is measured on a profile choice imagery$J Social imagery refers to all relevant primary and secondary reference groups li ely to #e supportive of the product consumption$ 4onsumers
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ac>uire positive or negative stereotypes #ased on their association "ith varied demographic (age, se0, religion), socioeconomic (income, occupation), cultural@ethnic (race, lifestyle), or political, ideological segments of society$ 4hoices involving highly visi#le products (e$g$, clothing, Ae"elry) and good service to #e shared "ith others (e$g$, gifts, products used in entertaining) are often driven #y social values$ For e0ample, a particular ma e of automo#ile is #eing chosen more for the social image evo ed than for its functional performance$ 9ven products generally thought to #e functional or utilitarian, are fre>uently selected #ased on their social values$ The third value) Emotional value Sheth et al. (,--,* ,/,) defined emotional value of an alternative as' JThe perceived utility ac>uired from an alternative!s capacity to arouse feelings or affective states$ An alternative ac>uires emotional value "hen associated "ith specific feelings or "hen precipitating those feelings$ 9motional values are measured on a profile of feelings associated "ith the alternative$J 4onsumption emotion refers to the set of emotional responses elicited specifically during product usage or consumption e0perience, as descri#ed either #y the distinctive categories of emotional e0perience and e0pression (e$g$, Aoy, anger, and fear) or #y the structural dimensions underlying emotional categories such as pleasantness@ unpleasantness, rela0ation@action, or calmness@e0citement$ Ioods and
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services are fre>uently associated "ith emotional responses (e$g$ the fear aroused "hile vie"ing horror movie)$ 9motional value is often associated "ith aesthetic alternatives (e$g$ religion, causes)$ Ho"ever, more tangi#le and seemingly utilitarian products also have emotional values$ For e0ample, some foods arouse feeling of comfort through their association "ith childhood e0periences, and consumers are sometimes said to have Jlove affairsJ "ith their cars$ A num#er of different attempts have #een made to identify the various emotions that people e0perience$ 7&ard (,-..) develops the ta0onomy of affective e0perience approach that descri#es the #asic emotion that people feel$ He measures emotions using ten fundamental categories' interest, Aoy, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, contempt, fear, shame, and guilt$ This approach has #een used e0tensively #y consumer researchers, for e0ample, Eest#roo and :liver (,--,)$ The 0ourth value) E7istemi* value Sheth et al. (,--, *,/5) defined epistemic value as' JThe perceived utility ac>uired from an alternatives capacity to arouse curiosity, provide novelty, and@or satisfy a desire for no"ledge$ An

