The Project Gutenberg EBook of Anglo-Saxon Literature, by John Earle This eBook is for the use of anyone any

here at no cost an! ith al"ost no restrictions hatsoe#er$ %ou "ay co&y it, gi#e it a ay or re-use it un!er the ter"s of the Project Gutenberg License inclu!e! ith this eBook or online at $gutenberg$net Title' Anglo-Saxon Literature Author' John Earle (elease )ate' *o#e"ber +,, -../ 0EBook 1+2+.+3 Language' English 4haracter set enco!ing' 5T6-7 888 STA(T 96 T:;S P(9JE4T G5TE*BE(G EB99< A*GL9-SA=9* L;TE(AT5(E 888

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P(E6A4E$ The bulk of this little book has been a year or "ore in ty&eK an!, in the "ean ti"e, so"e i"&ortant &ublications ha#e a&&eare! hich it as too late for "e to &rofit by$ A"ong such ; count the Q4or&us Poeticu" BorealeQ by )r$ Gu!bran! Jigfusson an! Hr$ %ork Po ellK the QE&inal GlossQ an! Alfre!@s Q9rosiusQ by Hr$ S eet, for the Early English Text SocietyK an A"erican e!ition of the QBeo ulfQ by Professors :arrison an! Shar&K Rlfric@s translation of QAlcuin u&on Genesis,Q by Hr$ HacLean$ To these ; "ust a!! an article in the QAngliaQ on the first an! last of the (i!!les in the Exeter Book, by )r$ HoritS Traut"ann$ Another recent book is the translation of Hr$ Bernhar! Ten Brink@s ork on QEarly English Literature,Q hich co"&rises a !escri&tion of the Anglo-Saxon &erio!$ This book is not ne to "e, exce&t for the English !ress that Hr$ <enne!y has gi#en to it$ The Ger"an original has been often in "y han!, an! although ; a" not a are of any &articular !ebt, such as it oul! ha#e been a !uty an! a &leasure to ackno le!ge on the s&ot, yet ; ha#e a senti"ent that Hr$ Ten Brink@s sy"&athising an! ju!icious treat"ent of our earliest literature has been not only agreeable to rea!, but also &rofitable for "y ork$ +/, *9(:AH (9A), 9=69(), THarch +/th, +77L$T

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4:APTE( ;$ A P(EL;H;*A(% J;EI$ Anglo-Saxon literature is the ol!est of the #ernacular literatures of "o!ern Euro&eK an! it is a conseUuence of this that its relations ith Latin literature ha#e been the closest$ All the #ernacular literatures ha#e been influence! by the Latin, but of Anglo-Saxon literature alone can it be sai! that it has been subjecte! to no other influence$ This literature as nurse! by, an! gra!ually rose out of, Latin cultureK an!

this is true not only of those &ortions hich ere translate! or other ise borro e! fro" the Latin, but also in so"e !egree e#en of the nati#e ele"ents of &oetry an! la s$ These ere not, in!ee!, !eri#e! fro" Latin sources, but it as through Latin culture that those habits an! facilities ere acUuire! hich "a!e their literary &ro!uction &ossible$ ;n the Anglo-Saxon &erio! there as no other influential literature in the Iest exce&t the Latin$ Greek literature ha! long ago retire! to the East$ The traces of Greek u&on Anglo-Saxon literature are rare an! su&erficial$ Practically the one external influence ith hich e shall ha#e to reckon is that of Latin literature, an! as the &oints of contact ith this literature are nu"erous, it ill be con#enient to say so"ething of the Latin literature in a &reli"inary sketch$ The Latin literature ith hich e are best acUuainte! as the result of stu!y an! i"itation of Greek literature$ But the ol! #ernacular Latin as a ho"ely an! si"&le s&eech, "uch "ore like any "o!ern language in its ays an! "o#e"ents than oul! be su&&ose! by those ho only kno classical Latin$ The ol! Latin &oetry as rhyth"ical, an! fon! of alliteration$ Such as the nati#e song of the ;talian 4a"enF, unlike the Fsthetic &oetry of the classical age, ith its "etres borro e! fro" the Greek Huses$ The ol! Latin &oetry as like the Saxon, in so far as it as rhyth"ical an! not "etricalK but unlike it in this, that the Latin alliteration as only a #ague &leasure of recurrent soun!, an! it ha! not beco"e a structural agency like the alliteration of Saxon &oetry$ The book through hich ju#enile stu!ents usually get so"e taste of ol! Latin is Terence, in hose &lays, though they are fro" Greek originals, so"ething is hear! of that ri&&ling "o#e"ent hich has li#e! through the ages an! still sur#i#es in ;talian con#ersation$ (eaching back ar!s fro" Terence e co"e to Plautus an! Ennius, an! then to *F#ius VB$4$ -2L--.-W, ho co"&ose! an e&ic on the first Punic ar$ :e la"ente! e#en in his ti"e the Grecising of his "other-tongue$ :e rote an e&ita&h u&on hi"self, to say that if i""ortals coul! ee& for "ortals, the 4a"enF "ight ell ee& for *F#ius, the last re&resentati#e of the Latin language$ The s&len!our of classical Latin as short-li#e!$ The ti"e of its highest ele#ation is calle! the Gol!en Age, of hich the early &erio! is "arke! by the na"es of 4icero an! 4FsarK the latter Vthe Augustan &erio!W by the na"es of Jirgil an! :orace$ There is a fine for ar! "o#e"ent in 4icero, ho stu!ie! the best Greek "o!elsK but gra!ually there ca"e in a taste for curious felicity suggeste! by the secon!ary Greek literature$ This a!orne! the &oetry of JirgilK but hen it began to s&rea! to the &rose, though the Fsthetic effect "ight be beautiful in a "aster&iece, it as a&t to be e"barrassing in eaker han!s$ Rsthetic &rose a&&ears in its "ost intense an! "ost &erfect for" in Tacitus, the great historian of the Sil#er Age$ As ne tastes an! fashions gre , the ol!est an! &urest "o!els ere neglecte!, an!, ho e#er strange it "ay soun!, 4icero an! 4Fsar ere antiUuate! long before the en! of the first century$ The extre"e li"it of the classical &erio! of Latin literature is the

"i!!le of the secon! century$ The life as gone out of it before that ti"e, but it ha! still a Sealous re&resentati#e in 6ronto, the orthy an! honoure! &rece&tor of Harcus Aurelius$ After this last of the Goo! E"&erors ha! &asse! a ay, the reign of barbaris" began to "anifest itself in art an! literature$ The accession of 4o""o!us as a tre"en!ous la&se$ The &oint here to be obser#e! is that the classical Latin literature as not a natural gro th, but rather the &ro!uct of an artificial culture$ ;t &resents the "ost signal exa"&le of the great results that "ay s&ring fro" the enthusiastic culti#ation of a foreign an! su&erior literature$ An! it is of the greatest #alue to us as an exa"&le, because it ill enable us better to un!erstan! the gro th an! !e#elo&"ent of Anglo-Saxon literature$ 6or just as Latin classical literature as sti"ulate! by the Greek, so also as Anglo-Saxon literature assiste! by the influence of the Latin$ An! as the classical stu!ent seeks to !istinguish that hich is nati#e fro" that hich is foreign in Latin authors, so also is the sa"e !istinction of essential i"&ortance in the stu!y of Anglo-Saxon literature$ The influence of Greek u&on Latin literature as so far like that of Latin u&on Anglo-Saxon, that it as single an! un"ixe!$ But then the influence of Greek u&on Latin as altogether an external an! in#a!ing influence, like the influence of Latin on "o!ern EnglishK hereas in the case of Anglo Saxon the literary faculty as first acUuire! through Latin cultureK the Saxons ere exercise! in Latin literature before they !isco#ere! the #alue of their o nK they obtaine! the habits an! instru"ents of literature through the e!ucation that Latin ga#e the"$ 5& to the en! of the classical &erio! the Latin ha! not yet attaine!, in literature, the &osition of a uni#ersal language$ ;t as rather the scholastic language of the (o"an aristocracy$ There as but one fiel! in hich it occu&ie! the hole area of the (o"an orl!, an! that as the fiel! of la $ To this e shoul! a!! the Latin &oetry, hich as also absolute in its o n !o"ain$ ;n e#ery other subject Latin as a secon! an! a subject literary language, the su&re"e language of literature being Greek$ Greek as the chief literary language e#en of the (o"an E"&ire$ 9f the t o languages, Greek as by far the "ore con#enient for general use$ :u"an thought is naturally serial, an! the language that is to be an acce&table "e!iu" of general literature "ust, abo#e all things, &ossess the art of "o#ing for ar!$ ;n this art the Greek as far in a!#ance of the Latin, an! the curious culture hich &ro!uce! the Latin classics ha!, in!ee!, been &ro!ucti#e of "uch artistic beauty, but ha! ithal entangle! the "o#e"ent$ ;t is not in Latin but in Greek books that the kno le!ge of the ancient orl! has been &reser#e!$ The greatest orks in botany, "e!icine, geogra&hy, astrono"y ere ritten not in Latin but in Greek, e#en in the "ost flourishing ti"es of the (o"an &o er$ ;t is sufficient to "ention such na"es as )ioscori!es, Galen, Strabo, Ptole"y$ The greatest orks in history, biogra&hy, tra#el, antiUuities, ethics, &hiloso&hy ere also ritten in Greek$ Such na"es as Polybius, Plutarch, Jose&hus, Pausanias, )ionysius, E&ictetus, Lucian ill gi#e the rea!er "eans of &roof$ 6ronto coul! not &re#ail ith a

(o"an e"&eror, his ol! &u&il, to &refer Latin to Greek$ Harcus Aurelius rote his QHe!itationsQ in Greek$ The language of the infant 4hurch, e#en in ;taly an! the Iest, as not Latin, but Greek$ The na"es of the first bisho&s of (o"e are Greek na"es, the 4hristian Scri&tures are in Greek, an! so is the ol!est extant Liturgy--the 4le"entine-- hich see"s to re&resent the &ractice of the Iest no less than of the East$ *ot only the 4anonical Scri&tures of the *e Testa"ent are in Greek, but also those hich ere &artially or for a ti"e recei#e!, as the E&istle of 4le"ent, the :er"as, the E&istle of Barnabas$ An! a further set of ritings beyon! these an! inferior to these, but ulti"ately of great &o&ularity, ere in Greek' ; "ean the legen!ary an! ro"antic a&ocry&hal ritings, such as the Acts of Peter an! Paul, the Acts of Pilate, an! "any others$0+3 This latter set as alrea!y gro ing in the secon! century, an! reache! their "ature for" in the ti"e of Gregory the Great$ ;t is not clear ho early Latin began to be use! as the official language of the 4hurch, but e#erything &oints to an i"&ortant change soon after the "i!!le of the secon! century$ Before that ti"e, Justin, li#ing at (o"e, an! riting VA$)$ +M7W, for the (o"an &eo&le to rea!, a !efence of 4hristianity, hich as a!!resse! to the e"&eror Antoninus Pius, rote it in GreekK but before long another a&ologetic riter, Hinucius 6elix, rote in Latin$ This coinci!es ith other in!ications to "ark a great transition in the latter half of the secon! century$ 5& to this ti"e t o languages ere in literary currency, a foreign scholastic language an! an Fsthetic #ernacular$ ;t as chiefly the ealthy class that sustaine! these literary languages in (o"e$ Ihen in A$)$ +OO the 9riental &lague as brought to ;taly ith the ar"y returning fro" Parthia, culti#ate! society as recke!, an! the literary "o#e"ent as greatly interru&te! in both languages$ This as a blo to the artificial culture of Greek in ;taly, just as the &lague of +ML, an! follo ing years as a blo to the artificial culture of 6rench in Englan!$ After A$)$ +OO a check as gi#en to &rogress, hich laste!, in the secular !o"ain, until the sixteenth century$ Let us s&en! a "o"ent u&on the seUuel of the ol! literature, before e co"e to the ne , hich is our &ro&er subject here$ 5n!er the altere! ti"es that no ensue!, the continuity of classicis" is seen in t o for"s of literature--na"ely, &hilological criticis" an! &oetry$ The ackno le!ge! "o!el of Latin &oetry as Jirgil, an! his greatest i"itator as 4lau!ian, ho ha! "a!e hi"self a Latin scholar by stu!y, "uch as the "o!erns !o$ 4lau!ian is co""only calle! the last of the heathen &oets$ :e has also been calle! the transitional link bet een ancient an! "o!ern, bet een heathen an! 4hristian &oetry$0-3 9ne characteristic "ay be "entione!, na"ely, his &ersonification of "oral or &ersonal Uualities, a sort of allegory !estine! to flourish for "any centuries, of hich the first "ature exa"&le a&&ears in the QSoul@s 6ightQ of Pru!entius, the 4hristian &oet, ho as a conte"&orary of 4lau!ian$ The school stu!y of the classics &ro!uce! gra""ars, an! t o authors beca"e chiefly celebrate! in this branch, na"ely, )onatus an! Priscian$ Their books ere stan!ar!s through the )ark an! Hi!!le Ages$0M3

There as one !e&art"ent of &rose literature in hich Latin as un!isturbe! an! unso&histicate!$ This as the !e&art"ent of la an! a!"inistration$ The legal !iction esca&e!, in a great "easure, fro" the influence of classicis"K it ke&t on its e#en ay through the hole &erio!, an! as it as an or!inary school subject un!er the e"&ire, the language of the la books exercise! great influence in the for"ation of the &rose style that continue! through the Hi!!le Ages$ Ie no co"e to the ne Latin literature ith hich e are inti"ately concerne!$ By the si!e of this !i"inishe! strea" of the el!er literature there rose, after the "i!!le of the secon! century, a ne series of ritings, ne in subject, an! ne also in "anner, !iction, an! s&irit$ The &hraseology is less literary, an! "ore taken fro" the colloUuial s&eech an! the usage of e#ery!ay life$ ;t see"s also to be, in so"e "easure, the return-language of a colony' so"e of the earliest an! "ost i"&ortant contributions co"e fro" Africa, here Latin as no the "other-tongue of a large &o&ulation, an! that country a&&ears to ha#e esca&e! the ra#ages of the &lague$ The first of these books is one that still bears consi!erable traces of classicis"$ ;t is entitle! Q9cta#ius,Q an! is an a&ology for 4hristianity by Hinucius 6elix$ But i""e!iately after hi" e co"e u&on a chief re&resentati#e of this ne literature, hich ai"e! less at for" than at the con#eying of the author@s "eaning in the rea!iest an! "ost fa"iliar or!s$ This is strikingly the case ith the !irect an! unstu!ie! Latinity of the first of the Latin fathers, the African Tertullian, in ho" the contrast ith classicis" is "ost &ronounce!$ ;n hi" the ol! con#entional !ignity gi#es &lace to the free !is&lay of &ersonal characteristics, an! no riter Vit has been sai!W affor!s a better illustration of the saying of Buffon--Qthe style is the "an$Q Another African riter as Lactantius, to ho" has been attribute! that &oe" of the PhAnix, hich "ost likely ser#e! as &attern to the Anglo-Saxon &oet$0L3 ;t consists of +2. lines, hexa"eters an! &enta"etersK terse, &oetical, classical$ This ol! 9riental fable, as tol! by 9#i!, as short an! si"&le' QThere is a bir! that restores an! re&ro!uces itselfK the Assyrians call it PhAnix$ ;t fee!s on no co""on foo!, but on the choicest of gu"s an! s&icesK an! after a life of secular length, it buil!s in a high tree ith cassia, s&ikenar!, cinna"on, an! "yrrh, an! on this nest it ex&ires in s eetest o!ours$ A young PhAnix rises an! gro s, an! hen strong enough it takes u& the nest ith its !e&osit an! bears it to the 4ity of the Sun, an! lays it !o n there in front of the sacre! &ortals$Q Such is the story in 9#i!K an! there e kno e ha#e a heathen fable$ But in the &oe" of Lactantius, it is so curiously, an!, as it ere, significantly elaborate!, that e har!ly kno hether e are rea!ing a 4hristian allegory or no$ Allegory has al ays been a fa#ourite for" ith 4hristian riters, an! "ore than one cause "ay be assigne! for it$ Alrea!y there as, in the taste of the age hen the 4hristian literature arose, a

ten!ency to sy"bolis", hich is seen outsi!e the &ale of 4hristianity$ Horeo#er, the long ti"e in hich the &rofession of 4hristianity as !angerous, fa#oure! the gro th of sy"bolis" as a co#ert "eans of "utual intelligence$ Then 4hristian thought ha! in its o n nature so"ething hich in#ite! allegory, &artly by its o n hi!!en sy"&athies ith *ature, an! &artly by its #ery i""ensity, for hich all !irect s&eech as felt to be ina!eUuate$ But hat !oubtless su&&lie! this taste ith continual nutri"ent as that all-&er#a!ing an! uns&eakable s eetness of 4hrist@s teaching by &arables$ The PhAnix as use! u&on (o"an coins to ex&ress the as&iration for rene e! #itality in the e"&ireK it as use! by early 4hristian riters0/3 as an e"ble" of the (esurrectionK an! in the Anglo-Saxon &oe" the allegory is a#o e!$ To Lactantius also has been ascribe! another book in hich e are intereste!$ This is a collection of a hun!re! Latin ri!!les un!er the obscure na"e of Sy"&osius, hich na"e has by so"e e!itors been set asi!e in fa#our of Lactantius for no better reason than because of so"e su&&ose! Africanis"s$ Al!hel" s&eaks of these ri!!les un!er the na"e of Sy"&osius$ A ne literature thus rose u& by the si!e of that hich as !ecaying, or ha! alrea!y !ecaye!$ This ne literature as the fruit of 4hristianityK it as "ore a literature of the "asses than any that ha! been hitherto kno nK it as "arke! by a strong tinge of the #ernacular, an! it as se&arate! in for" as ell as in "atter fro" the ol! classical stan!ar!s$ The s&irit of this ne literature as characterise! by a larger an! "ore co"&rehensi#e hu"anity$ ;t as ani"ate! by those &rinci&les of fello -feeling, co"&assion, an! ho&efulness, hich ere to &re&are the ay for the structure of hu"an society u&on ne foun!ations$ This, rather than the classical, is the Latin literature hich e ha#e to follo K this is the &re&aration for "o!ern literature, an! its course ill be foun! to lan! us in the Saxon &erio!$ After the triu"&h of 4hristianity, this ne literature as "uch enlarge!, an! it a&&ro&riate! to itself so"ething of the grace an! elegance of the earlier classicsK an! hether e s&eak of its contents, or of its artistic character, e "ay say it cul"inate! at the en! of the fourth an! the beginning of the fifth century in the ritings of Augustine$ ;n his ti"e e fin! that the contrast bet een &rofane an! sacre! literature is alrea!y long establishe!' the ol! literature is calle! by the &agans liberal, but by the 4hristians secular$ The re"o#al of the seat of e"&ire to 4onstantino&le ha! ulti"ately the effect of substituting Greek for Latin as the language of a!"inistration in the East$ 9n the other han!, the gro th of the &a&al &o er in the Iest fa#oure! the establish"ent of Latin as the sole language of the Iest, to the neglect of Greek$ Thus East an! Iest ere then !i#i!e! in language, an! Latin beca"e uni#ersal in the Iest$ ;n Anglo-Saxon, the &eo&le of the Eastern E"&ire are characterise! si"&ly as the Greeks V4recasW$ The heart of the ne Latin literature as in the Scri&ture translations$

Hany exercise! the"sel#es in translating, es&ecially the *e Testa"ent$ Augustine says the translations ere beyon! nu"ber$ But the central an! best kno n of these "any #ersions is thought to ha#e been "a!e in Africa$ ;n A$)$ M7-, )a"asus, the bisho& of (o"e, in!uce! Jero"e to un!ertake that ork of re#ision hich &ro!uce! the Latin Bible, hich is the only one no generally kno n, an! hich is calle! the Julgata, that is to say, the recei#e! #ersion$ 9l!er italic #ersions, so far as they are extant, are no to us a"ong the "ost interesting of 4hristian antiUuities$ ;n the early centuries, an! throughout the hole Hi!!le Age, the Scri&tures took rank abo#e all literature, an! their influence is e#ery here felt$ The sack of (o"e VA$)$ L+.W !re forth fro" the &agans a fresh outcry against 4hristianity$ They sought to trace the "isery of the ti"es to the #engeance of the neglecte! go!s$ This accusation e#oke! fro" St$ Augustine the greatest of all the a&ologetic treatises, na"ely, his Q4ity of Go!Q V)e 4i#itate )eiW$ This great ork exhibits the riter@s "ature an! final o&inions, an! it "ay be sai! to re&resent the "aturity an! cul"ination of that Latin literature hich began after A$)$ +OO, an! continue! to &rogress until it as half Uuenche! in barbarian !arkness$ The Q4ity of Go!Q has been calle! the first atte"&t at a &hiloso&hy of historyK an!, again, it has been calle! the 4yclo&F!ia of the fifth century$ ;t lays out before us a &latfor" of instruction on things !i#ine an! hu"an, hich reigne! as a stan!ar! for centuries, e#en until the theology an! &hiloso&hy of the school-"en ha! been su""e! u& by Tho"as AUuinas$ To this great ork a co"&anion book as ritten by 9rosius, ho ha! been Augustine@s !isci&le$ This as a co"&en!iu" of 5ni#ersal :istory, an! it as !esigne! to exhibit the troubles that ha! afflicte! "ankin! in the ages of heathenis"$ ;t beca"e the establishe! "anual of history, an! continue! to be so throughout our &erio!K an! 9rosius as for ages the only authority for the general course of history$ This ex&lains ho it ca"e to be one of the s"all list of Latin books translate! by Alfre!$ Ie ha#e no sooner reache! the cul"ination of that 4hristian literature hich began after the !e&ression of A$)$ +OO, than e fin! oursel#es in the &resence of another great fall$ The sack of (o"e in L+. shook the "in!s of "en as if it ere the en! of all things$ The fifth century as a ti"e of ruin, but also it as a ti"e of ne beginnings$ Three great e#ents are to be note! in this fifth century' +$ The Iestern E"&ire ca"e to an en!K -$ The 6ranks &asse! o#er the (hine into Gaul, an! beca"e 4hristianK M$ The Saxons &asse! o#er the sea to Britain, an! re"aine! heathen until the close of the sixth century$ These three e#ents grou& together by a natural connectionK it as the ex&iring e"&ire that "a!e roo" for the 6rankish an! Saxon conUuests, an! these t o conUuests ha#e been, an! are, fertile in co"&arisons an! contrasts, an! reci&rocal action, not only through our &erio!, but till no an! on ar!$ About A$)$ /.., A#itus, bisho& of Jienne, rote a Latin &oe" on the "ighty acts of Sacre! :istory--V)e S&iritalis :istoriF GestisWK an!

this book has been regar!e! as the original source of so"e &assages in 4F!"on an! Hilton$0O3 The &oe" is in fi#e books, of hich the first three--+$ 9n the 4reationK -$ The )isobe!ienceK M$ The Sentence of Go!--for" a hole in the"sel#esK hile the re"aining t o books, hich are no"inally on the 6loo! an! the (e! Sea, are really on Ba&tis" an! the S&iritual (estoration of Han$ So that the hole ork co"&rises a Para!ise Lost an! a Para!ise (egaine!$ Ie no co"e to a book hich, though not by a 4hristian author, is so "anifestly influence! by 4hristianity, an! has been so fully recognise! by the 4hristian &ublic, that it "ust be inclu!e! in our list--#iS$, QThe 4o"fort of Philoso&hy,Q by Boethius$ Gibbon e#en calle! it a gol!en #olu"e, an! one hich, if e consi!er the barbaris" of the ti"es an! the situation of the author, "ust be reckone! of al"ost inco"&arable "erit$ ;t as co"&ose! in the &rison to hich Theo!oric ha! consigne! the isest of the ol! (o"an &atriciateK an! it is co""only regar!e! as closing the canon of (o"an literature$ ;t as translate! into all the #ernaculars, Alfre!@s translation into English being the first, an! *otker@s into :igh Ger"an being the secon!$023 9ther orks of Boethius li#e! through the )ark an! Hi!!le Ages, es&ecially his translations of Aristotle, hich ere stan!ar!s for the stu!ent in &hiloso&hy$ 6ro" this ti"e e see a orl! fallen back into a il! an! sa#age infancy, an! e shall itness the gra!ual o&eration of a s&iritual &o er reclai"ing, e!ucating, transfor"ing it$ The subject of Anglo-Saxon literature !eri#es, &erha&s, its greatest interest fro" the fact that it re&resents one great stage of this &rocess$ As e a&&roach the Saxon &erio! e "ust take &articular notice of a ne agency that no co"es on the scene$ The institution of "onachis" as one of consi!erable stan!ing before the !ate at hich e are no arri#e!, but it ha! ne#er yet foun! any function of syste"atic usefulness$ Bene!ict of *ursia is calle! the father of "onks, not because he first institute! the", but because he organise! an! regulate! the "onastic life an! con#erte! it to a &o erful agency for religion an! ci#ilisation$ Bene!ict as born in L7., an! he !ie! at Honte 4assino in /LM$ The Bene!ictine institution is the great historical fact hich !e"an!s our attention in the early &art of the sixth century$ An e"inent Bene!ictine as the (o"an Pontiff Gregory, surna"e! the Great$ :e as born in /L., an! !ie! in O.L$ :e !esigne! the con#ersion of the Saxons$ :e as a great author, though he as ignorant of Greek$ Ie ill here notice three of his orks--the Q4o""entary on Job,Q the QPastoral 4are,Q an! the Q)ialogues$Q The first of these is re"arkable as a s&eci"en of that "ystical inter&retation of Scri&ture hich characterise! the exegesis of the Hi!!le Ages, an! of hich "anifol! exa"&les occur in the :o"ilies of Rlfric, ho na"es Gregory as one of his sources$ The QPastoral 4areQ is orthy of its na"e as a book of !irection an! a!#ice fro" the chief &astor to his subor!inates$ ;t is full of gra#e

&ractical is!o", ani"ate! by the 4hristian s&irit an! the lo#e of souls$ 6or &ru!ence it is orthy of the &ontiff ho sol#e! Augustine@s Uuestions, as e rea! in Be!a@s history$ ;n this book e !isco#er the true an! legiti"ate source of the &o er of the clergy, an! e #erify the or!s of Jose&h Butler, ho sai! that if conscience ha! &o er as it has authority, it oul! go#ern the orl!$ The &o er of the clergy is so"eti"es ex&laine! as a stratage"K he ho rea!s this book ill see a !ee&er root to that &o erK he ill see that if trickery "a!e that &o er to fall, it as so"ething else that cause! it to rise$ A greater contrast than that bet een the QPastoral 4areQ an! the Q)ialoguesQ it is har!ly &ossible to concei#e$ Ie cannot on!er that the i!entity of authorshi& has been Uuestione!, an! that the Q)ialoguesQ ha#e been attribute! to another Gregory$ The !ifficulty is, ho e#er, lessene! if e consi!er the i!ely !ifferent con!itions of the rea!ers a!!resse!$ At a ti"e hen an ol! ci#ilisation an! a cru!e barbaris" ere inter"ingle! an! li#ing si!e by si!e, the one as ritten for the highest, the other for the lo est in the intellectual scale$ The QPastoral 4areQ as a!!resse! to the (o"an clergy, ith ho", if any here, so"ething of the ol! culture still lingere!$ The Q)ialoguesQ ere inten!e! for the barbarians$ The book is a!!resse! to Theo!olin!a, the Lo"bar! Uueen$ ;t is a book full of on!erful, not to say &uerile, stories, in hich a religious lesson or "oral is al ays con#eye!, but not al ays one that carries con#iction to the "in! of the "o!ern 4hristian$ ;t reflects the &olicy of con#erting the barbarians by con!escen!ing to their tastes, an! belongs to the sa"e syste" as that increase of &o"& an! cere"ony hich as !ue to the sa"e "oti#e$ This book far outran the for"er in &o&ularity$ ;t as a"ong the earliest of Latin books to be translate! into #ernacular languages$ Gregory@s ritings ere #ery influential on &o&ular religious literature throughout the )ark Ages, an! no here "ore so than in Englan!, here he as honoure! as a national a&ostle$ There exists an Anglo-Saxon translation of the Q)ialogues,Q but it has not yet been e!ite!$ The ti"e of Gregory the Great as the ti"e in hich, to use )ean Hil"an@s or!s, Qthe hu"an "in! as finally 4hristianise!$Q This triu"&h, as usually ha&&ens, as o#er!ri#en$ Ie see a too jealous exclusion of secular literature, an! a too cre!ulous an! fa#ourable !is&osition to ar!s 4hristian legen!s$ This as the ti"e hen the secon!ary a&ocry&hal literature reache! its "aturity, an! as grou&e! in collections$ An acti#e labourer in this &ious ork as Gregory of Tours$ :e contribute! the QHiracles of St$ An!re ,Q an! &ossibly other &ieces$ This &erio!, fro" the "i!!le of the sixth into the early &art of the se#enth century, is the &erio! of the greatest literary acti#ity of the "onasteries of Gaul, an! the a&ocry&hal collections see" to ha#e been "a!e in so"e of these073 ;f the 4hristianise! Latin literature reache! its highest excellence in the ti"e of Augustine, it !isco#ere! its extre"est ten!ency in the ti"e of the t o Gregories$ There is yet one for" of literature that clai"s our attention$ The Greek ro"ances of lo#e an! "ar#ellous a!#enture ere &robably !iscountenance! in 4hristian fa"ilies, an! e "ay regar! the secon!ary A&ocry&ha as a

kin! of &ious substitute for such entertaining orks of fiction$ But there as one of these ol! heathen no#els that hel! its groun!, that can be trace! in "ore than one early "onastic library, an! that as translate! into e#ery #ernacular--Anglo-Saxon first$ This as the (o"ance of A&ollonius of Tyre, fro" hich co"es the story of that Shakes&earean &lay, QPericles, Prince of Tyre$Q The books hich e ha#e notice! bet een the secon! an! the se#enth centuries "ay be allo e! to re&resent that 4hristianise! Latin literature hich is the historical bri!ge bet een the ancient classical an! the "o!ern #ernacular literatures$ The latter ha! as yet no existence$ ;n HAsia, on the shores of the )anube, a Gothic !ialect ha! been i""ortalise! by Scri&ture translations fro" the Greek as early as the fourth centuryK but nothing of the kin! ha! as yet a&&eare! un!er the Latin influence in the Iest$ The Hero#ingian 6ranks left no #ernacular literatureK on the contrary, they ra&i!ly lost their nati#e s&eech, an! a!o&te! that of the conUuere! nation$ The 6ranks an! the Saxons ha! been neighbours in their nati#e ho"es, s&eaking al"ost the sa"e "other-tongueK but their "igrations le! the" into ne regions in hich they again &ro#e! neighbours un!er altere! con!itions$ Each as to take a lea!ing &art in the for"ation of "o!ern Euro&e, but they ere to be !i#i!e! in that office, their lots being se#erally cast ith the t o great constituent factors of "o!ern ci#ilisation$ The one as to lea! the (o"anesUue, the other the Gothic !i#ision$ The 6ranks beca"e assi"ilate! to the (o"anise! Gauls, an! for"e!, ith the", one Latin-s&eaking 4hurchK they raise! the stan!ar! of ortho!oxy against the Arianis" of the other barbarian &o ers, an! the 6rankish king as !ecorate! ith the title of Host 4hristianK the history of that 4hurch as ritten in Latin by Gregory of Tours$ This ork, u&on hich he as engage! fro" A$)$ /2O to /,-, bears strong "arks of literary !egeneracy$ Gregory co"&laine! of the lo state of e!ucation in the cities of Gaul$ :e beca"e a historian only fro" a sense of necessity, an! for fear lest the "e"ory of i"&ortant e#ents shoul! &erish$ :e has been calle! the :ero!otus of the 6ranks, an! the :ero!otus of barbaris"$ The history of the 4hurch in Gaul after the absor&tion of the 6ranks is not one of Uuickene! &rogress but of cri"e an! tor&i!ity$ Gregory the Great justifie! his "ission to the Saxons on the ex&ress groun! that the 4hurch of Gaul, hose natural !uty it as, ha! neglecte! it$ The history of the Hero#ingian 6ranks stan!s in !isa!#antageous contrast ith the early #igour of the Saxon 4hurches$ The first great ele#ation of Euro&ean culture as to s&ring, not fro" a"ong the 6ranks, but in the re"oter colonies of the Saxons$ The English con#ersion began A$)$ /,2K an! t o religious foun!ations ere Uuickly establishe!'--+$ The Hinster of St$ Sa#iour, after ar!s calle! 4hrist 4hurch, an! no 4anterbury 4athe!ralK -$ The Abbey of SS$ Peter an! Paul, outsi!e the alls of 4anterbury on the east, hich as after ar!s calle! St$ Augustine@s$ 9f the foun!ation of schools nothing is hear! at this ti"eK but a generation later, A$)$ OM+, e fin! the <entish schools taken as a "o!el for schools to be foun!e! in East Anglia by 6elix$0,3 ;t is an interesting

Uuestion hether these ere the "issionary schools, or hether they ere schools hich ke&t u& the tra!itions of (o"an e!ucation in a !egenerate for" like the schools in Gaul$ 9n the groun! that our ol!est !ocu"ent is a 4o!e of the first con#erte! king, it has been too easily inferre!, that before this ti"e the Saxons ere holly !estitute of literary a&&liances$ Iere the fact "ore certain, than it is, the conclusion oul! be eak$ There are in the 4hronicles certain archaic annals hich ha#e been thought to be a &ossible &ro!uct of the heathen &erio!$ The secon! ho"e of culture as in *orthu"bria$ A on!erful co"bination of influences "et on this fa#oure! soil$ ;n the extre"e &ro#ince of the e"&ire, there ha! been a concentration of "ilitary force, to kee& the Picts in checkK the centre of (o"an go#ern"ent on the islan! ha! been at %ork, an! here, if any here, so"ething of the ci#ilisation of (o"e oul! naturally re"ain$ Another i"&ortant influence as the ;rish, or, as it as then calle!, the Scotian$ ;t is true that the first e#angelist in or!er of ti"e as Paulinus, ho ca"e fro" <ent, an! re&resente! the (o"an "ission$ But the sa#our of the Gos&el as first recei#e! through the teaching of the ;rish "issionaries, of ho" the fore"ost na"e is Ai!an$ *e#er !i! any &eo&le e"brace 4hristianity ith such entire heart as the ;rishK an! "uch of their lofty !e#otion as co""unicate! to the Angles ho" they con#erte!$ 5&on this, hen they ere &re&are! to &rofit by it, su&er#ene! the "ission of Theo!ore an! :a!rian, ho i"&lante! the see! of learning, ith great ability, at an o&&ortune "o"ent, an! ith the "ost abun!ant results$ 5n!er the ar"th of a first lo#e, all these a!#antages ere "oul!e! together, an! resulte! in "aking *orthu"bria for three or four generations the centre of Euro&ean culture$ The seat of this culture as %ork, the ol! (o"an ca&ital, an! its cul"ination as un!er Archbisho& Egbert V2ML-2OOW, an! his successor Albert$ The great ritings of this &erio! are in Latin, an! the chief na"es are Al!hel", E!!i, Iinfri! VBonifaciusW, )anihel, Be!a, Alcuin$ 9f #ernacular &rose the chief re"nant is a series of *orthern Annals, bet een A$)$ 2M2 an! 7.O, hich ha#e been e"bo!ie! in so"e of the Southern 4hronicles$ But hat s&ecially characterise! this &erio! as a rich !e#elo&"ent of sacre! &oetry, so"e re"nants of hich are &erha&s extant in our Q4F!"on$Q But our fullest kno le!ge of this ol! &oetic strain co"es back to us fro" 9l! Saxony, here it as &ro&agate! by the Anglian "issionaries, an! it sur#i#es un!er a thin !isguise in the &oe" calle! the Q:elian!$Q ;n Al!hel" e see that this ne learning as not solely ecclesiastical, but that there as so"ething in it hich ai"e! at reco#ery of classical learning$ :e as !istinguishe! for his elaborate stu!y of Latin "etres, an! his co""en!ation of the &ursuit$ :e rote &oe"s in Latin hexa"eters, an! a"ong these a 4ollection of Enig"as, hich bore fruit in the later Anglo-Saxon literature$ The latter &art of the Anglian &erio! &ro!uce! Alcuin, the !istinguishe!

scholar ho as engage! by 4harles the Great to organise his ne schools$ So e see the la"& of culture &ass fro" Anglia into 6ranklan!, shortly before the ti"e hen Anglia as o#errun by the )anes an! al"ost all the "onu"ents hich ere !estructible &erishe!$ Ie "ay !is"iss the Anglian &erio! ith the re"ark, that its achie#e"ents are all the "ore !istinguishe! fro" the fact that they belong to a ti"e hen the hole 4ontinent as in the thickest !arkness, that is to say, the se#enth an! eighth centuries$ 5n!er 4harle"agne a ne start as "a!e for the restitution of literature$ :e !re learne! "en to his court, Alcuin fro" Englan!, Paulus )iaconus fro" ;taly$ Thus he "a!e a ne centre for Euro&ean learning, an! 6rance continue! to sustain that character !o n to the latter en! of the Hi!!le Ages$ :is chief agent in this great ork of enlighten"ent as Alcuin, ho as e!ucate! at %ork un!er Egbert, ho ha! been a !isci&le of Be!a$ An! so e see the torch of learning han!e! on fro" *orthu"bria to the 6rankish !o"inions in ti"e to sa#e the tra!ition of culture fro" &erishing in the !esolation that as near$ A"ong the na"es that a!orn the annals of re#i#e! learning un!er 4harles hi"self, e "ust "ention S"arag!us, because Rlfric ackno le!ges hi" as one of his sources$ The book referre! to oul! har!ly be the Q)ia!e" of Honks,Q a selection of &ieces fro" the 6athers ith Scri&ture texts, orke! u& as it ere into a Ihole )uty of Han, although Rlfric oul! be likely to kno this bookK but for the co"&osition of his :o"ilies it is "ore likely that Rlfric oul! ha#e !ra n fro" another book by S"arag!us, na"ely, his co""entary on the E&istles an! Gos&els for Sun!ays$ Hen ho ha#e left their na"es in history no follo e! in the ork of sustaining the re#i#al of learning$ Ie "ust "ention (abanus Haurus, hose Scri&ture co""entaries ere use! by the &oet of the Q:elian!QK an! Ialahfri! Strabo, ho rote on &lants an! ha! a taste for Greek ety"ologies$ The re#i#al of secular learning brought in its train a strong !e#elo&"ent of s&eculati#e theology$ The ninth century is "arke! by contro#ersy on the Eucharist, an! on Pre!estination$ The for"er of these contro#ersies ha! an effect u&on Anglo-Saxon literature, hich reUuires us to recor! one or t o "ain facts in this &lace$ Paschasius (a!bert, a "onk of 4orbey, ho as for a short hile Abbot of that fa"ous "onastery, rote a treatise Vthe first of its kin!W on the Eucharist, "aintaining the change in the ele"ents$ The o&&osite si!e as taken by (atra"nus Vother ise calle! Bertra"W, a "onk of the sa"e house$ :is #ie s ere a!o&te! by Rlfric in the tenth century, an! ere e"bo!ie! in a :o"ily, hich as elco"e! by the English refor"ers of the sixteenth century as an anti!ote to the !octrine of transubstantiation$ :ay"o, bisho& of :albersta!t, ho ha! stu!ie! at 6ul!a, "aintaine! the !octrine of the "aterial change in its "ost extre"e for"$ :e as also a co""entator u&on the Scri&tures, an! Rlfric use! his co""entaries, but only Qso"eti"es$Q The )anish scourge beggare! the lan!, as in all other res&ects, so in

learning an! in all the liberal arts$ Ie ho ha! for"erly sent instructors to other nations, ere no suitors for hel& in our !estitution$ The sa"e national !eli#erer ho ri! us of the !estroyer, as also the restorer of e!ucation$ ;f he cannot be sai! to ha#e effectually restore! learning, at least he laboure! ith so "uch earnestness at the task that he "ay be sai! to ha#e bes&oken an ulti"ate though !elaye! success$ Alfre! is not "ore fa"ous for his great battles than for his great literary efforts$ The literary restoration of his ti"e is su&&orte! by the 4arlo#ingian schools, an! in this e "ay see a re&ay"ent in the ninth century of that hel& hich 4harles ha! recei#e! fro" Englan! through Alcuin in the eighth$ )ifferent in its origin is the re"arkable s&ring of religious an! intellectual life in the tenth century$ E#er since the syno! of Aix-la-4ha&elle in 7+M, the religious s&irit in Gaul ha! "anifeste! itself in the stricter !isci&line of the Bene!ictine "onasteries, an! this "o#e"ent reache! us in the "i!!le of the tenth century$ The Bene!ictines ha! a fa"ous school on the Loire at a &lace then calle! 6loriacu", no 6leury or St$ BenoXt-sur-Loire, an! so"e lea!ing "en in Englan! ere in acti#e relations ith this house$0+.3 ;n the ecli&se hich the no"inal seat of 4hristianity as un!er in the tenth century, the light of the 4hurch shone in 6rance an! Englan!$ The refor"s of RYel ol! an! )unstan an! 9!o are the trans"ission of this "o#e"ent to our islan!$ This great "o#e"ent has only ti"e to take sha&e enough to !eclare itself hen it is again interru&te! by troublous ti"es, in#asions, an! ars, an! changes of !ynasty, an! before any length of &eace is again allo e!, by the !ecisi#e an! final blo of the *or"an 4onUuest, hich brought ith it "ore than a change of !ynasty$ ;t change! the hole bo!y of the go#erning an! influential classes, not fro" one stratu" to another ithin the Saxon nation, but by the intro!uction of a ruling class fro" another nation, s&eaking another language, an! one of a !ifferent fa"ily$ The ne language thus brought in as no barbarous !ialect, but the "ost culti#ate! of the 4ontinental #ernaculars$ ;t as the other great factor of Euro&ean literature$ ;t ha! begun to be culti#ate! later than the Saxon, but then it ha! ages of culture at its back$ The strength of this language as in its &oetry--just the ele"ent hich ha! stagnate! in Englan!$ The 6rench taught not only the English but all Euro&e in &oetry$ All "o!ern Euro&ean &oetry is after the 6rench "o!el$ After the 4onUuest Saxon literature ha! a stronghol! in the great religious houses, an! here it continue! to be culti#ate! until far into the t elfth century$ This as !ue not only to the &atriotic senti"ent, but also to the interests of their se#eral foun!ations$ The chief Anglo-Saxon orks that e ha#e fro" the ti"es after the 4onUuest are concerne! !irectly or in!irectly ith the &ro&erty or &ri#ilege of the religious house fro" hich the books e"anate$ This is the ti"e that