alternative ac>uires epistemic value #y items referring to curiosity, novelty, and no"ledge$J 9pistemic issues refer to reasons that "ould Austify the perceived satisfaction of curiosity, no"ledge, and e0ploratory needs offered #y the product as a change of pace (something ne", different)$ 9ntirely
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ne" e0perience certainly provides epistemic value$ Ho"ever, an alternative that provides a simple change of pace can also #e im#ued "ith epistemic value$ The alternative may #e chosen #ecause the consumer is #ored or satiated "ith his or her current #rand (as in trying a ne" type of food), is curious (as in visiting a ne" shopping comple0), or has a desire to learn (as in e0periencing another culture)$ The concept of epistemic values has #een influenced #y theory and #y several important areas of research$ 90ploratory, novelty see ing, and variety see ing motives have #een suggested to active product search, trial, and s"itching #ehavior, (Ho"ard and Sheth ,-/-)$ :ne of the most significant contri#utors to the study of the optimal stimulation and arousal has #een 1erlyne (,-.D), "ho contends that individuals are driven to maintain an optimal or intermediate level of stimulation$ Finally, Hirschman (,-2D) has advanced innovativeness, or a consumer! propensity to adopt ne" products$ The "i0th value) Conditional value Sheth et al. (,--,*,/5) defined the conditional value as' JThe perceived utility ac>uired #y an alternative is the result of the specific situation or set of circumstances facing the choice ma er$ An alternative ac>uires conditional value in the presence of antecedent physical or social contingencies that enhance its functional or social value$ 4onditional value is measured on a profile of choice contingencies$J
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An alternative!s utility "ill often depend on the situation$ For e0ample, some products only have seasonal value (e$g$, greeting cards), some are associated "ith once in a life events (e$g$, "edding dress), and some are used only in emergencies (e$g$, hospital services)$ Several areas of in>uiry have also influenced conditional value$ 1ased on the concept of stimulus dynamism advanced #y Hall (,-/8), Ho"ard (,-/-) recogni&ed the importance of learning that ta es place as a result of e0perience "ith a given situation$ Ho"ard and Sheth (,-/-) then e0tended Ho"ard!s earlier "or #y defining the construct inhi#itors as noninternali&ed forces that impede #uyers! preferences$ The concept of inhi#itors "as more formally developed #y Sheth (,-.;) in his model of attitude-#ehavior relationship as anticipated situations and une0pected events$ Cecogni&ing that #ehavior cannot #e accurately predicted #ased on attitude or intention alone, a num#er of researchers during the ,-.Ds investigated the predictive a#ility of situational factors (e$g$, Sheth ,-.;)$ The five consumption values identified #y the theory ma e differential contri#utions in specific choice conte0ts$ For e0ample, a consumer may decide to purchase coins as an inflation hedge (functional value), and also reali&e a sense of security (emotional value) from the investment$ Social, epistemic, and conditional values have little influence$ :f course, a choice may #e influenced positively #y all five consumption values For e0ample, to a first-time home #uyer, the purchase of a home might provide functional value (the home contains more space than the present apartment), social values (friends are also #uying homes),
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emotional values (the consumer feels secure in o"ning a home), epistemic value (the novelty of purchasing a home is enAoya#le), and conditional value (starting a family)$

!.!.' Solomon Model o0 *om7arison 7ro*ess

4:%S U?9C< S P9CSP 94T7G 9
choices F

PC9PUC4HAS9 7SSU9S
Ho" doe sa con sum er deci de that he@s he nee ds a pro duct F Eh at are the #est sou rces of info rma tion to lear n mor e a#o ut alte rnat ive

PUC4HAS9 7SSU9S

P:STPUC4HAS9

7SSU9S

7s ac>u iring a prod uct a stres sful or plea sant e0pe rienc eF Eha t does the purc hase say a#ou t the cons umer F

the produc t provid e pleasu re or perfor m its intend ed functio nF Ho" is the produc t eventu ally dispos ed of, and "hat are the enviro nment al conse >uenc es of

this actF Does

?ACK9T9C<S P9CSP94T7G9

nsum er "ill

person tell

Ho" are consumer attitudes to"ard products formed and@or changedF Ehat cues do consumers use to infer "hich products are superior to othersF

Ho" do situational factors, such as time pressure or store displays, affect the consumer!s purchase decisionF

E ha t de ter mi ne s "h et he ra co

#e satisfi ed "ith a produ ct and "heth er he@sh e "ill #uy it again F Does this

others a#out his@her e0perie nces "ith the product and affect their purcha se decisio nsF

o0 *om7arison 7ro*ess "i#ure Sour*e) !.4 Solomon Model %$&&'. P766

5 6

Figure 5$. e0plains some of the issus that are addressed during each stage of the consumption process$ The 3e0change!, in "hich t"o or more organi&ations or people give and receive something of value, is an integral part of mar eting$ He also suggested that consumer #ehavior involves many different actors$ The purchaser and user of a product might not #e the same person$ People may also act as influences on the #uying processes$ :rgani&ations can also #e involved in the #uying process$ ?uch of mar eting activity, they suggest, concentrates on adapting product offerings to particular circumstances of target segment needs and "ants$ 7t is also common to stimulate an already e0isting "ant through advertising and sales promotion, rather than creating "ants$ The definitions and models, "hich have #een presented so far, have #een from general mar eting theory$ Tourism is, #y its very nature, a service rather than a product, "hich may have a considera#le effect on consumer #ehavior$ !.!.4 Stimulus- es7onse Model o0 Buyer Behavior ?iddleton (,--;) presented an adapted model of consumer #ehavior tourism, "hich "as termed the stimulus-response model of #uyer #ehavior$ The model is sho"n in Figure 5$2$ This model is #ased on the four interactive components "ith the central component identified as <#uyer characteristics and decision process<$

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Stimulus /n7ut

Communi*ati on *hannels

Buyer *hara*teristi*s and de*ision 7ro*ess Communi*ati on 0ilters Motivation +earning Demographic economic and

Pur*hase out7uts %res7onse.

Cange of Advertising competitive Sales promotion produced and 1rochures mar eted #y Personal selling the tourist PC industry

social position

Psychographic characteristic Perception %eeds Eants Ioals 90perience Attitudes

Product 1rand Price :utlet

Friends Family Ceference Iroup

Post-purchase and post-consumption feelings

"i#ure !.@ a Stimulus- es7onse Model o0 Buyer Behavior Sour*e) Middleton %$&&8. P7 $=8-$$!

The model separates out motivators and determinants in consumer #uying #ehavior and also emphasi&es the important effects that an organi&ation can have on the consumer #uying process #y the use of communication channels$ Schmoll (,-..) >uoted in 4ooper et al$ (,--8), developed a model "hich hypothesi&ed that consumer decisions "ere a result of four elements as follo"s' 1 travel stimuli, including guide #oo s, reports from other travelers and

advertising and promotion 2 personal and social determinants of travel #ehaviour including motivators, desires and e0pectations
5 .

e0ternal varia#les, including destination images, confidence in travel trade intermediaries and constraints such as cost and time 1 4haracteristics and features of the service destination such as the perceived lin #et"een cost and value and the range of attractions and amenities offered$

!.!.@ Model o0 Travel-Buyin# Behavior Mathieson and 9all ?athieson and Eall (,-25) suggested a linear five-stage model of travel #uying #ehaviour, "hich is sho"n in Figure 5$-$
7nformation Felt need@ travel desire collection and evaluation image Travel decision (choice #et"een alternatives) Travel preparation and travel e0periences Travel satisfaction outcome and evaluation

"i#ure !.& Model o0 Travel-Buyin# Behavior Sour*e) Mathieson and 9all %$&@!. 7&(

Model o0 Consumer De*ision-Ma-in# "rame,orIil#ert (,--,) suggested a model for consumer decision-ma ing in "hich is sho"n in Figure 5$,D This model suggests that there are t"o levels of factors that have an effect on the consumer$ The first level of influences is close to the person and includes psychological influence such as perception and learning$ The second level of influences includes those, "hich have #een developed during the sociali&ation process and include reference groups and family influences$ All these models that have #een adapted for tourism offer
5 2

some into the consumer #ehavior process involved during the purchase postpurchase decision stages$

Socioeconomic influences ?otivation or energi&ers

4ultural influences

Perception

4onsumer or Decision-ma er Personality@ attitude Ceference group influences +earning

Family influences

"i#ure !.$= Consumer De*ision-Ma-in# "rame,orSour*e) ;ilbert, %$&&$. /n Coo7er %Ed... P7.4@-$=(