&ro!uce! the Iorcester chartulary, the (ochester chartulary, the Peterborough chronicle hich e"bo!ies the &ri#ileges of the house, an! the Iinton chartulary$ This !i&lo"atic interest as strong an! &er"anent enough to cause Anglo-Saxon stu!ies to be &ursue! until late in the Hi!!le Age, &erha&s e#en !o n to the ti"e of the )issolution by :enry J;;;$ But &assing fro" this, hich is an artificial continuation of the ol! literature, e "ay obser#e that it ha! a continuation hich as &erfectly natural an! s&ontaneous$ Exa"&les of this are the late se"i-Saxon :o"ilies, in hich e see the gra!ual !ecay of the ol! flectional gra""ar' but the "ost signal exa"&les are the t o great &oetical orks of Laya"on an! 9r"$ These are full of 6rench influence, though not in the sa"e "anner$ Laya"on@s QBrutQ is translate! Vthough not ithout original e&iso!esW fro" the 6rench of (obert Iace' an! the Q9r"ulu",Q though !ra n as to its "atter fro" Latin co""ents on the Gos&els, yet is in for" !ee&ly i"bue! ith the character of 6rench &oetry$ ;n!ee!, the English language beca"e "ore an! "ore a #ehicle for the re&ro!uction of 6rench literature$ This continue! to the "i!!le of the fourteenth century, hen the &lague, hich altere! so "any things, altere! also this$ The su&re"acy of the 6rench language as broken, the nati#e language as again hear! in legal &lea!ings, an! the &oetry of 4haucer lai! the &er"anent foun!ation of "o!ern English literature$ 699T*9TES' 0+3 A translation of these ritings is gi#en in 4lark@s QAnte-*icene Library,Q #ol$ x#i$ A"ong the QActs of PilateQ are containe! the so calle! QGos&el of *ico!e"us,Q hich is the fountain of that fa#ourite "e!iF#al subject, QThe :arro ing of :ell$Q 0-3 *orth Pin!er, QLess <no n Latin Poets,Q &$ L7O$ 0M3 )onatus as Jero"e@s teacher$ :is na"e gre into a &ro#erb, inso"uch that an ele"entary treatise of any sort "ight in the fourteenth century be calle! a Q!onat$Q Priscian as a conte"&orary of Boethius$ :is gra""ar as e&ito"ise! by (abanus Haurus in the ninth century$ 0L3 9ther Latin &oets ho touche! this subject are--9#i!, QHeta"$,Q x#$, L.-K Hartial, QE&igra"s,Q #$, 2K 4lau!ian@s 6irst ;!yll, a &oe" of ++. hexa"eters, is entirely !e#ote! to it$ 0/3 4le"ens (o"anusK Tertullian, Q)e (esurrectione 4arnis,Q c$ +M$ See A!olf Ebert, Q4hristlich-Laternische Literatur,Q #ol$ i$, &$ ,/$ 0O3 Sie#er@s Q)er :elian!,Q &$ +7, an! references' GuiSot, Q:istoire !e la 4i#ilisation en 6rance,Q +7Ze Le[on$ 023 6or the Latin text, an! the bibliogra&hy, there is an a!"irable little e!ition by Pei&er, Li&siF, +72+$

073 ($A$ Li&sius, Q)ie A&okry&hen A&ostelgeschichten un! A&ostellegen!en,Q Braunsch eig, +77M, &$ +2.$ 0,3 Be!e@s QEcclesiastical :istory,Q iii$, +7$ 0+.3 ;t as !estroye! by the 4al#inists in +/O-$

4:APTE( ;;$ T:E HATE(;ALS$ The "aterial of an early Literature is, abo#e all, to be sought in ritten Books an! !ocu"ents$ But, besi!es these, there are other a#ailable sources, hich "ay be calle! in one or! the AntiUuities of the nationK an! these are of great #alue as illustrations, that is to say, though the infor"ation they se#erally gi#e "ay be uncertain an! inex&licit, yet hen they are &ut si!e by si!e ith the literature, they greatly increase its infor"ing &o er, an! often !ra , in return, a flo of light u&on the"sel#es$ Accor!ingly the &resent cha&ter ill fall into t o &arts' +, of ritingsK -, of subsi!iary sources$ ;$ There is a fa"ous book that re"ains in the &lace here it as !e&osite! in the Saxon &erio!$ Leofric, ho as the tenth bisho& of 4re!iton, an! the first of Exeter, ga#e to his ne cathe!ral about sixty books, an! the list of these books is extant in conte"&orary riting$ 9ne of the" is thus !escribe!'--Q;$ "ycel englisc boc be geh ilcu" thingu" on leoth isan ge orht$Q \ 9ne large English book about #arious things in lay VsongW ise rought--that is to say, a large #olu"e of "iscellaneous &oetry in English$ This is the #aluable, or rather, in#aluable, Exeter Song Book, often Uuote! as Q4o!ex Exoniensis$Q ;t is still here Leofric &lace! it in or about +./., an! it is in the kee&ing of his cathe!ral cha&ter$ The others are !is&erse!K but "any of the" are still ell kno n, as the QLeofric Hissal,Q in the Bo!leianK an! others are at 4a"bri!ge$ The general break-u& of "onastic institutions bet een +/M. an! +/L. cause! the !is&ersion of "any ol! libraries, hose forgotten treasures ere thus restore! to air an! light$ *o !oubt "any #aluable books an! recor!s ere irreco#erably lostK as it is reasonable to su&&ose that a"ong the &arch"ents then cast u&on the orl!, there existe! "aterial for a continuous an! co"&lete history of Anglo-Saxon ti"es$ This reflection "ay "ake us the "ore sensible of our &enury, but it ill not !i"inish the &raise of those ho sa#e! so"ething fro" the reck$ Hatthe Parker, the t entieth archbisho& of 4anterbury, +//,-+/2O, has

been calle! a "ighty collector of books$ :e ga#e co""issions for searching after books in Englan! an! Iales, an! &resente! the choicest of his "iscellaneous collections to his o n college at 4a"bri!ge, na"ely, Benet 4ollege Vno 4or&us 4hristiW, here it still rests$ ;n this library are so"e uniUue books, such as the ol!est Saxon chronicle, hich has been thought nearly as ol! as <ing Alfre!@s ti"e$ There is also a fine #ellu" of the la s of <ing Alfre!, ith the el!er la s of <ing ;ne attache! in "anner of a&&en!ix$ But the "ost fa"ous book of this great collection is an illu"inate! "anuscri&t of the Gos&els in Latin V*o$ -7OW, hich Ianley thought to be &robably one of the #ery books that ere sent to Augustine by Gregory$ Professor Iest oo! says that the !ra ings in this "anuscri&t are the "ost ancient "onu"ents of (o"an &ictorial art existing in this country, an! he further &rocee!s to say that, exce&ting a fourth-century "anuscri&t at Jienna, these are the ol!est instances of (o"an-4hristian iconogra&hy of hich he can fin! any notice$0++3 Parker ha! singular o&&ortunities, by the ti"e in hich he li#e!, by the a!#antages of his high office an! &ersonal character, by his &o er to co""an! the ser#ices of other "en, an! by their general illingness to ser#e hi"$ There ere three !istinguishe! searchers after books ho ere of the greatest use to hi", #iS$, Bale, Joscelin, Lelan!$ John Bale, the antiUuary, ha! been a Ihite 6riar in *or ich, then, changing his &arty, he beca"e bisho& of 9ssory, but li#e! at length on a &reben! he ha! in the church of 4anterbury, here he follo e! his stu!ies$ Bale, in his &reface to Lelan!@s Q*e %ear@s Gift,Q0+-3 says that those ho &urchase! the "onasteries reser#e! the books, so"e to scour their can!lesticks, so"e to rub their boots, so"e they sol! to the grocers an! soa&-sellers, an! so"e they sent o#er sea to the book-bin!ers,0+M3 not in s"all nu"bers, but at ti"es hole shi&s full, to the on!ering of foreign nations$ John Lelan! ha! a co""ission un!er :enry J;;;$ to tra#el an! collect booksK his ;tinerary is a chief book for English to&ogra&hy$ 9f Joscelin e shall ha#e occasion to s&eak belo $ Iith all his a!#antages, ho e#er, Parker as eighte! ith the care of the churches, at a ti"e, too, hen that care as unusually hea#yK an! to this, as in !uty boun!, he ga#e his first thought$ Though his exa"&le coul! not be excee!e!, his collections ere sur&asse!, an! that by a gleaner ho ca"e after hi"$ 9f all book collectors the greatest as (obert Bruce 4otton, the foun!er of the 4ottonian Library$ :e as born at )enton, in :unting!onshire, an! e!ucate! at Trinity 4ollege, 4a"bri!ge$ 4otton@s antiUuarian tastes !eclare! the"sel#es earlyK the for"ation of a library an! "useu" as his life-long &ursuit$ *ot that his interests ere all confine! to this$ :e rote on the re#enue, arne! <ing Ja"es against the straine! exaction of tonnage an! &oun!age, es&ecially in ti"e of &eaceK an! he counselle! the creation of an or!er of baronets, each to &ay the 4ro n ]+,... for the honour$ ;n this ay he beca"e a baronet hi"self in +O++, ha#ing been knighte! at the king@s

accession$ 5n!er 4harles ;$ he as "oleste! for his o&inions, because he !are! to !isa&&ro#e of go#ern"ent ithout &arlia"entsK an! he as touche! in his "ost sensiti#e &art hen his o n library as seale! against hi"$ :e !ie! Oth Hay, +OM+, an! as burie! in 4onington 4hurch, here his "onu"ent "ay still be seen$ :is library as further enlarge! by his son, Sir Tho"as 4ottonK an! it as sol! to the nation by Sir John 4otton, the fourth baronet, in +2..$ ;t as lo!ge! in Ashburnha" :ouse, in +2M+, hen a !isastrous fire consu"e! or !a"age! "any #aluable books$0+L3 Annexe! by statute to the British Huseu" in +2/M, it as "o#e! thither in +2/2$ A"ong the books that suffere! ithout being !estroye! by the fire of +2M+, is the uniUue co&y of the Beo ulf$0+/3 9ne of the Saxon chronicles as al"ost consu"e!K only t o or three lea#es of it are no extant$ But, ha&&ily, this &articular chronicle ha! been &rinte! by Iheloc, ithout curtail"ent or a!"ixture, an! so it as the one that coul! best be s&are!$ This library also contains the Abing!on an! Iorcester chronicles, an!, in!ee!, all the kno n Saxon chronicles exce&t t o$ This collection is the richest in original Anglo-Saxon !ee!s an! abbey registers$ A"ong the 4ottonian treasures VJes&asian A$;$W is a glosse! &salter, hich as e!ite! by Hr$ Ste#enson for the Surtees Society, in t o #ols$, +7LM-2, as containing a *orthu"brian gloss, hich is no , ho e#er, su&&ose! to be <entish$0+O3 A facsi"ile of this "anuscri&t by the PalFogra&hical Society, &art ii$, +7, has a !escri&tion, fro" hich the follo ing is taken'--QIritten about A$)$ 2.., the gloss at the en! of the ninth, or beginning of the tenth, an! the later a!!itions in the ele#enth century$ ;t for"erly belonge! to the Honastery of St$ Augustine of 4anterbury, an! corres&on!s ith Tho"as of El"ha"@s !escri&tion of one of the t o &salters state! to ha#e been acUuire! fro" AugustineK though the character of the orna"entation clearly sho s that it is of English origin$Q ;t is so"eti"es calle! the Surtees PsalterK Professor Iest oo! calls it QThe Psalter of St$ Augustine$Q The book hich, to the eye of the artist an! &alFogra&her, for"s the glory of the 4ottonian Library, is that hich is "arke!, *ero )$ i#$, an! is co""only calle! the Lin!isfarne Gos&els$ 9ther na"es hich it has borne, are'--The )urha" Book, because it as long &reser#e! in )urha" 4athe!ral, an! the Gos&els of St$ 4uthbert, as ha#ing been ritten in honour of that saint$ ;t is the "ost elaborately-orna"ente! of all Anglo-Saxon "anuscri&tsK it is Uuite entire, an! tells its o n origin an! !ate$ T o entries enable us to fix the !ate of the original Latin book about 2+.K the interlinear Saxon gloss "ay be of the ninth century$ Locally connecte! ith the 4ottonian is the :arleian collection hich as for"e! by (obert :arley V+OO+-+2-LW, Earl of 9xfor!K an! it as &urchase! for the British Huseu" in +2/M$ ;t contains, ithout na"e of author V:arl$ M,7/,W the "ost ancient "anuscri&t Vtenth centuryW of that Q:istory of the BritonsQ hich no bears the na"e of *enniusK a fe originals or goo! early co&ies of Saxon chartersK so"e abbey registers,

an! so"e Early-English &oetry, es&ecially a "anuscri&t of 4haucer@s Q4anterbury TalesQ V:arley, 2,MMLW, hich so"e ha#e thought to be the ol!est an! best$ A na"e secon! only to 4otton is that of Archbisho& Lau!$ :e as a collector of ol! an! rare books in "any languages, an! e are in!ebte! to his care for so"e of the "ost #aluable "onu"ents of the "other-tongue$ :e as &resi!ent of St$ John@s 4ollege, 9xfor!, an! he ha! been e!ucate! there$ So"e #aluable books he ga#e to his college, but his larger !onations ere to the library of his uni#ersity, of hich he beca"e #ice-chancellor in +OM.$ These books rest in the Bo!leian Library$ T:E B9)LE;A* L;B(A(% !ates fro" the year +/,7K an! here e ha#e an a!"irable gui!e in the QAnnals of the Bo!leian Library,Q by (e#$ I$)$ Hacray, hose annalistic or!er e ill follo $ +O.+$--The Library bought the co&y of the Anglo-Saxon Gos&els, fro" hich John 6oxe ha! &rinte! the e!ition of +/2+$0+23 ;t is "arke! Bo!$ LL+$ +O.M$--So"e "anuscri&ts ere gi#en by Sir (obert 4otton, an! one of the" VAuct$ )$, ii$ +L'--Bo!$ 7/2W is an ancient #olu"e of Latin Gos&els, ritten &robably in the sixth century, hich shares ith the illu"inate! Benet Gos&els !escribe! abo#e, the tra!itional re&utation of being one of the books that ere sent by Gregory to Augustine$ ;t has no "iniatures, but it has rubrication, an! it is in a si"ilar style of riting ith that s&len!i! #olu"e$ Tho"as El"ha", ho as a "onk of St$ Augustine@s at 4anterbury, an! rote a history of his "onastery, about A$)$ +L+L, gi#es a list of the books of his houseK an! there are t o entries of QTextus E#angelioru",Q each being &articularly !escribe!$ :u"&hrey Ianley V&$ +2-W i!entifie! our t o books as those kno n to El"ha"K an! Iest oo! &ronounces the" to be t o of the ol!est Latin "anuscri&ts ritten in &ure (o"an uncials that exist in this country$ +OM/-+OL.$--;n these years Archbisho& Lau! ga#e nearly +,M.. "anuscri&ts, a"ong hich there is one VE$ -W that enjoys &re-e"inently the title of Q4o!ex Lau!ianus$Q This is a fa"ous "anuscri&t of the Acts of the A&ostles, hich has been #ariously !ate! fro" the sixth to the eighth century$ ;t is the only kno n "anuscri&t that exhibits certain irregular rea!ings, se#enty-four in nu"ber, hich Be!e, in his Q(etractations on the Acts,Q Uuote! fro" his co&y$ Ietstein sur"ise! that this as the #ery book before Be!e hen he rote his Q(etractations$Q0+73 At the en! is a Latin 4ree!, ritten in the sa"e uncial character, though not by the sa"e han!, an! )r$ :eurtley says it is one of the earliest, if not the #ery earliest, of hat he calls the QHanuscri&t 4ree!s$Q :e has gi#en a facsi"ile of it$0+,3

Another of these as the Peterborough chronicle V*o$ OMOW, a celebrate! "anuscri&t, containing the "ost extensi#e of all the Saxon chronicles$ +O2/$--4hristo&her, Lor! :atton, ga#e four #olu"es of Saxon :o"ilies, ritten shortly after the 4onUuest$ These are no a"ong the Junian HSS$ V*os$ --, -M, -L, ,,W, si"&ly because Junius ha! the" on loan$ Being a"ong his books at the ti"e of his !eath, they ca"e back to the Bo!leian, as if &art of the Junian beUuest$ This ex&lains hy :atton "anuscri&ts, hich contain ser"ons of Rlfric an! of Iulfstan, bear the signatures Jun$ -- an! Jun$ ,,$ 9ther :atton "anuscri&ts, an! #ery &recious ones, ha#e retaine! the na"e of their !onor, as-:atton -.$--<ing Alfre!@s Translation of Gregory@s QPastoral 4are,Q of hich the king &ur&ose! to sen! a co&y to each cathe!ral church, an! this is the co&y sent by the king to Ierfrith, bisho& of Iorcester$ :atton 2O$--Translation by Ierfrith, bisho& of Iorcester, of Gregory@s Q)ialogues,Q ith <ing Alfre!@s Preface Vin Ianley this is :atton +..W$ :atton O/$--The Gos&els in Saxon, ritten about the ti"e of :enry ;;$ +O27$--6ranciscus Junius !ie! at Iin!sor$ :e as born at :ei!elberg, in +/7,, an! his #ernacular na"e as 6rancis )ujon$ :e li#e! "uch in Englan!, as librarian to :o ar!, Earl of Arun!el$ :e beUueathe! to the Bo!leian his Anglo-Saxon an! *orthern collections$ A"ong these is a beautiful Latin Psalter VJun$ -2W of the tenth century, ith grotesUue initials an! interlinear Saxon$ This book has been calle! Q4o!ex Jossianus,Q because Junius obtaine! it fro" his relati#e, ;saac Joss$ A"ong these also is the uniUue 4F!"on, a HS$ of about A$)$ +..., hich ha! been gi#en to Junius by Archbisho& 5sher, an! of hich the earlier history is unkno n$ 5sher, a scholar of Euro&ean celebrity, foun!e! the library of Trinity 4ollege, )ublinK an! in his enUuiries after books for his college he &icke! u& this fa"ous "anuscri&t$ ;t beca"e a fa#ourite ith Junius, ho e!ite! the E!itio Prince&s, A"ster!a", +O//$ Another book VJun$ +-+W is a collection of 4anons of the Anglo-Saxon 4hurch, hich belonge! to Iorcester 4athe!ral$ ;n this book, fol$ +.+, the riter !escribes hi"self' THe scri&sit Iulfgeatus scri&tor IigorniensisT \ He rote Iulfgeat of Iorcester, a riter$ This Iulfgeat is sai! by Ianley V&$ +L+W to ha#e li#e! about A$)$ +.OL$ Junius -- see"s to be ritten by the sa"e han!K so !oes Junius ,,$ The for"er contains ritings by RlfricK the latter, so"e by Rlfric an! so"e by Iulfstan$ Another book of the Junian beUuest, har!ly less singular an! uniUue, is the Q9r"ulu",Q a &oetical ex&osition of the Gos&els, a ork of the thirteenth century, of singular beauty, as &oetry an! as English$ +O7+$--This is &robably the year in hich John (ush orth, of Lincoln@s ;nn, the historian of the Long Parlia"ent, &resente! to the library the book VAuct$ )$, ii$ +,W hich is still kno n as 4o!ex (ush orthianus$ ;t contains the Gos&els in Latin, ritten about A$)$ 7.., by an

;rish scribe, ho has recor!e! his na"e as Hacregol, an! it is glosse! ith an interlinear Anglo-Saxon #ersion by 9 un an! by 6Fr"en, a &riest, at :are oo!$ ;t is !escribe! by Iest oo!$ +2//$--(ichar! (a linson as born in +O,., son of Sir Tho"as (a linson, ho as lor! "ayor of Lon!on in +2.OK as e!ucate! at St$ John@s 4ollege, 9xfor!, of hich he al ays re"aine! an attache! "e"ber, an! to hich he left by ill the bulk of his estate$ Though he &asse! for a lay"an, he as a bisho& a"ong the *onjurors, ha#ing been or!aine! !eacon an! &riest by Bisho& Jere"y 4ollier in +2+O, an! consecrate! bisho& -/th Harch, +2-7$ :e as through life an in!efatigable collectorK he &urchase! historical "aterials of all kin!s, heral!ry, genealogy, biogra&hy, to&ogra&hy, an! log-books$ :e as a re&eate! benefactor to the library !uring his life, but after his !eath his books an! "anuscri&ts ca"e in o#er hel"ing Uuantity, so that the staff of the library coul! not &ossibly catalogue the"K an! it as not until :enry 9cta#ius 4oxe beca"e Bo!ley@s librarian that the extent of the (a linson collection as ascertaine!$ This benefactor foun!e! the Anglo-Saxon &rofessorshi& hich bears his na"e$ +7.,$--(ichar! Gough, the e"inent to&ogra&her an! antiUuary, !ie! -.th 6ebruaryK he ha! beUueathe! to the Bo!leian all his to&ogra&hical collections, together ith all his books relating to Saxon an! *orthern literature$ The follo ing is fro" his ill'--QAlso ; gi#e an! beUueath to the 4hancellor, Hasters, an! Scholars, of the 5ni#ersity of 9xfor!, "y &rinte! Books an! Hanuscri&ts on Saxon an! *orthern Literature, "entione! in a 4atalogue of the sa"e, for the 5se of the Saxon &rofessor in the sai! 5ni#ersity hen he shall ha#e occasion to consult the", ith liberty to take the" to his A&art"ents on con!ition of faithfully returning the"$Q ; close these Bo!leian notes ith the re"ark that three of the books abo#e notice! "ay be easily seen e#en by the casual #isitor$ The late librarian, :enry 9cta#ius 4oxe, !e#ise! the ha&&y &lan of exhibiting un!er a glass case a chronological series of "anuscri&ts ritten by English scribes, so as to exhibit the &rogress of the arts of calligra&hy an! illu"inating in Englan!$ This case is in the north ing, at the further en! fro" the entrance !oor$ A"ong the selections for this series occur Alfre!@s gift-book to Iorcester, the Q4o!ex Jossianus,Q the Q4F!"on,Q an! a fourth book, one that has not yet been !escribe!$ ;t is a #olu"e of Latin Gos&els in Anglo-Saxon riting, of about the en! of the tenth century$ This book a&&ears, fro" an entry at the en! of it, to ha#e belonge! to the abbey of Barking$0-.3 49(P5S 4:(;ST; 49LLEGE, 9=69(), though not en!o e! ith treasures eUual to those of its na"esake in 4a"bri!ge, has a fe books of #ery high Uuality an! #alue$ A"ong these a Saxon Be!e of the tenth century, anting at the beginning an! en!, but other ise in excellent con!ition$

A re"arkably interesting "anuscri&t of the (ule of St$ Bene!ict, Latin an! Saxon, hich has ne#er yet been &ublishe!$0-+3 Hr$ :$9$ 4oxe, in his catalogue of the "anuscri&ts of the colleges, assigne! this book to the close of the tenth century$ The interest of the #olu"e is greatly increase! by so"e &ages of entries, hich also ten! to fix the !ate of the book ith greater &recision$ ;t as ritten for the "onastery of Bury St$ E!"un!s, an! it a&&ears to ha#e been still there in the fourteenth century$ ;t as gi#en by Iillia" 6ul"an, ho as a fello of this college, to the college library$ The sa"e !onor ga#e the" their QPiers Plo "anQ an! their fa"ous "anuscri&t of the Q4anterbury Tales$Q ST$ J9:*@S 49LLEGE, 9=69(), has an i"&ortant "anuscri&t containing V+W Rlfric@s Gra""ar, V-W Glossary, an! VMW the 4olloUuy of Rlfric Bata, in usu" &ueroru" Vfor the boysW$ 9n fol$ -.-, the riter calls hi"self, Q; Rlfric Bata,Q an! says that his "aster QRlfric abbotQ as the original author$ The riting of V+W an! V-W is in the roun!, strong, &rofessional han! of the tenth centuryK the seUuel is in later riting$ 9n the first &age is ritten in a han! of the fourteenth century QLiber Sci 4uthberhti !e )unel"oQ Va book of St$ 4uthbert, of )urha"WK an! next thereto, but in a han! nearly as ol! as the HS$ itself, Q!e ar"ario &recentoris, Uui aliena#erit !e eo anathe"a sitQ Vis ke&t in the &recentor@s chestK hoe#er alienates it therefro", let hi" be anathe"aW$ ;t as gi#en to the college by 4hristo&her 4oles, ho took his !egree in +O++$ The gra""ar has been recently e!ite! by )r$ ^u&itSa$ T:E 5*;JE(S;T% L;B(A(% AT 4AHB(;)GE &ossesses the ol!est "anuscri&t of the ecclesiastical history of Be!e V<$<$ /$ +OW$ ;t is su&&ose! to ha#e been ritten shortly after the !eath of the #enerable author, hich ha&&ene! in 2M/$ This book ca"e into that library in +2+/, ith the fine collection of M.,... #olu"es collecte! by )r$ Hore, bisho& of Ely$ This collection as &urchase! by George ;$ for O,... guineas, an! &resente! to the 5ni#ersity by the king$ This in#aluable book is !istincti#ely calle! Bisho& Hore@s "anuscri&t$ ;n the 4athe!ral Library at 4anterbury there are so"e #aluable Saxon chartersK0--3--"any "ore hose natural ho"e as there are in the British Huseu" a"ong the 4ottonian collections$ ;n the library of La"beth Palace there is an interesting book, hich belonge! to Archbisho& Parker, an! has been ell score! by hi"' but it is not entere! either in the La"beth catalogue of +7+-, or in that of Benet 4ollege$ This is the QGos&els of Hac)urnan,Q in ;rish calligra&hy of the ninth century, an! it contains so"e #aluable Anglo-Saxon entries$0-M3

(ESEA(4:, );S49JE(%, A*) (E49*ST(54T;9*$ :itherto e ha#e been !escribing the collection of "aterialK this it as that rescue! our early history an! literature fro" ho&eless obli#ion$ The ol! &arch"ents containe! "uch kno le!ge that ought to be reco#ere! an! !iffuse!K but this oul! reUuire &re&aration an! labour$ A"ong the labourers, Hatthe Parker co"es first as he !oes a"ong the collectors$ This &relate as an earnest stu!ent in the ancient history of the country an! es&ecially in hate#er ha! relation to the 4hurch$ :e as the first e!itor of a Saxon :o"ily$ ;t as &rinte! by John )ay, an! as entitle!, QA Testi"ony of AntiUuity sho ing the Ancient 6aith of the 4hurch of Englan! touching the Sacra"ent, Pc$Q The interest of this &ublication as un!erstoo! at the ti"e, lay in its itness against transubstantiation$ ;t as re&rinte! at 9xfor! by Leon Lichfiel!, +O2/$ ;n +/2+ the Saxon Gos&els ere &ublishe! by John 6ox, ho ackno le!ges obligations to Parker in his &reface$ This book as re&rinte! at )ort, in +OO/, by Harshall, ho as after ar!s rector of Lincoln 4ollege, in 9xfor!$ ;n +/2L a&&eare! Parker@s e!ition of Asser@s Life of Alfre!, an! e rea! in Stry&e that Qof this e!ition of Asserius there ha! been great ex&ectation a"ong the learne!$Q Ie can a!!, that of this e!ition the interest is not yet extinct$ :o far Parker@s books ere !one by hi"self an! ho far he as !e&en!ent on his literary assistants, is a Uuestion of little i"&ortance$ *o !oubt, a great !eal of it as the ork of his secretary, Joscelin$ Ie look at Parker as a "aster buil!er, not as a journey"an$ The na"e of Joscelin "eets us often hen e are follo ing the footste&s of those ti"es$ :is riting is seen on "any a "anuscri&t, an! e ha#e to thank hi" for "uch #aluable infor"ation$ ;t is chiefly through his annotations that e kno the external an! local relations of our se#eral Saxon chronicles$0-L3 ;n August, +/O/, he as at St$ Augustine@s, 4anterburyK an! there he foun! the ol! transcri&t of the first life of St$ )unstan, hich is no in the 4otton Library$0-/3 But the chief labourers an! reconstructors of the first "o#e"ent ere Iillia" 4a"!en Vb$ +//+--!$ +O-MW, an! Sir :enry S&el"an Vb$ +/O---!$ +OL+W$ The na"e of 4a"!en@s QBritanniaQ is still ali#e, an! is fa"iliar as a househol! or! ith all ho ex&lore e#en a little beyon! the beaten track$ But it is other ise ith Sir :enry S&el"an, hose stu!ies ere "ore recon!ite, an! to ho" Abraha" Iheloc looke! back as to Qthe hero of Anglo-Saxon literature$Q :is QGlossaryQ as a ork of #ast co"&ass, an! for it he corres&on!e! "uch ith learne! "en abroa!K a"ong others ith the fa"ous *orthern antiUuary, 9laus Ior"ius, the author of QLiteratura (unica,Q of hich he sent S&el"an a co&y in 9ctober, +OMO$0-O3 :is son, Sir John S&el"an, rote the QLife of <ing Alfre!$Q Before he !ie!, Sir :enry S&el"an foun!e! an Anglo-Saxon chair at 4a"bri!geK an! the first occu&ant of it as Abraha" Iheloc, ho e!ite! Be!e in +OLM an! ith it that Saxon 4hronicle hich as burnt in +2M+$ ;n +OLL he e!ite! the Anglo-Saxon La s$ :is successor as Iillia" So"ner

Vb$ +O.O--!$ +OO,W, ho &ro!uce! the first Anglo-Saxon !ictionary$ So this foun!ation as not unfruitful$ But the chair fell into abeyance, until it as restore! by )r$ Bos orth, an! fille! by Professor Skeat$ This, the first "o#e"ent of reconstruction, ha! its seat in 4a"bri!ge, un!er the sha!o of Archbisho& Parker@s library$ The next a!#ance, !ating fro" the "i!!le of the se#enteenth century, gre in 9xfor!, an! as connecte! ith the sojourn of Junius in this &lace$ :e as "uch at the Bo!leian, an! he is sai! to ha#e lo!ge! o&&osite Lincoln 4ollege$ :e as a fello -labourer ith )r$ Harshall, the rector of that college, in the HFso-Gothic an! Anglo-Saxon Gos&els hich they &rinte! at )or!recht, +OO/$ This 9xfor! &erio! "ay be sai! to ha#e cul"inate! in the ork of George :ickes, *onjuror an! Saxonist Vb$ +OL---!$ +2+/W, the author of the "assi#e QThesaurus Linguaru" Se&tentrionaliu",Q 9xfor!, +2./, a "onu"ent of !iligence an! insight, to hich as a&&en!e! a ork of the greatest utility an! necessity,--the i!ea as :ickes@s, as as also "uch of the sustaining energy,--:u"&hrey Ianley@s catalogue of Anglo-Saxon "anuscri&ts$ Ie "ust not o"it E!"un! Gibson Vb$ +OO,--!$ +2L7W, ho in early life &ro!uce! his a!"irable Q4hronicon Saxonicu",Q a"&lifying the ork of Iheloc, an! e"bo!ying for the first ti"e the Peterborough "anuscri&t$ :e as after ar!s bisho& of Lon!on$ ;n +2/. (ichar! (a linson ga#e rents of the yearly #alue of ]72$ +Os$ 7!$ to the 5ni#ersity of 9xfor!, for the "aintenance an! su&&ort of an Anglo-Saxon lecture or &rofessorshi& for e#er$ 5& to this ti"e it "ight still be sai! of the collections that they ere just store! in bulk as goo!s are store! in great "agaSinesK there as "uch to ex&lore an! to learn$ ;"&ortant !isco#eries still re"aine! to be "a!e by ex&lorers in these an! other collections$ Ianley@s catalogue ha! so"e hat the effect of running a line of roa! through a fertile but unfreUuente! lan!K an! 4onybeare@s Q;llustrations of Anglo-Saxon Poetry,Q &ublishe! in +7-O, fruit of the 9xfor! chair, ha! a great effect in calling the attention of the e!ucate!, an! "ore than any other book in the &resent century has ser#e! as the intro!uction to Saxon stu!ies$ ;t as not until the close of the eighteenth century that the QBeo ulfQ as !isco#ere!$ Ianley ha! catalogue! it, but ithout any i!ea of the real nature of the book$ Thorkelin as, ho e#er, attracte! fro" )en"arkK he ca"e an! transcribe! it, an! &re&are! an e!ition hich as nearly rea!y in +7.7, hen his house as burnt in the bo"bar!"ent of 4o&enhagen$ But he began again, an! li#e! to see his na"e to the E!itio Prince&s of QBeo ulf,Q at a ti"e hen there ere fe ho kne or care! for his ork$ :e left t o transcri&ts, hich are no our highest source in "any &assages of the &oe"$ The original ha#ing been scorche! in the fire of +2M+, the e!ges of the lea#es ent on cracking a ay, so that "any or!s hich ere near the "argins an! hich are no gone, &asse! un!er the eye of Thorkelin$ ;n +7M-, a learne! Ger"an, )r$ Blu"e, !isco#ere! at Jercelli, in *orth ;taly, a thick #olu"e containing Anglo-Saxon ho"ilies, an! so"e sacre! &oe"s of great beauty$ The &oe"s ere co&ie! an! &rinte! un!er the care

of Hr$ Thor&e, by the (ecor! 4o""ission, in a book kno n as the QA&&en!ix to Hr$ 4oo&er@s (e&ort on the 6A!era,Q a book that beca"e fa"ous through the co"&laints that ere "a!e because of the long years !uring hich it as ke&t back$ A fe &ri#ilege! &ersons got co&ies, an! hen Gri"", in +7L., &ublishe! the t o chief &oe"s of the ne fin!, the An!reas an! the Elene, hich he ha! extracte! fro" La&&enberg@s co&y, he ha! a little fling at Q!ie (ecor!ers,Q as if they ke&t the book to the"sel#es for a rarity to !eck their o n shel#es ithal$ The &oe"s are six in nu"ber' +$ A Legen! of St$ An!re K -$ The 6ortunes of the T el#e A&ostlesK M$ The )e&arte! Soul@s A!!ress to the Bo!yK L$ A 6rag"entK /$ A )rea" of the :oly (oo!K O$ Elene, or The ;n#ention of the 4ross$ ;n +7/+ the first notice of a book of ho"ilies ol!er than Rlfric,--the &ro&erty of the HarUuis of Lothian, an! &reser#e! in the library of Blickling :all, *orfolk,-- as "a!e &ublic by Hr$ Go! in in the transactions of the 4a"bri!ge AntiUuarian Society$0-23 ;n +7O. as !isco#ere! the #aluable frag"ent of an e&ic &oe" on <ing Ial!here, an! the "anner of the fin! shall be tol! in the or!s of Professor George Ste&hens, hich ; Uuote fro" the E!itio Prince&s of QIal!here,Q &ublishe! by hi" in the sa"e year$ Q9n the +-th of January, +7O., Professor E$4$ Ierlauff, 4hief Librarian of the Great *ational Library, 4hea&ingha#en 04o&enhagen3, as engage! in sorting so"e bun!les of &a&ers, &arch"ent lea#es, an! frag"ents, "ostly taken fro" books, or book-backs, hich ha! not hitherto been arrange!$ Ihile thus occu&ie!, he lighte! u&on t o #ellu" lea#es of great antiUuity, an! bearing an 9l! English text$ :e kin!ly co""unicate! the !isco#ery to "e, an! the &resent ork is the result$Q ;;$ ;*S4(;PT;9*S of the Anglo-Saxon &erio! exist both in the learne! an! the #ernacular language$ ;t is &eculiarly interesting, hen an inscri&tion is exhu"e! that gi#es us back a conte"&orary "onu"ent, ho e#er slight, of that Anglian 4hurch hich as the first-fruit of 4hristianity in our nation$ About t enty years ago, a stone as foun! at Iear"outh hich ha! been burie! in the ruins of the "onastery e#er since the ninth century, an! hich ca"e u& fresh an! clear in al"ost e#ery letter, bearing, Q:ic in se&ulcro reUuiescit cor&ore :ereberecht &rb$0-73 V:ere in this to"b :ereberecht &resbiter rests in the bo!yW$Q A fine inscri&tion fro" )eerhurst, in Gloucestershire, is no a"ong the Arun!el Harbles at 9xfor!$ ;t is &rinte! in Parker@s QGlossary of Architecture,Q an! in "y Saxon 4hronicles$ 9ften the interest of these Latin inscri&tions is enhance! by a strong touch of the #ernacular sho ing through$ This is the case on a fine "onu"ental stone in Horti"er 4hurch$ 96 JE(*A45LA( ;*S4(;PT;9*S

there is one at Lincoln, in the to er of St$ Hary-le-Iigfor! 4hurch$ ;nto this to er, hich is of early !ate, a (o"an &agan "onu"ent V)iis Hanibus, Pc$W is alle!, an!, on the triangular gable of the stone, a Saxon inscri&tion has been car#e!$ ;t is i"&erfect, but the general sense is clear$ ;t "ust be rea! fro" the lo est an! longest line u& ar!s to the a&ex$ ;t says' QEirtig cause! "e to be "a!e an! en!o e! in honour of 4hrist an! St$ Hary$Q Perha&s the to er, or e#en the church, is the s&eaker$ The foun!er@s na"e is "uch !eface!' ; ha#e a!o&te! the rea!ing of (e#$ J$ Ior!s orth, ho has besto e! attention on this stone$ A frag"ent of a si"ilar inscri&tion, but "uch "ore co&ious, as foun! at St$ Hary@s, %ork, an! is !escribe! in :_bner, *o$ +2/$ But the "ost characteristic of the #ernacular inscri&tions are those on sun-!ials$ There are no less than three of these in the *orth (i!ing of %orkshireK #iS$, at 9l! Bylan!, an! at E!sto near Pickering, an! at <irk!ale$0-,3 The last is fullest an! "ost &erfect, an! is, "oreo#er, !ate!$ ;t bears' Q` 9r" Ga"alson bought the "inster of S$ Gregory hen it as all to broken an! to fallen, an! he it let "ake ane fro" groun! for 4hrist an! S$ Gregory in the !ays of E! ar! the <ing an! Tosti the Earl$ ` an! :a arth rought "e an! Bran! &resbiter$ ` This is !ay@s sun-"arker, hour by hour$Q The &oetical inscri&tion in (unes, on the (uth ell 4ross, is too large a subject for this &lace$0M.3 JEIELLE(%$ The Anglo-Saxons retaine! an ol! tra!ition of !ecorati#e art, an! they ha! a"ong the" skilful je ellers$ Se#eral s&eci"ens ha#e been foun!, an! are to be seen in "useu"sK but the noblest of all these is that hich is kno n as the Alfre! Je el$ The Alfre! Je el as !isco#ere! in *e ton Park, near Athelney, in the year +O,M, an! it foun! its ay to the Ash"olean Huseu" in 9xfor! by the year +2+7, here it still rests$ ;t consists of an ena"elle! figure enshrine! in a gol!en fra"e, ith a gol!en back to it, an! ith a thick &iece of rock crystal in front to ser#e as a glass to the &icture$ ;"agine a longitu!inal section of a &igeon@s egg, an! let the gol!en &late at the back of our je el re&resent the &lane of the egg@s !ia"eter$ 6ro" this &lane, if e "easure three-Uuarters of an inch in the girth of the egg, an! then take another section &arallel to the gol! &late at the back, e obtain the front surface of the crystal through hich the ena"elle! figure is #isible$ The s"aller en! of our o#al section is &rolonge! an! is fashione! like the hea! of a boar$ The snout for"s a socket, as if to fit on to a &eg or !oleK a cross-&in, to fix the socket to the !ole, is still in &lace$ Aroun! the slo&ing ri", hich re"ains, the follo ing legen! is rought in the fabric' RL6(E) HE4 :E:T GEI%(4EA* VAlfre! "e co""an!e! to "akeW$ The language of the legen! agrees &erfectly ith the age of <ing Alfre!, an! it see"s to be the