!.!.$= /nte#rated Model o0 Sel0-Con#ruity and "un*tional Con#ruity in E:7lainin# and Predi*tin# Travel Behaviour A more encompassing approach to the understanding of 4S@D can #e found in Sirgy<s evaluative congruity models of consumer #ehavior (Sirgy ,-28* Sirgy and Tyagi ,-2/)$ Sirgy e0plains the theoretical position associated "ith 4S@D in terms of discrepancies #et"een perceived and normative outcome levels$ According to his theory, satisfaction is a function of evaluative congruity, "hich is a cognitive matching process in "hich a perception is compared to evo e referent cognition for the purpose of evaluating a stimulus o#Aect@action$
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The result of the cognitive process is postulated to produce either a motivational or an emotional state$ 4S@D is vie"ed as an emotional state #ecause it prompts the consumer to evaluate alternative courses of action to reduce an e0isting dissatisfaction state and@or to o#tain future satisfaction state (Sirgy ,-28* ,-2;* Sirgy and Tyagi ,-2/)$ Further, 4S@D is vie"ed as a function of one or more congruities #et"een perceptual (perceived value) and evo ed referent (evo ed value) states$ Pro#lem recognition (dissatisfaction) is the function of a directional discrepancy #et"een the valence level of the perceived performance of a good@service and the valence level of a referent (standard of comparison or performance e0pectation)$ The Jnegative incongruityJ condition (a state of negative performance perception and positive referent state) is hypothesi&ed to produce the second highest dissatisfaction or pro#lem recognition, follo"ed #y Jnegative congruityJ (a state of negative performance perception and negative performance e0pectation), Jpositive congruityJ (a state of positive performance perception and positive e0pectation) and Jpositive incongruityJ (a state of positive performance perception and negative performance e0pectation), respectively$

The theory of self concept "as supported in empirical studies involving consumer evaluation of the automo#ile, type"riter, a #achelor<s degree, and a house (Sirgy ,-2;* ,-2.)$ Sirgy (,-25#) further argues that product images should #e classified as #eing JfunctionalJ and Jsym#olic$J The functional images of a product include the physical #enefits associated "ith the product,
8 D

"hereas the sym#olic images refer to the stereotypic personality images consumers have of a specific product often e0pressed in terms of the typical user image$ Celatedly, Sirgy (,-25#) argues that 4S@D is not only an evaluative function of the consumer<s e0pectation and performance evaluation, #ut it is also an evaluative function of the consumer<s self-image and product image congruity$ That is, the consumer<s self-concept should #e understood in order to truly understand the individual<s satisfaction or dissatisfaction$ Self-concept, defined as Jthe totality of the individual<s thoughts and feelings having reference to himself as an o#Aect,J has #een construed from a multidimensional perspective (Cosen#erg ,-.-)$ The satisfaction level "ould #e the lo"est #ecause the purchase of the product serves no function to the maintenance of either the self-esteem or self-consistency motives$ 1ased on the revie" of literature on 4S@D as related to the evaluative congruity models and self-concept, a logical interpolation can #e dra"n "ith respect to 4S@D in tourism as related to the role of the tourist<s perception of destination images$ That is, 4S@D in tourism is a function of #oth (,) the evaluative congruity of a tourist<s e0pectation of destination and his@her perceived outcome of the destination e0perience* and (5) the evaluative congruity of a tourist<s selfimage and his@her perception of the destination<s value-e0pressive image$ Deference to him as an o#Aect,J has #een construed from a multi-dimensional perspective (Cosen#erg ,-.-)$