unhesitating o&inion of all those ho ha#e in#estigate! the subject that it as a &ersonal orna"ent of the great Iest Saxon king$ As to the "anner of earing it, an! as to the signification of the ena"elle! figure, there has been the greatest !i#ersity of o&inion$ Sir 6rancis Palgra#e suggeste! that the figure as ol!er than the setting$ Perha&s it as a sacre! object, an! &erha&s one of the &resents of Po&e Harinus, or so"e other &otentateK an! that the "ounting as inten!e! to a!a&t it for fixture in the ri" of a hel"et or cro n o#er the centre of the royal bro $ By its si!e, in the sa"e glass case, there lies a gol! orna"ent of far si"&ler !esign, but of like a!a&tation$ )(AI;*G A*) ;LL5H;*AT;9* 96 B99<S$ This is the branch of Saxon art hich is best re&resente! by extant re"ains$ That the s&eci"ens are nu"erous "ay be gathere! fro" hat has been sai! abo#e in the !escri&tion of "anuscri&ts$ There are t o &erio!s, an! the change takes &lace ith the re#i#al of learning in the reign of E!gar$ ;n the earlier &erio!, the !ra ings an! the !ecorations are of the sa"e general ty&e as the ;rish illu"inate! books, an! it has been thought that our artists ha! learnt their art fro" the ;rishK but no there is a !is&osition to see in this art a ty&e co""on to both islan!s, an! to call it British$ The Lin!isfarne Gos&els VA$)$ 2+.W offer the best exa"&le of this kin!$ ;n the tenth century, 6rankish art as "uch i"itate!, an! the Saxon style as altere!$ But the Saxons, in their i"itations, !is&laye! originalityK an! they !e#elo&e! a gorgeous for" of !ecoration, hich as recognise! as a !istinct style, an! as kno n on the 4ontinent as English ork VTo&us Anglicu"TW$ The ty&ical s&eci"en of this kin! is the Bene!ictional of Rthel ol! Vbet een ,OM an! ,2.W$ 6ro" the sa"e cause, the character of the &en"anshi& also &asses through a corres&on!ing change, but "ore gra!ually an! in!istinctly$0M+3 A(4:;TE4T5(E$ 9f Saxon architecture there are "any tracesK e ill take but a fe $ The cathe!ral at 4anterbury as an ol! church, hich ha! been built by 4hristians un!er the (o"ans, an! hich Augustine, by the king@s hel&, reco#ere!, an! consecrate! as the 4hurch of St$ Sa#iourK0M-3 in later ti"es it ca"e to be calle! 4hrist 4hurch$ This buil!ing laste! all through the Saxon &erio!K it as enlarge! by Abbot 9!o, about ,/., an! as finally &ulle! !o n by Lanfranc, in +.2.$ But there exists a ritten !escri&tion of this ol! church by a "an ho ha! seen it,--na"ely, Ea!"er the Precentor, ho as a !iligent collector of tra!itions concerning his cathe!ral$ Ihat "akes his !escri&tion es&ecially #aluable to the architectural historian is the fact that he co"&ares it to St$ Peter@s at (o"e, an! he ha! been to (o"e in co"&any ith Ansel"$ *o , although the ol! Basilica at (o"e as !estroye! in the sixteenth century, yet &lans an! !ra ings hich ere "a!e before its !e"olition are &reser#e! in the Jatican' an!, ith all these !ata before hi", Professor Iillis

reconstructe! the &lan of the "etro&olitan church of the Saxon &erio!$0MM3 ;n certain features he use!, "oreo#er, the e#i!ence of the ancient Saxon church at Brix orth$0ML3 *ot only fro" "o!els left in Britain by the (o"ans, but also through the freUuent #isits of our ecclesiastics to (o"e, it naturally ha&&ene! that the Saxon architecture as i"itate! fro" the (o"an$ *e#ertheless, the Anglo-Saxons a&&ear to ha#e !e#elo&e! a style of their o n$ Sir Gilbert Scott in his &osthu"ous Essays characterises this early church architecture by t o features--the sUuare ter"ination of the east en!, an! the est en! &osition of the to er$ This as Uuite insular, an! not to be foun! in (o"an &atterns$ ;n Professor Iillis@s &lan of the first cathe!ral at 4anterbury the east an! est en!s are both a&si!al, an! the t o to ers are &lace! on the north an! south si!es of the na#e$ The great !isco#ery, a fe years ago, of the Saxon cha&el at Bra!for!-on-A#on, an! the successful ay in hich it as cleare! an! !etache! fro" other buil!ings by 4anon Jones, has not only gi#en us so co"&lete an exa"&le of Saxon church architecture as e ha! nothing like it before, but it has also i"&ro#e! our faculty of recognising Saxon ork in frag"entary relics, an!, if ; "ay so s&eak, of &ulling the" all together$ A re"arkable &assage in Iillia" of Hal"esbury recor!s that Al!hel" built a little church VTecclesiolaTW in this &laceK an! the &ossibility that this "ay be that #ery church is not rejecte! by the best ju!ges$ Al!hel" !ie! in 2.,$ 9f Saxon construction a chief &eculiarity is that hich is calle! Qlongs an! shorts$Q ;t occurs in coins of to ers, in &anelling ork, an! so"eti"es in !oor ja"bs$0M/3 9f the latter, a fine exa"&le occurs at Laughton, near Haltby, not "any "iles !istant fro" Sheffiel!$ Ihat "akes this latter instance "ore &eculiarly interesting, is the fact that o#er the churchyar! all on the est, in a s"all grass fiel!, tra!itionally calle! the 4astle 6iel!, there is the ell-&reser#e! &lan of a Saxon lor!ly "ansion$ The circuit of the earth ork is al"ost co"&lete, an! at a &oint in the enceinte there rises the "oun! on hich as &itche! the garrison of the little castle$ ; use the ter" castle, as the habits of the language no reUuire, an! as it is ex&resse! in the na"e of the s&ot$ But, in!ee!, castles ere little kno n in Englan! before the 4onUuestK ha! it been other ise, the 4onUuest oul! not ha#e been so easy$0MO3 The na"e an! the thing ca"e in ith the *or"ans$ %et there ere ancient &laces of security, an! their great feature as an earthen "oun!, u&on hich a oo!en buil!ing as &itche!$ The Saxon "oun!s often beca"e, to borro a &hrase fro" Hr$ 6ree"an, the kernel of the *or"an castle$ An! there as a tra!itional "etho! of fortification for the houses of great "en of hich Laughton is an exa"&le$

S45LPT5(E$ There are se#eral &ieces of Anglo-Saxon scul&ture extantK an! they are not har! to recognise, because of the &eculiar lines of !ra ing ith

hich e are alrea!y fa"iliar in the illu"inate! "anuscri&ts$ ;n the Saxon cha&el at Bra!for!-on-A#on there are t o angels, of life siSe, or larger, car#e! in relief on stone$ They a&&ear in the all high abo#e the chancel arch, to ar!s the na#eK an! it is su&&ose! fro" the !istance bet een the", an! fro" their facing one another, that there as once a holy roo! &lace! bet een the", to ar!s hich they ere in atten!ance$ ;n Bristol 4athe!ral there is a re"arkable &iece of Saxon scul&ture, re&resenting a hu"an figure, life siSe, a&&arently the Sa#iour, !eli#ering a s"all figure, as it ere a soul, out of the "outh of the !ragon$ This is car#e! on the u&&er si!e of the "assi#e li! of a stone coffin$ ;t as !isco#ere! about forty years ago, an! it "ay be seen in the #estry ithin the *or"an cha&ter-house, here it is "asone! into the all o#er the chi"ney-&iece$ B5(;ALS$ The Saxon gra#es ha#e yiel!e! "any illustrati#e objects, es&ecially ea&ons an! &ersonal orna"ents, &ottery, an! glass$0M23 The Saxon gra#es ere first syste"atically ex&lore! by Bryan 6aussett, of :e&&ington, in <ent Vb$ +2-.--!$ +22OWK ho as calle! by his conte"&oraries Qthe British Hontfaucon$Q :e is uneUualle! for the extent of his exca#ations, an! the !istinctness of his ell-ke&t chronicle$ After hi", in the next generation, ca"e an inter&reter, ho as also a great exca#atorK Ja"es )ouglas, author of Q*enia Britannica,Q +2,M$ The 6aussett collection is in Li#er&ool, the )ouglas collection V"ost of itW in 9xfor!$ ;n "ore recent ti"es the general accuracy of the results has been establishe! by "eans of co"&arati#e researches$ The tu"uli in the ol! "other country of the Saxons ha#e been exa"ine!, an! their affinity ith our Saxon gra#es has been !eter"ine! beyon! UuestionK hile a &arallel co"&arison has also been institute! bet een the 6rankish gra#es in 6rance, an! the ancestral 6rankish gra#es in ol! 6ranconia o#er the (hine$ Thus it is ell kno n hat inter"ents are really Saxon$ The chronology of the #arieties of inter"ent is not, ho e#er, so co"&letely ascertaine!$ ;n the boun!aries of &ro&erty fro" the tenth century an! on ar!s e fin! re&eate! "ention of Qheathen burial-&laces,Q an! it has &erha&s been too rea!ily inferre! that all the Saxon gra#es in the o&en country unconnecte! ith churches are ol!er than the 4on#ersion$ Hr$ <e"ble in#estigate! this subject, an! he ca"e to the conclusion that the cinerary urns ere heathen, but that the hole inter"ents ere 4hristian$ :is obser#ations ere "a!e chiefly in the ol! "other country, hich lies bet een the (hine, the Elbe, an! the Hain$ :e i!entifie! the change fro" cre"ation to inhu"ation ith that fro" heathenis" to 4hristianity$ The tu"ular relics of !ifferent &arts of Englan! suggest ol! tribal !istinctions of costu"e an! a&&arel$ ;n <ent the fibulF are circular an!

highly orna"ente!, but these are s&aringly foun! beyon! the area of the earliest settlers$ 6ro" Suffolk to Leicestershire the fibulF are "ostly bri!ge-sha&e!$ A thir! #ariety, the conca#e or saucer-sha&e!, is foun! in Berkshire, Iiltshire, 9xfor!shire, an! Gloucestershire$ ;t is, ho e#er, &ossible that these !istinctions "ay be &artly chronological$ The "ost s&len!i! fibula kno n is of the first kin!$ ;t as exhu"e! by Bryan 6aussett, /th August, +22+, on <ingston )o n in <ent, fro" a !ee& gra#e containing nu"erous relics, an! such as in!icate! a la!y of !istinction$ The <ingston fibula is circular, entirely of gol!, richly set ith garnets an! turUuoiseK it is Ma inches in !ia"eter, b inch in thickness, an! eighs O oS$ / ! t$ +7 gr$ This is the ge" of all Saxon tu"ular antiUuities, an! it rests ith the other 6aussett fin!s in the Hayer collection at Li#er&ool$ *ear it as foun! a gol!en neck-orna"ent, eighing - ! t$ 2 gr$ These an! other like exa"&les, though less s&len!i!, fro" the gra#es of Saxon la!ies, are goo! illustrations of the &oetic e&ithet Qgol!-a!orne!,Q hich is re&eate!ly a&&lie! to o"en of high !egree$ The Saxon &ottery is kno n to us by the burial urns$ These are "arke! by a local character for the #arious !istricts, but still ith a generic rese"blance, hich is base! u&on the co"&rehensi#e fact that although they a&&ear like inferior co&ies fro" (o"an ork, yet they are at the sa"e ti"e like the urns foun! in 9l! Saxony an! 6ranconia$ The glass !rinking-#essels are #ery &eculiar, an! they are notice! as such in the &oetry$0M73 The hoo&e! buckets that ha#e been foun! in "en@s gra#es only, see" also to ans er to ex&ressions in con#i#ial !escri&tions$ 9f the tu"ular re"ains this general re"ark "ay be "a!e, that they richly illustrate the el!er &oetry$ The abun!ance an! #ariety of the objects hich re"ain after so long a ti"e un&erishe!, gi#e a strong i"&ression of the la#ish generosity ith hich the !ea! ere sent on their ay$ Ans ering to these fin!s there are t o !escri&tions in the QBeo ulf,Q one in the beginning here the "ythic hero Scyl! Scefing is Vnot burie! butW shi&&e! off to seaK an! the other the funeral of Beo ulf ith hich the &oe" closes$ The gra#es also affor! illustration negati#e as ell as &ositi#e$ The co"&arati#e rarity of s or!s is a fact that has been &articularly re"arke!$ This too agrees ith the &oetry in hich there are s or!s of fa"e, hich are kno n by their o n &ro&er na"es, an! hich ha#e an establishe! &e!igree of illustrious o ners at the hea! of hich often stan!s the na"e of the !i#ine fabricator, Ielan!$ Perha&s it oul! not be too "uch to say that affinity ith the tu"ular !e&osits is one of the notes of the &ri"ary &oetry$ 699T*9TES' 0++3 QPalFogra&hia Sacra Pictoria$Q

0+-3 QLelan!@s laboryouse journey an! serche for Englan!es antiUuities, gi#en as a ne e years gifte to <ing :enry J;;;$, enlarge! by John Bale$Q Lon!on$ +/L,$ 0+M3 This is curiously confir"e! by the !isco#ery of Ial!here, !escribe! belo $ 0+L3 As this fire is one that the stu!ent is only too often re"in!e! of, a fe !etails "ay be acce&table$ A co""ittee as a&&ointe! by the :ouse of 4o""ons to #ie the 4otton Library after this !isaster, an! e learn fro" their (e&ort V+2M-, folioW that Q++L #olu"es are either lost, burnt, or entirely s&oile!, an! ,7 others !a"age! so as to be !efecti#eK so that the sai! library at &resent consists of 2LO entire #olu"es an! ,7 !efecti#e ones$Q The collection hen &urchase! ha! containe! ,/7 #olu"es$ 9f late years great &ains ha#e been taken for the &reser#ation of the frag"ents by careful "ounting$ 0+/3 Photogra&he! by the Early English Text Society, +77M$ 0+O3 Q)ie S&rache !es <entischen Psalters,Q #on (u!olf ^euner$ :alle, +77-$ (eferring to Hr$ S eet, in Transactions of Philological Society, +72/-O$ 0+23 QThe Gos&els of the fo er E#angelistes, translate! in the ol!e Saxons ty"e out of Latin into the #ulgare toung of the Saxons, ne ly collecte! out of Auncient Honu"entes of the say! Saxons, an! no &ublishe! for testi"onie of the sa"e$Q At Lon!on$ Printe! by ;ohn )aye, ! elling ouer Al!ersgate, +/2+$ 0+73 See Scri#ener, Q;ntro!uction to 4riticis" of *e Testa"ent,Q e!$ -, &$ +L2$ 0+,3 Q:ar"onia Sy"bolica,Q 9xfor!, +7/7, &$ O+$ 0-.3 Iest oo!, Q6acsi"iles,Q &$ +-M$ 0-+3 ;t as to ha#e been e!ite! by Professor Buckley for the Rlfric Society, but that society close! its career too soon$ 0--3 They ere arrange! by <e"bleK an! ha#e recently been facsi"ile! by the 9r!nance Sur#ey, un!er the e!itorshi& of Hr$ I$ Base#i San!ers$ 0-M3 6ully !escribe! by Hr$ I$B$ San!ers in the QAnnual (e&ort for +72M of the )e&uty <ee&er of Public (ecor!s,Q &$ -2+ ff$ 0-L3 See the &articulars in QT o Saxon 4hronicles Parallel$Q 4laren!on Press, +7O/$ ;ntro!uction, &&$ #ii$, xx#$, xx#iii$ 0-/3 Stubbs, QHe"orials of Saint )unstan,Q &$ xxx$ 0-O3 QThe English"an an! the Scan!ina#ian,Q by 6re!erick Hetcalfe, H$A$,

+77., &$ ++$ 0-23 ;n +77. these :o"ilies ere e!ite! by )r$ Horris, for the Early English Text Society, un!er the na"e of QThe Blickling :o"ilies$Q 0-73 :_bner, +,2$ 0-,3 :_bner, +2,, +7., +7+$ 0M.3 <e"ble, QArchFologia,Q Anno +7LMK Ste&hens, Q(unic Honu"ents,Q &$ L./$ 0M+3 Iest oo!, QPalFogra&hia Sacra Pictoria,Q an! Q6acsi"iles of Hiniatures fro" ;rish an! Anglo-Saxon Hanuscri&ts$Q 0M-3 Be!a, Q4hurch :istory,Q i$, MM$ 0MM3 QThe Architectural :istory of 4anterbury 4athe!ral,Q +7L/, &$ -2$ 0ML3 QThe church at Brix orth has &lainly ha! its alls raise!, an! a clerestory ith in!o s a!!e!, e#en in the Saxon &erio!K assu"ing that "i! all baluster-shafts are to be recei#e! as characteristics of this &erio!, for a tri&le in!o ith such shafts as inserte! in the estern all hen the alls ere so raise!$Q T;bi!$T, &$ M.$ See also :a!!an an! Stubbs, i$, M7$ 0M/3 So"e of the churches in hich these features "ay be obser#e! are )eerhurst in GloucestershireK Earl@s Barton, *orthantsK Benet church in 4a"bri!geK So"&ting in Sussex$ 6igure! illustrations "ay be seen in Parker@s Q;ntro!uction to Gothic Architecture$Q 0MO3 6ree"an, *$4$, ii$, O./K Q(eign of (ufusQ i$, L,$ 0M23 These are !escribe! an! figure! in Bryan 6aussett@s Q;n#entoriu" Se&ulchrale,Q e!$ (oach S"ithK Iylie, Q6airfor! Gra#esQK *e#ille, QSaxon 9bseUuiesQK Aker"an, QPagan Saxon!o"QK <e"ble, Q:orF 6erales$Q 0M73 QThe 4elt, the (o"an, an! the Saxon,Q by T$ Iright, &$ L-L$

4:APTE( ;;;$ T:E :EAT:E* PE(;9)$ 6or "any a &etty king ere Arthur ca"e rule! in this isle, an! e#er aging ar each u&on other, aste! all the lan!K an! still fro" ti"e to ti"e the heathen host s ar"@! o#er seas, an! harrie! hat as left$

An! so there gre great tracts of il!erness, herein the beast as e#er "ore an! "ore, but "an as less an! less, till Arthur ca"e$ 6or first Aurelius li#e! an! fought an! !ie!, an! after hi" king 5ther fought an! !ie!, but either fail@! to "ake the king!o" one$ An! after these king Arthur for a s&ace, an! thro@ the &uissance of his Table roun!, !re all their &etty &rince!o"s un!er hi", their king an! hea!, an! "a!e a real", an! reign@!$ AL6(E) TE**%S9*, TThe 4o"ing of ArthurT$ 6or the first hun!re! an! fifty years of their life in this islan! our ancestors ere heathens$ This ti"e has no &lace in the English "e"ory through any legen!ary or literary tra!ition that is associate! ith the Saxons$ The legen!s of this ti"e hich retain a &lace in literature are not Saxon but British$ This is the era of Arthur an! the <nights of the (oun! Table$ There is no book or &iece of Saxon literature that can in any substantial sense be ascribe! to the heathen &erio!K for ; cannot go ith those ho assign this high antiUuity to the QBeo ulf$Q There is a book that clai"s to be a &ro!uct of this ti"e, but it is neither Saxon nor heathen$ ;t bears the na"e of Gil!as, a Briton, an! it is a fer#ently 4hristian book, ritten in Latin$ ;t has t o &arts, one being a La"ent of the (uin of Britain, the other a )enunciation of the con!uct of her &rinces$ ;ts genuineness has been Uuestione!, an! it has also been ably !efen!e!$0M,3 The strong &oint in fa#our of the book is, that it existe! an! as re&ute! genuine before the ti"e of Be!e, ho use! it as an authority, an! cite! it by the author@s na"e, saying that QGil!as, their 0the Britons@3 historian,Q !escribes such an! such e#ils in his Qla"entable !iscourse$Q0L.3 Through Be!e the infor"ation of Gil!as has fallen into the strea" of English history, an! e cease to be a are of the original source$ 6or exa"&le, the fa"iliar tra!ition of the Saxons co"ing o#er in Qthree keels,Q or!inarily ascribe! to Be!e, is taken fro" Gil!as$ The !ate of this author an! his ork, as no generally acce&te!, is this'--That he as born in /-., the year of the battle of Hons Ba!onicus, an! that he rote about /OL$ But this rests on an ill-jointe! an! uncertain &assage, hich as "isun!erstoo! by Be!e, if the "o!ern inter&retation is right$ An! hen e co"e to look into that Saxon literature hich as subseUuently !e#elo&e!, the traces of the heathen &erio! are unex&ecte!ly scanty, an! the #ery re"e"brance of heathenis" though not abolishe! see"s alrea!y on!erfully re"ote$ But not ithstan!ing all this, e cannot treat the subject of Anglo-Saxon literature in any satisfactory "anner ithout so"e consi!eration of the heathen &erio!$ 6or, on the one han!, history reUuires it as a backgroun!, an! the only a&&ro&riate backgroun! to our story of the subseUuent cultureK an!, on the other han!, e shall fin!, by &utting the scattere! frag"ents together, that such an i"&ression "ay be gaine! as is at least

sufficient for a subsi!iary &ur&ose$ A"ong the extant Saxon ritings there is one an! only one book, in hich e !etect so"e &ossible ork of this &erio!$ This is in the 4hronicles$ Bet een A$)$ L/. an! O.. e ha#e a s&rinkling of curious annals that are naturally calculate! to ri#et the attention$ They are certainly of a #ery !istinct an! &eculiar cast, an! it has been thought that they "ay &ossibly re&resent Vthrough "uch !isguise of transcri&tionW so"e kin! of conte"&orary recor!s of the heathen &erio!, hether the original sha&e as that of balla!s, or of annals ke&t in (unes$ These annals are characterise! by an occasional touch of &oetic fer#our, an! by se#eral local !etails hich are sti"ulating to "o!ern curiosity$ A fe exa"&les "ay be useful'-L//$ :ere0L+3 :engest an! :orsa fought against Iyrtgeorn, the king, in the &lace that is calle! AgFlesthre&K an! his brother :orsa as slainK an! after that :engest took to the king!o", an! Rsc, his son$ L/2$ :ere :engest an! Rsc fought against the Brettas in the &lace that is calle! 4recganfor!K an! there they sle L,... "enK an! the Brets then aban!one! <entlan!, an! in great terror fle! to Lon!onbury$ L2M$ :ere :engest an! Rsc fought against the Ialas' an! they took countless s&oil' an! the Ialas fle! the Engles like fire$ L,+$ :ere Rlle an! 4issa beset An!re!escester, an! sle all those that therein ! elt' there as not so "uch as one Bret re"aining$ /2+$ :ere 4uth ulf fought ith the Bret alas at Be!canfor!, an! took four to ns' Lygeanburg an! Rgelesburg VAylesburyW, BFnesingtun VBensingtonW an! Egonesha" VEnsha"W$ /7L$ :ere 4ea lin an! 4utha fought against the Brettas, in the &lace that is na"e! 6ethanleagK an! 4utha as slain$ An! 4ea lin took "any to ns an! countless s&oilsK an! in rath he returne! thence to his o n$ There is about these entries so"ething re"ote an! &ri"iti#e, an! so"ething, too, of a conte"&oraneous for", that &enetrates e#en through the fol!s of a "o!ern !ress$ ;f e oul! gather an i!ea of the religious senti"ents of that heathen ti"e, t o sources are o&en to us'--+$ 4lassical authors, es&ecially 4Fsar an! TacitusK -$ ;nci!ental notices in !o"estic ritings after the establish"ent of 4hristianity$ ;n regar! to both these sources e "ust regulate our ex&ectations in accor!ance ith the circu"stances$ +$ 4Fsar an! Tacitus rote of Ger"any at large, an! not of our &articular tribes in the north- estK yet they naturally touch so"e lea!ing &oints hich are of interest for us here$ As to their religion, 4Fsar for"e! a totally !ifferent o&inion fro" Tacitus$ Accor!ing to the for"er, the Ger"ans kne only those #isible an! &al&ably useful go!s,

the Sun an! the Hoon, an! 6ireK they ha! ne#er e#en hear! of any others by re&ort$ Tacitus, on the contrary, says, that they orshi& :ercules an! Hars, an!, abo#e all, HercuryK that, at the sa"e ti"e, their religious sense is e"inently s&iritual, for they re&u!iate the thought of enshrining the celestials ithin alls, or re&resenting the" by the hu"an for"K that they #enerate gro#es an! forest-gla!es, an! that by the na"es of their go!s they un!erstan! "ysterious beings #isible only to the in ar! an! re#erential sight$ These esti"ates are !ia"etrically o&&ose!, an! they ha#e been use! by an e"inent riter to illustrate the !ifficulty of getting at the truth about the religion of barbarians$ But it shoul! be re"e"bere! that a long inter#al ha! ela&se! bet een 4Fsar an! TacitusK an inter#al, "oreo#er, that as likely to ork so"e, if not all, of the changes reUuire! to "ake these esti"ates co"&atible ith one another$ Tacitus infor"s us about the go! Tuisco, hose na"e e still kee& in Tues!ayK0L-3 about the su&re"acy of Hercurius,0LM3 that is, of Io!enK an! about the for" of the boar as a sacre! sy"bol, hich as orn on the &erson for a char" against !anger$0LL3 :e also relates the hi!eous cere"ony of a go!!ess *erthus, or Hother Earth, ho "akes her occasional &rogresses in a agon !ra n by co s, the atten!ants being sla#es ho, hen the rite is !one, are all !ro ne! in a "ysterious lake$0L/3 -$ 6ro" the secon! source e "ight ha#e ex&ecte! "ore than e fin!$ <no ing that the ne religion as not establishe! ithout struggles an! !elays an! rela&ses, e "ight ha#e ex&ecte! that the traces of the !ying su&erstition oul! ha#e been nu"erous in Anglo-Saxon literature$ An! if e ha! the !o"estic ritings that ere &ro!uce! in the first 4hristian ar!our, such an ex&ectation "ight ha#e been &artially fulfille!$ But in any case e shoul! not ex&ect too "uch fro" early an! unfor"e! literature$ ;t is the "ature fruit of long culti#ation to &ro!uce a literature that reflects the &resent$ Al"ost all early literature is con#entional, because the s&ontaneous is not estee"e! an! is not &reser#e!$ But hate#er "ight ha#e ha&&ene! un!er other con!itions, the fact no is that the literature of our first 4hristian era is al"ost entirely lost$ ;t &erishe! in the )anish in#asions$ The orks of Be!a are, in!ee!, &reser#e!, an! in one sense they "ake a large exce&tion to the general state"ent, yet the exce&tion is not one that is of great i"&ort for our i""e!iate &ur&ose$ :is orks, e#en hen he is u&on a local subject, breathe little of local curiosity or interest$ :is as a cloistere! life, his #ie as e#er !irecte! through the #ista of books an! learne! corres&on!ence to ar!s the central heart of 4hristianity, an! he !eigne! but rarely to cast a look behin! hi" at the ol! su&erstitions of his &eo&le$ :is ritings, hich are all in Latin, contribute so"ething, but it is little, to ar!s our kno le!ge of Saxon heathen!o"$ Ie are in!ebte! to hi" for an ex&licit state"ent about the "eaning of the or! QEaster$Q ;t is as follo s'--QT(he!"onathT is so calle! fro" their go!!ess T(he!aT, to ho" in that "onth they sacrifice!$$$$ Iith the &eo&le of "y nation, the ol! folk of the Angles, the "onth of A&ril, hich is no style! Paschal Honth, ha! for"erly the na"e of TEstur"onathT, after a go!!ess of theirs ho as calle! TEostraT, an! hose festi#al is ke&t in that "onthK an! they still

!esignate the Paschal Season fro" her na"e, by force of ol! religious habit kee&ing the sa"e na"e for the ne sole"nity$Q0LO3 This is a sa"&le of hat Be!a "ight ha#e tol! us about the ol! heathen!o", if he ha! "a!e it a subject of inUuiry$ The infor"ation is the "ore #aluable because it as not forthco"ing fro" any other source$ The Ger"ans ha#e an obscure trace of T(et"onatTK an! their Tcstar"dnothT, hich re"ains as a Ger"an na"e for A&ril V9ster"onatW to the &resent !ay, is foun! as early as Eginhar!, the biogra&her of 4harle"agne$ But of the !eities there is no infor"ation any here but in Be!a$ The na"e of Easter a&&ears relate! to QEastQ an! the gro ing strength of the sun$ ;n the E!!a a "ale being, a s&irit of light, bears the na"e of TAustriT' the Ger"an an! Saxon tribes see" to ha#e kno n only a fe"ale !i#inity in this sense$ A being ith attributes taken fro" the )a n an! fro" the S&ring of the year, so full of &ro"ise an! of blessing, "ight ell be tenaciously re"e"bere! an! retaine! for 4hristian use$ Ie ill no &rocee! to notice the sources hich &reser#e so"e relics of the ol! heathenis"$ T:E GE*EAL9G;ES bear the greatest testi"ony to the for"er !ignity of Io!en@s na"e$ The royal houses of <ent, Essex, )eira, Bernicia, Iessex, East Anglia, Hercia,--all trace u& to Io!en$ So"e go u& far abo#e Io!en, ho has a series of "ythological &rogenitors, the ol!est of ho" a&&ears to be Scyl!, the na"e hich for"s the starting-&oint of the QBeo ulf$Q T:E LAIS$ ;n the <entish co!e of IihtrF! V!$ 2-/W there are &enalties set !o n for those ho sacrifice to !e#ils, "eaning heathen go!s$ But, on the hole, it is re"arkable ho little is foun! on this subject in the co!es before Alfre!$ ;n the ;ntro!uction to Alfre!@s La s i!olatry is forbi!!en in t o &laces, not in or!s of the ti"e, but ith the sanction of Scri&ture texts$ ;n the La s of E! ar! an! Guthru" heathenis" is !enounce! ith &enaltiesK in the 4o!es of Rthelre! it is forbi!!en in a hortatory ayK but the "ost ex&licit &rohibition is that of 4anute'-Q/$ 9f :eathenis"$ An! e strictly forbi! all heathenis"$ ;t is heathenis" for a "an to orshi& i!ols,--that is, to orshi& heathen go!s, an! the sun or "oon, fire or floo!, ater- ells or stones, or any kin! of oo!-trees, or &ractise itchcraft, or contri#e "ur!er by sorcery$Q The latter or!s see" to &oint to that for" of sorcery kno n as T!efixioT, herein an effigy as "altreate!, an! incantations ere use! to !irect the injury against the life or health of so"e &ri#ate ene"y,

ho" the i"age as taken to re&resent$ 4A*9*S E44LES;AST;4AL$ ;n the 4anons of Rlfric, c$ M/, &riests are not to atten! funereal festi#ities unless they are in#ite!K an! if they are in#ite!, they are to forbi! the heathen songs of the le ! "en, an! their lou! cachinnationsK an! they are not to eat or !rink here the cor&se is !e&osite! VthFr thFt lic inne lithW, lest they be &artakers of the heathen rite hich is there celebrate!$ This see"s to be illustrate! by a &rohibition foun! in the 4a&itularies of 4harle"agne against eating an! !rinking o#er the "oun!s of the !ea!K an! also by a &assage of Boniface VE&ist$ 2+W, ho says that the 6ranks i""olate! bulls an! goats to the go!s, an! ate the sacrifices of the !ea!$ ;t has been su&&ose! that a nu"ber of teeth, of oxen an! shee& or goats, hich ere foun! a"ong heathen Saxon gra#es at :arnha", near Salisbury, "ight be e#i!ence of this &ractice$0L23 ;n the QLa s of the *orthu"brian Priests,Q c$ L7, it is enacte!'--Q;f there be a sanctuary Vfrith-gear!W in any one@s lan!, about a stone, or a tree, or a all, or any such #anity, let hi" that "a!e it &ay a fine Vlah-slitW, half to 4hrist, half to the lan!lor! Vlan!-ricaWK an! if the lan!lor! ill not ai! in executing the la , then let 4hrist an! the king recei#e the "ulct$Q T:E P9ET(% &reser#es "any traces of heathen!o"$ The unconscious relics of ol! "ythology that are i"be!!e! in the recurrent for"ulF of the heroic !iction is one of our strongest &roofs that this !iction as alrea!y "ature! in heathen ti"es$ A #ery &ro"inent ter" is Iyr! \ )estiny, 6ateK hich is the sa"e as the 5rYr of the Scan!ian "ythology, one of the three fates, 5rYr, IerYan!i, Skul! \ Past, Present, 6uture$ ;n Iyr!, the hole of the attributes are inclu!e! un!er one na"eK an! it counts a"ong the "arks of affinity bet een the :elian! an! our Anglo-Saxon literature, that the sa"e thing is obser#e! there also, though in a less !istinct "anner$ ;n the QBeo ulfQ it is sai!'--QIyr! often kee&s ali#e the "an ho is not !estine! to !ie, if his courage is eUual to the occasion$Q Iyr! is sai! to ea#e, to &rescribe, to or!ain, to !elu!e, to hurt$ ;n 4F!"on she is Flgri" \ bloo!thirsty$ An! the heathen association "ay still be felt, e#en hen the na"e of Iyr! is !is&lace! by a na"e of the 4hristian@s Go!, as in QBeo ulfQ here e rea!'--QThe Lor! ga#e hi" ebs to s&ee! in ar$Q0L73 ;n the :elian! the attributes are less #arie!, the #aticination is anting, an! TIurYT see"s al"ost the sa"e as )eath$ But the ol! tra!ition of the three "ysterious o"en li#e! on in this islan!$ ;t is no best kno n to us through the Ger"an 6airy Tales, here e ha#e the three s&inning o"en$ ;n the Hi!!le Ages there as a re"e"brance of these "ysterious #isitants in a certain cere"ony of

s&rea!ing a table for three, hether for &rotection to the house at night, or to bring goo! luck to the chil!ren born in that house$ ;n the Penitential of Bal! in, Bisho& of Exeter Vt elfth centuryW, this su&erstition is note!, an! the latter "oti#e assigne!$ The "onks of E#esha" ke&t u& a tra!ition hich trace! the origin of their house to a #ision of three beautiful "ai!ens, in hea#enly gar"ents, s eetly singing$ They ere seen by a s ineher! in the forest, hen he as in search of a lost s ine, an! he ent to Bisho& Ecg ine an! tol! hi"$ The bisho& arri#e! at the &lace, as fa#oure! ith the sa"e #ision, an! foun!e! the "onastery there$ The !e#ice on the abbey seal re&resente! this #ision$ A less &leasing #ision of the Three Sisters is narrate! by Iulfstan of Iinchester, a &oet of the tenth century, ho has left us a Latin &oe" of the Hiracles of St$ S ithun$ ;n it he tells ho , co"ing back one e#ening to ar!s Iinchester, he as "et by t o hi!eous fe"ales, ho co""an!e! hi" to sto&, but he ran a ay in terrorK he as then "et an! sto&&e! by a thir!, ho struck hi" a blo fro" hich he suffere! for the re"ain!er of his lifeK but the three o"en &lunge! into the ri#er an! !isa&&eare!$ The sa"e three a&&ear in THacbethT as the Ieir! SistersK an! it is &robably fro" this connexion that T eir!T has beco"e an a!jecti#e for all that sa#ours of heathenis"$ A freUuent or! for battle an! carnage is T FlT, an! the root i!ea of this or! is choice, hich "ay be illustrate! fro" the Ger"an T ehlenT--to choose$ The heathen i!ea as that Io!en chose those ho shoul! fall in battle to ! ell ith hi" in Ialhalla, the :all of the chosen$ ;n the exercise of this choice, Io!en acte! by fe"ale "essengers, calle! in the *orse "ythology T#alkyrjaT, &l$ T#alkyrjorT$0L,3 All su&erior orks in "etal, as s or!s, coats of "ail, je els, are the &ro!uctions of Ielan!, the s"ith$ :is father is calle! Iu!ga, an! his son is calle! Ia!aK an! ith this chil! on his shoul!er Ielan! stri!es through ater nine yar!s !ee&$ This as "atter of &o&ular song !o n to 4haucer@s ti"e'-:e songe, she &laye!e, he tol! a tale of Ia!e$ QTroylus an! 4rescy!e,Q iii$, O+/$ :e ha! by Bea!ohil! another son, in Ger"an na"e! Iiteche, ho inherite! his father@s skill an! reno n$ 6or his #iolence to Bea!ohil!, Ielan! as la"e!K but he "a!e for hi"self a inge! gar"ent, here ith he took his flight through the air$ :e is at once the )ai!alos an! the :e&haistos of the Greeks$ The translator of the Boethian Hetres has taken occasion to bring in this heathen go!, hose cult Vit see"sW as still too acti#e$ ;n Hetre ii$, 2, here Boethius has the line-5bi nunc fi!elis ossa 6abricii "anentf

un!er colour of TfaberT \ s"ith, hich the na"e 6abricius suggests, Ielan! is "a!e a fruitful text'-: Fr sin! nu thFs isan Ielan!es ban, thFs gol!s"ithes the Fs gio "Frostf 6orthy ic c Fth thFs isan Ielan!es ban, forthy Fngu" ne "Fg eorthbuen!ra, se craft losian the hi" 4rist onlFnth$ *e "Fg "on Ffre thy eth Fnne rFccan his craftes beni"an the "on oncerran "Fg sunnan on s ifan an! thisne s iftan ro!or of his riht ryne rinca Fnig$ : a at nu thFs isan Ielan!es ban, on h elcu" hi hlF a hrusan theccenf Ihere no are the bones of Ielan! the ise, that gol!s"ith so glorious of yoref Ihy na"e ; the bones of Ielan! the ise, but to tell you the truth that none u&on earth can e@er lose the craft that is lent hi" by 4hristf Jain ere it to try, e@en a #agabon! "an of his craft to berea#eK as #ain as to turn the sun in his course an! the s ift heeling sky fro" his state! career-it cannot be !one$ Iho no ots of the bones of Ielan! the ise, or hich is the barro that banks the"f 9ne of the "ost striking &oints of contact bet een our relics of "ythology an! those of the E!!a occurs in the QBeo ulf,Q here "ention

is "a!e of the fa"ous necklace of the Brosings Vor, as Gri"" oul! correct, BrisingsW$ ;n the E!!a the go!!ess 6reyja is the o ner of a &recious necklace, calle! TBrXsinga "enT$ She ha! acUuire! this je el fro" the ! arfs, an! she ke&t it in an inaccessible cha"ber, but, ne#ertheless, it as stolen fro" her by Loki$ Therefore Loki is TBrXsings thiofrT, the thief of the Brising necklaceK an! :ei"!allr fought ith Loki for it$ Ihen 6reyja is angry the hea#ing of this orna"ent betrays her e"otion$ Ihen Thcrr, to get his ha""er back, !isguises hi"self as 6reyja, he fails not to &ut on her fa"ous necklace$ 6ro" its "ention in Anglo-Saxon &oetry, Gri"" oul! infer the fa"iliarity of the Saxon race ith the hole story$0/.3 But hat a!!s #astly to the interest of this legen! is that e fin! it in :o"er$ ;t is essentially the sa"e ith the belt of A&hro!ite V:y"n, l$ 77W$ ;n ;lia! xi#$, -+L, A&hro!ite takes it off an! len!s it to :grg to char" ^eus ithal$ Ihen e a!! that just abo#e in the sa"e context V;lia! xi#$, +O/W :grg also has a curiously contri#e! cha"ber, "a!e for her by :e&haistos VJulcanW, the &arallel is too close to be "istaken$ T:E G9SPEL T(A*SLAT;9*$ 9f the ol! heathen theogony e ha#e a re"arkable !ocu"ent in the na"es of the !ays of the eekK an! these na"es are best &reser#e! to us in the rubrics of the Anglo-Saxon Gos&els$ These na"es are su&&ose! to ha#e co"e fro" the estern shores of Asia, an! to ha#e &er#a!e! the nations of Euro&e, both (o"an an! barbarian, in the first an! secon! centuries$ By a co"&arison of the sets of na"es in the t o fa"ilies of nations, e gain certain lea!ing facts about the chief !eities of our heathen ancestry, hich all the rest of the scattere! e#i!ence ten!s to confir"$ Thus our Tues!ay, A$-S$ Ty es-!Fg, co"&are! ith the 6rench Har!i an! its Latin original Hartis !ies, teaches us that the ol! go! Ti V ho as also calle! TirW as recognise! as the analogue of the (o"an Hars, the go! of ar$ So Ie!nes!ay, A$-S$ Io!nes-!Fg, co"&are! ith the 6rench Hercre!i an! its Latin for" Hercurii !ies, gi#es us &roof that the go! Io!en ans ere! to the (o"an Hercurius$ So, too, Thurs!ay, A$-S$ Thunres-!Fg, co"&are! ith 6rench Jeu!i an! Latin Jo#is !ies, sho s that Thunor V ho" the Scan!ina#ians call ThorW is the go! of thun!er, like the Latin Ju&iter$ So again, 6ri!ay, A$-S$ 6rige-!Fg, co"&are! ith Jen!re!i an! Jeneris !ies, gi#es us the analogy of 6rige ith Jenus$0/+3 Satur!ay, A$-S$ SatFrnes-!Fg, see"s like a borro e! na"e fro" the Latin Saturnus$ <e"ble "aintaine! the &robability that SFtere as a nati#e !i#inity, an! consi!ere! that the local na"es of Satterth aite VLanc$W, an! Satterleigh V)e#onW, offere! so"e &robable e#i!ence in that !irection$ Hore !istinct are the local na"esakes of Io!en$ <e"ble a!!uces re&eate! instances of Ianborough, for"erly Io!nesbrook VSurrey, Iilts, :antsW, Ioo!nesborough V<entW, Ianstro , for"erly Io!nestreo \ Io!en@s tree VSo"ersetW, Ians!ike, an! others$

T:E :9H;L;ES occasionally !enounce an! !escribe the &re#alent for"s of heathenis" still sur#i#ing$ Thus Rlfric Vi$, L2LW'--Q;t is not allo e! to any 4hristian "an, that he shoul! reco#er his health at any stone, or at any tree$Q Iulfstan &reaches thus'--Q6ro" the !e#il co"es e#ery e#il, e#ery "isery, an! no re"e!y' here he fin!s incautious "en he sen!s on the"sel#es, or so"eti"es on their cattle, so"e terrible ail"ent, an! they &rocee! to #o al"s by the !e#il@s suggestion, either to a ell or to a stone, or else to so"e unla ful things$$$$Q0/-3 ;n an alliterati#e ho"ily of the tenth century, the heathen go!s that are co"bate! are )anish'--0/M3 Thes Jo#is is ar urthost ealra thFra go!a, The tha hFthenan hFf!on on heora ge! il!e, an! he hatte Thor bet ux su"u" theo!u"K thone tha )eniscan leo!e lufiath s ithost$ $$$ Su" "an as gehaten Hercurius on life, he as s ithe facenful an! s icol on !e!u", an! lufo!e eac stala an! leasbre!nysseK thone "aco!on tha hFthenan hi" to "Fran go!e, an! Ft ega gelFtu" hi" lac offro!on, an! to heagu" beorgu" hi" on brohton onseg!nysse$ Thes go! as ar urthra bet ux eallu" hFthenu", an! he is 9thon gehaten othru" na"an on )enisc$ This Jo#e is "ost orshi&&e! of all the go!s that the heathens ha! in their !elusionK an! he hight Thor so"e nations a"ongK hi" the tribes of the )anes es&ecially lo#e$ $$$ There once li#e! a "an Hercurius hightK

he as #astly !eceitful an! sly in his !ee!s, eke stealing he lo#e! an! lying !e#iceK hi" the heathens they "a!e their "ajestical go!, an! at the cross roa!s they offere! hi" gifts, an! to the high hills brought hi" #icti"s to slay$ This go! as "ain orthy all heathens a"ong, an! his na"e hen translate! in )anish is 9!in$ An interesting exa"&le of the "etho!s use! to ean our si"&le forefathers fro" their ol! heathen &ractices "ay be seen in a QS&ell to restore fertility to lan!$Q0/L3 The &rea"ble sets forth'--Q:ere is the re"e!y hereby thou "ayest restore thy fiel!s, if they ill not &ro!uce ell, or here any uncanny thing has befallen the", like "agic or itchcraft$Q 6our turfs are to be cut before !a n fro" four corners of the lan!, an! these are to be stacke! in a hea&, an! u&on the" are to be !ro&&e! !ro&s of an elaborate &re&aration hereof one ingre!ient is holy aterK an! o#er the" are to be sai! or!s of Scri&ture an! 9ur 6ather$ An! then the turfs are taken to church, an! &rayers are sai! by the &riest hile the green of the turfs is turne! altar ar!sK an! then, before sun-!o n, the turfs are returne! to their o n original &laces' but first, four crosses, "a!e of Uuickbea", ith the na"es Hatthe , Hark, Luke, John, ritten on their four en!s, are to be &ut, one in the botto" of each &it, an! as each turf is restore! to its nati#e s&ot, an! lai! on its &articular cross, say thus'--Q4rux, HattheusK 4rux, HarcusK 4rux, LucasK 4rux, Joannes$Q0//3 Then the su&&licant turns east ar!, bo s nine ti"es, an! says a rhyth"ic for" of &rayer, in hich so"e heathen ele"ents are just !iscernible$ Then he turns three ti"es to ar!s the sun in its course, an! sings Bene!icite, Hagnificat, an! Pater *oster, an! "akes a gracious #o , in the frien!ly co"&rehension of hich all the neighbourhoo! is inclu!e!, gentle an! si"&le$ This being !one, strange see! "ust be &rocure!, an! this "ust be got fro" &oor Qal"s"enQK an! the su&&licant "ust gi#e the" a !ouble Uuantity in returnK an! then he "ust collect together all his &lough-gear an! tackle, an! say o#er the" a &oetic for"ula hich has frag"ents that look #ery like the real ol! heathen char"$ ;t begins ith untranslatable or!s'-Erce, erce, erce, eor!an "o!or$ Erce, erce, erce, "other of earth$ Then go to ork ith the &lough, an! o&en the first furro , an! say'--

:hl es thu, fol!e, fira "o!orK beo thu gro en!e, on 4o!es fFth"eK fo!re gefylle!, firu" to nytte$ Soil ; salute thee, "other of soulsK be thou gro ing by Go!@s graceK fille! ith fo!!er folks to co"fort$ Then a loaf is to be knea!e! an! bake!, an! &ut into the first furro , ith yet another anthe"'-6ul Fcer fo!res fira cinne, beorht-blo en!e thu gebletso! eorth$ A full cro& of fo!!er "ay the folks seeK brightly blosso"ing, blesse! "ote thou be$ Then follo s a cha&let of three re&etitions, t ice re&eate!, an! this long !ay@s orison is !one$ :ere e ha#e a fair exa"&le of the artifice use! by the clergy in transfor"ing ol! heathen char"s into e!ifying cere"onies$ Hen are here le! to &rayK to exercise the"sel#es in so"e of the chief liturgical for"ularies of the 4atholic 4hurchK to acce&t 4hristian #ersions of their ol! incantationsK to &rofess goo! ill to their neighbours, high an! lo K an! to exercise so"e bounty to ar!s the &oor$ *atural "eans are not neglecte!K a change of see! is "a!e a &art of the cere"onial$ Such are so"e of the traces e can gather fro" the ex&iring relics of heathenis"$ They all co"e fro" the 4hristian &erio!, as as natural, seeing that the national &rofession of heathenis" en!e! before our literature began, unless the annals "entione! at the beginning of this cha&ter are exce&tions$ The facilities of riting "ust ha#e been #ery li"ite! if the only al&habet in use as the (unic$ ;t is, &erha&s, a little too rigi! to assu"e that the use of the (o"an al&habet is to be !ate! strictly fro" the 4on#ersion$ As the use of (unes !i! not then su!!enly ter"inate, but gra!ually rece!e! before the su&erior instru"ent, so &erha&s it is "ost reasonable to su&&ose that the a!o&tion of the (o"an al&habet as #ery gra!ual, an! that the Saxons "ay ha#e begun to use it, at least in <ent, before the reign of Rthelberht$0/O3

699T*9TES' 0M,3 T$ Iright, Q4elt, (o"an, an! Saxon,Q &$ M7,K J$($ Green, QShort :istory,Q i$, -$ 0L.3 QEcclesiastical :istory,Q i$, --$ 0L+3 ;t is the "anner of the Saxon chronicles to attach each annal to its year-!ate by an a!#erb of locality--Q:ere$Q 0L-3 QGer"ania,Q c$ -$ 0LM3 T;!$T, c$ ,$ 0LL3 T;!$T, c$ L/$ 0L/3 QGer"ania,Q c$ L.$ 0LO3 Q)e Te"&oru" (atione,Q c$ +M$ 0L23 QArchFologia,Q #ol$ xxx#$, &$ -/,$ 0L73 4o"&are ith this the QS&ae!o" of the *orns,Q in )asent@s QBurnt *jalQK also Gray@s Q6atal Sisters,Q hich is another #ersion of the sa"e original, one re"o#e further off, as Gray kne the &oe" only through the Latin of TorfFus$ 0L,3 The secon! &art of this co"&oun! re&eats the i!ea of the first, na"ely, choice' it is fro" the #erb to choose, for in certain tenses this #erb change! TsT to TrT, just as fro" the #erb to TfreeSeT e ha#e TfroreT VHiltonW, an! fro" TloseT e ha#e a &artici&le TlornT$ The Anglo-Saxon for" is T FlcyrigeT$ Gri""@s QTeutonic Hythol$Q tr$ Stallybrass, &$ L+7$ <e"ble, QSaxons,Q i$, L.-$ 0/.3 The sa"e keen !isco#erer scents an ol! heathen re"iniscence also hen the &oet of the :elian! "akes that holy thing hich is not to be cast before !ogs VHatthe #ii$ OW a Thglag hals"eniT \ holy necklace$ 0/+3 6or the !istinct attributes of this go!!ess, ho as the ife of Io!en, the rea!er "ay consult Gri""@s QTeutonic Hythology,Q ho Uuotes Paulus )iaconus Veighth centuryW, saying that the Langobar!s calle! Io!en@s ife T6reaT, an! Saxo, &$ +M, saying, Q6rigga 9thini conjux$Q 0/-3 Qiber !ie Ierke !es altenglischen ErSbischofs Iulfstan,Q #on Arthur *a&ier$ Iei"ar, +77-, &$ MM$ 0/M3 Printe! in <e"ble@s QSolo"on an! Saturn,Q &$ +-.$ 0/L3 Printe! in Thor&e@s QAnalectaQ V+7LOW, &$ ++O$

0//3 This recalls the char" that ithin li#ing "e"ory as use! on )art"oor as an e#ening &rayer'-Hatthe , Hark, Luke, an! John, Bless the be! that ; lie onK T o to hea! an! t o to feet, An! four to kee& "e hile ; slee&$ 0/O3 So"e (unic al&habets "ay be seen in "y QPhilology of the English Tongue,Q j ,O Ve!$ M, +72,W$ The best collection of (unic "onu"ents is in the t o folio #olu"es of Professor George Ste&hens$

4:APTE( ;J$ T:E S4:99LS 96 <E*T$ j +$ ;t is a !ebatable Uuestion hether any (o"an culture li#e! through the Saxon conUuest$ The Saxon conUuest of Britain as certainly, on the hole, a !estructi#e one, an! it has been justly contraste! ith the 6rankish conUuest of GaulK here the conUuerors Uuickly assi"ilate! ith the conUuere!$ The relics of (o"an ci#ilisation hich the Saxons a!o&te!, ere in!ee! fe $ This is true, as a general state"ent$ But there is so"e groun! for regar!ing <ent as a case a&art$ :ere all accounts see" to in!icate a gra!ual an! less #iolent intrusion of the ne race, an! to suggest the &ossibility that there as not for that area a co"&lete break in the tra!itions an! custo"s of life$ The ca&ital city itself, )orobernia V4anterburyW, hate#er re#olution it "ay ha#e suffere!, as at least not !estroye!$ There is nothing that reUuires us to assu"e the extinction of the schools of gra""ar hich existe! &resu"ably in <ent as in Gaul$ The foun!ation of schools by the (o"an "ission is not recor!e!, nor !oes Be!e say anything to i"&ly it hen thirty years later he !escribes the foun!ation of schools in East Anglia$ These ere foun!e! by king Sigberct because he !esire! to ha#e goo! institutions such as he ha! seen in Gaul, an! his ishes ere carrie! into effect by bisho& 6elix, after the &attern of the schools of <ent$0/23 Ihether it oul! be &ossible to trace the stu!y of (o"an la as a scholastic exercise through these obscure ti"es, is #ery !oubtful$0/73 But certainly there is so"ething about the Latinity of our earliest legal !ocu"ents, that has a local an! e#en a #ernacular as&ect$ Slight as these traces "ay be, they are interesting enough to "erit consi!eration$ ;n the <entish la s are &reser#e! our ol!est extant relics of ancestral custo"$ The first co!e is that of Rthelberht, ith this title'--QThis be

the )oo"s that Rthelbriht, king, or!aine! in Augustine@s !ays$Q ;t is "uch concerne! ith &enalties for &ersonal injuries$ These are so"e of the Q)oo"sQ'-4a&$ L.$ ;f an ear be s"itten off, O shillings a"en!s VbctW$ Q L+$ ;f the ear be &ierce! through, M shillings$ Q LM$ ;f an eye is lost, /. shillings$ Q LL$ ;f "outh or eye be !a"age!, +- shillings$ Q L/$ ;f the nose be &ierce!, , shillings$ Q /+$ 6or the four front teeth, O shillings eachK the tooth that stan!s next, L shillingsK the next to that, M shillingsK an! thenceforth, each, + shilling$ Penalties for theft are gra!uate! accor!ing to the Uuality of the &erson injure!, Ti$e$T, accor!ing to the !ifferent or!ers of "en in the bo!y &olitic, each of ho" has a se&arate #alue' king, noble, free"an, serf, sla#e$ Such e "ay su&&ose to ha#e been the &ri"iti#e institutes of the tribes in the ol! "other country on the 4ontinent$ But the co!e is hea!e! by a ca&tel, in hich the &ro&erty of the 4hurch is #alue! beyon! that of the king, an! the sa"e a&&lies to the higher clergy$ Q4a&$ +$ The &ro&erty of Go! an! the 4hurch, +- fol!K Bisho&@s &ro&erty, ++ fol!K Priest@s, , fol! 0the sa"e as the <ing@s3K )eacon@s, O fol!K 4lerk@s, M fol!$Q *ext follo s one that e "ay ell su&&ose "ight ha#e been the first of the &re-4hristian co!e' Q4a&$ -$ ;f the king su""on his &eo&le to hi", an! one there !o the" e#il--!ouble bct, an! /. shillings to the king$Q Be!e "entions Vii$, /W these la s of Rthelberht, an! es&ecially this feature of the", that they began ith the &rotection of 4hurch &ro&erty$ :e also says, that the king constitute! these la s accor!ing to (o"an &rece!ent VTjuxta exe"&la (o"anoru"TW, by hich so"e ha#e been le! to ex&ect that there oul! be an ele"ent of (o"an la in the"$ The i"itation consiste! only in co""itting the la s to riting$ Rthelberht !ie! in O+O, an! then ca"e a heathen reaction un!er his son Ea!bal!K but he as con#erte! to 4hristianity in O+7 by Bisho& Laurentius$ :is son Erconbriht, ho succee!e! in OL., as the first king ho !are! to !e"olish the heathen fanes$ Be!e infor"s us that this king "a!e a la for the obser#ance of the Lenten fastK but no la of the kin! a&&ears until e co"e to the la s of Iihtre!$ Ecgbriht succee!e! his father in OOL, un!er ho" the aning &o er of <ent reasserte! its for"er s ay$ To hi" succee!e! first :lothFre in O2M, an! then Ea!ric$ These t o reigns ere short, an! the na"es of both the kings stan! at the hea! of the next <entish co!e$ The intro!uctory sentence of this co!e as this'--Q:lothhFre an! Ea!ric, kings of the "en of <ent, enlarge! the la s hich their &re!ecessors ha! "a!e aforeti"e, ith these !oo"s follo ingQ'--

4a&$ 7$ ;f one "an i"&lea! another in a "atter, an! he cite the "an to a @Hethel@ or a @Thing@, let the "an al ays gi#e security to the other, an! !o hi" such right, as the <entish ju!ges &rescribe to the"$ This co!e has a little series of la s concerning offences to the sense of honour, an! conseUuent !anger to the king@s &eace'-4a&$ ++$ ;f in another@s house one "an calleth another "an a &erjurer, or assail hi" offensi#ely ith injurious or!sK let hi" &ay a shilling to the o ner of the house, an! O shillings to the insulte! "an, an! forfeit +- shillings to the king$ 4a&$ +-$ ;f a "an re"o#e another@s stou& here "en !rink ithout offence, by ol! right he &ays a shilling to hi" ho o ns the house, an! O shillings to hi" hose stoo& as taken a ay, an! +- shillings to the king$ 4a&$ +M$ ;f ea&on be !ra n here "en !rink, an! no har" be !oneK a shilling to the o ner of the house, an! +- shillings to the king$ After a troublous ti"e of encroach"ent fro" the si!e of Iessex, the king!o" of <ent ha! again a ti"e of honour, if not of absolute in!e&en!ence, un!er king Iihtre! VO,+-2-/W, ho, in the &rea"ble to his la s, is calle! the "ost gracious king of the <entish folk VTse "il!esta cyning 4ant araTW$ :is la s are "ostly ecclesiastical$ The rights of the 4hurch an! of her "inisters, the kee&ing of the Sun!ay, "anu"ission of sla#es at the altar, &enalties for heathen rites, these subjects "ake the bulk of a co!e of -7 ca&tels, of hich the last four are about theft$ The closing &ro#ision is characteristic of the state of society' 4a&$ -7$ ;f a "an fro" a !istance, or a stranger, go off the roa!, an! he neither shout nor blo a horn, as a thief he is liable to be exa"ine!, or slain, or re!ee"e!$ ;n the &rea"ble this co!e is &recisely !ate! on the Oth !ay of August in Iihtre!@s fifth year, hich is O,O$ Also it "entions Bergha"sty!e, hich see"s to "ean Berkha"stea! V:ertsW, as the &lace of enact"ent, an! Gyb"un!, bisho& of (ochester, as ha#ing been &resent$ )oubts ha#e been cast u&on the genuineness of this co!e, but it is !efen!e! in Sch"i!@s intro!uction$ This is the last of the la s of <ent$ The <entish la s are foun! in a register of the t elfth century, hich has a high character for fi!elity$ *o !oubt the substance of the" is faithfully &reser#e!$ But they are not in the original <entish !ialectK they ha#e been translate! into Iest Saxon$ The translation has not, ho e#er, obliterate! all traces of the originalK there are so"e &eculiarities hich sur#i#e, an! hich enable us to see through the &resent for" those traces of a higher antiUuity, hich strengthen that confi!ence hich the contents are calculate! to ins&ire$ The <entish !ialect as the first literary for" of the language of our

Saxon ancestors$ ;t has been thought that in the E&inal Gloss, of hich a s&eci"en ill be gi#en belo , e ha#e the best extant re&resentation of this ancient !ialect$ Early in the ninth century e ha#e so"e original !ocu"ents in the <entish !ialect, an! these are our surest gui!es in ju!ging of other s&eci"ens$0/,3 The follo ing extract is fro" a legal !ocu"ent of the year 7M-$ Luba ha! "a!e a !ee! of gift fro" her estate to the fraternity of 4hrist 4hurch at 4anterbury, an! the follo ing sanction as a&&en!e!' ;c luba eaY"o! go!es Yi en Yas forec e!enan go! Yas el"essan gesette gefestnie ob "ine" erfelan!e et "un!lingha" Ye" hiiu" to cristes cirican ic bi!!e an go!es libgen!es na"an bebia!e YF" "en Ye Yis lan! Yis erbe hebbe et "un!lingha" Yet he Yas go! forYleste oY iaral!e en!e se "an se Yis heal!an ille lestan Yet ic bebo!en hebbe an Yise" ge rite se hi" seal! geheal!en sia hiabenlice ble!sung se his fer erne oYYe hit agele se hi" seal! geheal!en helle ite bute he to fulre bote gecerran ille go!e "annu" uene ualete$ ;, Luba, the hu"ble han!"ai! of Go!, a&&oint an! establish these foresai! benefactions an! al"s fro" "y heritable lan! at Hun!lingha" to the brethren at 4hrist 4hurchK an! ; entreat, an! in the na"e of the li#ing Go! ; co""an!, the "an ho "ay ha#e this lan! an! this inheritance at Hun!lingha", that he continue these benefactions to the orl!@s en!$ The "an ho ill kee& an! !ischarge this that ; ha#e co""an!e! in this riting, to hi" be gi#en an! ke&t the hea#enly blessingK he ho hin!ers or neglects it, to hi" be gi#en an! ke&t the &unish"ent of hell, unless he ill re&ent ith full a"en!s to Go! an! to "en$ 6are ye ell$ j -$ The "i!!le of the se#enth century as a #ery !ark &erio! throughout the Iest$ The lingering rays of ancient culture ha! gro n #ery faint in 6rance, ;taly, an! S&ain$ Literary &ro!uction ha! cease! in 6rance since Gregory of Tours an! his frien! Jenantius 6ortunatus, the &oetK in S&ain, soon after ;si!ore of Se#ille, the 4hristian area ha! been narro e! by the Hosle" in#asionK in ;taly, though the tra!ition of learning as ne#er extinguishe!, yet no riter of e"inence a&&eare! for a long ti"e after Gregory the Great$ At such a ti"e it as that the see! of learning foun! a ne an! fruitful soil a"ong the Anglo-Saxon &eo&leK an! they ho ha! been the latest recei#ers of the ci#ilising ele"ent, Uuickly took the lea! in religion an! learning$ ;n the year OO7 three re"arkable "en ca"e into Britain, These ere Theo!ore, a Greek of Tarsus, ho ca"e as Archbisho& of 4anterburyK :a!rian, an African "onk ho ha! !e&recate! his o n a&&oint"ent to that

officeK an! Bisco& Ba!ucing Vcalle! Bene!ict Bisco&W, an Angle of *orthu"bria, ho ha! left his retreat in the "onastery of Lerins, to gui!e an! acco"&any the tra#ellers into his nati#e country$ This ha! risen out of an unforeseen e#ent, an! ha! al"ost the a&&earance of acci!ent$ But the conseUuences ere great an! far-reaching$ Theo!ore organise! the English 4hurch u&on lines that &ro#e! &er"anent$ A ne era as also inaugurate! for literature an! art$ Literature as re&resente! by :a!rian, ho set u& e!ucation at St$ Augustine@s u&on an i"&ro#e! &lanK an! art, es&ecially in relation to religious an! e!ucational institutions--books, buil!ings, ritual-- as the &ro#ince of Bene!ict Bisco&$ 5& to this ti"e e!ucation an! literature ha! t o ri#al sources, the ol! schools of <ent, an! the schools of the ;rish teachers$ But fro" :a!rian@s co"ing a ne literary era co""ences$ 6or "ore than a hun!re! years our islan! as the seat of learning beyon! any other country in the orl! of the Iest$ E#en Greek learning, extinct else here, as re#i#e! for a ti"eK an! Be!e, hose chil!hoo! ha! corres&on!e! to the o&ening of this ne acti#ity, looke! back on it hen he as ol! as a glorious ti"e, an! he &ut it on recor! that he ha! kno n "any scholars to ho" both the Latin an! Greek languages ere as their "other tongue$ 9f those ho ere for"e! in the school of :a!rian, the first an! "ost cons&icuous is Al!hel"$ :is ru!i"entary e!ucation "ust ha#e been o#er before he kne :a!rian$ The school of Hai!ulf ga#e hi" his boyish training at the "onastery hich as calle! after the ;rish foun!er, an! hich has gi#en na"e to the to n of Hal"esbury VHai!ulfes burhW$ So Al!hel" stan!s bet een the t o syste"s, the ol! ;rish an! the ne <entish$ :is &reference as for the latter, but his orks retain the characteristics of both$ :e has a lo#e of gran!iloUuence hich is both <eltic an! Saxon, an! a !elight in alliteration hich is "ore es&ecially Saxon$ :is fa"iliarity ith the national &oetry loo"s often through his Latin$ But his &ro&er characteristics, those hereby he fills a &osition altogether his o n, are a&art fro" these &eculiarities$ :e is the scholar of the age, the ty&e of that set ho" Be!e !elighte! to recall, ho kne Latin an! Greek like their "other tongue$ :e is the father of Anglo-Latin &oetry$ :e "a!e a Sealous stu!y of the Latin "etres, an! he co""en!e! the &ursuit to other scholars$ :is Greek kno le!ge "anifests itself e#ery here' not al ays ith a goo! effect, accor!ing to &resent tasteK but in a "anner hich is of historical #alue as !e"onstrating his real fa"iliarity ith the Greek language$ Al!hel"@s great ork, an! the ork hich "ost con#eys his inter&retation of the s&iritual con!itions of his ti"e, is his book, Q)e Lau!e Jirginitatis,Q in &raise of 4elibacy$ But for the &ur&oses of literary history, his artistic stu!ies are of "ore i"&ortance than those hich are strictly religious an! ecclesiastical$ 9f the greatest interest for us are his (i!!les$ These are short Latin &oe"s so"e hat after the "o!el of Sy"&hosius, hose ork he !escribes,0O.3 an! ho" he see"s a"bitious to outstri&$ The ri!!les of Sy"&hosius are unifor"ly of three hexa"eter lines, those of Al!hel" #ary in length fro" four lines to sixteenK

rarely "ore$ The external structure is that of the E&igra", ith the object s&eaking in the first &erson$ The ri!!les both of Sy"&hosius an! Al!hel" are so closely i!entifie! ith the #ernacular ri!!les of the fa"ous Exeter Song Book, that the rea!er "ay be gla! of a s&eci"en fro" each author$ ;t shoul! be &re"ise! that in each collection the subject stan!s as a title at the hea! of each &iece$ The subject of the sixteenth in Sy"&hosius is the book-"oth'-)E T;*EA$ Litera "e &a#it, nec Uui! sit litera no#i, ;n libris #ixi nec su" stu!iosior in!e, Exe!i "usas nec a!huc ta"en i&se &rofeci$ ; ha#e fe! u&on literature, yet kno not hat it isK ; ha#e li#e! a"ong books, yet a" not the "ore stu!ious for itK ; ha#e !e#oure! the Huses, yet u& to the &resent ti"e ; ha#e "a!e no &rogress$ 9ne of Al!hel"@s ri!!les is on the Al&habetK an! this ill be a fit s&eci"en here, as containing so"ething that is ger"ane to the history of literature'-*os !enF et se&te" genitF sine #oce sorores, Sex alias nothas non !ici"us a!nu"eran!as, *asci"ur ex ferro rursus ferro "oribun!F, *ecnon et #olucris &ennd #olitantis a! Fthra"K Terni nos fratres incertd "atre crearuntK Nui cu&it instanter sitiens au!ire, !oce"us, Turn cito &ro"&ta !a"us rogitanti #erba silenter$ Ie are se#enteen sisters #oiceless bornK six others, half-sisters, e exclu!e fro" our setK chil!ren of iron by iron e !ie, but chil!ren too of the bir!@s ing that flies so highK three brethren our sires, be our "other as "ayK if any one is #ery eager to hear, e tell hi", an! Uuickly gi#e ans er ithout any soun!$0O+3 Al!hel" is the first of the Anglo-Latin &oets, an! he as a classical scholar at a ti"e hen to be so as a great !istinction$ Both in &rose an! #erse, his style has the faults hich belong to an age of re#i#e! stu!y$ :is lo#e of learning, his keen a&&reciation of its beauty an! its #alue, ha#e ten!e! to inflate his sentences ith an a&&earance of !is&lay$ :is &oetic !iction is si"&ler than that of his &roseK but here, too, he is habitually o#er-ele#ate!, hence he beco"es so"eti"es stilte!, an! oftenti"es he !ro&s belo &itch ith an ina!eUuate an! !isa&&ointing close$ But e "ust honour hi" in the &osition hich he hol!s$ :e is the lea!er of that noble series of English scholars ho re&resent the first en!ea#ouring stage of reco#ery after the great ecli&se of Euro&ean culture$ There is nothing of his re"aining in the #ernacularK but that he as an

English &oet e ha#e testi"ony hich, though late, is not to be !isregar!e!$ Iillia" of Hal"esbury Uuotes a book of <ing Alfre!@s, hich sai! that Al!hel" ha! been a &eerless riter of English &oetry' an! he a!!s, "oreo#er, that a &o&ular song, hich ha! been "entione! by Alfre! as Al!hel"@s, as still co""only sung in his o n ti"e--that is, in the t elfth century$ Atte"&ts ha#e been "a!e to i!entify so"e of our extant Anglo-Saxon literature ith a na"e so e"inent$ ;n +7M/ the Anglo-Saxon Psalter of the Paris "anuscri&t as first &rinte! at 9xfor!, an! as this book gi#es a hun!re! of the Psal"s in #ernacular &oetry, the suggestion that they "ight be Al!hel"@s, though "o!ernise!, ha! rhetorical attractions for the e!itor VThor&eW, an! su&&lie! hi" ith "aterial for a fe rather i!le sentences of his Latin &reface$ ;n +7L. Jacob Gri"" e!ite! Vfro" Thor&e@s e!itio &rince&sW t o &oe"s of the Jercelli book, the QAn!reasQ an! the QEleneKQ an! in his &reface he sought to fix this &oetry u&on Al!hel" by a line of argu"ent altogether fallacious, as as after ar!s sho n by Hr$ <e"ble in his e!ition of the QAn!reasQ for the Rlfric Society$ That hich e ha#e to sho for this &erio! in the nati#e <entish !ialect is less a"bitious, but it ill not be !es&ise! by the consi!erate rea!er$ ;n the beginnings of learning, hen stu!ents ha! not the a&&aratus of gra""ars an! !ictionaries, hich no , being co""on, are al"ost as "uch a "atter of course as any gift of nature, it as necessary for stu!ents to "ake lists of or!s an! &hrases for the"sel#es, an! after a hile a fe of these oul! be thro n together, an! oul! be re!uce! to al&habetical or!er for facility of reference$ ;t is to such a &rocess as this that e o e the Glossaries hich for" an interesting branch of Anglo-Saxon literature$ The E&inal Gloss is the ol!est of these, an! it is #ery #aluable because of the archaic for"s of "any of the or!s$ A selection is here gi#en by ay of s&eci"en'--0O-3 EP;*AL GL9SS$ VT4oo&er, A&&en!ix B, &$ +/M$TW TAlba s&inaT, haegu thorn Vha thornW$ TAesculusT, boecae VbeechW$ TAchalantis, luscinaT netigalF VnightingaleW$ TAcrifolusT, holegn VhollyW$ TAlnusT, alaer Val!erW$ TAbiesT, sae&&ae VfirW$ TArgellaT, laa" Vloa"W$ TAccituliu"T, geacaes surae VsorrelW$ TAbsintiu"T, uuer"o! V or" oo!W$ TAlacrisT, snel Vs ift, Ger"an TschnellTW$ TAl#eusT, strea" ra! Vstrea"-roa! \ channelW$ TAUuilFT, segnas V"ilitary stan!ar!sW$ TAnserT, goos VgooseW$ TBetaT, berc, TarborT VbirchW$

TBallenaT, hran V haleW$ TBuculusT, ran! beag VbucklerW$ TBerrucaT, uueartF V artW$ T4a!osT, a"bras VcasksW$ T4haosT, !uol"a Vconfusion, errorW$ T4icutaT, hy"blicae Vhe"lockW$ T4ofinusT, "an! Vha"&erW$ T6ulixT, ganot, !o& aeni! Vgannet, !i&-chickW$ T6ilixT, fearn VfernW$ T6asianusT, uuor hana V&heasantW$ T6ungusT, sua"" VGer"an Tsch a""TW$ T6ragorT, suoeg Vs ough, soughW$ T6iniculusT, finugl VfennelW$ T6ollisT, blest baeelg Vblast-bello sW$ TGlareaT, cisil V&ebble, cf$ 4hesil BankW$ T:ibiscu"T, bisco& uuyrt V"arsh "allo W$ T:oro!iusT, uualh hebuc Vforeign ha kW$ T:irun!oT, sualuuae Vs allo W$ T;ntestinu"T, thear" VGer"an T)ar"TW$ TJungetu"T, risc thyfil VjungleW$ T;n&robusT, gi"ach Vtroubleso"eW$ T;nersT, asolcaen VlaSyW$ T;nter &ri"oresT, bituien ael!ru" Va"ong the chief "enW$ TJuris &eritiT, re! boran VcounsellorsW$ T;n#isusT, laath VloathW$ T;uuarT V\ TjubarTW, leo"a, earen!il Vglea", beacon, crestW$ T;gnariu"T, al giuueorc Vfire- orkW$ T;bicesT, firgen gaett V"ountain goats, cha"oisW$ TLunulesT, "ene scillingas Vcoins or bracteates on a necklaceW$ TLuciusT, haeci! Vhake, Ger"an T:echtTW$ TLoliu"T, atae VoatsW$ TLi"axT, snel VsnailW$ TLigustru"T, hunaeg sugae VhoneysuckleW$ THani&ulati"T, threat"elu" Vin ban!sW$ THanicaT, gloob Vglo#eW$ THascusT, gri"a V"askW$ THal#aT, cotuc, geor"ant lab V"allo W$ THarsT, Tiig Vcf$ Tues!ayW$ T*inguitT, hsniuuith Vsno ethW$ T*igra s&inaT, slach thorn Vsloe-thornW$ T*anusT, !uerg V! arfW$ T9lorT, aelbitu Vthe elk, il! s anW$ TPiraticu"T, uuicing scea!an V&iratesW$ TParesT, uuyr!ae V6atesW$ TPernaT, flicci VflitchW$ TPictus acuT, "iY naeYlae sasiuui! Ve"broi!ere!W$ TPronusT, nihol V&er&en!icularW$ TPolluxT, thu"a Vthu"bW$ TNuoUuo"o!oT, aengiEinga Vanyho W$ T(u"exT, e!roc$ T(a"nusT, theban VthornW$ TSalixT, salch Vsallo W$

TSturnusT, staer VstarlingW$ TTitioT, bran! Vfirebran!W$ TTignariusT, hrofuuyrcta Vroof rightW$ TJa!i"oniu"T, borg V&le!ge, securityW$ ;n this glossary e see the &re&aration for our "o!ern Latin-English !ictionaries$ Alrea!y, as early as the reign of Augustus, the foun!ation of the Latin !ictionary as lai! by Jerrius 6laccus, but his !ictionary oul! naturally consist of Latin or!s ith Latin ex&lanations$ But in the se#enth century there as a !e"an! for Latin #ocabularies, ith eUui#alents in the #ernacular languagesK an! here, in the E&inal Glossary, e ha#e the earliest kno n exa"&le of such a ork$ At first such glossaries oul! be "erely lists of or!s for"e! in the course of stu!ying so"e one or t o Latin texts, an! in &rocess of ti"e oul! follo the co"&ilation of se#eral such glossaries into one, until, in the tenth an! ele#enth centuries, e fin! #ocabularies of so"e co"&ass Vas Rlfric@sW, an! by the fifteenth century e ha#e such bulky !ictionaries as the Q4atholiconQ an! the QPro"&toriu" Par#uloru"$Q Ie ill close this cha&ter ith s&eci"ens of the QPsalter of St$ Augustine,Q hich recei#e! an Anglo-Saxon gloss V!ialect <entish0OM3W at the en! of the ninth, or early in the tenth century$ The book has been alrea!y !escribe! abo#e, &$ MM$ PSALH =L;=$ VL$W, 2'--Q:ear, 9 "y &eo&le,Q Pc$ geher folc "in on! s&recu to israhela folce on! 2$ Au!i &o&ulus "eus et loUuar ;srahel et ic cythu the thFtte go! go! thin ic ea" testificabor tibi Uuonia" )eus )eus tuus ego su" na les ofer onseg!nisse thine ic !regu the onseg!nisse 7$ *on su&er sacrificia tua argua" te holocausta soth thine in gesihthe "inre sin! aa aute" tua in cons&ectu "eo sunt se"&er ic ne on foo of huse thinu" calferu ne of eo !u" ,$ *on acci&ia" !e !o"o tua #itulos neUue !e gregibus thinu" buccan tuis hircos for thon "in sin! all il!eor u!a neat in +.$ Nuonia" "eF sunt o"nes ferF sil#aru" ju"enta in "untu" on! oexen "ontibus et bo#es ic on cneo all tha flegen!an heofenes on! hio ++$ 4ogno#i o"nia #olatilia cFli et s&ecies

lon!es "i! "ec is agri "ecu" est gif ic hyngriu ne c eothu ic to the "in is sothlice +-$ Si esuriero non !ica" tibi, "eus est eni" y"b h erft eorthan on! fylnis his orbis terrF et &lenitu!o ejus ah ic eotu flFsc ferra oththe blo! +M$ *u"Uui! "an!ucabo carnes tauroru" aut sanguine" buccena ic !rinco hircoru" &otabo agel! go!e onseg!nisse lofes on! gel! tha" hestan +L$ ;""ola )eo sacrificiu" lau!is et re!!e Altissi"o gehat thin #ota tua gece "ec in !ege ges inces thines thFt ic genere +/$ ;n#oca "e in !ie tribulationis tuF ut eri&ia" thec on! thu "iclas "ec te et "agnificabis "e ) ; A P S A L H A$ to thF" synfullan sothlice c eth go! for h on thu +O$ Peccatori aute" !ixit )eus Nuare tu asagas reht isnisse "ine on! geni"es cythnisse "ine enarras justitias "eas et a!su"es testa"entu" "eu" thorh "uth thinne &er os tuu" thu sothlice thu fio!es theo!sci&e on! thu a ur&e +2$ Tu #ero o!isti !isci&lina" et &rojecisti or! "in efter the ser"ones "eos &ost te gif thu gesege theof so"u! thu urne "i! hine on! +7$ Si #i!ebas fure" si"ul currebas cu" eo et "i! unreht hF"!eru" !Fl thinne thu settes cu" a!ulteris &ortione" tua" &onebas "uth thin genihtsu"ath "i! nithe on! tunge thin

+,$ 9s tuu" abun!a#it hleothra!e facen concinna#it !olu"

neUuitia et lingua tua

sitten!e ith broether thinu" thu tel!es on! -.$ Se!ens a!#ersus fratre" tuu" !etrahebas et ith suna "oe!er thinre thu settes es ic a!#ersus filiu" "atris tuF &onebas scan!alu" thas thu !y!es on! ic s iga!e thu ge oen!es on unreht isnisse -+$ :Fc fecisti et tacui existi"asti iniUuitate" thFt ic Fre the gelic Uuo! ero tibi si"ilis ic threu thec on! ic setto tha ongegn onsiene Argua" te et statua" illa contra facie" thinre 9ngeotath thas alle tha ofer geoteliath tua" V--$W intelligite hFc o"nes Uui obli#isci"ini !ryhten ne h onne gereafie on! ne sie se generge )o"inu" ne Uuan!o ra&iat et non sit Uui eri&iat onseg!nis lofes gearath "ec on! ther -M$ Sacrificiu" lau!is honorificabit "e et illic sithfet is thi!er ic otea u hi" haelu go!es iter est in Uuo osten!a" illi salutare )ei PSALH L==J;$ VL==J;;$W 9n! s"egen!e ic ea" in allu" ercu" thinu" on! +M$ Et "e!itatus su" in o"nibus o&eribus tuis et in gehael!u" thinu" ic bieo!e in obser#ationibus tuis exercebor go! in halgu" eg thin h elc go! "icel +L$ )eus in sancto #ia tua Uuis )eus "agnus s e s e go! ur thu earth go! thu the !oest sicut )eus noster V+/$W tu es )eus Uui facis un!ur ana cuthe thu !y!es in folcu" "egen "irabilia solus nota" fecisti in &o&ulis #irtute" thin gefreo!es in ear"e thinu" folc thin tua" V+O$W liberasti in brachio tuo &o&ulu" tuu"

bearn filios ;srahel et Jose&h gesegun thec eter go! gesegun thec eter on! +2$ Ji!erunt te aUuF )eus #i!erunt te aUuF et on !reor!un ge!roef!e erun niolnisse "engu ti"uerunt turbati sunt abyssi V+7$W "ultitu!o s oeges etre stefne sal!un olcen on! sothlice sonitus aUuaru" Joce" !e!erunt nubes et eni" strelas thine thorh leor!un stefn thunurra!e thinre sagittF tuF &ertransierunt V+,$W #ox tonitrui tui in h eole in rota in lihton bliccetunge thine eorthan y"bh yrfte gesaeh ;nluxerunt coruscationes tuF orbi terrF #i!it on! onstyre! es eorthe et co""ota est terra in sae egas thine on! stige thine in etru" "iclu" -.$ ;n "ari #iF tuF et se"itF tuF in aUuis "ultis on! s ethe thine ne bioth oncna en et #estigia tua non cognoscentur thu gelae!!es s e s e sce& folc thin in hon!a -+$ )e!uxisti sicut o#es &o&ulu" tuu" in "anu "osi on! aaron Hoysi et Aaron These s&eci"ens of the <entish !ialect V ith the exce&tion of the E&inal GlossW are of "uch later !ate than the ti"es hich our narrati#e has yet reache!K an! they are only offere! as a &roxi"ate re&resentation of that hich as the first of English !ialects to recei#e literary culture$ This !ialect is &eculiarly interesting as being that fro" hich the Iest Saxon as !e#elo&e!K in other or!s, it is the earliest for" of that i"&erial !ialect in hich the great bo!y of extant Saxon literature is &reser#e!$ But the <entish !i! not ri&en into the "aturer outlines of the Iest Saxon ithout the inter#ention of a thir! !ialectK an! in or!er to a&&reciate this it is necessary for us to re#ie that "ore s&acious culture of hich the scene as lai! in the country of the *orthern Angles$ 699T*9TES'