8 ,

For instance, the term Jactual selfJ refers to ho" a person perceives one<s self, and Jideal selfJ refers to ho" a person presents one<s self to others (Cosen#erg ,-.-)$ The self-image@product image congruity model in essence descri#es the effect of the cognitive matching process #et"een valuee0pressive attri#utes of a given product and the consumer self-concept on consumer decisions such as product preference, purchase intentions, purchase #ehavior, product satisfaction@dissatisfaction, and product loyalty (Sirgy ,-25#)$ The theory e0plains the effect of self-image congruence on consumer attitude through the mediating effects of t"o self-concept motives' self-esteem and self-consistency$ According to the self-image@product-image congruity model, a consumer<s specific value-laden self-image #elief interacts "ith a corresponding value-laden product-image perception in terms of the typical user image in a product purchase$ The result of such an interaction occurs in the form of the follo"ing four congruity conditions$ "irst, a A7ositive sel0-ima#e *on#ruity ,K occurs "hen there e0ists a state of positive self-congruity (a lo" discrepancy #et"een one<s actual self-image and the product image) and a state of positive ideal self-congruity (a lo" discrepancy #et"een one<s ideal self-image and the product image)$ That is, a product image matches up "ith one<s actual self-image as "ell as "ith his@her ideal self-image$ Such a situation "ould result in high consumer satisfaction #ecause, #y purchasing or identifying himself@herself "ith this product, the consumer "ould reach an emotional state that enhances his@her self-esteem motive and reinforces his@her self-consistency motive$
8 5

Se*ond, a A7ositive sel0-ima#e in*on#ruityJ condition occurs "hen there e0ists a state of negative self-congruity (a high discrepancy #et"een one<s actual self-image and the product image), #ut a state of positive ideal selfcongruity (lo" discrepancy #et"een one<s ideal self-image and the product image)$ 7n this situation the individual might #e motivated to purchase the product #ut his@her satisfaction level "ould #e moderate$ This occurs #ecause, "hile the purchase "ould enhance one<s self-esteem motive, the self-esteem motive "ould conflict "ith his@her self-consistency motive$ Third, a Ane#ative sel0-ima#e in*on#ruity J condition is the opposite of the Jpositive self-image incongruityJ condition$ That is, there is a state of positive self-congruity (lo" discrepancy #et"een one<s actual self-image and the product image,) #ut a state of negative ideal self-congruity (high discrepancy #et"een one<s ideal self-image and the product image)$ The situation again "ould result in a moderate satisfaction level #ecause the individual<s selfconsistency motive "ould conflict "ith his@her self-esteem motive$ "inally, Ane#ative sel0-ima#e *on#ruityJ occurs "hen there e0ists negative self-congruity (high discrepancy #et"een one!s actual self-image and the product image,) as "ell as negative ideal congruity (high discrepancy #et"een his@her ideal self-image and the product image$) The satisfaction level "ould #e the lo"est #ecause the purchase of the product serves no function to the maintenance of either the self-esteem or self-consistency motives$ ?odel of self-congruity and travel #ehavior is depicted in Figure5$,, the model posits that various aspects of the destination and its atmosphere are related to the destination visitor image$ The destination visitor image is then evaluated in light of specific dimensions of the tourist!s self-concept to
8 8

determine the degree of self-congruity "hich is systematically related to travel #ehavior$

Destination

Gisitor 7mage

SelfDestination 9nvironment 4ongruit y

Tourist Self4oncept

Self4ongruity

Function al4ongruit y

Tourist Perceived Utilitarian Destination Attri#utes

Tourist 7deal Utilitarian Destinatio n Attri#utes

"i#ure !.$$ an /nte#rated Model o0 Sel0-Con#ruity and "un*tional Con#ruity in E:7lainin# and Predi*tin# Travel Behaviour Sour*e Si#ry and ;re,al %$&&4. P7 !!&-!8$.

8 ;

!.6Desi**ation Different models of consumer #ehavior descri#e satisfaction as the final output of the decision process or incorporate it in the feed#ac mechanism lin ing completed e0periences to future #ehavior$ For e0ample* %icosia (,-./) attri#utes the state of 4S@D to the dominant interest in the Jfinal actJ of consumers that is the purchase of product$ Further, the concept of 4S@D is given greater emphasis in the "or s of ?c%eal (,-.8), 9ngel and 1lac "ell (,-25), and Ho"ard and Sheth (,-/., ,-/-, and ,-.8)$ 7n their consumer #ehavior models, satisfaction is sho"n as the final output in the frame"or of purchase decisions$