0/23 QEcclesiastical :istory,Q iii$, +7$ 0/73 Al!hel" s&eaks of the stu!y of (o"an la in connexion ith other scholastic stu!ies, as Latin #erses an! "usic$ But then that as after the ne start gi#en to e!ucation by Theo!ore an! :a!rian$ A century later, Alcuin !escribe! the stu!ies at J %ork in this or!er,--gra""ar, rhetoric, la $--Iharton, QAnglia Sacra,Q ii$ OK Alcuin@s &oe", Q)e Pontificibus Pc$Q 0/,3 They are in <e"ble, Q4o!ex )i&lo"aticus,Q *os$ --O, --7, --,, -M+, -M/, -M7$ 0O.3 Al!hel"@s QIorks,Q e!$ Giles, &$ --7$ 0O+3 Se#enteen consonants an! six #o elsK "a!e ith iron style an! erase! ith the sa"e, or else "a!e ith a bir!@s UuillK hate#er the instru"ent, three fingers are the agentsK an! e can con#ey ans er ithout !elay e#en in situations here it oul! be incon#enient to s&eak$ 0O-3 ; ha#e gi#en the TthT, or E, or Y, as in the "anuscri&t$ This is !one in the &resent instance because a &eculiar interest attaches to it in the earliest s&eci"ens of riting$ The freUuency of TthT, an! the rarity of the "onogra"s, is itself a !istinguishing feature$ S&eaking in general ter"s of Anglo-Saxon literature, as it a&&ears in "anuscri&ts, it "ight be fairly sai! that there is no TthTK this soun! is re&resente! by Y or E$ An! of these t o, the "o!ifie! (o"an character, k Y, is foun! to &re#ail o#er the nati#e (une VEW in the ol!est extant ritings$ Throughout this little book the TthT is co""only use!, as being "ost con#enient for the general rea!er$ 0OM3 Transactions of the Philological Society for +72/-O$

4:APTE( J$ T:E A*GL;A* PE(;9)$ Ihile 4anterbury as so i"&ortant a se"inary of learning, there as, in the Anglian region of *orthu"bria, a !e#elo&"ent of religious an! intellectual life hich "akes it natural to regar! the hole brilliant era fro" the later se#enth to the early ninth century as QThe Anglian Perio!$Q *ot only !i! the greatest school of the hole islan! gro u& at %ork, but also one that, ith its i"&ortant library, as for the ti"e the "ost acti#e an! useful in the hole of Iestern Euro&e$ The i"&ortance of the Anglian &erio! consists in the fact that it belongs not "erely to one nation, but that Anglia beca"e for a century

the light-s&ot of Euro&ean historyK an! that here e recognise the first great stage in the re#i#al of learning, an! the first "o#e"ent to ar!s the establish"ent of &ublic or!er in things te"&oral an! s&iritual$ :a&&ily, the &erio! stan!s out in a goo! historical light, an! the chief ele"ents of its influence are finely exhibite! in the &ersons of re&resentati#e "en or re&resentati#e grou&s$ There is Paulinus, the fugiti#e "issionary fro" <ent, ho "a!e the first ra&i! e#angelisation of the northern countryK <ing E! in an! his court for" a ell-!is&laye! grou& bet een the ol! !arkness an! the co"ing light, as they consult an! co"&are the t oK 9s al!, returning fro" exile to be king, an! bringing ith hi" the Scotian ty&e of 4hristianityK Ai!an, the first Scotian bisho& of Lin!isfarne, an! the "o!el of &astorsK Iilfri!, the cha"&ion of (o"an unity, confronting 4ol"an at the syno! of Ihitby before 9s y, the &resi!ing king, on the absorbing Uuestion of the ti"eK Iilfri! a&&ealing to (o"e against Theo!oreK an! yet again, Iilfri!, the first Anglo-Saxon "issionaryK Bisco& Ba!ucing VBene!ict Bisco&W, the foun!er of abbeys, the tra#eller, the intro!ucer of arts fro" abroa!K 4F!"on, the co her!, the !i#inely-ins&ire! singer an! the father of a school of English &oetryK 4uthberht, the she&her!-boy, abbot, bisho&, her"it, an! finally the national saint of *orthu"briaK Iillebror! an! the t o :e al!s, an! all the glorious ban! of "issionaries an! "artyrsK Iinfri! VBonifaceW, the cro n of the" all, a&ostle of Ger"any, an! "artyrK Be!a, the teacher an! historianK Ecgberct an! Alberct, successi#ely archbisho&s of %ork, ackno le!ge! &resi!ents of Iestern learningK Alcuin, the bearer of Anglian learning to the 6ranks, an! the organiser of schools for the future ages$ After Al!hel", the first English"an ho a&&eare! as an author as R!!i, better kno n as E!!ius Ste&hanus$ :e as the frien! an! co"&anion of Iilfri! in his contentions an! troubles, an!, after his !eath, he rote a biogra&hy of hi" in Latin$ This book is of great #alue as an authority, an! as illustrating the history of the later se#enth an! early eighth century$ Iilfri! !ie! in 2.,, the sa"e year as Al!hel"$ Iilfri! as the "aster-s&irit of this age$ :e re&resente! the best ai"s of his nationK he un!erstoo! the nee!s of the ti"eK he orke! for the", an! he suffere! for the"$ Iith an o#erbearing s&irit, fantastic too often in his con!uct, he sa hat as nee!e!--he sa the necessity for unity ith (o"e$ This as a necessity, not for one country alone, but for the hole Iest at that ti"e$ Protestant riters ha#e looke! at Iilfri! through a !istorting "e!iu"$ *o here, &erha&s, is there "ore nee! to allo for !ifference of ti"es than in esti"ating Iilfri!$ :e ha! great faultsK he Uuarrelle! ith the best "enK but, on the other han!, Theo!ore, the "ost i"&ortant of all his a!#ersaries, sought reconciliation at last, an! accuse! hi"self of injustice$ Iilfri! initiate! the Ger"an "issionsK he i"&resse! on that great fiel! of Saxon acti#ity the &olicy of his agitate! life, an! that &olicy as e#er "ilitant in Boniface, the chief a&ostle of Ger"any, an! "ay be sai! to ha#e triu"&he! hen the (o"an E"&ire as rene e! in har"ony ith the :oly See, an! 4harles as cro ne! in 7..$ Iilfri!, "ore than any other "an, a&&ears as the i!eal re&resentati#e of that #arie! influence,

religious, literary, &olitical, hich the Anglo-Saxon 4hurch exercise! u&on the Iestern orl!$ The beginning of our #ernacular literature, so far as it can be treate! chronologically, lies bet een the years O/7 an! O7.$ 6or these are the years of the abbacy of :il! at Ihitby, an! it as in her ti"e that 4F!"on a&&eare!, ho ha! recei#e! the gift of !i#ine song in a #ision of the night$ Ihen this hea#enly call as recognise!, the her!s"an beca"e a brother of the religious fraternity, an! !e#ote! his life to the &ursuit of sacre! &oetry$ To the lo#er of the "other tongue it "ust a&&ear a singular felicity that 4F!"on@s first hy"n is &reser#e! in a book that as ritten not "uch "ore than half-a-century after his !eath$0OL3 *u scylun hergan hefaenricaes uar!, "etu!Fs "aecti en! his "o!gi!ancK uerc uul!urfa!urK sue he uun!ra gihuaes, eci !ryctin, or asteli!F$ :e aerist sco& ael!a barnu" heben til hrofe, halig sce&enK tha "i!!ungear! "oncynnFs uar!, eci !ryctin, Ffter tia!F firu" fol!an frea all"ectig$ *o shall e glorify the guar!ian of hea#en@s real", the Haker@s "ight an! the thought of his "in!K the ork of the glory-father, ho :e of e#ery on!er, :e the Lor! eternal lai! the foun!ation$ :e sha&l! erst for the sons of "en, hea#en their roof, holy 4reatorK the "i!!le orl! he, "ankin!@s so#ereign, eternal ca&tain, after ar!s create!, the lan! for "en Lor! Al"ighty$0O/3

BE)A as born in O2-, in the neighbourhoo! of Iear"outh, t o years before Bisco& foun!e! an abbey there$ 9f this abbey Be!a beca"e an in"ate in his se#enth year, un!er Abbot Bisco&$ :e as after ar!s "o#e! to the sister foun!ation at Jarro , un!er Abbot 4eolfri!, an! there he li#e!, ith rare absences, the re"ain!er of his life$ :e as or!aine! !eacon at the early age of nineteenK in his thirtieth year he as or!aine! &riestK he !ie! in his sixty-thir! year, A$)$ 2M/$ :e as a #ery &rolific author, an! he has left us, at the en! of his "ost consi!erable ork, a sketch of his life, an! a list of his ritings, !o n to the fifty-ninth year of his age, A$)$ 2M+$ The bulk of his orks are theological, chiefly in the for" of co""entaries, an! they are little "ore than extracts fro" the best kno n of the 6athers$ This as a!a&te! to the nee!s of the ti"e, an! Be!e@s co""entaries ere hel! in great estee" !uring the hole &erio!$ Rlfric, in the tenth century, use! the" largely for his Q:o"ilies$Q 9f all Be!e@s orks, the chronological "a!e the greatest i""e!iate i"&ression, an! as of "ost general use at the ti"e an! for so"e centuries after ar!s$ The co"&utation of Easter as the groun! ork of the ecclesiastical year, an! e#ery church felt the benefit of his ser#ices$ 4hronology as then in its early "aturity, an! the 4hristian era as not yet a fa"iliar "etho! of reckoning$ Be!e as the first historian ho arrange! his "aterials accor!ing to the years fro" the ;ncarnation$ :e ha! "a!e hi"self co"&letely "aster of this subject, an! he left it in such or!er that nothing "ore ha! to be !one to it, or coul! be i"&ro#e! u&on it, for "any centuries$ :is fullest an! "ost !etaile! ork on chronology is entitle! Q)e Te"&oru" (atione,Q an! to this is a!!e! a chronicle of the orl!$ 9n this elaborate ork he as orking !o n to A$)$ 2-O$ Ie ha#e the authority of ;!eler for saying that this is a co"&lete gui!e to the calculation of ti"es an! festi#als$ :e treats of the se#eral !i#isions of ti"eK an! un!er the "onths, he s&eaks of the "oon@s orbit Vc$ x#ii$W, an! its i"&ortance for the calen!ar, an! the relation of the "oon to the ti!es Vc$ xxix$WK then of the eUuinoxes an! solstices, the #arying length of the !ays, the seasons of the year, the intercalary !ay, the cycle of nineteen years, the reckoning Anno )o"ini Vc$ xl#ii$W, in!ictions, e&acts, the !eter"ination of Easter$ All these things are taught ith theoretical thoroughness, as ell as also in their &ractical a&&lication$ :e also Vc$ lx#$W "a!e a table for Easter fro" A$)$ /M-, Q hen )ionysius began the first cycle,Q to A$)$ +.OM$0OO3 This is follo e! by the Q4hronicle or Six Ages of this Iorl!,Q altogether a ork that as a gro ing nucleus, an! ent on ex&an!ing !o n to the in#ention of &rinting an! the re#i#al of classical literature$ But the orks on hich his e"inence &er"anently rests, an! by hich he "a!e all &osterity in!ebte! to hi", are his historical an! biogra&hical ritings$ :e rote a &oe" on the "iracles of St$ 4uthbert, an! after ar!s he rote a &rose narrati#e Q9f the Life an! Hiracles of St$ 4uthbert, Bisho& of Lin!isfarneKQ an! in this, though a ne an! in!e&en!ent ork, so"ething of the &oe" is re&ro!uce!$ ;t is in this

&rose ork that e fin! the call of 4uthbert on the night of Ai!an@s !eath, the !etails of his her"it life on the rocky islet of 6arne, to hich he ha! retire! for greater rigour of !e#otion, fro" hich he as calle! back to be bisho& at Lin!isfarne, an! to hich after t o years@ e&isco&ate he again retire! for the re"nant of his life$ :e rote also a &rose life of St$ 6elix, !ra ing his "aterials fro" the "etrical life of that saint in hexa"eters by Paulinus$ :is greatest biogra&hical ork is QLi#es of the Abbots of Iear"outh an! Jarro , na"ely, Bene!ict, 4eolfri!, Easter ini, Sigfri!, an! : etbert$Q These ere the hea!s of the t o sister foun!ations ith hich his career as i!entifie!K an! so"e of the" ha! been his o n teachers$ The Life of Bene!ict is the "ost interesting, as "ight be ex&ecte!, an! it fills the largest &art of the book$ 6inally, his greatest ork, the ork hich is a gift for all ti"e, is his Q4hurch :istory of the Anglian Peo&le$Q This as the ork of the author@s "ature &o ers, an! so"e of his earlier ritings are "a!e use of in it$ ;n this history, hich is !i#i!e! into fi#e books, there is, first, a su""ary of the history of Britain, fro" the ti"e of Julius 4Fsar !o n to the ti"e of Gregory the Great$ This &art occu&ies t enty-t o cha&ters, an! is !ra n fro" 9rosius an! Gil!as an! 4onstantius$ The &ro&er narrati#e of Be!e begins at cha&$ xxiii$, an! there the con#ersion an! early history of Saxon 4hristianity is gi#en !o n to the ti"e of the restoration of the ol! church of St$ Sa#iour V4anterbury 4athe!ralW, an! the institution of the "onastery of SS$ Peter an! Paul VSt$ Augustine@sW$ The last cha&ter is of the !ecisi#e battle of )egsastan, hich !eter"ine! the su&eriority of the Angles o#er the Scotti$ The secon! book begins ith the !eath of Gregory an! goes !o n to the !eath of R!uini, <ing of *orthu"bria, A$)$ OMM$ ;n this book occurs a re"arkable s&eech "a!e by one of R!uini@s nobles, in the !ebate about a change of religion'-QThe &resent life of "an in the orl!, 9 king, is, by co"&arison ith that ti"e hich is unkno n, like as hen you are sitting at table ith your al!er"en an! thanes in the inter season, the fire blaSing in the "i!st, an! the hall cheerfully ar", hile the hirl in!s rage e#ery here outsi!e an! !ri#e the rain or the sno K one of the s&arro s co"es in an! flies s iftly through the house, entering at one !oor an! out at the other$ So long as it is insi!e, it is sheltere! fro" the stor", but hen the brief "o"entary cal" is &ast, the bir! is in the col! as before, an! is no "ore seen$ So this hu"an life is #isible for a ti"e' but of hat follo s or hat ent before e are utterly ignorant$ Iherefore, if this ne !octrine shoul! offer anything surer, it see"s orthy to be follo e!$Q Vii$, +M$W The thir! book goes !o n to the a&&oint"ent of Theo!ore to be Archbisho& of 4anterbury, A$)$ OO/$ This book contains the !ecision for (o"an unity, an! the !efeat an! !e&arture of 4ol"an an! his Scotian clergy$ Be!e as a hearty a!herent

of the (o"an obe!ience, an! his affectionate tribute to the ork of the ;rish is all the "ore re"arkable$ :e &auses u&on the recor! of their !e&arture as u&on the close of a goo! ti"e that ha! been, an! to hich he looks istfully back$ QThe great frugality an! content of hi" an! his &re!ecessors as itnesse! by the #ery &lace they rule!K for at their !e&arture there ere #ery fe buil!ings besi!es the churchK just hat ci#ilise! life absolutely reUuires, an! no "ore$ Their only ca&ital as their cattleK for if rich "en ga#e the" "oney, they &resently ga#e it to the &oor$ 9f fun!s an! halls for entertaining the orl!ly great they ha! no nee!, as such &ersonages ne#er ca"e but to &ray an! hear the or! of Go!$ The <ing hi"self, hen occasion reUuire!, oul! co"e ith just fi#e or six thanes, an! after &rayer in church oul! !e&artK an! if it chance! they took refresh"ent there, they ere content ith just the si"&le e#ery-!ay fare of the brothers, an! ante! nothing better$ 6or at that ti"e those teachers "a!e it their entire business to ser#e not the orl! but Go!, an! their hole care to cherish not the belly but the heart$ An! conseUuently the religious garb as at that ti"e in great #enerationK so "uch so that, here#er a cleric or a "onk arri#e!, he as joyfully recei#e! by all as the ser#ant of Go!$ E#en u&on the roa!, if one ere foun! tra#elling, they oul! run to hi", an! ben! the hea!, an! rejoice if he signe! the" ith the cross, or uttere! a blessingK at the sa"e ti"e they ga#e careful attention to their or!s of exhortation$ Horeo#er, on Sun!ays they oul! race to the church or the "onasteries, not to refresh the bo!y, but to hear Go!@s or!K an! if one of the &riests ha&&ene! to co"e to a #illage, the #illagers ere Uuickly asse"ble!, an! ere anting to hear fro" hi" the or! of life$ An!, in!ee!, the &riests on their &art or the clerics ha! no other object in going to the #illages but for &reaching, ba&tising, #isiting the sick, an! in a or! for the care of soulsK being so entirely &urge! fro" all infection of a#arice, that none acce&te! lan!s an! &ossessions for buil!ing "onasteries unless co"&elle! to !o so by secular lor!s$ Such con!uct as "aintaine! in the *orthu"brian churches for so"e ti"e after this !ate$ But ; ha#e sai! enough$Q Viii$, -O$W The fourth book goes !o n to the !eath, A$)$ O72, of the saint of ho" Be!e ha! &re#iously ritten, both in #erse an! in &rose, the Saint of *orthu"bria, St$ 4uthbert$ This book contains another &assage to sho that Be!e looke! istfully back to a blesse! ti"e that ha! been, an! for hich he as born too late$ :e has been s&eaking of Theo!ore an! :a!rian, an! he is about to s&eak of Iilfri! an! R!!i, hen he thus breaks out'--Q*e#er, ne#er, since the Angles ca"e to Britain, ere there ha&&ier ti"esK bra#e an! 4hristian kings hel! all barbarians in a eK the uni#ersal a"bition as for those hea#enly joys of hich "en ha! recently hear!K an! all ho !esire! to be instructe! in sacre! learning ha! "asters rea!y to teach the"$Q Vi#$, -$W This book also contains the history of 4F!"on, hich is &erha&s the "ost freUuently Uuote! &iece of all Be!e@s ritings'--

Q;n the "onastery of this abbess 0:il!3, there as a certain brother, e"inently !istinguishe! by !i#ine grace, for he as ont to "ake songs fit for religion an! &iety, so that, hate#er he learnt out of Scri&ture by "eans of inter&reters, this he oul! after a ti"e &ro!uce in his o n, that is to say, the Angles@ tongue, ith &oetical or!s, co"&ose! ith &erfect s eetness an! feeling$ By this "an@s songs often the "in!s of "any ere kin!le! to conte"&t of the orl! an! !esire for the celestial life$ Horeo#er, others after hi" in the nation of the Angles trie! to "ake religious &oe"s, but no one as able to eUual hi"$ 6or he learnt the art of singing not fro" "en, nor through any "an@s instructions, but he recei#e! the gift of singing unacUuire! an! by !i#ine hel&$ Iherefore he coul! ne#er "ake any fri#olous or un&rofitable &oe", but those things only hich &ertain to religion ere fit the"es for his religious tongue$ )uring his secular life, hich continue! u& to the ti"e of a!#ance! age, he ha! ne#er learnt any songs$ An!, therefore, so"eti"es at a feast, hen for "erri"ent sake it as agree! that all shoul! sing in turn, he, hen he sa that the har& as nearing hi", oul! rise fro" his unfinishe! su&&er an! go Uuietly a ay to his o n ho"e$Q Vi#$, -L$W 9n one occasion, hen this ha! ha&&ene!, he ent, not to his ho"e, but to the cattle she!s, to rest, because it as his turn to !o so that night$ ;n his slee& one a&&eare! to hi" an! ba!e hi" sing$ :e &lea!e! inability, but the co""an! as re&eate!$ QIhat then,Q he aske!, Q"ust ; singfQ :e as tol! he "ust sing of the beginning of create! things$ Then he sang a :y"n of 4reation, an! this hy"n he re"e"bere! hen he as risen fro" slee&, an! it as the &roof of his !i#ine #ocation$ The hy"n as &reser#e! in Latin as ell as in the originalK an! both ha#e been Uuote! abo#e$ The &oe"s hich he subseUuently rote are thus !escribe!'-Q:e sang of the creation of the orl! an! the origin of the hu"an race, an! the hole story of Genesis, of ;srael@s !e&arture out of Egy&t an! entrance into the lan! of &ro"ise, of "any other &arts of the sacre! history, of the Lor!@s ;ncarnation, Passion, (esurrection, an! Ascension into :ea#en, of the co"ing of the :oly S&irit, an! the !octrine of the A&ostles$ Like ise of the terror of ju!g"ent to co"e, an! the a ful &unish"ent of hell, an! the bliss of the hea#enly king!o", he "a!e "any &oe"sK "any others also concerning !i#ine benefits an! ju!g"ents, in all hich he sought to ean "en fro" the lo#e of sin, an! sti"ulate the" to the enjoy"ent an! &ursuit of goo! action$Q The fifth an! last book contains a sur#ey of the con!ition of the national 4hurch !o n to 2M+, ithin about four years of the author@s !eath$ Books of his on the technicalities of literature are a tract on Q9rthogra&hy,Q another Q9n the Hetric Art,Q also a book Q9n 6igures an! Tro&es of :oly Scri&ture$Q Least estee"e! ha#e been his &oetical co"&ositions, so"e of hich ha#e been suffere! to &erish$ The &oe" on the QHiracles of St$ 4uthberhtQ is extant, but the QBook of :y"ns in Jarious Hetre or (hyth"Q is lost, an! so also is his QBook of E&igra"s

in :eroic or Elegiac Hetre$Q But e are not left ithout an authentic s&eci"en of his hy"no!y, as he has incor&orate! in his history the :y"n of Jirginity in &raise of Nueen EthelthryY, the foun!ress of Ely$ :is extant &oetry &ro#es hi" to ha#e been an acco"&lishe! scholar an! a "an of culti#ate! taste rather than of &oetic genius$ But e coul! affor! to lose "any Latin &oe"s in consi!eration of the slightest #ernacular effort of such a "an$ Hany "anuscri&ts of the QEcclesiastical :istoryQ contain a letter by one 4uthbert to his fello -stu!ent 4uth ine, !escribing the "anner of Be!e@s !eath$ ;n this letter is containe! a &ious !itty in the #ernacular, hich Be!e, ho as Qlearne! in our nati#e songs,Q co"&ose! at the ti"e hen he as conte"&lating the a&&roach of his o n !issolution$ 6ore there nei!farae nFnig ni uurthit thonc snoturra than hi" tharf sie to y"bhycggannae, aer his hi" iongae, huaet his gastae go!aes aeththa yflaes aefter !eoth!aege !oe"i! uueorthae$ Before the nee!-journey no one is e#er "ore ise in thought than he ought, to conte"&late ere his going hence hat to his soul of goo! or of e#il after !eath-!ay !ee"e! ill be$0O23 9ther re"ains in the *orthu"brian !ialect are the (unic inscri&tion on the (uth ell 4ross, for hich the rea!er is referre! to Professor Ste&hens@s Q9l! *orthern (unic Honu"ents of Scan!ina#ia an! Englan!,Q #ol$ i$, &$ L./K also the interlinear glosses in the Lin!isfarne Gos&els, an! in the )urha" (itual$ 6or fuller infor"ation on these glosses ; "ust refer the rea!er to Professor Skeat@s Gos&els Qin Anglo-Saxon an! *orthu"brian Jersions Syno&tically Arrange!KQ an! "ore es&ecially to his &reface in the conclu!ing #olu"e, hich contains the fourth Gos&el$ The Psalter, hich as &ublishe! by the Surtees Society as *orthu"brian, is no ju!ge! to be <entishK but that #olu"e contains, besi!es, an QEarly English Psalter,Q hich &resents a later &hase of the *orthu"brian !ialect$ The &oetical orks hich no bear 4F!"on@s na"e recei#e! that na"e fro" Junius, the first e!itor, in +O//, on the groun! of the general

agree"ent of the subjects ith Be!e@s !escri&tion of 4F!"on@s orks$ ;n this book e fin! a first &art containing the "ost &ro"inent narrati#es fro" the books of Genesis, Exo!us, an! )anielK an! a secon! &art containing the )escent of 4hrist into :a!es an! the !eli#ery of the &atriarchs fro" their ca&ti#ity, accor!ing to the a&ocry&hal Gos&el of *ico!e"us an! the constant legen! of the Hi!!le Ages$ This co"&rises a kin! of Para!ise Lost an! Para!ise (egaine!$ 9f all this, the &art hich has attracte! "ost notice is a &art of hich the "aterials are foun! neither in Scri&ture nor in any kno n A&ocry&ha$ The nearest a&&roxi"ation yet in!icate! is in the hexa"eters of A#itus, !escribe! abo#e$0O73 This &roble"atical &art !escribes the 6all of Han as the seUuel of the 6all of the Angels, substantially running on the sa"e lines as Hilton@s fa"ous treat"ent of the sa"e subject$ ;t has often been sur"ise! that Hilton "ay ha#e kno n of 4F!"on through Junius, an! that this kno le!ge "ay ha#e affecte! the cast of his great &oe" as ell as suggeste! so"e of his "ost fa"ous touches$0O,3 The &reci&itation is thus !escribe!'-M-, Fron tha befeallene fyre to bot"e on tha hatan hell thurh hygeleaste an! thurh ofer"etto$ Sohten other lan! thFt Fs leohtes leas an! Fs liges full fyres fFr "icel$ So ere they felle! to the fiery abyss into the hot hell through hee!lessness an! through arrogance$ They arri#e! at another lan! that as #oi! of light an! as full of fla"e fire@s horror huge$02.3 Ihen the fallen angel s&eaks, he begins thus'-M// ;s thes Fnga ste!e ungelic s ithe tha" othru" the e Fr cuthon heah on heofenrice the "e "in hearra onlag$ This confine! &lace is terribly unlike that other one that e kne before

high in hea#en@s real" hich "y lor! conferre! on "e$ :a#ing thus begun ith a la"entable cry, he gra!ually reco#ers co"&osure an! &ro&oun!s a &olicy$ :e obser#es that Go! has create! a ne an! ha&&y being, ho is !estine! to inherit the glory hich he an! his ha#e lost'-M,L :e hFfth nu ge"earco! anne "i!!angear! thFr he hFfth "on ge orhtne Ffter his onlicnesseK "i! tha" he ile eft gesettan heofena rice, "i! hluttru" saulu"$ Ie thFs sculon hycgan georne, thFt e on A!a"e gif e Ffre "Fgen, an! on his eafra" s a so"e an!an gebetan$ :e hath no !esigne! a "i!!le orl! here :e "an hath "a!e, after :is likeness'-ith hich :e ill re&eo&le hea#en@s real", ith stainless souls$ Ie "ust thereto gi#e careful hee! that e on A!a" if e e#er "ay an! on his offs&ring like ise our har" re!ress$ The ay &ro&ose! is by in!ucing the" to !is&lease their Haker, an! then they ill be banishe! to the sa"e &lace an! beco"e the sla#es of Satan an! his angels$ A "essenger is reUuire!'-L., Gif ic Fnigu" thegne theo!en "a!"as geara forgeafe then!en e on than go!an rice gesFlige sFton an! hFf!on ure setla ge eal!, thonne he"e na on leofranti! leanu" ne "eahte "ine gife gyl!an$ Gif his gien ol!e "inra thegna h ilc gethafa urthan thFt he u& heonon ute "ihte cu"an thurh thas clustro an! hFf!e crFft "i! hi" thFt he "i! fetherho"an fleogan "eahte

in!an on olcne thFr ge orht ston!ath A!a" an! E#e on eorth rice "i! elan be un!en$ an! e syn! a or&ene hi!er on thas !eo&an !alo$ ;f ; to any thane lor!ly treasures in for"er ti"es ha#e gi#en, hile e in the goo! real" all blissful sate, an! ha! s ay of our "ansions'-at no "ore acce&table ti"e coul! he e#er ith #alue "y bounty reUuite$ ;f no for this &ur&ose any one of "y thanes oul! hi"self #olunteer that he fro" here u& ar! an! out ar! "ight go, "ight co"e through these barriers an! strength in hi" ha! that ith rai"ent of feather his flight coul! take to hirl on the elkin here the ne ork is stan!ing A!a" an! E#e in the earthly real" ith ealth surroun!e!-an! e are cast a ay hither into these !ee& !alesm Satan rages not so "uch on account of his o n loss as for their gain$ ;f they coul! only be ruine! by the rath of Go!, he !eclares he coul! be at ease e#en in the "i!st of oesK an! hoe#er oul! achie#e this he ill re ar! to his ut"ost, an! gi#e hi" a seat by his si!e$ Presently e co"e to the accoutring of the e"issary'-LL- Angan hine tha gyr an Go!es an!saca fus on frFt u"' hFf!e frFcne hyge$ :Fleth hel" on heafo! asette an! thone full hear!e geban!, s&enn "i! s&angu"$ Iiste hi" s&rFca fela ora or!a$ Began hi" then t@ eUui& th@ antagonist of Go!,

&ro"&t in harness'-he ha! a guileful "in!$ A "agic hel" on hea! he set, he boun! it har! an! tight, brace! it ith buckles$ S&eeches "any ist he ell, crooke! or!s$ :e takes ing an! rises in airK an! then co"es a &assage like Hilton'-S ang thFt fyr on t a feon!es crFfte$ he !ashe! the fire in t o ith fien!ish craft$02+3 Arri#e! at the gar!en he takes the sha&e of a ser&ent, an! in!s hi"self roun! the forbi!!en tree$ The !escri&tion recalls the fa"iliar &icture so #i#i!ly that e cannot !oubt the sa"e &icture as before the eyes of chil!ren in the Saxon &erio! as no $ :e takes so"e of the fruit an! fin!s A!a", an! a!!resses hi" in a s&eech$ :e gi#es a nan#e reason hy he is sent'-/.2 Bra!e syn! on orul!e grene gear!as, an! Go! siteth on tha" hehstan heofna rice ufan$ Al al!a nele tha earfethu sylfa habban that he on thisne sith fare, gu"ena !rihten'-ac he his gingran sent to thinre s&rFce$ Broa! are in the orl! the green &lains, an! Go! sitteth in the highest hea#enly real" abo#e$ The Al"ighty ill not the trouble hi"self ha#e, that :e shoul! on this journey fare, the Lor! of "en'-but :e sen!s his !e&uty to s&eak ith thee$ These &oe"s are surroun!e! by interesting Uuestions hich it is barely &ossible here to in!icate$ 5&on the to& of the !iscussion about Hilton, hich is not by any "eans exhauste!, there co"es a "uch larger an! i!er

fiel! of inUuiry as to the relation existing bet een this Hiltonic &art Vif ; "ay so s&eakW an! the 9l! Saxon &oe" of the Q:elian!$Q The in#estigation has been a!"irably starte! by Hr$ E!ouar! Sie#ers in a little book containing this &ortion of the text, an! exhibiting in !etail the &eculiar inti"acy of relation bet een it an! the Q:elian!,Q in regar! to #ocabulary, &hraseology, an! #ersification$ This &art of Hr$ Sie#ers@ ork is co"&lete$ Probably no one ho has gone through his &roofs ill be foun! to Uuestion his conclusion, that there is bet een the Q:elian!Q an! the Saxon QPara!ise LostQ such an i!entity as isolates those t o orks fro" all other literature, an! "akes it necessary to trace the" to one source$ Ihat re"ains is only to !eter"ine the or!er of their affiliation$ :is theory is that our Q4F!"onQ contains a large insertion hich has been borro e!, not, of course, fro" the Q:elian!,Q because the Q:elian!Q is a &oe" solely on the Gos&el history, but fro" a sister &oe" to the Q:elian!,Q a corres&on!ing &oe" on the 9l! Testa"ent$ Professor George Ste&hens, of 4o&enhagen, offere! a si"&ler ex&lanation$ :e su&&ose! that our &iece is a &urely !o"estic re"nant of that school of English &oetry hich Be!e !escribe!, an! that the Q:elian!Q is a continental offs&ring of the sa"e school, being a "onu"ent of the &oetic culture hich as &lante! along the bor!ers of the (hine by the Anglo-Saxon "issionaries$ AL45;*@S na"e connects the Anglian &erio! ith the great 6rankish re#i#al of literature un!er 4harle"agne$ An! as he bears a &ro"inent &art in the establish"ent of literature in its next Euro&ean seat, so also he ha! the grief of itnessing the earlier stages of that !e#astation hich extinguishe! the light in his o n country$ This is ho he rites on hearing of the in#asion of Lin!isfarne by the northern ro#ers in 2,M, to Bisho& :ugibal! an! the "onks of Lin!isfarne'-QAs your belo#e! society as ont to !elight "e hen ; as ith you, so !oes the re&ort of your tribulation sa!!en "e continually no that ; a" absent fro" you$ :o ha#e the heathen !efile! the sanctuaries of Go!, an! she! the bloo! of the saints roun! about the altar$ They ha#e lai! aste the ! elling-&lace of our ho&eK they ha#e tro!!en !o n the bo!ies of the saints in the te"&le of Go! like "ire in the street$ Ihat can ; sayf ; can only la"ent in "y heart ith you before the altar of 4hrist, an! say' S&are, Lor!, s&are Thy &eo&le, an! gi#e not Thy heritage to the heathen, lest the &agans say, Ihere is the Go! of the 4hristiansf Ihat confi!ence is there for the churches of Britain if Saint 4uthbert, ith so great a co"&any of saints, !efen!s not his o nf Either this is the beginning of a greater sorro , or the sins of the &eo&le ha#e brought this u&on the"$Q02-3 Thus e ha#e arri#e! at the #erge of that catastro&he hich closes for e#er the singular greatness of Anglia$ 4harles brought learning to 6rance by !ra ing fro" Anglia an! fro" ;taly the best &lants for his ne fiel!K he inherite! the ci#ilising labours of the Saxon "issionaries in his !o"inions beyon! the (hineK he foun!e! a centre of &o er an! a centre of e!ucation togetherK an! 6rance re"aine! the chief seat of learning throughout the Hi!!le Ages$02M3 The glory of a Euro&ean &osition in literature can no longer be clai"e! for Englan!$ Through the

re"ain!er of our narrati#e e "ust be content ith a &ro#incial s&hereK an! our co"&ensation "ust be foun! in the fact that the #ernacular ele"ent is all the "ore freely !e#elo&e!$ 699T*9TES' 0OL3 ;n the fa"ous "anuscri&t of the QEcclesiastical :istoryQ of Be!e, hich is co""only kno n as the Hoore "anuscri&t, because it &asse! ith the library of Bisho& Hoore VElyW to the 5ni#ersity of 4a"bri!ge, is in a han! hich is thought to be as ol! as the ti"e of Be!e, ho !ie! in 2M/$ 0O/3 Be!e gi#es the QsenseQ of this first hy"n as follo s'--Q*unc lau!are !ebe"us auctore" regni caelestis, &otentia" creatoris et consiliu" illius, facta &atris gloriaeK Uuo"o!o ille, cu" sit aeternus !eus, o"niu" "iraculoru" auctor extitit, Uui &ri"o filiis ho"inu" caelu" &ro cul"ine tecti, !ehinc terra" custos hu"ani generis o"ni&otens crea#it$Q--QEcclesiastical :istory,Q i#$ -L$ 0OO3 A!olf Ebert@s account of Be!e in Q:istory of 4hristian-Latin Literature,Q translate! by Hayor an! Lu"by in their a!"irable e!ition of the thir! an! fourth books of Be!e@s Q4hurch :istoryQ VPitt Press SeriesW, +727, &$ ++$ 0O23 The general correctness of our translation is assure! by the fact that the Latin text in hich it is e"bo!ie! su&&lies a Latin translation, thus'--QUuo! ita latine sonat' @ante necessariu" exitu" &ru!entior Uua" o&us fuerit ne"o existit, a! cogitan!u" #i!elicet anteUua" hinc &roficiscatur ani"a, Uui! boni #el "ali egerit, Uualiter &ost exitu" ju!ican!a fuerit$@Q--QBe!F :ist$ Eccl$,Q iii$, i#$ VHayor an! Lu"byW, &$ +22$ 0O73 Page +L$ 0O,3 There has been a recent !iscussion of this Uuestion by Professor I_lcker in QAnglia,Q ith a negati#e result$ But the conclusion rests on too slight a basis$ 02.3 QHilton has the sa"e i!ea in a kin!re! &assage, but it is not so terse, so con!ense!, as 4F!"on@s'-@%et fro" those fla"es *o light, but rather !arkness #isible Ser#e! only to !isco#er sights of oe$@ Q;n Job x$ -- e also fin! a si"ilar i!ea'--@A lan! of !arkness, as !arkness itselfK an! of the sha!o of !eath ithout any or!er, an! here the light is as !arkness$@ They are all &o erful, all !rea!ful, but 4F!"on@s @ ithout light, an! full of fla"e,@ is "uch the strongest$ ;t is an ;nferno in a line$Q--(9BE(T SPE*4E IATS9*, Q4F!"on,Q &$ LL$

02+3 QPara!ise Lost,Q i$, --+'-Q6orth ith u&right he rears fro" off the &ool :is "ighty statureK on each han! the fla"es, )ri#@n back ar!, slo&e their &ointing s&ires, an! roll@! ;n billo s, lea#e i@ th@ "i!st a horri! #ale$Q 02-3 Iright, QBiogra&hia Literaria,Q Anglo-Saxon Perio!, &$ M/M$ 02M3 The ne start of literature un!er 4harles is briefly an! brilliantly state! in the first &aragra&h of A!olf Ebert@s secon! #olu"e$

4:APTE( J;$ T:E P(;HA(% P9ET(%$ Ie ha#e no seen so"ething of a culture that as intro!uce! fro" abroa!, an! gui!e! by foreign "o!els$ But our &eo&le ha! a nati#e gift of song, an! a tra!ition of &oetic lore, hich li#e! in "e"ory, an! as sustaine! by the &rofession of "instrelsy$ The 4hristian an! literary culture obtaine! through the Latin ten!e! strongly to the su&&ression an! extinction of this ancient an! national #ein of &oetry$ But ha&&ily it has not all been lost, an! it ill be the ai" of this cha&ter to &resent so"e s&eci"ens of that &oetry hich is roote! in the nati#e genius of the race, an! hich e "ay call the &ri"ary &oetry$ The &oetry hich is "anifestly of Latin "aterial e ill call the secon!ary &oetry$ ;t is not asserte! that e ha#e t o sorts of &oetry so entirely se&arate an! !istinct the one fro" the other, that the one is &urely nati#e an! untinge! ith foreign influence, hile the other s&rings fro" "ere i"itation$ The t o sorts are not so utterly contraste! as that$ E#en the secon!ary &oetry is not ithout originality$ 9n the other han! the &ri"ary &oetry betrays here an! there the Latin culture an! the 4hristian senti"entK an! yet if is Uuite sufficiently !istinct an! characterise! to justify the &lan of grou&ing it a&art fro" the general bo!y of the &oetical re"ains$ The chief features of the Saxon &oetry "ay con#eniently be arrange! un!er three hea!s' +$ The "echanical for"ation$ -$ The rhetorical characteristics$ M$ The i"aginati#e ele"ents$ +$ 9f these the first turns on Alliteration, Accent, an! (hyth"K an! this &art, hich is generally hel! to belong rather to gra""ar than to literature, ; ha#e !escribe! else here$02L3 -$ The (hetorical characteristic of Anglo-Saxon &oetry hich is "ost &ro"inent, is a certain re&etition of the thought ith a #ariation of e&ithet or &hrase, in a "anner hich !istinctly rese"bles the

&arallelis" of :ebre &oetry$ M$ The ;"aginati#e ele"ent resi!es chiefly in the "eta&hor, hich is #ery &er#a!ing an! see"s to be al"ost unconscious$ ;t sel!o" rises to that conscious for" of "eta&hor hich e call the Si"ile, an! hen it !oes it is laconically brief, as in the co"&arison of a shi& ith a bir! Vfugle gelicostW$ The later &oetry begins to ex&an! the si"iles so"e hat after the "anner of the Latin &oets$ ;n Beo ulf e ha#e four brief si"iles an! only one that is ex&an!e!K na"ely, that of the s or!-hilt "elting like ice in the ar" season of s&ring Vline +,O.7W$ Ie ill begin ith the QBeo ulf,Q the largest an! in e#ery sense the "ost i"&ortant of the re"aining Anglo-Saxon &oe"s$ ;t has "uch in it that see"s like antici&ation of the age of chi#alry$ The story of the QBeo ulfQ is as follo s'02/3-:roYgar, king of the )anes, rule! o#er "any nations ith i"&erial s ay$ ;t ca"e into his "in! to a!! to his Burg a s&acious hall for the greater s&len!our of his hos&itality an! the !is&ensing of his bounty$ This hall as na"e! :eorot$ But all his glory as un!one by the nightly #isits of a !e#ouring fien!K :roYgar@s &eo&le ere either kille!, or gone to safer Uuarters$ :eorot, though habitable by !ay, as aban!one! at nightK no faithful ban! ke&t atch aroun! the seat of )anish royaltyK :roYgar, the age! king, as in !ejection an! !es&air$ :igelac as king in the neighbouring lan! of the Geatas, an! he ha! about hi" a young ne&he , a sister@s son, Beo ulf, son of Ecgtheo $ Beo ulf ha! great bo!ily strength, but as other ise little accounte! of$ The young "an lo#e! a!#enture, an! hearing of :roYgar@s "isery, he !eter"ine! to hel& hi"$ :e e"barke! ith fourteen co"&anions, an! reache! the coast of the )anes, here he as challenge! by the coast- ar!en in a tone of "istrust$ After a &arley, that officer s&e! hi" on his ay, an! Beo ulf@s co"&any stoo! before :roYgar@s gate$ Aske! the "eaning of this ar"e! #isit, the lea!er ans ers' QIe sit at :igelac@s table' "y na"e is Beo ulf$ ; ill tell "ine erran! to thy "aster, if he ill !eign that e "ay greet hi"$Q :roYgar kne Beo ulf@s na"e, re"e"bere! his father Ecgtheo ,02O3 ha! the #isitor to his &resence, hear! his high resol#e, as rea!y to ho&e for !eli#erance, an! &ro"&t to see in Beo ulf a !eli#erer$ 6esti#ity is rene e! in the !eserte! hall, an! tales of ol! achie#e"ents re#i#e forgotten "irth--"irth broken only by the gibes of the eloUuent :unferth, hich gi#e Beo ulf occasion to tell the tale of an ol! s i""ing-"atch hen he sle sea-"onstersK an! all is har"ony again$ But night !escen!s, an! ith it the fears that ere no habitual$ Beo ulf shrinks not fro" his a!#entureK the guests !e&art, an! the king, retiring to his castle, co""its to his #isitor the night- atch of :eorot$ *Ffre ic Fnegu" "en Fr alyf!e, siYYan ic hon! an! ron! hebban "ihte, thryth Frn )ena'--

buton the nu tham :afa nu an! geheal! husa selestK ge"yne "Frtho, "Fgen ellen cythK aca ith rathu"m ne bith the ilna ga!, gif thu thFt ellen eorc al!re ge!igest$ *e#er ; to any "an ere no entruste!, Vsince han! an! shiel! ; first coul! hea#eW the Guar!house of the )anes'-ne#er but no to theem :a#e no an! hol! the sacre! houseK of glory "in!ful "ain an! #alour &ro#eK atch for the foem no ish of thine shall fail, if thou the !aring ork ith life canst !o$ Beo ulf an! his co"&anions ha#e their be!s in the hall$ They slee&K but he atches$ ;t as not long before the !e&re!ator of the night as there, an! a luri! glea" stoo! out of his eyes$ Ihile Beo ulf cautiously hel! hi"self on the alert, the fien! ha! Uuickly clutche! an! !e#oure! one of the slee&ers$ But no Gren!el--such as the !e"on@s na"e--foun! hi"self in a gras& unkno n before$ Long an! !ire as the strife$ The ti"bers cracke!, the iron-boun! benches &lie!, an! ork !ee"e! &roof against all but fire as no a reck$ Gren!el fin!ing the foe too strong, thought only of esca&e$ :e !i! esca&e, an! got a ay to the "oor, but he left an ar" in Beo ulf@s gri&$ Early in the "orning "en ca"e fro" far an! near to see the hi!eous tro&hy on the gable of the hall' "en ca"e to rejoice in the great !eli#eranceK for :eorot, they sai!, as no &urge!$ Great as their joy$ Hounte! "en ro!e o#er the "oor, tracking Gren!el@s retreat by his bloo!K they follo e! his &ath to the !is"al &ool here he ha! his habitationK then they turn ho"e ar!s, ri!ing together an! con#ersing as they go$ They talk of Beo ulf, they liken hi" ith Sige"un!, that hero of greatest na"e$ Ihen they co"e to gallo&ing groun!, they break a ay fro" the tales, an! race o#er the turf$ ;n another tale they talk of :ere"o!K but he as &rou! an! col!, not like Beo ulf, ho is as genial as he is #aliant$ The early ri!ers are back to :eorot in ti"e to see the king an! the Uueen "o#ing fro" bo er to hall, the king ith his guar!, the Uueen ith her "ai!ens$ Then follo s a noble scene$ :roYgar sees the hi!eous tro&hy on the gableK he stan!s on the terrace, an! utters a thanksgi#ing to Go! as stately as it is si"&le$ :e re#ie s the oe an! the grief, the

!isgrace, the hel&lessness, an! the utter !es&on!ency of hi"self an! of his &eo&leK Qan! no a boy hath !one the !ee! hich e all ith our unite! &o ers coul! not co"&assm Jerily that o"an is blesse! that bare hi"K an! if she yet li#es, she "ay ell say that Go! as #ery gracious to her in her chil!bearing$ Beo ulf, ; ill lo#e thee as a son, an! thou shalt lack nothing that it is in "y &o er to gi#e$Q Beo ulf s&ake' QIe !i! our best in a risky tussleK oul! ; coul! ha#e brought you the fien! a ca&ti#e$ ; coul! not hol! hi"K he ga#e "e the sli&' but he left a li"b behin!K TthatT ill be his !eath$Q *ext :eorot is restore! an! beautifie! ane $ Har#ellous gol!-e"broi!ere! hangings !ra&e the alls, the a!"iration of those ho ha#e an eye for such things$ The hole interior ha! been a reck, the roof alone re"aine! entire$ *o , it as straight an! fair once "oreK an! no it as to be the scene of such a &rofusion of gifts as &oet ha! ne#er sung$ ;n honour of his #ictory Beo ulf recei#e! a gol!en banner of Uuaint !e#ice, a hel"et, an! a coat of "ailK but hat !re all eyes as the ancient fa"ous s or! no brought forth fro" the treasure house, an! borne u& to the hero$ 6urther"ore, at the king@s or!, eight s&len!i! horses, cheek-a!orne!, ere le! into the hallK an! on one of the" as seen the sa!!le, the ell-kno n sa!!le of :roYgar, herein he, ne#er aloof in battle-hour, sate hen he "ingle! in the fray of ar$ QTake the",Q sai! the king, Qtake the", Beo ulf, both horses an! ar"ourK an! "y blessing ith the"$Q The co"&anions of Beo ulf ere not forgotten' they all recei#e! a&&ro&riate gifts$ The festi#ities &rocee!, an! e ha#e a &icture of the course of the banUuet$ The "instrel@s tale on that occasion as the 6earful 6ray in the 4astle of 6inn, hen )anes ere there on a #isit$ The song being en!e!, Ialtheo the Uueen bears the cu& to the king, an! bi!s hi" be "erry an! bountiful$ :er Uueenly counsel sto&s not here$ The king ha! sons of his o nK he shoul! gi#e no hint of any other succession to his seatK hile he occu&ie! the throne, he shoul! be large in bounty an! encircle hi"self ith grateful cha"&ions$ *ext, ith like cere"ony she honours Beo ulf, an! han!s the cu& to hi"$ She also &resents her o n s&ecial gifts to the !eli#erer'--bracelets, an! a rich gar"ent, an! a collar sur&assing all "ost fa"e! in story since :a"a ca&ture! the collar of the Brosings$ The Uueen a!!resses Beo ulf, ishes hi" joy of her gifts, exalts his "erits, bi!s hi" befrien! her son an! be loyal to the king$ She took her seat, an! the re#elry gre $ Little !ee"e! they, hat next oul! ha&&en, hen the night shoul! be !ark, an! :roYgar aslee& in his bo erm The hall is "a!e rea!y as a !or"itory for the "en-at-ar"sK the benches are sle e! roun!, an! the floor is s&rea! fro" en! to en! ith be!s an! bolsters$ E#ery arrior@s shiel! is set u&right at his hea!, an! by the bench-&osts stan!s his s&ear, su&&orting hel"et an! "ail$ Such as their custo"K they sle&t as e#er rea!y to rise an! !o ser#ice to their king$ :orror is rene e! in the nightK Gren!el@s fien!ish !a" #isits the hall an! kills one of the slee&ers, Rschere by na"e$

;n the "orning the king is in great !istress$ :e sen!s for Beo ulf, ho, after the &urging of :eorot, ha! occu&ie! a se&arate bo er, like the king$ Beo ulf arri#es, an! ho&es all is ell$ :roYgar s&ake'--QAsk not of elfareK sorro is rene e! for the )anish folkm Hy trusty frien! Rschere is !ea!K "y co"ra!e trie! in battle hen the tug as for life, hen the fight as foot to foot an! hel"ets kisse!'--ohm Rschere as hat a thane shoul! bem The cruel hag has reake! on hi" her #engeance$ The country folk sai! there ere t o of the", one the se"blance of a o"an, the other the s&ectre of a "an$ Their haunt is in the re"ote lan!, in the crags of the olf, the in!-beaten cliffs, an! untro!!en bogs, here the !is"al strea" &lunges into the !rear abyss of an a ful lake, o#erhung ith a !ark an! grisly oo! roote! !o n to the ater@s e!ge, here a luri! fla"e &lays nightly on the surface of the floo!--an! there li#es not the "an ho kno s its !e&thm So !rea!ful is the &lace that the hunte! stag, har! !ri#en by the houn!s, ill rather !ie on the bank than fin! a shelter there$ A &lace of terrorm Ihen the in! rises, the a#es "ingle hurly-burly ith the clou!s, the air is stifling an! ru"bles ith thun!er$ To thee alone e look for reliefK !arest thou ex&lore the "onster@s lair, ; ill re ar! the a!#enture ith ancient treasures, ith coils of gol! if thou return ali#emQ Sai! Beo ulf, the son of Ecgtheo '--QSorro not, ex&erience! sirem Better a#enge a frien! than i!ly !e&lore hi"'--each "ust ait the en! of life, an! shoul! ork hile he "ay to "ake hi" a na"e--the best thing after lifem Bestir thee, guar!ian of the folkm let us be Uuick u&on the track of Gren!el@s house"ate$ ; "ake thee a &ro"ise'--not highest cliff, not i!est fiel!, not !arkest oo!, nor !ee&est floo!--go here he ill--shall be his refugem Bear u& for one !ay, an! "ay thy troubles en! accor!ing to "y ishmQ The king "ounts, an! ith his retinue con!ucts Beo ulf to the char"e! lake' the il!ness of the ay, an! the strange nature of the scenes, are all in kee&ing$ The ar"e! follo ers sit the" !o n in a &lace here they co""an! a #ie of the !is"al ater$ Honstrous creatures rithe about the cragsK the "en shoot so"e of the"$ Beo ulf eUui&s for his a!#enture$ :is s or! as the fa"ous :runting, lent to hi" by :unferth, the boastful orator, he ho ha! gibe! at Beo ulf on the !ay of his arri#al$ ;t as a s or! of high re&uteK a hoar!e! treasureK its e!ge as ironK it as !a"ascene! ith !e#ice of coile! t igsK it ha! ne#er faile! in fight the han! that !are! to iel! it$ *o Beo ulf s&oke, rea!y for action' Q(e"e"ber, noble :roYgar, ho thou an! ; talke! together, that if ; lost life in thy ser#ice thou oul!est be as a father to "e !e&arte!'--&rotect "y co"ra!es if ; a" takenK an! the gifts thou ga#est "e, belo#e! :roYgar, sen! ho"e to :igelac$ Ihen he looks on the treasures he ill kno that ; foun! a bounteous "aster, an! enjoye! life hile it laste!$ An! let :unferY ha#e his ol! s or! again' ; ill conUuer fa"e ith :runting, or !ie fighting$Q Act follo e! or!' he as gone, an! the a#e ha! co#ere! hi"$ :e as "ost of the !ay before he reache! the !e&ths of the abyss$ Ihile yet on the !o n ar! ay, he as "et by the ol! ater- olf that ha! ! elt there a hun!re! years, ho ha! &ercei#e! the a&&roach of a hu"an #isitor$ She clutche! hi" an! bore hi" off, till he foun! hi"self ith his ene"y in a #ast cha"ber hich exclu!e! the ater an! as lighte! by

so"e strange fire-glo $ At once the fight began, an! :runting rang about the !e"on@s hea!K but against such a being the s or! as useless, the e!ge turne! that ne#er ha! faile! before' he flung it fro" hi" an! truste! to strength of ar"$ ;n his rage he charge! so !ea!ly that he felle! the "onster to the groun!K but she reco#ere! an! Beo ulf fell$ An! no the furious ight thought to re#enge Gren!elK she &lunge! her knife at Beo ulf@s breast, an! his life ha! en!e! there but for the goo! ser#ice of his ringe! "ail-serk$ Protecte! by this ar"our, an! hel&e! by :i" ho gi#eth #ictory, he &asse! the &erilous "o"ent, an! as on his feet again$ An! no he es&ie! a"ong the ar"our in that &lace an ol! elfin s or!, such as no other "an "ight carryK this he seiSe!, an! ith the force of !es&air he so s"ote that the fell hag lay !ea!'--the s or! as gory, an! the boy as fain of his ork$ Iith rage unsate!, he range! through the &lace till he ca"e to here Gren!el lay lifeless' he s"ote the hea! fro" the hateful carcase$ To :roYgar@s "en atching on the height the lake a&&eare! as if "ingle! ith bloo!, an! this see"e! to confir" their fears$ The !ay as aning' the ol! "en about :roYgar took counsel, an!, conclu!ing they shoul! see Beo ulf no "ore, they "o#e! ho"e ar!$ But Beo ulf@s follo ers, though sick at heart an! ith little ho&e, yet sate on in s&ite of !ejection$ Hean hile the huge, gigantic bla!e ha! "elte! "ar#ellously a ay Qlikest unto ice, hen the 6ather Vhe ho hath &o er o#er ti"es an! seasons, that is, the true rulerW looseneth the chain of frost an! un in!eth the a#e-ro&esQ'--so #eno"ous as the gore of the fien! that ha! been slain there ith$ Beo ulf took the gigantic hilt an! the "onster@s hea!, an!, soaring u& through the aters, he stoo! on the shore to the sur&rise an! joy of his faithful co"ra!es, ho ca"e eagerly about hi" to ease hi" of his !ri&&ing harness$ Exulting they return to :eorot, Gren!el@s hea! carrie! by four "en on a &oleK they "arch straight u& the hall to greet the king, an! the guests are startle! ith the ghastly e#i!ence of Beo ulf@s co"&lete success$ Beo ulf tells his story an! &resents the hilt to :roYgar$ The age! king extols the un&arallele! achie#e"ents of Beo ulf, an! arns hi" against excessi#e exaltation of "in! by the exa"&le of :ere"o!$ Soon after this e ha#e the &arting bet een the ol! king an! the young hero, ho !eclares his rea!iness to co"e ith a thousan! thanes at any ti"e of :roYgar@s nee!K hile :roYgar@s or!s are of lo#e an! a!"iration an! confi!ence in his !iscretion' an! so he lets hi" go not ithout large a!!ition of gifts, an! e"braces, an! kisses, an! tears$ QThence Beo ulf the arrior, elate ith gol!, tro! the grassy &lain, exulting in treasureK the sea-goer that ro!e at anchor a aite! its lor!K then as they ent as :roYgar@s liberality often &raise!$Q At the coast they are "et by the coast- ar!en ith an altere! an! res&ectful "ien' they are soon afloat, an! e hear the histle of the in! through the rigging as the gallant craft bears a ay before the breeSe to carry the" all "errily ho"e ar!s after ell-s&e! a!#enture$ The elco"e is orthy of the ork'--:igelac@s rece&tion of Beo ulf, the joy of getting hi" backK Beo ulf &resenting to his liege lor! the ealth he ha! onK ol! re"iniscences calle! u& an! couche! in songK an ancient s or! brought

out an! &resente! to Beo ulf, an! ith the s or! a s&acious lor!shi&, a noble "ansion, an! all seigneurial rights$ An! so he ! elt until such ti"e as he ent forth ith :igelac on his fatal ex&e!ition against the 6risians, ho ere backe! by a strong alliance of 4hauci, an! 4hattuarii, an! 6ranksK an! there :igelac fell, an! his ar"y &erishe!$ Beo ulf, by &ro!igious s i""ing, reache! his ho"e again, here no as a young i!o e! Uueen an! her infant son$ She offere! herself an! her king!o" to Beo ulfK he &referre! the office of the faithful guar!ian$ At a later ti"e the young king fell in battle, an! then Beo ulf succee!e!$ :e reigne! fifty years a goo! king, an! en!e! life ith a su&re"e act of herois"$ :e fought an! sle a fiery !ragon hich !esolate! his country, an! as hi"self "ortally oun!e! in the conflict$ 9ne single follo er, Iiglaf by na"e, bol!er or "ore faithful than the rest, as at his si!e in !anger, though not to hel&K an! he recei#e! the hero@s !ying or!s'--Q; shoul! ha#e gi#en "y ar"our to "y son if ; ha! heir of "y bo!y$ ; ha#e hel! this &eo&le fifty yearsK no neighbour has !are! to challenge or "olest "e$ ; ha#e li#e! ith "en on fair an! eUual ter"sK ; ha#e !one no #iolence, cause! no frien!s to &erish, an! that is a co"fort to one !ea!ly oun!e! ho is soon to a&&ear before the (uler of "en$ *o , belo#e! Iiglaf, go thou Uuickly in un!er the hoary stone of the !ragon@s #ault, an! bring the treasures out into the !aylight, that ; "ay behol! the s&len!our of ancient ealth, an! !eath "ay be the softer for the sight$Q Ihen it as !one, an! the on!rous hea& as before his eyes, the #ictorious arrior s&ake'--Q6or the riches on hich ; look ; thank the Lor! of all, the king of glory, the e#erlasting ruler, that ; ha#e been able before "y !eath-!ay to acUuire such for "y &eo&le$ Iell s&ent is the re"nant of "y life to earn such a treasureK ; charge thee ith the care of the &eo&leK ; can be no longer here$ 9r!er "y arriors after the bale-fire to rear a "ighty "oun! on the hea!lan! o#er the sea' it shall to er aloft on :ronesness for a "e"orial to "y &eo&le' that sea-going "en in ti"e to co"e "ay call it Beo ulf@s Barro , hen foa"-&ro e! shi&s !ri#e o#er the sco ling floo! on their !istant courses$Q Then he re"o#e! a gol!en coil fro" his neck an! ga#e it to the young thaneK the sa"e he !i! ith his hel"et inlai! ith gol!, the collar, an! the "ail-coat' he ba!e hi" use the" as his o n$ QThou art the last of our race of the IFg"un!ingsK fate has s e&t all "y kin!re! off into EternityK ; "ust follo the"$Q That as his latest or!K his soul ent out of his breast into the lot of the just$ (eflections an! !iscourses &ro&er to the occasion are s&oken by Iiglaf, such as chi!ing of the ti"orous ho stoo! aloof, an! gloo"y antici&ations of the future$ M,... ThFt is sio fFhtho an! se feon!sci&e, Fl nith era, thFs the ic en hafo, the us seceath to S eona leo!e syYYan hie gefricgeath

frean userne, eal!orleasne thone the Fr geheol! ith hetten!u" hor! an! riceK folc rF! fre"e!e, oYYe furthur gen eorlsci&e efn!e$ *u is ofost betost thFt e theo! cyning thFr scea ian an! thone gebringan, the us beagas geaf, on d! fFre$ *e scal anes h Ft "eltan "i! tha" "o!igan, ac thFr is "ath"a hor!, gol! unri"e gri""e gecea&o! an! nu Ft sithestan sylfes feore beagas gebohte$ Tha sceal bron! gretan Fle! theccean, nalles eorl egan "aYYu" to ge"yn!u", ne "Fgth scyne habban on healse hring eorthunge, ac sceal geo"or "o! gol!e bereafo! oft nalles Fne el lan! tre!anK nu se here isa hleahtor aleg!e, ga"en an! gleo !rea"$ This is the feu! an! this the foe"an@s hate the #engeful s&ite that ; ex&ect against us no ill bring the S e!ish ban!sK soon as they hear our chieftain high of life bereft-ho hel! till no @gainst haters all the hoar! an! real"K &eace fra"e! at ho"eK an! further off res&ect ins&ire!$

*o s&ee! is best that e our liege an! king go look u&on, An! hi" escort, ho us a!orne!, the &ile to ar!s$ *ot things of &etty orth shall ith the "ighty "elt, but there a treasure "ain, uncounte! gol! costly &rocure! an! no at length ith his great life je els !ear-boughtK the" shall fla"e !e#our, burning shall bury'-ne#er a arrior bear je el of !ear "e"ory, nor "ai!en sheen ha#e on her neck ring-!ecorationK nay, shall !isconsolate gol!-una!orne! not once but oft trea! strangers@ lan!K no the lea!er in ar laughter hath Uuenche! ga"e an! all soun! of glee$ An! so this noble &oe" "o#es on to its close, en!ing, like the Q;lia!,Q ith a great bale-fire$ T o closing lines recor! like an e&ita&h the &raise of the !ea! in su&erlati#esK not as a arrior, but as a "an an! a ruler' ho that he as to ar!s "en the "il!est an! "ost affable, to ar!s his &eo&le he as "ost gracious an! "ost yearning for their estee"$ About the structure of this &oe" the sa"e sort of Uuestions are !ebate! as those hich Iolff raise! about :o"er-- hether it is the ork of a single &oet, or a &atch ork of ol!er &oe"s$ Lu! ig Ett"_ller, of ^_rich, ho first ga#e the stu!y of the QBeo ulfQ a Ger"an basis, regar!e! the &oe" as originally a &urely heathen ork, or a co"&ilation of s"aller heathen &oe"s, u&on hich the e!itorial han!s of later an! 4hristian &oets ha! left their "anifest traces$ ;n his translation, one of the "ost #igorous efforts in the hole of Beo ulf literature, he has !istinguishe!, by a ty&ogra&hical arrange"ent, the later a!!itions fro" hat he regar!s as the original &oetry$ :e is gui!e!, ho e#er, by consi!erations !ifferent fro" those that affect the :o"eric !ebate$ :e is chiefly gui!e! by the relati#e sha!es of the heathen an! 4hristian ele"ents$ Ihere#er the touch of the 4hristian han! is "anifest, he arranges such &arts as a!!itions an! inter&olations$0223 Grein sa in the &oe" the unity of a single ork, an! he thought the

"oti#e allegorical$ :e inter&rete! the assaults of the ater-fien! as the night attacks of sea-robbers$ ; cannot see any such allegory as this, but ; agree ith hi" as to the unity of the &oe", so far as unity is co"&atible ith the traces of ol!er "aterials$ An! ; see allegory too, but in a !ifferent sense$ The "aterial is "ythical an! heathenK but it is clarifie! by natural filtration through the 4hristian "in! of the &oet$ *ot only are the heathen "yths inoffensi#e, but they are &ositi#ely fa#ourable to a train of 4hristian thought$ Beo ulf@s !escent into the abyss to extir&ate the scourge is suggesti#e of that Article in the A&ostles@ 4ree! hich ha! a &eculiar fascination for the "in! of the )ark an! Hi!!le AgesK the fight ith the !ragonK the #ictory that cost the #ictor his lifeK the one faithful frien! hile the rest are fearful--these inci!ents see" al"ost like reflections of e#angelical history$ Iithout seeing in the &oe" an allegorical !esign, e "ay i"agine that, ith the &rogress of 4hristianity, those &arts of the ol! "ythology hich ere "ost in har"ony ith 4hristian !octrines ha! the best chance of sur#i#alK an! that, as a &oet &uts a ne &hysiogno"y on an ol! story ithout !istorting the tra!ition, as e ha#e seen in our o n !ay the story of Arthur tol! again, not ith the elaborate allegory of S&enser, but ith a s&iritual transfiguration hich "akes the Q;!ylls of the <ingQ truly an e&ic of the nineteenth century, so ; concei#e that Beo ulf as a genuine gro th of that junction in ti"e V!efine it here e "ayW hen the heathen tales still ke&t their tra!itional interest, an! yet the s&irit of 4hristianity ha! taken full &ossession of the Saxon "in!--at least, so "uch of it as as re&resente! by this &oetical literature$ Ie "ay not !is"iss the QBeo ulfQ ithout haSar!ing an o&inion as to the !ate of its &ro!uction$ ;t has been sai! to be ol!er than the Saxon 4onUuest, an! so"e of the "aterials are !oubtless of this antiUuity$ But for the &oe", as e ha#e it, <e"ble assigne! it to the se#enth centuryK then Ett"_ller thought it belonge! to the ninthK then Grein ent back half ay to the eighth, an! this has been a!o&te! by Hr$ Arnol!, an! "ost generally follo e!$ ; think Ett"_ller is the nearest to the "arkK an! ; oul! rather go for ar! to the tenth than back to the eighth$ A &ar!onable fancy "ight see the !ate con#eye! in the &oe" itself$ The !ragon atches o#er an ol! hoar! of gol!, an! it is !istinctly a heathen hoar! VhFYnu" hor!e, -,-+2W of heathen gol! VhFYen gol!, -,-22W$ ;n the sa"e context e fin! that the "onster ha! atche! o#er this earth-hi!!en treasure for M.. yearsK an! if this "ay be so"ething "ore than a &oetical nu"ber, it "ay &ossibly in!icate the ti"e ela&se! since the heathen age$ Three hun!re! years oul! bring us to the close of the ninth or the beginning of the tenth century, a !ate hich, on e#ery consi!eration, ; incline to think the "ost &robable$0273 All the traces of affinity ith, or consciousness of, the QBeo ulfQ that e can !isco#er--an! they are #ery fe --are such as to fa#our this !ate$ The only co"&lete &arallel to the fable is foun! in the ;celan!ic Saga of Grettir, ho is a kin! of northern :ercules$ This hero &erfor"s "any great feats, but there are three hich belong to the su&ernatural$ ;n one of these he restles ith a fien! calle! Gla", an! kills hi"K an!

though Gla" is not the sa"e as Gren!el, yet the circu"stances of the encounter are so full of &arallels as to establish, at least, the literary affinity of the t o stories$ The other t o su&ernatural feats are cou&le!, just in the sa"e ay as t o of the feats of Beo ulf are$ ;t is t o fights, one in a hall an! one un!er a aterfall, ith t o "onsters of one fa"ily$ The fight ith the troll- ife in the hall is a true &arallel to Beo ulf@s fight ith Gren!elK but the fight ith the troll in the ca#ern un!er the force is in great essentials an! in "inute !etails so i!entical ith Beo ulf@s un!er ater a!#enture, that one "ay call it a &rose #ersion of the sa"e thing un!er !ifferent na"es$ A certain house as haunte!$ Hen that ere there alone by night ere "issing, an! nothing "ore as hear! of the"$ Grettir ca"e an! lay in that hall$ The troll- ife ca"e an! he #anUuishe! her$ This he ha! !one un!er an assu"e! na"e, but the &riest of the !istrict kno s he can be no other than Grettir, an! he asks Grettir hat ha! beco"e of the "en ho ere lost$ Grettir bi!s the &riest co"e ith hi" to the ri#er$ There as a aterfall, an! a sheer cliff of fifty fatho" !o n to the ater, an! un!er the force as seen the "outh of a ca#ern$ They ha! a ro&e ith the"$ The &riest !ri#es !o n a stake into a cleft of the rock an! secure! it ith stones, an! he sate by it$ Grettir sai!, Q; ill search hat there is in the force, but thou shalt atch the ro&e$Q :e &ut a stone in the bight of the ro&e, an! let it sink !o n in the ater$ :e "a!e rea!y, girt hi" ith a short s or!, an! ha! no other ea&on$ :e lea&e! off the cliff, an! the &riest sa the soles of his feet$ Grettir !i#e! un!er the force, an! the e!!y as so strong that he ha! to get to the #ery botto" before he coul! get insi!e the force, here the ri#er stoo! off fro" the cliff$ By a jutting rock he reache! the ca#ern@s "outh$ ;n the ca#e there as a fire burning on the hearth$ A giant sate there, ho at once lea&e! u& an! struck at the intru!er ith a &ike "a!e eUually to cut an! to thrust$ This ea&on ha! a oo!en shaft, an! "en calle! it a he&ti-sax$02,3 Grettir@s s or! !e"olishes this ea&on, an! the giant stretche! after a s or! that hung there in the ca#e$ Then Grettir s"ote hi" an! kille! hi", an! his bloo! ran !o n ith the strea" &ast the ro&e here the &riest sate to atch$ The &riest conclu!e! that Grettir as !ea!, an! it being no e#ening he ent ho"e$ But Grettir ex&lore! the ca#e$ :e foun! the bones of t o "en, an! &ut the" into a skin$ :e s a" to the ro&e an! cli"be! u& by it to the to& of the cliff$ Ihen the &riest ca"e to church next "orning he foun! the bones in the bag, an! a rune-stick hereon the e#ent as car#e!K but Grettir as gone$ The i!entity is so "anifest that e ha#e only to ask hich &eo&le Vif eitherW as the borro er, the English or the )anes$ An! here co"es in the consi!eration that the geogra&hy of the QBeo ulfQ is Scan!ina#ian$ There is no consciousness of Britain or Englan! throughout the &oe"$ ;f this raises a &resu"&tion that the Saxon &oet got his story fro" a )ane, e naturally ask, Ihen is this likely to ha#e ha&&ene!f an! the ans er "ust be that the earliest &robable ti"e begins after the Peace of Ie!"ore in 727$ ;n the QBlickling :o"iliesQ there is a &assage hich recalls the !escri&tion of the "ere in QBeo ulf$Q07.3 So far as this coinci!ence

affects the Uuestion, it "akes for the !ate here assigne!$ Beyon! the QBeo ulfQ e ha#e but s"all an! frag"entary re"ains of the ol! heroic &oetry$ The "ost i"&ortant &ieces are QThe Battle of 6inn@s Burgh,Q an! QThe Lay of <ing Ial!here$Q These are no often &rinte! in the e!itions of the QBeo ulf$Q Ett"_ller conjecture! that the Q;n#itation fro" a True Lo#er Settle! Abroa!,Q as not a single lyric, but a beautiful inci!ent taken fro" so"e e&ic &oe"$07+3 A "essenger co"es ith a token to a la!y at ho"e, by hich she "ay cre!it his "essageK he bi!s her take shi& as soon as she hears the #oice of the cuckoo, an! go out to hi" ho has all things rea!y about hi" to gi#e her a suitable rece&tion$ *ext e ill consi!er QT:E (5;*E) 4;T%$Q07-3 The subject of this &iece is a city in ruins$ There is "assi#e "asonry' the &lace as once han!so"ely built an! !ecorate! an! hel! by arriors, but no all tu"ble! aboutK orks of art ex&ose! to #ie an! for"ing a strange contrast ith the !esolation aroun!K there is a i!e &ool of ater, hot ithout fireK an! there are the once-freUuente! baths$ This is no #ague &oetic co"&osition, but the &ortrait of a !efinite s&ot$ ;t suits the ol! Brito-(o"an ruin of Ake"an after /22K an! it suits no other &lace that ; can think of in the habitable orl!$ The ol! #ie that it as a fortress or castle see"s "is&lace! in ti"e, as ell as inco"&atible ith the ex&ressions in the text$07M3 The &oe" begins'-IrFtlic is thes eal stan yr!e gebrFcon, Stu&en!ous is this all of stone, strange the ruinm The stronghol!s are bursten, the ork of giants !ecaying, the roofs are fallen, the to ers tottering, ! ellings unroofe! an! "oul!ering, "asonry eather-"arke!, shattere! the &laces of shelter, ti"e-scarre!, te"&est-"arre!, un!er"ine! of el!$ Eorth gra& hafath al!en! yrhtan for eorene geleorene hear! gri&e hrusan oth hun! cnea er theo!a ge itan$ 9ft thes ag geba! rFg har an! rea! fah rice Ffter othru"

ofston!en un!er stor"u"$$$$ Earth@s gras& hol!eth the "ighty ork"en orn a ay lorn a ay in the har! gri& of the gra#e till a hun!re! ages of "en-folk !o &ass$ 9ft this all itnesse! V ee!-gro n an! lichen-s&otte!W one great "an after another take shelter out of stor"s$$$$ 8 8 8 8 8

:o !i! the s ift sle!ge-ha""er flash an! furiously co"e !o n u&on the rings hen the stur!y artiSan as ri#etting the all ith cla"&s so on!rously together$ Bright ere the buil!ings, the bath-houses "any, high-to ere! the &innacles, freUuent the ar-clang, "any the "ea!-halls, of "erri"ent full, till all as o#erturne! by 6ate the #iolent$ The alls cru"ble! i!elyK !is"al !ays ca"e onK !eath s e&t off the #aliant "enK the arsenals beca"e ruinous foun!ationsK !ecay sa&&e! the burgh$ Pitifully crouche! ar"ies to earth$ Therefore these halls are a !reary ruin, an! these &icture! gablesK07L3 the rafter-fra"e! roof she!!eth its tilesK the &a#e"ent is crushe! ith the ruin, it is broken u& in hea&sK here ere hile "any a baron-glF!"o! an! gol!beorht gleo"a gefrFt e! lonc an! ingal ig hyrstu" scanK seah on sinc on sylfor on searo gi""asK on ea!, on Fht, on eorcan stan' on thas beorhtan burg bra!an rices$ Stan hofu sto!anK strea" hate ear& i!an yl"e, eal eal befeng beorhtan bos"eK thFr tha bathu Fron, hat on hrethreK thFt es hythelicm joyous an! gol!-bright gau!ily je elle! haughty an! ine-hot shone in his harnessK looke! on treasure, on sil#er, on ge"s of !e#iceK

on ealth, on stores, on &recious stonesK on this bright borough of broa! !o"inion$ There stoo! courts of stonem The strea" hotly rushe! ith e!!y i!e, V all all enclose!W ith boso" bright, VThere the baths eremW not in its naturem That as a boon in!ee!m QT:E IA*)E(E(Q VEA()STAPAW$07/3 ;n &atriarchal or sub-&atriarchal ti"es social life as still confine! ithin the fa"ily &aleK an! the "an ho belonge! to no househol! as a an!erer an! a #agabon! on the face of the earth$ Through in#asion or ar or other acci!ents a "an ho ha! been the honoure! "e"ber of a ell-foun! ho"e "ight li#e to see that ho"e broken u& or &ass into strange han!s, an! he "ight be thus like a &lant u&roote! hen he as too ol! to get &lante! in a fresh connexion$ :is only chance of any share in social life as to an!er fro" house to house, getting &erha&s a brief lo!ging in eachK an! such a ho"eless con!ition "ight be ell ex&resse! by the co"&oun! ear!sta&a, one ho tra"&s VTsta&aTW fro" one habitation VTear!TW to another$ ;n such an outcast &light the s&eaker in this &iece ent to sea, an! there he often thought of the ol! ha&&y !ays that ere gone$ :e oul! !rea" of the &leasure of his ol! access to the giefstol of his lor!, ho" he salute! ith kiss an! hea! on knee, an! then he oul! ake a frien!less "an in the intry ocean, an! his grief oul! be the sorer at his heart for the recollections of lost kin!re! that the !rea" ha! re#i#e!$ Such a lot is in rea!y sy"&athy ith ol!- orl! ruins, of hich there ere "any in Englan! at that ti"e, an! they raise the antici&ation of a ti"e hen a like ruin ill be the en! of allm Q;t beco"es a ise "an to kno ho a ful it ill be hen all this orl!@s ealth stan!s aste, as no u& an! !o n in the orl! there are in!-buffete! alls stan!ing in "oul!ering !ecayQ--an! the !escri&tion hich follo s is either a re"iniscence of QThe (uine! 4ity,Q or else it sho s that the subject of ruins as fa"iliar ith the ScB&as$07O3 QT:E H;*ST(EL@S 49*S9LAT;9*$Q0723 Ett"_ller reckone! this the ol!est of the Saxon lyricsK influence!, &erha&s, by the "ythical nature of the contents$ But, if e regar! the for" rather than the "aterial, there is a refine"ent about the #ersification hich !oes not look archaic$ The &oe" is cast in irregular stanSas, an! it has a refrain$ The &oet, hose na"e is )eor, has ex&erience! the fallaciousness of early success$ :is &ros&ects are clou!e!K once the fa#ourite "instrel of his &atron, he is no su&erse!e!

by a ne er ScB&$ :is consolation is a ell-kno n oneK &erha&s the ol!est an! co""onest of all the for"ulF of consolation$ 9thers ha#e been in trouble before hi", an! ha#e so"eho got o#er it$ This is not con#eye! as a "ere generalisationK it is !one &oetically through striking exa"&les, of hich Ielan! is the first, an! Bea!ohil! the secon!$ After each exa"&le co"es the refrain'-thFs ofereo!e thisses s a "Fgm That 0!istress3 he o#er ent, So $ ; $ can $ thism The failures of life@s ho&es an! a"bitions ha#e been so often la"ente!, that the subject is rather hackneye! an! con#entional$ :ere is a &iece out of the beaten trackK fresh, though ingenious an! artistic$ Such a &oe" is all the "ore elco"e as the subject belongs to an extinct career--the career of a court "instrel$ The Balla!s ha#e a &eculiar #alue of their o n$ There is a sense in hich they are the best re&resentati#es of the nati#e "use$ There are se#eral extant s&eci"ens of #arious "erit, but t o are &re-e"inent, an! these are, beyon! all !oubt, &reser#e! in their original an! unaltere! for"$ They ere "anifestly &ro!uce! in the "o"ent hen the sensation of a great e#ent as yet fresh$ They are i"&assione! an! effusi#e, an! they bear goo! itness to the characteristics of &ri"iti#e &oetry$ 9ne s&ontaneous ele"ent they &reser#e, hich has been Uuite !iscar!e! fro" "o!ern &oetry, an! of hich the other traces are fe $ ; "ean the &oetry of !erision$ The light an! sha!e of the balla! is glory an! scorn$ The "ost &o&ular subject of this s&ecies of &oetry is a battle$ Ihether your balla! is of #ictory or of !isaster, these t o ele"ents, not in!ee! ith the sa"e intensity or the sa"e &ro&ortions, but still these t o, are the constituents reUuire!$ 9ur best exa"&les are the QJictory of BrunanburhQ V,M2W, an! the Q)isaster of Hal!onQ V,,+W$ The battle of Brunanburh as fought by <ing Athelstan an! his brother E!"un! Vchil!ren of E! ar!W, against the alliance of the Scots un!er 4onstantinus ith the )anes un!er Anlaf$ Jarious atte"&ts ha#e been "a!e to &resent in "o!ern English the Balla! of Brunanburh, the "ost successful being that by the Poet Laureate$ 9ur language is rather out of &ractice for kin!ling a &oetic fer#our aroun! the senti"ent of flinging scorn at a #anUuishe! foeK but the follo ing ill ser#e to illustrate this heathenish ele"ent, or such relics of it as sur#i#e! in the tenth century$ The &erson first raile! at is 4onstantinus'-=$ Slen!er reason ha! T:eT to be &rou! of The elco"e of ar-kni#es--