These #uyer #ehavior models postulate that if the actual outcome of a product is Audged to #e #etter than or e>ual to the e0pected, the #uyer "ill feel satisfied$ 7f, on the other hand, actual outcome is Audged not to #e #etter than e0pected, the #uyer "ill #e dissatisfied$ This disconfirmation paradigm of 4S@D can #e also found in the "or s of Suprenant (,-..)* Hunt (,-..)* and :liver (,-.., ,-2D)$

The theory of self-concept advances the notion that every self-image has a value association, "hich determines the degree of positive, or negative effect felt "hen that self-image is activated$ This value component associated "ith a particular self-image replaces the traditional constructs of ideal self-image, ideal social-image, etc$ 4orrespondingly, every product image has also a value component reflective of the affective intensity associated "ith attri#ute$

8 6

A specific value-laden self-image interacts "ith a corresponding value-laden product image and the result occurs in the form of positive self-congruity (match #et"een a positive product image and a positive self-image), positive self-incongruity (match #et"een a positive product image and negative selfimage), negative self-incongruity (match #et"een a negative product image and a positive self-image), or negative self-congruity (match #et"een a negative product image and negative self-image)$ Sirgy et$al (5DDD) added on further #y stating that tourists! perception of the destination (type and >uality of resorts, prices, hotel am#iance, atmosphere, etc) is li ely to influence the formation and change of the destination visitor image$ Iiven that self-concept is multidimensional in nature (actual, ideal, social, ideal social self), at issue is the particular dimension of the self-concept evo ed in the psychological process of self-congruity L the matching of the tourist!s self-concept "ith the destination visitor image$ 7n addition to evaluating a destination #y focusing on the sym#olic (personli e) attri#utes of the destination, tourists may also evaluate destinations #ased on the destination!s functional or utilitarian attri#utes$ The match #et"een the destination!s level of a utilitarian attri#ute and the tourist!s e0pectation of the attri#ute is referred to as functional congruity L may also affect destination travel and may #e related to self-congruity$

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e0eren*es Andeason,A$C$ (,-/6) Attitudes and 4onsumer 1ehaviour ' A Decision ?odel in %e" Cesearch in ?ar eting ( Preston)$ 7nstitute of 1usiness and 1elch, I$9$ (,-.2)$K1elief System and the Differential Cole of the Self4oncept 7n Advances in 4onsume Cesearch, Gol $6 ed $ Keith H$Hunt, Ann Ar#or, ?ichigan Association for 4onsumer Cesearch$ 1elch,I$9$,and +andon, 9$+$, (,-..)K Discriminate Galidity of a Product$ Anchored Self-4oncept ?easure$K Mournal of ?ar eting Cesearch, ,;'565-6/$ 1erlyne$ D$F (,-.D) Eovelty$ 4omple0ity and Hedonic Galue perception psycnophysics 2 %ovem#er 5.2-52/ 1ettman, M$C$ (,-.-)$ An 7nformation Processing Theory of 4onsumer 4hoice Ceading, ?A Addison-Eesley, Advances in ?ar eting Series, ;D5
4ooper, 4$P$ (,--8) Tourism' Principles and Practice$ Pitman, +ondon$ 9ngel, M$F$, 1lac "ell, C$D and ?iniard, P$E$ (,--6) 4onsumer 1ehavior$ Fer#er$ Co#ert (,-.8) 4onsumer 9conomics a Survey a Mournal of economics

+iterature ,, Decem#er, ,8D8-,8;5 Iil#ert, D$4$ (,--,) NAn 90amination of the 4onsumer 1ehavior Process Celated to Tourism$ N 7n Progress in Tourism, Cecreation and Hospitality ?anagement, edited #y 4$P$ 4ooper $+ondon' 1elhaven, pp$.2-,D6 Hall 9leanor C$ (,--D) ?ar eting taa gro"ing minority population mar et facts a (,) 6/-6-