:e that as reft of his 6olk an! his frien!s that ha! 6allen in conflict, Lea#ing his son, too, Lost in the carnage, Hangle! to "orsels, A youngster in arm =;$ Slen!er reason ha! T:eT to be gla! of The clash of the ar-glai#e-Traitor an! trickster An! s&urner of treaties-:e nor ha! Anlaf, Iith ar"ies so broken, A reason for bragging That they ha! the better ;n &erils of battle 9n &laces of slaughter-The struggle of stan!ar!s, The rush of the ja#elins, The crash of the charges, The iel!ing of ea&ons-The &lay that they &laye! ith The chil!ren of E! ar!$ AL6(E) TE**%S9*, QBalla!s an! 9ther Poe"s,Q +77., &$ +2L$ The longest of our balla!s, though it is i"&erfect, is that of the QBattle of Hal!on$Q ;n the year ,,+ the *orth"en lan!e! in Essex, an! ex&ecte! to be bought off ith great ranso"K but Brithnoth, the al!er"an of the East Saxons, "et the" ith all his force, an!, after fighting bra#ely, as kille!$ The lines here Uuote! occur after the al!er"an@s !eath'-Leofsunu ge"Fl!e, an! his lin!e ahof, bor! to gebeorgeK he tha" beorne onc FthK ;c thFt gehate, thFt ic heonon nelle fleon fotes try", ac ille furthor gan, recan on ge inne "ine ine !rihtenm *e thurfon "e e"be Stur"ere ste!e fFste hFleth, or!u" Ft itan, nu "in ine gecranc, thFt ic hlafor!leas

ha" sithie en!e fro" igem ac "e sceal F&en ni"an, or! an! irenm Then u& s&ake Le#eson an! his shiel! u&ho#e, buckler in ar!K he the arrior a!!resse!' ; "ake the #o , that ; ill not hence flee a foot@s &ace, but ill go for ar!K reak in the battle "y frien! an! "y lor!m *e#er shall about Stour"ere, the stal art fello s, ith or!s "e t it no "y chief is !o n, that ; lor!less ho"e ar! go "arch, turning fro" arm *ay, ea&on shall take "e, &oint an! iron$ 9ther balla!s, or so"ething like balla!s, that are e"bo!ie! in the Saxon chronicles are'--QThe 4onUuest of HerciaQ V,L-WK QThe 4oronation of Ea!gar at BathQ V,2MWK QEa!gar@s )e"iseQ V,2/WK QThe Goo! Ti"es of <ing Ea!garQ V,2/WK QThe Hartyr of 4orf GateQ V,2,WK QAlfre! the ;nnocent RthelingQ V+.MOWK QThe Son of ;ronsi!eQ V+./2WK QThe )irge of <ing Ea! ar!Q V+.O/W$ 9thers there are of hich only brief scra&s re"ain, al"ost e"be!!e! in the &rose of the chronicles'--QThe Sack of 4anterburyQ V+.++WK QThe Iooing of HargaretQ V+.O2WK QThe Baleful Bri!e AleQ V+.2OWK QThe :igh-han!e! 4onUuerorQ V+.7OW$0773 9ur last &iece shall be QIi!sith, or the Glee"an@s Song$Q07,3 This is a string of re"iniscences of tra#el in the &rofession of "instrelsyK so"e &art of hich has a genuine air of high antiUuity$0,.3 ;n the course of a long tra!ition it has un!ergone "any changes hich cannot no be !istinguishe!$ But, besi!es these, there are so"e glaring &atches of literary inter&olation, chiefly fro" Scri&tural sources$ ; Uuote the conclu!ing lines'-S a scrithen!e gescea&u" h eorfath, gleo "en gu"ena geon! grun!a felaK thearfe secgath thonc or! s&recath, si"le suth oththe north

su"ne ge"etath, gy!!a glea ne geofu" unhnea ne, se the fore !uguthe ile !o" arFran eorlsci&e FfnanK oth thFt eal scaceth leoht an! lif so"o!' Lof se ge yrceth hafath un!er heofenu" heahfFstne !o"$ So an!ering on the orl! about, glee-"en !o roa" through "any lan!sK they say their nee!s, they s&eak their thanks, sure south or north so"e one to "eet, of songs to ju!ge an! gifts not gru!ge, one ho by "erit hath a "in! reno n to "ake earlshi& to earnK till all goes out light an! life together$ Lau! ho attains hath un!er hea#en high built reno n$ 699T*9TES' 02L3 ;n QA Book for the Beginner in Anglo-Saxon,Q 4laren!on Press SeriesK e!$ - V+72,W, &$ 2.$ 02/3 The e!itions an! translations are by Thorkelin, 4o&enhagen, +7+/K <e"ble, e!$ +, Lon!on, +7MMK e!$ -, Lon!on, +7M/K translation, +7M2K Ett"_ller, Ger"an translation, ^urich, +7L.K Schal!e"ose, ith )anish translation, 4o&enhagen, +7/+K Thor&e, ith English translation, 9xfor!, +7//K Grun!t#ig, 4o&enhagen, +7O+K HoritS :eyne, Ger"an translation, Pa!erborn, +7OMK Grein, +7O2K Arnol!, 9xfor!, +72OK HoritS :eyne, Text, e!$ L, +72,$ 02O3 Iulfgar then s&oke to his o n !ear lor!' Q:ere are arri#e!, co"e fro" afar 9#er the sea- a#es, "en of the GeatsK The one "ost !istinguishe! the arriors bra#e Beo ulf na"e$ They are thy su&&liants

That they, "y &rince, "ay ith thee no Greetings exchangeK !o not thou refuse the" Thy con#erse in turn, frien!ly :rothgarm They in their ar- ee!s see" #ery orthy 4onten!ers ith earlsK the chief is reno ne! Iho these ar-heroes hither has le!$Q :rothgar then s&oke, !efence of the Scyl!ingsK Q; kne hi" of ol! hen he as a chil!K :is age! father as Ecgtheo na"e!K To hi" at ho"e ga#e :rethel the Geat :is only !aughter' his son has no Bol!ly co"e here, a trusty frien! sought$Q This is fro" Hr$ Garnett@s translation, hich is "a!e line for line$ Publishe! by Ginn, :eath, P 4o$, Boston, +77-$ 0223 )r$ <arl H_llenhof V&a&ers in :au&t@s Q^eitschriftQW follo s the sa"e line$ :is treat"ent is thus !escribe! by Hr$ :enry Horley'--QThe ork as for"e!, he thinks, by the co"bination of se#eral ol! songs--V+W @The 6ight ith Gren!el,@ co"&lete in itself, an! the ol!est of the &iecesK V-W @The 6ight ith Gren!el@s Hother,@ next a!!e!K then VMW the genealogical intro!uction to the "ention of :rothgar, for"ing hat is no the o&ening of the &oe"$ Then ca"e, accor!ing to this theory, a &oet, A, ho orke! o#er the &oe" thus &ro!uce!, inter&olate! "any &assages ith skill, an! a!!e! a continuation, setting forth Beo ulf@s return ho"e$ Last ca"e a theoretical interlo&er, B, a "onk, ho inters&erse! religious sayings of his o n, an! a!!e! the ancient song of the fight ith the !ragon an! the !eath of Beo ulf$ The &ositi#e critic not only fin!s all this, but &rocee!s to &oint out hich &assages are ol!, ol!er, an! ol!est, here a fe lines are fro" &oet A, an! here other inter&olation is fro" &oet B$Q--QEnglish Jerse an! ProseQ in Q4assell@s Library of English Literature,Q &$ ++$ 0273 *o one nee!s to be tol! that the !ragon story is of high antiUuity$ But e#en of the ele"ents hich ha#e "ost the a&&earance of history so"e "ay be trace! so far back till they see" to fa!e into legen!$ Thus :igelac can har!ly be any other than that 4hochilaicus of ho" Gregory of Tours recor!s that he in#a!e! the 6risian coast fro" the north, an! as slain in the atte"&t$ ;n our &oe", this recurs ith #ariations no less than four ti"es as a ell-kno n &assage in the a!#entures of :igelac$ But it affor!s a !oubtful basis for argu"ent about the !ate of our &oe"$ 02,3 See )r$ Jigfusson@s re"arks in the Prolego"ena to his e!ition of the QSturlinga Saga,Q 9xfor!, 4laren!on Press, +727$ 07.3 See )r$ Horris@s Preface to the Blickling :o"ilies$ 07+3 4o!$ Exon$, e!$ Thor&e, &$ L2M$ 07-3 4o!$ Exon$, e!$ Thor&e, &$ L2OK Grein, i$, -L7$

07M3 %ears ago ; !iscusse! this little &oe" before the Bath 6iel! 4lubK an! "y argu"ents ere subseUuently &rinte! in the QProcee!ingsQ of that society V+72-W$ Professor I_lcker has since agree! ith "e that the subject of the &oe" is a city, an! not a fortress$ Hy i!entification of the ruin ith Ace"anceaster VBathW has been a&&ro#e! by Hr$ 6ree"an in his #olu"e on Q(ufus$Q 07L3 The feeling hich &er#a!es this re"arkable frag"ent as strangely recalle! by the follo ing &assage in a recent book that has intereste! "any'--QHasses of strange, na"eless "asonry, of an antiUuity !ateless an! un!efine!, be!!e! the"sel#es in the rocks, or o#erhung the clefts of the hillsK an! out of a great to"b by the aysi!e, near the arch, a forest of laurel force! its ay, a"i! !elicate an! graceful frieSe- ork, "oss-co#ere! an! staine! ith age$ ;n this strangely !esolate an! ruinous s&ot, here the fantastic sha&es of nature see" to "ourn in eir! fello shi& ith the shattere! strength an! beauty of the ol! Pagan art-life, there a&&eare! unex&ecte!ly signs of "o!ern ! elling$Q--QJohn ;nglesant,Q by J$:$ Shorthouse, ne e!ition, +77+, #ol$ ii$, &$ M-.$ 07/3 4o!$ Exon$, e!$ Thor&e, &$ -7O$ 07O3 A translation of this &oe" in Alexan!rines a&&eare! in the TAca!e"yT, Hay +L, +77+, by E$:$ :ickey$ 0723 4o!$ Exon$, e!$ Thor&e, &$ M22$ :is title is Q)eor the Scal!@s 4o"&laint$Q ; ha#e a!o&te! the title fro" Professor I_lcker, Q)es Sengers Trost$Q 0773 So"eti"es a &rose &assage of unusual energy raises the a&&rehension that it "ay be a balla! tone! !o n$ )r$ GrubitS has suggeste! this #ie of the Annal of 2//, in hich there is a fight in a Saxon castle VburhW$ The gra&hic !escri&tion of the &lace, the !ra"atic or!er of the inci!ents, an! the life-like !ialogue of the &arley, "ight ell be the ork of a &oet$ 07,3 <e"ble calle! it QThe Tra#eller@s SongKQ Thor&e, 4o!$ Exon$, &$ M+7, QThe Sco& or Scal!@s Tale$Q 0,.3 A #aluable testi"ony is borne to the substantial antiUuity of this &oe", by the fact that Schafarik, ho is the chief ethnogra&her for Scla#onic literature, regar!s it as a #aluable source on account of the Scla#onic na"es containe! in it$ ; a" in!ebte! to Hr$ Horfil, of 9riel 4ollege, for this infor"ation$

4:APTE( J;;$ T:E IEST SA=9* LAIS$

Q*o other Ger"anic nation has beUueathe! to us out of its earliest ex&erience so rich a treasure of original legal !ocu"ents as the Anglo-Saxon nation has$Q Such is the sentence of )r$ (einhol! Sch"i!, ho u&on the basis of for"er labours, an! &articularly those of Hr$ Benja"in Thor&e, has gi#en us the "ost co"&act an! co"&lete e!ition yet &ro!uce! of the Anglo-Saxon la s$0,+3 ;t "ight see" as if la s ere too far re"o#e! fro" the i!ea of literature, to "erit "ore than a &assing notice here$ Iriters on "o!ern English literature generally lea#e the la yer@s ork altogether out of their fiel!$ But these are a"ong the things that alter ith age$ La s beco"e literary "atter just as they beco"e ol! an! obsolete$ Then the traces they ha#e left in or!s an! &hrases an! figures of s&eech, their #ery contrasts ith the la s of the &resent, "akes the" "aterial e"inently literary$ Ie kno hat effecti#e literary use Sir Ialter Scott has "a!e of the antiUuities an! curiosities of la $ An! to this "ay be a!!e! another re"ark$ Ihen e are engage! in reconstructing an ancient, e "ight al"ost say a lost literature, e nee! abo#e all things so"e lea!ing i!eas concerning the con!itions of social life an! o&inion an! "ental !e#elo&"ent at the &erio! in Uuestion$ *othing su&&lies these things so safely as the la s of the ti"e$ ;*E@S LAIS$ The ol!est extant Iest Saxon la s are those of <ing ;ne,0,-3 ho reigne! thirty-eight years, A$)$ O77-2-O$ As the Iest Saxon &o er gra!ually absorbe! all other rule in this islan!, e here fin! oursel#es entering the central strea" of history$ ;n the &rea"ble to ;ne@s La s the na"e of Ercon al!, bisho& of Lon!on, ho !ie! in O,M, is a"ong the &ersons &resent at the Ge"ct$ 4onseUuently these la s "ust be referre! to the first years of ;ne@s reign, an! they "ust be ol!er than the !ate of the <entish la s of Iihtre!$ The la s of ;ne are &reser#e! to us as an a&&en!ix of the la s of Alfre!$ This is the case in all the "anuscri&ts$ *ot only !oes the el!er co!e follo the younger, but the nu"bering is continuous as if el!ing the t o co!es into one$ Thor&e follo s the "anuscri&ts in this arrange"ent, though not in the nu"bering of the sections, an! the stu!ent ho consults his e!ition is a&t to be confuse! ith this chronological in#ersion, unless he has taken note of the cause$ ;ne reigne! o#er a "ixe! &o&ulation of Saxons an! Britons, an! his co!e is of a "ore co"&rehensi#e character than that of the <entish kings$ :is enact"ents beca"e, through subseUuent re-enact"ents, the basis of the la s not only of Iessex, but also of all Englan!$ Accor!ingly they see" "ore intelligible to the "o!ern rea!er$0,M3 ,$ ;f any one take re#enge before he sue for justice, let hi" gi#e u& hat he has seiSe!, an! &ay for the !a"age !one, an! "ake a"en!s ith thirty shillings$

+-$ ;f a thief be taken, let hi" !ie, or let his life be re!ee"e! accor!ing to his Q er$Q $$$ Thie#es e call the" u& to se#en "enK fro" se#en to thirty-fi#e a ban! VThlothTWK after that it is a troo& VThereTW$ M-$ ;f a Iylisc-"an ha#e a hi!e of lan!, his Q erQ is +-. shillingsK if he ha#e half a hi!e, eighty shillingsK if he ha#e none, sixty shillings$ MO$ :e ho takes a thief, or has a ca&ture! thief gi#en o#er to hi", an! then lets hi" go or conceals the theft, let hi" &ay for the thief accor!ing to his Q er$Q ;f he be an eal!or"an, let hi" forfeit his shire, unless the king be &lease! to sho hi" "ercy$ M,$ ;f any one go fro" his lor! ithout lea#e, or steal hi"self a ay into another shire, an! or! is broughtK let hi" go here he before as, an! &ay his lor! sixty shillings$ L.$ A ceorl@s close shoul! be fence! inter an! su""er$ ;f it be unfence!, an! his neighbour@s cattle get in through his o n ga&, he hath no clai" on the cattleK let hi" !ri#e it out an! bear the !a"age$ LM$ ;n case any one burn a tree in a oo!, an! it co"e to light ho !i! it, let hi" &ay the full &enalty, an! gi#e sixty shillings, because fire is a thief$ ;f one fell in a oo! e#er so "any trees, an! it be foun! out after ar!s, let hi" &ay for three trees, each ith thirty shillings$ :e is not reUuire! to &ay for "ore of the", ho e#er "any they "ight be, because the axe is a re&orter an! not a thief VTforthon seo Fsc bith "el!a, nalles theofTW$0,L3 LL$ But if a "an cut !o n a tree that thirty s ine "ay stan! un!er, an! it is foun! out, let hi" &ay sixty shillings$ /-$ Let hi" ho is accuse! of secret co"&ositions clear hi"self of those co"&ositions ith +-. hi!es, or &ay +-. shillings$0,/3 AL6(E)@S LAIS$ :ere ; ill Uuote fro" the intro!uctory &ortion a &iece hich illustrates the subject generally, an! hich is ren!ere! interesting by the i!e !i#ersity of co""ent hich it has elicite! fro" Hr$ <e"ble an! Sir :$ Haine$ The for"er is al"ost outrageously angry at Alfre! for attributing the syste" of bcts or co"&ensations to the influence of 4hristianityK hile in the strong ter"s here ith treason against the lor! is bran!e!, he can only see Qthese !es&otic ten!encies of a great &rince, nurture! &robably by his exaggerate! lo#e for foreign literature$Q0,O3 ;t is &ositi#ely refreshing to co"e out of this heat an! !ust into the or!erly an! consecuti#e !e"onstration of Sir :$ Haine, ho conclu!es a course of syste"atic ex&osition on the history of 4ri"inal La , an! in!ee! conclu!es his entire book on Ancient La , ith an a&&reciati#e Uuotation of this &assage fro" the La s of Alfre!$ ;t is

thus intro!uce!'-QThere is a &assage in the ritings of <ing Alfre! hich brings out into re"arkable clearness the struggle of the #arious i!eas that &re#aile! in his !ay as to the origin of cri"inal juris!iction$ ;t ill be seen that Alfre! attributes it &artly to the authority of the 4hurch an! &artly to that of the Iitan, hile he ex&ressly clai"s for treason against the lor! the sa"e i""unity fro" or!inary rules hich the (o"an La of Hajestas ha! assigne! to treason against the 4Fsar$Q Siththan thFt tha gela"&, thFt "onega theo!a 4ristes geleafan onfengon, tha ur!on "onega seonothas geon! ealne "i!!an gear! gega!ero!e, an! eac s a geon! Angel cyn, siththan hie 4ristes geleafan onfengon, haligra bisce&a an! eac otherra gethungenra itena$ :ie tha gesetton for thFre "il!heortnesse, the 4rist lFr!e, Ft "Fstra h elcre "is!F!e, thFt tha orul! hlafor!as "oston "i! hiora leafan buton synne Ft tha" for"an gylte thFre fioh-bote onfon, the hie tha gesettanK buton Ft hlafor! sear e, tha" hie nane "il!heortnesse ne !orston gec Fthan, fortha" the Go! Rl"ihtig tha" nane ne ge!e"!e the hine oferhogo!on, ne 4rist, Go!es sunu, tha" nane ne ge!e"!e, the hyne seal!e to !eatheK an! he bebea! thone hlafor! lufian s a hine selfne$ After that it ha&&ene! that "any nations recei#e! the faith of 4hrist, an! there ere "any syno!s asse"ble! through all &arts of the orl!, an! like ise throughout the Angle race after they ha! recei#e! the faith of 4hrist, of holy bisho&s an! also of other !istinguishe! Iitan$ They then or!aine!, out of that co"&assion hich 4hrist ha! taught, in the case of al"ost e#ery "is!ee!, that the secular lor!s "ight, ith their lea#e an! ithout sin, for the first offence acce&t the "oney &enalty hich they then or!aine!K exce&ting in the case of treason against a lor!, to hich they !are! not assign any "ercy, because Go! Al"ighty a!ju!ge! none to the" that !es&ise! :i", nor !i! 4hrist, the Son of Go!, a!ju!ge any to the" that sol! :i" to !eathK an! :e co""an!e! that the lor! shoul! be lo#e! as :i"self$ :ie tha on "onegu" senothu" "onegra "enniscra "is!F!a bote gesetton, an! on "onega senoth bec hy riton h Fr anne !o" h Fr otherne$ They then in "any syno!s or!aine! a QbotQ for "any hu"an "is!ee!s, an! in "any a syno!-book they rote, here one !ecision, there another$ ;c tha Rlfre! cyning thas togF!ere gega!ero!e an! a ritan het "onege thara, the ure foregengan heol!on, tha the "e lico!onK an! "anege thara the "e ne lico!on, ic a ear& "i! "inra itena getheahte, an! on othre isan bebea! to heal!enne, fortha" ic ne !orste gethristlFcan thara "inra

a uht feala on ge rit settan, fortha" "e Fs uncuth, h Ft thFs tha" lician ol!e, the Ffter us Fren$ Ac tha the ic ge"ette, a ther oththe on ;nes !Fge, "ines "Fges, oththe on 9ffan, Hyrcena cyninges, oththe on Rthelbryhtes, the Frest fulluht onfeng on Angel cynne, tha the "e ryhtoste thuhton, ic tha her on gega!ero!e an! tha othre forlet$ ; then, Alfre!, king, gathere! these together, an! ; or!ere! to rite out "any of those that our forefathers hel! hich to "e see"e! goo!K an! "any of those that to "e see"e! not goo! ; rejecte!, ith the counsel of "y Iitan, an! in other ise co""an!e! to hol!K foras"uch as ; !urst not #enture to set any great Uuantity of "y o n in riting, because it as unkno n to "e hat oul! &lease those ho shoul! be after us$ But those things that ; foun! establishe!, either in the !ays of ;ne "y kins"an, or in 9ffa@s, king of the Hercians, or in Rthelbryht@s, ho first recei#e! ba&tis" in the Angle race, those hich see"e! to "e rightest, those ; ha#e here gathere! together, an! the others ; ha#e rejecte!$ ;c tha Rlfre!, Iest seaxna cyning, eallu" "inu" itu" thas geeo !e, an! hie tha c F!on, thFt hi" thFt lico!e eallu" to heal!enne$ ; then, Alfre!, king of the Iest Saxons, to all "y Iitan sho e! theseK an! they then sai!, that it see"e! goo! to the" all that they shoul! be hol!en$ AL6(E) A*) G5T:(5H@S PEA4E$ This is a little co!e hich "arks a crisis in Alfre!@s life, an!, it "ay be a!!e!, a crisis also in the life of the nation$ Ihen Alfre! by his #ictory o#er the )anes in 727 ha! brought the" to sue for &eace, the treaty as "a!e at Ie!"ore in So"ersetshire$ The original text of the &eace bet een Alfre! an! Guthru" is a"ong the Anglo-Saxon la s, an! e &resent it to the rea!er in its entire for"$ The first ite" is about the frontier line bet een the t o races hich as !ra n !iagonally through the heart of Englan!, cutting Hercia in t o, an! lea#ing half of it un!er the )anes$ The t o &arts into hich the country as thus !i#i!e!, ere !esignate! se#erally as the QEngla laguQ an! the Q)ena lagu$Q TRlfre!es an! Guthru"es frith$T This is thFt frith, thFt Rlfre! cynincg an! Gythru" cyning an! ealles Angel cynnes itan, an! eal seo theo! the on East Englu" beoth, ealle gec e!en habbath, an! "i! athu" gefeostno!, for hy sylfe an! for heora gingran, ge for geborene, ge for ungeborene, the Go!es "iltse recce oththe ure$

TAlfre! an! Guthru"@s Peace$T This is the &eace that king Alfre! an! king Guthru" an! the counsellors of all Angel-kin, an! all the &eo&le that are in East Anglia, ha#e all !ecree! an! ith oaths confir"e! for the"sel#es an! for their chil!ren, both for the born an! for the unborn, all ho #alue Go!@s fa#our or ours$ 4a&$ +$ Rrest y"b ure lan!-ge"Fra' u& on Te"ese an! thonne u& on Ligan, an! an!lang Ligan oth hire F yl", thonne on gerihte to Be!an for!a, thonne u& on 5san oth IFtlinga strFt$ 4a&$ +$ 6irst about our lan!-boun!aries'--5& the Tha"es, an! then u& the Lea, an! along the Lea to her source, then straight to Be!for!, then u& the 9use to Iatling Street$ -$ ThFt is thonne, gif "an ofslagen eorthe, ealle e lFtath efen !yrne Engliscne an! )eniscne, to J;;; healf"arcu" aso!enes gol!es, buton tha" ceorle the on gafol lan!e sit, an! heora liesingu", tha syn!an eac efen !yre, Fgther to 44 scill$ -$ Ji!elicet, if a &erson be slain, e all esti"ate of eUual #alue, the English"an an! the )ane, at eight half-"arks of &ure gol!K exce&t the ceorl ho resi!es on gafol-lan!, an! their 0Ti$e$T the )anish3 liesings, those also are eUually !ear, either at t o hun!re! shillings$ M$ An! gif "on cyninges thegn beteo "anslihtes, gif he hine la!ian !yrre, !o he thFt "i! =;; cininges thegnu"$ Gif "an thone "an betyhth, the bith lFssa "aga thonne se cyninges thegn, la!ige he hine "i! =; his gelicena an! "i! anu" cyninges thFgne$ An! s a Fgeh ilcere s&rFce, the "are sy thonne ;;;; "ancussas$ An! gyf he ne !yrre, gyl!e hit thry gyl!e, s a hit "an ge yrthe$ M$ An! if a king@s thane be charge! ith killing a "an, if he !are to clear hi"self, let hi" !o it ith t el#e king@s thanes$ ;f the accuse! "an be of less !egree than the king@s thane, let hi" clear hi"self ith ele#en of his eUuals, an! ith one king@s thane$ An! so in e#ery suit that "ay be for "ore than four "ancuses$ An! if he !are not, let hi" &ay threefol!, accor!ing as it "ay be #alue!$ TBe gety"u"$T L$ An! thFt Flc "an ite his gety"an be "annu" an! be horsu" an! be oxu"$ T9f Iarrantors$T

L$ An! that e#ery "an kno his arrantor for "en an! for horses an! for oxen$ /$ An! ealle e c F!on on tha" !Fge the "on tha athas s or, thFt ne theo e ne freo ne "oton in thone here faran butan leafe, ne heora nan the "a to us$ Gif thonne gebyrige, thFt for neo!e heora h ilc ith ure bige habban ille, oththe e ith heora, "i! yrfe an! "i! Fhtu", thFt is to thafianne on tha isan, thFt "an gislas sylle frithe to e!!e, an! to s utelunge, thFt "an ite thFt "an clFne bFc hFbbe$ /$ An! e all sai! on that !ay hen the oaths ere s orn, that neither bon! nor free shoul! be at liberty to go to the host0,23 ithout lea#e, nor of the" any one by the sa"e rule Vco"eW to us$ ;f, ho e#er, it ha&&en, that for business any one of the" !esires to ha#e !ealings ith us or e ith the", about cattle an! about goo!s, that is to be grante! on this ise, that hostages be gi#en for a &le!ge of &eace, an! for e#i!ence hereby it "ay be kno n that the &arty has a clean back 0Ti$e$T, that he has not carrie! off on his back hat is not his o n3$ EA)IA() A*) G5T:(5H@S LAIS$ Besi!es t o co!es of la s of Ea! ar!, the son of Alfre!, e ha#e also a co!e entitle! as abo#e$ 9f these la s it is sai! that they ere first "a!e bet een Alfre! an! Guthru", an! after ar!s bet een Ea! ar! an! Guthru"$0,73 Hany of the enact"ents of this co!e ere trans"itte! to later or!inances$ This syn!on tha !o"as the Rlfre! cyneg an! Guthru" cyneg gecuran$ These are the !oo"s that king Alfre! an! king Guthru" chose$ An! this is seo gerF!nis eac the Rlfre! cyng an! Guthru" cyng$ an! eft Ea! ar! cyng an! Guthru" cyng$ gecuran an! gec F!on$ Tha tha Engle an! )ene to frithe an! to freon!sci&e fullice fengen$ an! tha itan eac the syththan Fron eft an! unsel!an thFt seolfe geni o!on an! "i! go!e gehihtan$ An! this is the or!inance, also, hich king Alfre! an! king Guthru", an! after ar!s king Ea! ar! an! king Guthru", chose an! or!aine!, hen the English an! )anes fully took to &eace an! to frien!shi&K an! the Iitan also, ho ere after ar!, often an! re&eate!ly rene e! the sa"e an! increase! it ith goo!$

AT:ELSTA*@S LAIS$ 5n!er the na"e of Athelstan e ha#e fi#e co!es, of hich the secon! an! thir! are "ere abstracts in LatinK but the others are in SaxonK an! besi!es these a substanti#e or!inance bearing the s&ecial title of QThe Ju!g"ents of the 4ity of Lon!on$Q This has been !escribe! as follo s'--QThe rules of the guil! co"&ose! of thanes an! ceorls Vgentle"en an! yeo"enW, un!er the &er&etual &resi!ency of the bisho& an! &ortree#e of Lon!on$Q0,,3 They co"bine to &rotect the"sel#es against robbery, an! this in t o ays' V+W by &ro"oting the action of the la s against robbersK V-W by "utual insurance$ The !eter"ination of this co!e to the reign of Athelstan is gui!e! by the "ention of the &laces of enact"ent, hich are Greatley Vnear An!o#er, :antsWK ExeterK an! Thun!ersfiel! Vnear :orley, SurreyW, ith hich &laces all the &re#ious la s of Athelstan are associate!$ 6ro" the fourth of the abo#e-"entione! or!inances ; ill Uuote the la about the tracking of cattle lost, stolen, or straye!'--$ QAn! if any one track cattle ithin another@s lan!, the o ner of that lan! is to track it out, if he canK if he cannot, that track is to count as the fore-oath,Q Ti$e$T, the first legal ste& in an action to reco#er$ A "ore ex&licit !escri&tion of the "etho! of tracking cattle occurs in the 9r!inance of the )unsFte$ This or!inance is &lace! by Thor&e bet een the la s of Rthelre! an! those of 4nut$ This little co!e of nine sections is inten!e! to rule the relations of a bor!er country hich, on its ho"e si!e, is continuous ith Iessex, an! on its outer si!e is next the Ielsh$ Sir 6rancis Palgra#e, "isle! &erha&s by a Uuestionable rea!ing in La"bar!e V+/O7W, ho has the for" )eunsFtas, took this to be a treaty bet een the English an! British inhabitants of )e#on, an! besto e! on it the succinct title of the )e#onian 4o"&act$ But Hr$ Thor&e objecte! to the for" Q)eunQ as groun!less, an! he also Uuote! the text of the co!e against itK for the last section s&eaks thus'--Q6or"erly the IentsFte belonge! to the )unsFte, but that !istrict "ore strictly belongs to Iessex, for they ha#e to sen! thither tribute an! hostages$Q This a!"its of no ex&lanation in )e#onshire, but in South Iales it !oes, an! e learn fro" Iillia" of Hal"esbury that the ri#er Iye as fixe! by <ing Athelstan as the boun!ary bet een the English an! Ielsh$ 9n this basis the IentsFte ill be the &eo&le of G ent, an! the )unsFte ill be the Ielsh of the u&lan! or hill-country$ 9ne of the "ost re"arkable sections of this 4o!e is the first, hich &rescribes the "etho! for tracking stolen cattle$ The la s concerning theft relate al"ost entirely to the &rotection of cattle, an! naturally so, because the chief ealth of the ti"e consiste! in flocks an! her!s$ Stolen cattle ere tracke! by fixe! rules$ ;f the

track le! into a gi#en !istrict, the "en of that !istrict ere boun! to sho the track out of their boun!ary or to be res&onsible for the lost &ro&erty$ Ie ha#e just seen this in Athelstan@s la sK but in the &re#ious reign a la of E! ar!, the son of Alfre!, !irects that e#ery &ro&rietor of lan! is to ha#e "en rea!y to !is&atch in ai! of those ho are follo ing the track of cattle, an! that they are not to be !i#erte! fro" this !uty by bribes, or inclination, or #iolence$ But the "ost ex&licit text on this subject is in the first cha&ter of the 9r!inance res&ecting the )unset folk, as abo#e sai!$ ;t runs thus'-Q;f the track of stolen cattle be follo e! fro" station to station, the further tracking shall be co""itte! to the &eo&le of the lan!, an! &roof shall be gi#en that the &ursuit is genuine$ The &ro&rietor of the lan! shall then take u& the &ursuit, an! he shall ha#e the res&onsibility, an! he shall &ay for the cattle by nine !ays therefro", or !e&osit a &le!ge by that !ate, hich is orth half "ore, an! in a further nine !ays !ischarge the &le!ge ith actual &ay"ent$ ;f objection be "a!e that the track as rongly &ursue!, then the tracker "ust lea! to the station, an! there ith six unchosen "en, ho are true "en, "ake oath that he by folk-right "akes clai" on the lan! that the cattle &asse! u& that ay$Q Ie cannot follo the la s in !etail, but "ust no conclu!e this subject ith one or t o obser#ations of a general kin!$ ;n the abo#e ; ha#e re&eate!ly use! the or! Q4o!eQK but this is not to be un!erstoo! ith technical exactness$ 9f late years e ha#e hear! "uch of Qco!ifyingQ our la sK an! this ex&ression suggests the i!ea of a co"&act an! consistent bo!y of la , hich shoul! take the &lace of &artial, occasional, ano"alous, an! often conflicting legislation$ 9f Qco!esQ in this sense, there is #ery little to be foun! in the hole recor! of English la $ 9ur <entish an! Iest Saxon la s are little "ore than state"ents of custo" or a"en!"ents of custo"K an! hile Professor Stubbs clai"s for the la s of Alfre!, Rthelre!, 4nut, an! those !escribe! as E! ar! the 4onfessor@s, that they as&ire to the character of co!es, yet QEnglish la Vhe a!!sW fro" its first to its latest &hase, has ne#er &ossesse! an authoritati#e, constructi#e, syste"atic, or a&&roxi"ately exhausti#e state"ent, such as as atte"&te! by the great co"&ilers of the ci#il an! canon la s, by Alfonso the Iise or *a&oleon Bona&arte$Q0+..3 There is a &ro"inent characteristic of our la s hich they ha#e in co""on ith all &ri"iti#e co!es$ These all !iffer fro" "aturer collections of la s in their #ery large &ro&ortion of cri"inal to ci#il la $ Sir :enry Haine says that, on the hole, all the kno n collections of ancient la are !istinguishe! fro" syste"s of "ature juris&ru!ence by this feature,--that the ci#il &art of the la has trifling !i"ensions as co"&are! ith the cri"inal$0+.+3 This is strikingly seen in the <entish la sK an! e#en in the Iest Saxon la s a #ery little stu!y ill enable the rea!er to #erify this characteristic$ 9ur next an! last obser#ation shall be base! on the absence of so"ething hich the rea!er "ight &ossibly ex&ect to fin! in the Saxon la s$

9f all the legal institutions that ha#e clai"e! a Saxon origin, none co"&ares for i"&ortance ith that of trial by jury$ This has been calle! the bul ark of English liberty, an! it has been assigne! to <ing Alfre! as the general foun!er of great institutions$ But this is only a &o&ular o&inion$ Perha&s there is no single "atter in legal antiUuities that has been so "uch !ebate! as the origin of trial by jury$ ;n the #ast literature hich the subject has calle! forth, the "ost #arious accounts ha#e been &ro&ose!$ ;t is an English institution, but hence !i! the English get itf 6ro" hich of the #arious sources that ha#e contribute! to the co"&osite life of the English nationf Ias it Anglo-Saxon, or as it Anglo-*or"an, or as it <elticf Ias it a &rocess co""on to all the Ger"anic fa"ilyf ;f it as *or"an, fro" hich source--fro" their Scan!ina#ian ancestors or fro" their 6rankish neighboursf All these origins ha#e been "aintaine!, an! others besi!es these$ Accor!ing to so"e riters, it is a relic of (o"an la K so"e trace it to the 4anon la K an! cha"&ions ha#e not been anting to #in!icate it as originally a Sla#onic institution hich the Angles borro e! fro" the Ierini ere they ha! left their ol! "other country$0+.-3 ;n all this !i#ersity of #ie there is one fixe! &oint of co""on agree"ent$ ;t is allo e! on all han!s that Englan! is the arena of its historical career, an! the Uuestion therefore al ays takes this start,--:o !i! the English acUuire itf The Anglo-Saxon la s ha#e been !iligently scanne! to see if the &ractice or the ger" of it coul! be !isco#ere! there$ ;n Rthelre! iii$, M, there is an or!inance that runs thus'-An! gan ut tha yl!estan =;; thegnas, an! se gerefa "i!, an! s erian on tha" halig!o"e, the heo" "an on han! sylle, thFt hig nellan nFnne sacleasan "an forsecgan, ne nFnne sacne forhelan$ Let the =;; senior thanes go out, an! the ree#e ith the", an! s ear on the hali!o" that is &ut in their han!, that they ill not calu"niate any sackless "an, nor conceal any guilty one Vf su&&ress any suitW$ This looks like the gran! jury exa"ining the bills of in!ict"ent before trial, an! !eter"ining T&ri"d facieT hether they are true bills hich ought to be trie! in court$ But the &rogress of "o!ern inUuiry has le! to the conclusion, that though there "ay be ru!i"ents of the &rinci&le in Anglo-Saxon an! in all Ger"anic custo"s, still it as a"ong the 6ranks in the 4arling era that a !efinite beginning can first be recognise!$ The 6rankish ca&itularies ha! a &rocess calle! ;nUuisitio, hich as a!o&te! into *or"an la , an! as there calle! EnUugteK this, ha#ing &asse! ith the *or"ans into Englan!, as finally sha&e! an! e"bo!ie! in the co""on la a"ong the legal refor"s of :enry ;;$ 5n!er the Saxon la s, the true "en ho ere s orn to !o justice ha! a