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Hann Manice I, (,-2D) a Typology of 4onsumer %eeds 7n Cesearch in ?ar eting Gol$8, 28-,D; Hirschman 4$ 9li&a#eth and ?ills ?ichael K$ (,-2D) Source Shoppers use to pic store Mournal of advertising research volume 5D %o, Horton, C$+$ (,-2;) 1uyer 1ehaviour$ A decision ?a ing Approach$ 4harles 9$ ?errill Pu#lishing 4ompany, 4olum#us Ho"ard M$A and Sheth M$%$(,-/.)$ JTheory of 1uyer 1ehavior,J Proceedings, American ?ar eting Association Ho"ard M$A and Sheth M$% (,-/-), the Theory of 1uyer 1ehavior, %e" Hor ' Mohn Eiley and Sons$--52 Ho"ard M$A and Sheth M$% (,-.8), The Theory of 1uyer 1ehavior, in H$H KassaraAian and T$S$ Co#erton (eds$) Perspectives in 4onsumer 1ehavior, Ilenvie", 7llinois' Scott, Foresman and 4ompany$ Hughes, I$D and$ Iuerrero, M$+ (,-.,)KAutomo#ile Self- 4ongruity ?odels Cee0amined,K Mournal of ?ar eting Cesearch, 2,,56-.$ Hughes, I$D and$%aert, P$A (,-.D)KA 4omputer 4ontrolled 90periment in 4onsumer 1ehavior,K Mournal of 1usiness, ;8, 86;-.5$ Hunt, H$ Keith (,-..), N4S@D' :vervie" and Future Cesearch Directions,K in H$K$ Hunt (ed$) 4onceptuali&ation and ?easurement of consumer satisfaction and dissatisfaction, 4am#ridge, ?assachusetts' ?ar eting Science 7nstitute$ 7&ard, 4$ 9 M$ Kagan, M$ O C$ 1$ =aAonc C$ 1 (9ds$), 9motions, cognition, and #ehavior (pp$ 55--5/8)$ 4am#ridge, 9ngland' 4am#ridge University Press$

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Katona$I$(,-.,) Aspirations And Affluence 4omparative Studies 7n The USA And Eestern 9urope $ ?c Ira" Hill %H Kat& Daniel (,-/D) The Functional Approach The Study Attitude Pu#lic :pinion B$5; summer ,/-5D; +unn, M$A $ (,-.;) 4onsumer Decision Process ?odels in ?odels of 1uyer 1ehaviour(ed %$ Sheth Magdish)$ Harper and Co" , ne" Hor , 8;-/?arshall Alfre (,2-D) principle of 9conomic, an 7ntroductory Golume ?acmillian +ondon$ ?athieson, A$ and Eall, I, (,-25) Tourism 9conomic, Physical and Social 7mpacts$ +ongman, Harlo"$ -6 ?cneal, M$U$ (,-.8)$ 7ntroduction to 4onsumer 1ehavior, %e" Hor ' Mohn Eiley and Sons$ ?iddelton, G$T$4 (,--;) ?ar eting for Travel and Tourism$ 5nd edn$ 1utter"orth-Heinemann, +ondon $,D;-,,5 %icosia, F$?$ Co#ert, E (,-./)$ 4onsumer 1ehavior To"ard Sociology :f 4onsumption Aournal of 4onsumer Cesearch $ :liver Cichard + (,-2D)$ NA 4ognitive ?odel of the Antecedents and 4onse>uences of Satisfaction Decisions,K Mournal of ?ar eting Cesearch, %ovem#er, ;/D-;/-$
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#y Prentice Hall Si0th edition $;;/ Sheth, M$%$1$7$ and %e"man 1$+ Iross, 1$+$ (,--,) $Ehy Ee 1uy Ehat Ee 1uy a Theory of 4onsumer 1ehavior$ Mournal of 1usiness Cesearch Gol 55$ ,6--,.D
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Sirgy, ?$M$ (,-.-),KSelf-4oncept in 4onsumer 1ehavior,K unpu#lished Ph$D$ dissertation, Departments of Psychology, University of ?assachusetts, and Amherst Sirgy, ?$M$ (,-2D)$ NSelf-4oncept in Celation to Product Preference and
Purchase 7ntention,K in Developments in ?ar eting Science, Gol$ 8, ed$G$G$ 1ellur, (?ar>uette, ?ichigan' Academy of ?ar eting Science,

$ Sirgy$?$M (,-2,a), NSelf concept in 4onsumer 1ehavior' A 4ritical Cevie",K Mournal of 4onsumer Cesearch, (forthcoming)$ Sirgy, ?$M$ (,-2l#) NSelf-4oncept Theory for 4onsumer 1ehavior,K Eor ing paper, Department of ?ar eting, Girginia Tech $ Sirgy, ?$M (,-2lc), N7ntroducing a 3Self-Theory! to 4onsumer Personality Cesearch,K MSAS$ 4atalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, ,, 88,?s $556D$ Sirgy, ?$ M$ (,-2,d)$ K Testing a 4onsumer Self 4oncept ?odel Using Tangi#le Products,K paper presented at American Psychological Association, (4onsumer Psychology Division, +os Angeles, 4alifornia, Sigry ?$M and Ire"al T$F$ (,--.) Assessing the Predictive Galidity of T"o ?ethods of ?easuring Self-7mage 4ongruence$ Mournal of the academy of mar eting science, 56 (8), 55--5;,$ Sirgy, ?, Moseph , and$ Saml A$4 (,-26)$KA Path Analytic ?odel of Store +oyalty 7nvolving Self-4oncept$ Store 7mage, Socioeconomic status, and Ieographic +oyalty$K Mournal of the Academy of ?ar eting Science$,8'5/6--,$

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Sirgy, ?, Moseph$ Mohar M$ S, Samli A$4 and$4lai#orn, 4$1 (,--,)$ NSelf4ongruity versus Functional 4ongruity' Predictors of 4onsumer 1ehavior$K Mournal of the Academy of ?ar eting Science$,-'8/8.6$ $Sirgy, ?$, Moseph, Mohar, M$S and$4lai#orne 4$1 (,--5)$KSelf-4oncept ?otivation as ?ediator #et"een Self-4ongruity and Attitude @ 7ntention$K 7n Developments in ?ar eting Science$ Gol$,6, edited #y G$+$ 4ritten $4hestnut Hill, ?A' Academy of mar eting Science, ;D5-/$

Sirgy, ?$ Moseph and 4henting Su (5DDD) The 9thics of 4onsumer sovereignty in an Age of High Tech Mournal of 1usiness 9thics, 52, ,-,;$ Sommers,?$S NProduct Sym#olism and the Perception of Social Strata,K Proceedings, Einter 4onference, American ?ar eting Association, (,-/;), 5DD-5,/$ Solomon (,--/) consumer #ehaviour, 8rd edn Prentice Hall 9ngle"ood 4liffs$ %M , 88 Stigler $ I$ M (,-6D) The development of utility theory ' Mournal of Political 9conomy 62 August :cto#er 8D.-85.$8.8-8-/ Suprenant, A$ (,-..) NProduct Satisfaction as a Function of 90pectation and Performance,K in C$ +$ Day (9d), 4onsumer satisfaction, Dissatisfaction and 4omplaining$ 8/-;,$ Eest#roo Co#ert A$ and :liver Cichard +$ : (,--,) $ The dimensionality of consumption emotion pattern and consumer satisfaction $ Mournal of 4onsumer Cesearch, ,2, 2;--, =altman,I$ Pinson, 4$A $And Agelman, C$ (,-.8) ethodology and 4onsumer Cesearch$ Holt Cinehart and Einston, %e" Hor
; ,

;5