#ery !ifferent &art to act fro" that hich falls to the lot of our English jury$ The !uty of the latter is to !eli#er a #er!ict on "atter of fact as &ro#e! by e#i!ence gi#en in court$ The ju!ge charges the" to &ut asi!e hat they "ay ha#e hear! out of court, an! let it ha#e no influence on their #er!ict, but to let that #er!ict be strictly base! u&on the e#i!ence of itnesses before the court$ ;n Rthelre!@s ti"e it as !ifferent$ The s orn "en ere not to ju!ge testi"ony truly, but to bear itness truly$ They ere to bring into court their o n kno le!ge of the case, an! of any circu"stances that thre light u&on it, inclu!ing the general o&inion an! &ersuasion of the neighbourhoo!$ There as no atte"&t to collect e#i!ence &iece"eal, an! to rise abo#e the le#el of local ru"our, by a &atient ju!icial in#estigation$ This &ro#i!es us ith so"ething like a "easure of the intellectual stage of the &ublic "in! in Saxon ti"es, an! ill &erha&s justify these re"arks if they ha#e see"e! like !rifting a ay fro" our &ro&er subject$ The notion of eighing e#i!ence ha! not taken its &lace a"ong the institutions of &ublic life$ This has no beco"e ith us al"ost a &o&ular habit$ Proficiency an! soun!ness in it "ay be rare, but the a&&reciation of it, the &erce&tion of its &o er an! beauty, an! ithal a &ri!e an! glory in it, is al"ost uni#ersal$ :o i!e a !istance !oes this see" to &ut bet een us an! our Saxon forefathers, only to say that they ha! but the "ost ru!i"entary notions about the nature of e#i!encem Iitnesses ca"e into court, not to s&eak, one by one, to a "atter of fact, but to &ronounce in a bo!y hat they all belie#e! an! hel!$ They ca"e to testify an! u&hol! the &o&ular o&inion$ Such testi"ony is like nothing kno n to us no , exce&t hen itnesses are calle! to s&eak to general character$ These itnesses ga#e their e#i!ence on oathK but it oul! naturally ha&&en so"eti"es that such s orn testi"ony as to be ha! on both si!es of the Uuestion$ Ihen this as the case, there as but one resource left, an! that as the 9r!eal--the a&&eal to the ju!g"ent of Go!$ Such are the !e#ices of inex&erience! nations, ho ha#e no skill in sifting out the truth, an! are baffle! by conten!ing testi"ony$ *othing can better illustrate the stage of our national &rogress in the ti"es hich &ro!uce! the literature hich e are no sur#eying$ But, ithal, it as in such a ru!e age that the foun!ations of English la ere lai!, an! those custo"s took a !efinite for" hich are the groun! ork of our juris&ru!ence, an! in hich consists the !istinction bet een our English la an! the la of the other nations of Iestern Euro&e, ho ha#e all VScotlan! inclu!e!W for"e! their legal syste" u&on the ci#il la of (o"e$ LEGAL )945HE*TS$ 6ro" the se#enth century !o n to the en! of our &erio! e ha#e a series of legal !ocu"ents, such as grants of lan!, &urchases, "e"orials, ritten ills, "e"oran!a of nuncu&atory ills, royal rits, fa"ily arrange"ents, interchanges of lan!$ The first thing to be notice! about

this hole bo!y of ritings is that they, at the beginning of the series, are entirely in LatinK then a fe or!s of the #ulgar tongue cree& in, an! then this nati#e ele"ent goes on increasing until e ha#e entire !ocu"ents in Saxon$ *e#ertheless, it re"aine! a &re#alent habit in the case of transfer of lan! to ha#e the grant ritten in Latin, an! the boun!aries an! other !etails ex&resse! in Anglo-Saxon$ This is a large bo!y of literature, an! it fills six octa#o #olu"es in <e"ble@s Q4o!ex )i&lo"aticus$Q Being of #ery #arious !egrees of genuineness--so"e absolute originals, so"e faulty co&ies, so"e too carefully a"en!e!, !o n to the #eriest forgeries--there is here a goo! fiel! for the exercise of critical !iscri"ination$ An! there are "any curious an! interesting !etails to re ar! the &atient stu!ent$ The follo ing extract is fro" a "e"orial a!!resse! to E! ar!, the son of Alfre!, touching "atters that ha! "ostly fallen in his father@s ti"eK an! it o&ens a gli"&se of Alfre! in his be!-cha"ber recei#ing a co""ittee that ca"e to re&ort &rogress$ Tha bFr "on tha boc forth an! rF!!e hieK tha sto! seo hon!seten eal thFron$ Tha thuhte us eallan the Ft thFre so"e Fran thet :el"stan Fre athe thFs the near$ Tha nFs Rthel" na fullice gethafa Fr e eo!an in to cinge an! rF!an eall hu e hit reahtan an! be h y e hit reahtan' an! Rthel" sto! self thFr inne "i!K an! cing sto! th oh his hon!a Ft Iear!oran innan thon bure$ Tha he thFt ge!on hFf!e tha asca!e he Rthel" h y hit hi" ryht ne thuhte thFt e hi" gereaht hFf!anK c Fth thFt he nan ryhtre gethencan ne "eahte thonne he thone ath agifan "oste gif he "eahte$ Then they brought for ar! the con#eyance an! rea! itK there stoo! the signatures all thereon$ Then see"e! it to all of us ho ere at the arbitration, that :el"stan as all the nearer to the oath$ Then as not Rthel" fully con#ince! before e ent in to the king an! ex&laine! e#erything--ho e re&orte! it, an! on hat groun!s e ha! so re&orte! it' an! Rthel" hi"self stoo! there in the roo" ith usK an! the king stoo! an! ashe! his han!s at Iar!our in the cha"ber$ Ihen he ha! !one that, then he aske! Rthel" hy it see"e! to hi" not right hat e ha! re&orte! to hi"K he sai! that he coul! think of nothing "ore just than that he "ight be allo e! to !ischarge the oath if he ere able$ 699T*9TES' 0,+3 The Anglo-Saxon la s ha#e been e!ite! by Iillia" La"bar!e, Lon!on, +/O7, Lto$K Abraha" Ihelock, 4a"bri!ge, +OLLK Iilkins, Lon!on, +2-+, folioK )r$ (einhol! Sch"i!, Lei&Sig, +7M-K Thor&e, +7L.K Sch"i!, e!$ -, +7/7$ ;t is Sch"i!@s secon! e!ition that is s&oken of abo#e$ 0,-3 ;ne is to be &ronounce! as a or! of t o syllables$ 0,M3 Palgra#e, QEnglish 4o""on ealth,Q i$, LO$

0,L3 Gri"", QLegal AntiUuities,Q j +., Uuotes so"e i!ely-scattere! &arallels' fro" (_gen he &ro!uces the &ro#erb, QHit !er exe stelt "en nichtQ V ith the axe "en steal notWK an! fro" Ietterau, QIan einer hauet, so ruft erQ V hen one he s, he shoutsW$ :e !ubs the Anglo-Saxon for"ula the "ore &oetical VT&oetischerTW$ 0,/3 QThese secret co"&ositions are forbi!!en by nearly e#ery early co!e of Euro&eK for by such a &rocee!ing both the ju!ge an! the 4ro n lost their &rofits$ The Q4a&itularyQ of /,M &uts the recei#er of a secret co"&osition on a le#el ith the thief' @Nui furtu" #ult celare, et occulte sine ju!ice co"&ositione" acce&erit, latroni si"ilis est$@ An! e#en no in co""on la , the rule is to obtain the sanction of the 4ourt for &er"ission @to s&eak ith the &rosecutor,@ an! thus ter"inate the suit by co"&oun!ing the affair in &ri#ate$Q--T:9(PE$ The reason assigne! is, ho e#er, not the hole reason$ 0,O3 QSaxons in Englan!,Q #ol$ ii$, &$ -.7$ 0,23 T;$e$T, go to the )anish ca"& in East Anglia$ 0,73 :ere e ha#e to un!erstan! t o !istinct kings of the na"e of Guthru"$ 0,,3 4oote, QThe (o"ans of Britain,Q &$ M,2$ 0+..3 Q)ocu"ents ;llustrati#e of English :istory,Q &$ O.$ 0+.+3 QAncient La ,Q cha&$ x$ init$ 0+.-3 Palgra#e, QAnglo-Saxon 4o""on ealthKQ Stubbs, Q4onstitutional :istoryKQ :einrich Brunner, Q)ie Entstehung !er Sch urgerichte,Q Berlin, +72-$

4:APTE( J;;;$ T:E 4:(9*;4LES$ 9f the historical ritings that re"ain fro" the Anglian &erio!--na"ely, those of R!!i an! Be!e, e ha#e alrea!y s&okenK the subject of the &resent cha&ter ill be the Saxon 4hronicles an! the Latin histories hich are "ore or less relate! to these 4hronicles$ The habit of &utting together annals began to be for"e! #ery early$ ;n our 4hronicles there are so"e entries that "ay &erha&s be ol!er than the con#ersion of our &eo&le$ The contributors to Be!e@s Q:istoryQ oul! a&&ear to ha#e sent in their &arts "ore or less in the annalistic for"$ That for" is e#en no but slightly #eile! in the grou&e! arrange"ent into hich the #enerable historian has, ith little reconstruction but

consi!erable skill, cast his "aterials$ Annal- riting, e "ay #enture to say, ha! by his ti"e beco"e a recognise! habit in literature, an! there is extant a brief *orthu"brian 4hronicle hich en!s soon after Be!e@s !eath$0+.M3 4ontinuous ith this e ha#e a series of annals hich ere &ro!uce! in the north, an! hich are no i"be!!e! in the Iest Saxon 4hroniclesK but the traces of their birth are not obliterate!$ Such #ernacular annals ere &robably at first !esigne! as little "ore than notes an! "e"oran!a to ser#e for a Latin history to be ritten another !ayK but the )anish ars broke the tra!ition of Latin learning, an! "a!e a i!e o&ening hich ga#e o&&ortunity for the ele#ation of a #ernacular literature$ There is no &art of Anglo-Saxon literature "ore characterise! by s&ontaneity than are the Saxon 4hronicles$ *o here can e better see ho the "other-tongue recei#e! the !e#olution of the literary office in an unex&ecte! ay hen the learne! literature as su!!enly an! #iolently !is&lace!$ 9ne of the strong features of these 4hronicles is the genealogies of the kings, ascen!ing "ostly to Io!en as their "ythical ancestor$ The "ost co"&lete of these is that of the Iest Saxon kings, hich is &refixe! to the Parker "anuscri&t in "anner of a &reface$ This genealogy as originally "a!e for Ecgbryht, ho reigne! fro" 7.. to 7MO,--it as "a!e at his !eath, an! it co"&rise! the accession of his son, Rthel ulf$ SubseUuently an a!!ition as "a!e, hich continue! the line of kings !o n to Alfre!, an! close! ith the !ate of his accession$ This, hen co"bine! ith the fact that the first han! in this book en!s ith 7,+, see"s to fix the !ate of the Iinchester 4hronicle$ This interesting a&&en!ix is as follo s'-9n! tha feng Rthelbal! his sunu to rice an! heol! # gear$ Tha feng Rthelbryht his brother to an! heol! # gear$ Tha feng Rthere! hiera brothur to rice an! heol! # gear$ Tha feng Rlfre! hiera brothur to rice an! tha Fs agan his iel!e xxiii intra, an! ccc an! xc#i intra thFs the his cyn Frest Iessexana lon! on Iealu" geo!on$ An! then Rthelbal! his son took to the real" an! hel! it / years$ Then succee!e! Rthelbryht his brother, an! hel! / years$ Then Rthere! their brother took to the real", an! hel! / years$ Then took Alfre! their brother to the real", an! then as agone of his age -M yearsK an! M,O years fro" that his race erst took Iessex fro" the Ielsh$ These 4hronicles are re"arkable for a certain unconscious ease an! ho"eliness$ E#en hen, in the course of their &rogress, they gro "ore co&ious an! "ature, they har!ly !isco#er any consciousness of literary !ignity$ 9f the Latin ritings of the Anglo-Saxon &erio! this coul! not be sai!$ This Tnan#etoT is naturally "ore obser#able in the earlier &arts, hich see" like rescue! antiUuities, hich "ight ha#e been built into their &lace hen, in the latter en! of the eighth or beginning of the ninth century, the i"&ortance of the national an! #ernacular chronicle began to be realise!$

So"e of the brief entries concerning the #arious settle"ents on the coasts an! the early contests ith the Britons ha#e the a&&earance of tra!itional re"iniscences that ha! been &reser#e! in &o&ular songs$ Such is that of L2M, that the Ielsh fle the English like fireK L,+, that Rlle an! 4issa besiege! An!re!escester, an! sle all those that therein ! elt--there as not so "uch as one Bret leftK /7L, ho that 4ea lin, in his ex&e!ition u& the Jale of Se#ern, here his brother fell, took "any to ns an! untol! s&oils, an!, angry, he turne! a ay to his o n$ Hingle! ith these are entries hich, though ingenious, are har!ly less s&ontaneous$ Such are those in hich there is a "anifest rationalising u&on the na"es of historical sites, an! a fanciful !isco#ery of their heroes or foun!ers$ Thus, in /.+, e rea! that Port lan!e! in Britain at the &lace calle! Ports"outh$ *o , e kno that the first syllable in Ports"outh is the Latin T&ortusT, a harbour, an! it see"s &lain that here e ha#e a na"e "a!e into a &ersonage$ ;n /ML e rea! ho 4ynric ga#e the ;sle of Iight to Stuf an! Iihtgar, an! ho Iihtgar !ie! in /LL, an! as burie! at Iihtgaraburg, also calle! IihtgarFsburh$ :ere the &erson of Iihtgar has been "a!e out of the na"e of the &lace, because that na"e as un!erstoo! as "eaning 4astle of Iihtgar$ But it "eant the Burgh QofQ Iihtgar only in the sense of the Burgh hich as calle! Iihtgar$ The last syllable, TgarT, is the British or! for burg, fortress, castle, hich the Ielsh call T4aerT to this !ay$ An! the Saxons, ha#ing often to use the or! TgarT in this sense--"uch as our re&orters of *e ^ealan! affairs ha#e to s&eak of a T&aT--!istinguishe! the TgarT that as in Iiht, as Iihtgar, an! then they a!!e! their o n or!, TburhT, as the inter&retation of TgarT, an! after a ti"e the historian, fin!ing the na"e of Iihtgarburh, took Iihtgar for a "an, an! calle! it Iihtgar@s Burg, Iihtgaresburh, a geniti#e for" hich still li#es in Q4arisbrooke$Q The originals of the 4hronicles are &reser#e! in se#en !ifferent books$ They are kno n by the signatures A, B, 4, ), E, 6, G$ A, the fa"ous book in Archbisho& Parker@s library, &reser#e! in 4or&us 4hristi 4ollege, 4a"bri!ge$ The structure of this book in!icates that it as "a!e in 7,+, an!, in!ee!, the &en"anshi& of this co&y--at least, of the co"&ilation--"ay &ossibly be as ol! as the lifeti"e of <ing Alfre!$ ;t bears the local i"&ress of Iinchester, exce&t in the latest continuation, +../-+.2., hich a&&ears to belong to 4anterbury$ ;t see"s to ha#e &asse! fro" 4anterbury to the &lace here it is no !e&osite!K but that it as a Iinchester book in its basis see"s in!icate! by the regular notices of the bisho&s of Iessex fro" OML to 2/L, by the !iction of the co"&ilation to 7,+, an! es&ecially by that of the re"arkable continuation, 7,M-7,2$ B, British Huseu", 4otton Library, Tiberius A$ #i$ 4loses ith the year ,22, an! as &robably ritten at St$ Augustine@s, 4anterbury$ 4, British Huseu", 4otton Library, Tiberius B$ i$ The first han! riting sto&s at +.LO, an! is &robably of that !ate$ 4loses ith +.OO$ A&&arently a ork of the "onks of Abing!on$

), British Huseu", 4otton Library, Tiberius B$ i#$ The first han!, hich sto&s at +.+O, "ay ell be of that !ate$ 4loses ith +.2,$ This book contains strong internal e#i!ence of being a &ro!uct of Iorcester Abbey$ E, Bo!leian Library, Lau!, OMO$ This is the fullest of all extant 4hroniclesK it e"bo!ies "ost of the contents of the others, an! it a!!s the largest Uuantity of ne an! original history$ ;t gi#es se#enty-fi#e years@ history beyon! any of the others, an! closes ith the !eath of Ste&hen in ++/L$ The local relations of this book are un"istakable$ The first han! en!s ith ++-+, an! all the e#i!ence goes to &ro#e that this book as &re&are! at that !ate in the abbey of Peterborough$ 9n 6ri!ay, August M, +++O, a great fire ha! occurre! at Peterborough hich ha! !estroye! the to n an! a large &art of the abbey, an! this book as a&&arently un!ertaken a"ong the acts of restoration$ The #arying sha!es of Saxon hich this book contains, both in the co"&ilation an! in the se#eral continuations, ren!er it of great #alue for the history of the English language, es&ecially in the obscure &erio! of the t elfth century$ 6, British Huseu", 4otton Library, )o"itian A$ #iij$ A bilingual 4hronicle, Latin an! Saxon, hich, by internal e#i!ence, is assigne! to 4hrist 4hurch, 4anterbury$ The abru&t en!ing at +./7 is no in!ication of the book@s !ate' it as ritten late in the t elfth century$ G, British Huseu", 4otton Library, 9tho B$ xi$ A late co&y of A, "a!e &robably in the t elfth century$ ;t nearly &erishe! in the fire of +2M+, an! only three lea#es ha#e been rescue!K but ha&&ily the book ha!, before this !isaster, been &ublishe! entire an! ithout inter"ixture by IhelocK an!, conseUuently, his e!ition is no the chief re&resentati#e of this authority$ 9f these books there are three hich are !istinguishe! abo#e the rest by in!i#i!uality of character$ These are the Parker book VAWK the Iorcester book V)WK an! the Peterborough book VEW$ A 4hronicle "ay ha#e a "arke! in!i#i!uality in t o ays--that is to say, either in its co"&ilation or in its continuation$ ; ill gi#e an exa"&le of each kin!$ The first shall be fro" the Iorcester 4hronicle, hich co"bines ith the for"er stock of southern history a #aluable bo!y of northern history bet een the years 2M2 an! 7.O$ The follo ing are selecte! as being annals hich, either holly or in &art, are !eri#e! fro" a northern source$ The ne "atter is in!icate! by in#erte! co""as'-2M2$ :er 6orthhere bisco& $ an! 6reothogith c en fer!on to (o"e $ Qan! 4eol ulf cyning feng to Petres scFre $ an! seal!e his rice Ea!berhte his fF!eran sunu $ se ricsa!e xxi intra $ An! Rthel ol! bisco& $ an! Acca forthfer!on $ an! 4yn ulf "an gehalgo!e to bisco& $ An! thy ilcan gFre Rthelbal! cyning hergo!e *orthhy"bra lan!$Q 2M2$ :ere 6orthere bisho& Vof SherborneW an! 6reothogith Uueen Vof IessexW ent to (o"eK Qan! 4eol ulf, king Vof

*orthu"briaW recei#e! St$ Peter@s tonsure, an! ga#e his real" to Ea!berht, his father@s brother@s sonK ho reigne! -+ years$ An! Rthel ol!, bisho& Vof Lin!isfarneW an! Acca !ie!, an! 4yn ulf as consecrate! bisho&$ An! that sa"e year Rthelbal!, king Vof HerciaW ra#age! the *orthu"brians@ lan!$Q 2/2$ Q:er Ea!berht *orthhy"bra cyning feng to scFre $ an! 9s ulf his sunu feng to tha" rice, an! ricsa!e an gFr $ an! hine ofslogon his hi an $ on #iii <l$ Augustus$Q 2/2$ Q:ere Ea!berht, king of the *orthu"brians, beca"e a "onkK an! 9s ulf, his son, took to the real", an! reigne! one year, an! hi" his !o"estics sle , on July -/$Q 2O-$ :er ;anbryht as geha!o! to arcebisco& $ on thone =L !Fg ofer "i!ne inter $ Qan! 6rithu eal! bisco& Ft : iterne forthfer!e $ on *onas Haius$ se Fs gehalgo! on 4eastre on x#iii <l$ Se&te"ber $ tha" #i 4eol ulfes rices $ an! he Fs bisco& xxix intra$ Tha "an halgo!e Peht ine to bisco& Ft Rlfet ee on x#i <l$ Agustus $ to : iterne$Q 2O-$ :ere ;anbryht as or!aine! archbisho& Vof 4anterburyW on the fortieth !ay after Hi! inter V4hrist"asW$ QAn! 6rithu eal!, bisho& of Ihitehorne, !ie! on Hay 2th$ :e as consecrate! at %ork, on the +/th of August, in the sixth year of 4eol ulf@s reignK an! he as bisho& -, years$ Then as Peht ine consecrate! to be bisho& of Ihitehorne at Rlfet ;slan! on the +2th of July$Q 222$ :er 4yne ulf an! 9ffa gefliton y"b Benesingtun $ an! 9ffa geno" thone tun $ Qan! tha ilcan geare "an gehalgo!e Rthelberht to bisco& to : iterne in Eofor ic $ on x#ii <l$ Jul@$Q 222$ :ere 4yne ulf an! 9ffa fought about Bensington VBenson, 9xf$W, an! 9ffa took the to n$ QAn! that sa"e year as Rthelberht hallo e! for bisho& of Ihitehorne, at %ork on the +/th of June$Q 22,$ :er Eal!seaxe an! 6rancan gefuhton$ Qan! *orthhy"bra heahgerefan forbFrn!on Beorn eal!or"an on Seletune $ on #iii <l$ Janr$ an! Rthelberht arcebisco& forthfer!e in 4Fstre $ in thFs steal Eanbal! Fs Fr gehalgo! $ an! 4yne ulf bisco& gesFt in Lin!isfarna ee$Q 22,$ :ere the 9l! Saxons an! the 6ranks fought$ QAn! *orthu"brian high-ree#es burne! Beorn the al!er"an at Silton on the -/th of )ece"ber$ An! Rthelberht, the archbisho&, !ie! at %ork, into hose &lace Eanbal! ha! been &re#iously consecrate!K an! bisho& 4yne ulf sate on Lin!isfarne islan!$Q

27-$ Q:er forthfer!e Ierburh $ 4eolre!es c en $ an! 4yne ulf bisco& on Lin!isfarna ee $ an! seonoth Fs Ft AclF$Q 27-$ Q:ere !ie! Ierburh, Uueen of 4eolre! Vking of HerciaW' an! 4yne ulf, bisho& of Lin!isfarne ;slan!$ An! syno! as at Aclea$Q 277$ Q:er Fs sinoth gega!era! on *orthhy"bra lan!e Ft Pincanheale $ on iiii *on$ Se&te"b$ an! Al!berht abb $ forthfer!e in :ri&u"$Q 277$ Q:ere as a syno! gathere! in the lan! of the *orthu"brians at 6inchale, on -n! Se&te"ber$ An! abbot Al!berht !ie! at (i&on$Q 2,M$ Q:er Fron rethe forebecna cu"ene ofer *orthhy"bra lan! $ an! thFt folc ear"lice breg!on $ thFt Fron or"ete tho!enas $ an! ligrFscas $ an! fyrenne !racan Fron gese ene on tha" lifte fleogen!e$ Tha" tacnu" sona fylig!e "ycel hunger $ an! litel Ffter tha" $ thFs ilcan geares $ on #i ;!$ Jan#$ ear"lice hFthenra "anna hergung a!ilego!e Go!es cyrican in Lin!isfarna ee $ thurh hreaflac an! "ansliht $ an! Sicga forthfer!e on #iii <l$ Hartius$Q 2,M$ Q:ere ca"e !ire &ortents o#er the lan! of the *orthu"brians, an! "iserably terrifie! the &eo&leK these ere tre"en!ous hirl in!s, an! lightning-strokesK an! fiery !ragons ere seen flying in the air$ 5&on these tokens Uuickly follo e! a great fa"ine'--an! a little thereafter, in that sa"e year, on January 7, &itifully !i! the in#asion of heathen "en !e#astate Go!@s church in Lin!isfarne ;slan!, ith &lun!ering an! "anslaughter$ An! Sicga !ie! on 6eb$ --$Q 7.O$ Q:er se "ona athystro!e on <l$ Se&te"b$ an! Ear! ulf *orthhy"bra cyning Fs of his rice a!rifen $ an! Eanberht :agestal!es bisco& forthfer!e$Q 7.O$ Q:ere the "oon ecli&se! on Se&t$ +K an! Ear! ulf, king of the *orthu"brians, as !ri#en fro" his real"' an! Eanberht, bisho& of :exha", !ie!$Q ;n these fe selections the orthogra&hy sho s occasional relics of the northern !ialectK an! an ex&ression here an! there, such as Q4easterQ for %ork, in!icates the riter@s locality$ A&art, ho e#er, fro" such traces, the contents an! the !o"estic interest oul! sufficiently !eclare the ho"e of these annals$ They are s&eci"ens of the #ernacular annals of the north, hich are no best seen in bulk in Si"eon of )urha"@s Latin 4hronicle$

9ur next exa"&le ill ser#e to illustrate the free riting of an original continuation$ ;t is taken fro" the Iinchester 4hronicle VAW$ This 4hronicle exhibits, in the annals of 7,M-7,2, the first consi!erable &iece of original historical co"&osition that e ha#e in the #ernacular$ ;n!ee!, e "ay say that these &ages, on the hole, contain the finest effort of early &rose riting that e &ossess$ The Uuotation relates ho Alfre! set to ork to construct a na#y'-Thy ilcan geare !rehton tha hergas on East Englu" an! on *orthhy"bru" Iest Seaxna lon! s ithe be thF" suth stFthe $ "i! stFl hergu" $ ealra s ithust "i! thF" Fscu" the hie fela geara Fr ti"bre!on$ Tha het Alfre! cyng ti"bran lang sci&u ongen tha Fscas0+.L3 $ tha Fron fulneah tu s a lange s a tha othru $ su"e hFf!on lx ara $ su"e "a$ Tha Fron Fgther ge s iftran ge un ealtran $ ge eac hieran thonne tha othru$ *Fron na ther ne on 6resisc gescF&ene $ ne on )enisc $ bute s a hi" selfu" thuhte thFt hie nyt yrthoste beon "eahten$ That sa"e year the ar"ies in East Anglia an! in *orthhy"bria !istresse! the lan! of the Iest Saxons #ery "uch about the south coast ith "arau!ing in#asionsK "ost of all ith the QFscasQ that they ha! built "any years before$ Then king Alfre! ga#e or!ers to buil! long shi&s against the QFscasKQ those ere ell-nigh t ice as long as the othersK so"e ha! O. oars, so"e "ore$ Those ere both s ifter an! stea!ier, an! also higher than the others$ They ere not sha&e! either on the 6risic or on the )anish "o!el, but as he hi"self consi!ere! that they "ight be "ost ser#iceable$ The "ost extensi#e original continuations are in the Peterborough 4hronicle VEW$ 6ro" one of these ; Uuote the character of the 4onUueror, hich acco"&anies the recor! of his !eath in +.7O$ The &assage is re"arkable as containing the nearest a&&roach to a !isco#ery of authorshi& that any here occurs in these 4hronicles'-Gif h a ge ilnigeth to ge itane hu ge!on "ann he Fs $ oththe h ilcne urthsci&e he hFf!e $ oththe hu fela lan!e he Fre hlafor! $ Thonne ille e be hi" a ritan s a s a e hine ageaton $ the hi" onloco!an $ an! othre h ile on his hire!e une!on$ Se cyng Iillel" the e e"be s&ecath Fs s ithe is "an $ an! s ithe rice $ an! urthfulre an! strengere thonne Fnig his foregengra Fre $ :e Fs "il!e tha" go!u" "annu" the Go! lufe!on $ an! ofer eall ge"ett stearc tha" "annu" the ithc F!on his illan $ 9n tha" ilcan steo!e the Go! hi" geuthe thFt he "oste Englelan! gegan $ he arer!e "Fre "ynster $ an! "unecas thFr gesFtte $ an! hit Fll gego!a!e $ 9n his !agan Fs thFt "Fre "ynster on 4ant arbyrig gety"bra! $ an! eac s ithe "anig other ofer eall Englalan! $ Eac this lan! Fs s ithe afylle! "i! "unecan $ an! tha leofo!an heora lif Ffter scCs Bene!ictus

regule $ an! se 4risten!o" Fs s ilc on his !Fge thFt Flc "an h Ft his ha!e to belu"&e $ folga!e se the ol!e$ Eac he Fs s ythe urthful $ thri a he bFr his cyne hel" Flce geare $ s a oft s a he Fs on Englelan!e $ on Eastron he hine bFr on Iinceastre $ on Pentecosten on Iest"ynstre $ on "i!e intre on Glea eceastre $ An! thFnne Fron "i! hi" ealle tha rice "en ofer call Englalan! $ arcebisco&as $ an! leo!bisco&as $ abbo!as an! eorlas $ thegnas an! cnihtas $ S ilce he Fs eac s ythe stearc "an an! rFthe $ s a thFt "an ne !orste nan thing ongean his illan !on $ :e hFf!e eorlas on his ben!u" the !y!an ongean his illan$ Bisco&as he sFtte of heora bisco&rice $ an! abbo!as of heora abbo!rice $ an! thFgnas on c eartern $ an! Ft nextan he ne s&aro!e his agenne brothor 9!o het $ he Fs s ithe rice bisco& on *or"an!ige $ on Baius Fs his bisco&stol $ an! Fs "anna fyr"est to eacan tha" cynge$ ;f any one ishes to kno hat "anner of "an he as, or hat !ignity he ha!, or ho "any lan!s he as lor! ofK then ill e rite of hi" as e a&&rehen!e! hi", ho ere ont to behol! hi", an! at one ti"e ere resi!ent at his court$ The king Iillia" about ho" e s&eak as a #ery ise "an, an! #ery &o erfulK an! "ore !ignifie! an! "ore authoritati#e than any one of his &re!ecessors as$ :e as gentle to those goo! "en ho lo#e! Go!K an! beyon! all !escri&tion stern to those "en ho contra!icte! his ill$ 9n that selfsa"e s&ot here Go! grante! hi" that he "ight conUuer Englan!, he reare! a noble "onastery, an! "onks he there enstalle!, an! ell en!o e! the &lace$ ;n his !ays as the s&len!i! "inster in 4anterbury built, an! also a great "any others o#er all Englan!$ Also this lan! as abun!antly su&&lie! ith "onksK an! they li#e! their life after St$ Bene!ict@s ruleK an! the state of 4hristianity as such in his ti"e, that each "an ho as so !is&ose! "ight follo that hich a&&ertaine! to his or!er$ Like ise he as #ery cere"onious'--three ti"es he ore his cro n e#ery year Vas often as he as in Englan!WK at Easter he ore it in Iinchester, at Pentecost in Iest"inster, at 4hrist"as in Gloucester$ An! then there ere ith hi" all the "ighty "en o#er all Englan!K archbisho&s an! suffragan bisho&s, abbots an! earls, thanes an! knights$ Iithal he as "oreo#er a #ery se#ere "an an! a #iolentK so that any one !are! not to !o anything against his ill$ :e ha! earls in his chains ho acte! against his ill$ Bisho&s he &ut out of their bisho&rick, an! abbots fro" their abbacy, an! thanes into &risonK an! at last he s&are! not his o n brother, ho as na"e! 9!oK ho as a #ery "ighty bisho& in *or"an!yK at Baieux as his see, an! he as the first of "en next to the king$ These annals being all anony"ous, e#ery in!ication of the !ate of riting excites interest$ 5n!er OLM the chronicler of B a!!e! a single

or! to hat he ha! before hi" Vas e "ay &resu"eW in his co&y$ That co&y sai! that the church at Iinchester as built by or!er of <ing 4en alh$ The chronicler of B says that the Qol!Q church as built by 4en alh$ This har"onises excellently ith other in!ications of this 4hronicle, by hich it is "a!e &robable that it as co"&ile! in or about ,22, hen Bisho& Rthel ol! ha! built a ne church at Iinchester$ ;n the Peterborough 4hronicle, un!er +.L+, the accession of Ea! ar! is acco"&anie! by a bene!iction hich in!icates that the riter rote near the ti"e, or at least before +.O/$ :e says'--:eal!e tha h ile the hi" Go! unne \ Hay he continue so long as Go! "ay be &lease! to grant to hi"m An! the half legible closing sentence of this 4hronicle, in ++/L, is a &rayer of the sa"e kin! for a ne abbot of Peterborough, of ho" it is sai! that Qhe hath "a!e a fair beginning$Q The Saxon 4hronicles offer one of the best exa"&les of history hich has gro n &roxi"ately near to the e#ents, of history ritten hile the i"&ression "a!e by the e#ents as still fresh$ ;t oul! be !ifficult to &oint to any texts through hich the taste for li#ing history--history in i""e!iate contact ith the e#ents--can better be culti#ate!$ The 4hronicles stretch o#er a long &erio! of ti"e$ As to their contents, they exten! as a bo!y of history fro" A$)$ LL, to ++/L--that is, exclusi#e of the book-"a!e annals that for" a long a#enue at the beginning, an! start fro" Julius 4Fsar$ The &erio! co#ere! by the age of the extant "anuscri&ts is har!ly less than M.. years, fro" about A$)$ ,.. to about A$)$ +-..$ A large nu"ber of han!s "ust ha#e rought fro" ti"e to ti"e at their &ro!uction, an!, as the ork is holly anony"ous an! #oi! of all external "arks of authorshi&, the #arious an! se#eral contributions can only be !eter"ine! by internal e#i!ence, an! this offers a fine arena for the exercise an! culture of the critical faculty$ ;t is no s"all a!!ition to the char" an! #alue of these 4hronicles that they are in the "other tongue at se#eral stages of its gro th, an! for the "ost &art in the best Anglo-Saxon !iction$ Ie ha#e, "oreo#er, the #ery soil of the history un!er our feet, an! this stu!y oul! ten! to in#est our nati#e lan! ith all the char" of classic groun!$ The 4hronicle for" is the foun!ation of the structure of historical literature$ Ie are no longer content to stu!y history no in one or t o a!"irable s&eci"ens of "ature &erfection, but rather e seek to kno history as a subject$ All ho ha#e this ai" "ust stu!y 4hronicles, an! no here can this kin! of !ocu"entary recor! be foun! in a for" &referable to that of the Saxon 4hronicles$ The Saxon 4hronicles are so"eti"es sai! to be "eagreK in!ee!, it has al"ost beco"e usual to s&eak of the" as "eagre$ Ihen such a ter" is use!, it "akes all the !ifference hether it is "a!e #aguely an! at ran!o", or ith "eaning an! !iscri"ination$ The Saxon 4hronicles stretch o#er se#en centuries, fro" the "i!!le of the fifth to the "i!!le of the t elfthK an! it oul! in!ee! be on!erful if in such a series of annals

there ere not so"e ari! tracts$ 4ertainly, there are "eagre &laces, an! it "akes all the !ifference hether a riter uses this e&ithet isely or as a "ere echo$ ;n the follo ing Uuotation it is justly use!'--Q6or the history of Englan! in the latter half of the tenth century e ha#e, exce&t the #ery "eagre notices of the Anglo-Saxon 4hronicles, no conte"&orary "aterials, unless e a!"it the Li#es of the Saints of the Bene!ictine re#i#al$Q0+./3 ;n the latter half of the tenth century the 4hronicles really are "eagre, an! it is a re"arkable fact, seeing that the &erio! as one of re#i#e! literary acti#ity$ This account of the 4hronicles oul! be inco"&lete ithout the "ention of a s"all nu"ber of Latin histories hich are naturally linke! ith the"$ The Latin book of "ost "ark in this connexion is Asser@s QLife of Alfre!Q--a book that has long lain un!er a clou! of !oubt, fro" hich, ho e#er, it see"s to be gra!ually e"erging$ VA foolish inter&olation about 9xfor! hich "arre! the secon! e!ition--that by 4a"!en--has left a stig"a on the na"e$W ;t is not easy to ans er all the a!#erse criticis" of Hr$ T$ IrightK but still ; #enture to think that the internal e#i!ence corres&on!s to the author@s na"e, that it as ritten at the ti"e of, an! by such a &erson as, Alfre!@s Ielsh bisho&$ The e#i!ent acUuaintance ith &eo&le an! ith localities, the bits of Ielsh, the calling of the English unifor"ly QSaxons,Q all "ark the Ielsh"an ho as at ho"e in Englan!$ ;n the course of this biogra&hy, hich see"s to ha#e been left in an unfinishe! state, there is a consi!erable extract fro" the Iinchester 4hronicles translate! into Latin$ But the earliest Latin 4hronicle hich as foun!e! on the Saxon 4hronicles is that of Rthel ear!$ :e is a&&arently the Qeal!or"an Rthel er!,Q to ho" Rlfric a!!resse! certain of his orksK an! he "ay be the QRthel er! )uxQ ho signs charters, ,2O-,,7$ :is 4hronicle closes ith the last year of Ea!gar@s reign$ :e took "uch of his "aterial fro" a Saxon 4hronicle, like that of Iinchester, but he has also "atter &eculiar to hi"selfK an! this raises a Uuestion hether he took such "atter fro" a Saxon 4hronicle no lost$ :e is gran!iloUuent an! turgi! to an extent hich often obscures his "eaning$ ;n hi" e &ercei#e all the or!-eloUuence of Saxon &oetry, stri#ing to utter itself through the "e!iu" of a Latinity at once cru!e an! a"bitious$0+.O3 The 4hronicle of 6lorence of Iorcester ter"inates ith +++2K but a continuator carrie! it on to ++L+, "aking use of the Peterborough 4hronicle VEW$ The ork of 6lorence is often i!entifiable ith the Saxon 4hronicles, es&ecially ith that of Iorcester V)W$ But he has goo! original insertions of his o n, as in his !escri&tion of the election an! coronation of :arol!, on hich Hr$ 6ree"an has ! elt, as a recor! inten!e! to correct *or"an "isre&resentation$ Si"eon of )urha" "a!e large use of 6lorence, an! he incor&orate! the *orthu"brian eighth-century 4hronicle, of hich a s&eci"en has been gi#en abo#e$ :enry of :unting!on close! his annals at the sa"e !ate as the latest of the Saxon 4hronicles, A$)$ ++/L$ :e is a historian of secon!ary

rank, ith antiUuarian tastes, a fon!ness for the Saxon 4hronicles, an! a s&ecial fancy for the genealogies an! the balla!s$ To hi" e o e the earliest kno n "ention of Stonehenge$ All these, exce&t Asser an! Rthel ear!, are, as regar!s our 4hronicles, subseUuent an! !eri#ati#e rather than collateral$ They use! the chronicles as translators an! co"&ilers "erely$ The first ho atte"&te! so"ething "ore as Iillia" of Hal"esbury$ This re"arkable riter V ho in ++L. ca"e near to being electe! Abbot of Hal"esburyW as the first after Be!a ho left the annal for", an! ai"e! at a "ore co"&rehensi#e treat"ent of the national history$ :e recognise! the #alue of tra!itions fro" the Saxon ti"es, hich in his !ay ere still to be gathere!, an! it is by the incor&oration of such ele"ents that his book has in so"e res&ects the character of a su&&le"ent to the Saxon 4hronicles$ Ie cannot but be struck ith the isolation of the Saxon 4hronicles$ Great literary &ro!ucts !o not gro u& aloneK but they ha#e, !oubtless, a ten!ency to create a solitu!e aroun! the"$ Professor Stubbs a&&rehen!s such "ay ha#e been the case ith these 4hronicles$ :e has sur"ise! that &robably the 4hronicles ha! the sa"e effect u&on the &re#ious sche"es of history that :ig!en@s QPolychroniconQ ha! in the fourteenth century, that is to say, it oul! ha#e &re#ente! the riting of ne histories, an! cause! the neglect or !estruction of the ol!$0+.23 699T*9TES' 0+.M3 La&&enberg, QGeschichte,Q ;ntro!uction, &$ xl#iii$K referring to :ickes@ QThesaurus,Q iii$, -77K an! the &reface to S"ith@s e!ition of Be!e$ That lo#er of English history, )r$ (einhol! Pauli, in the Gpttingen QGelehrt$ AnSeig$Q for +7OO, &$ +L.2, suggeste! that the hole "e!iF#al institution of annal- riting ca"e fro" *orthu"bria, an! as carrie! on the "ission-&ath of the Saxons into 6ranklan! an! Ger"any, an! there &ro!uce! the fine 4arlo#ingian series$ 0+.L3 The QFscasQ ere the light an! s&ee!y galleys of the )anes$ 0+./3 Professor Stubbs, QHe"orials of Saint )unstan,Q (olls Series, &$ ix$ 0+.O3 (einhol! Pauli, QLife of Alfre!,Q anno 722, note$ 0+.23 Preface to Q4hronica (ogeri !e :o#e!en,Q (olls Series, &$ xi$

4:APTE( ;=$ AL6(E)@S T(A*SLAT;9*S$ Aroun! the great na"e of Alfre! "any attributes ha#e gathere! an!

clustere!, so"e of hich are true, so"e exaggerate!, so"e i"&ossible$ ;t is Uuite unhistorical that Alfre! !i#i!e! the country into shires an! hun!re!s, or that he institute! trial by jury, or that he foun!e! the 5ni#ersity of 9xfor!$ 5n!er the sha!o of great na"es "yths are a&t to s&ring, that is to say, unconscious authorless in#entions, gro ing u& of the"sel#es roun! any &erson or thing hich ha&&ens to be the subject of "uch talk an! little kno le!ge$ :a! the con!itions been fa#ourable in Englan! as they ere in 6rance, the "yths about Alfre! "ight ha#e grou&e! into an e&ic cycle, as those about 4harle"agne !i!K an!, ha! the ele#enth century &ro!uce! a great heroic &oe" analogous to the Q4hanson !e (olan!,Q it oul! ha#e for"e! a graceful an! "uch-nee!e! co&ing to the no too !isjointe! &ile of Anglo-Saxon literature$ But, hen e co"e to Alfre!@s literary achie#e"ents, e fin! no ten!ency to exaggerate or e"bellish the sober truth$ :is han! is "anifest in the La s, an! strongly sur"ise! in the 4hronicles$ ;n both these #ernacular &ro!ucts e fin! a ne start, a fresh i"&ulse, un!er Alfre!$ But that hich sta"&s a &eculiar character on his Translations is that here e !iscern a ne stri!e in the ele#ation of the nati#e language to literary rank$ Latin as no longer to be the sole "e!iu" of learning an! e!ucation$ The learne! language ha! al"ost &erishe! out of the islan! here it ha! once so e"inently flourishe!$ ;n the north the seats of learning ha! been !e"olishe!K an! the "onasteries of Iessex, their first use as "ission-stations ha#ing been !ischarge!, ha! beco"e secularise! in their habits, an! ha! not beco"e seats or se"inaries of learning$ Alfre! foun! no one in his ancestral king!o" ho coul! ai! hi" in the ork of re#i#al$ Like 4harles the Great, he looke! e#ery here for scholars, an! !re the" to his court$ ;n Hercia, the lan! a!joining scholastic Anglia, he foun! a fe learne! "en--Ierferth, bisho& of IorcesterK Pleg"un!, ho as electe! VA$)$ 7,.W archbisho& of 4anterbury, an! t o of obscurer na"eK0+.73 he !re Gri"bal! fro" Gaul, an! John fro" 9l! SaxonyK Asser, fro" hose &en e kno about these scholars, ca"e to hi" fro" South Iales$ Iith the hel& of such "en Alfre! ga#e a ne i"&ulse to literature, not as 4harles ha! !one, in Latin "erely, but as "uch, or e#en "ore, in his o n #ernacular$ Ie "ust not look u&on his translations as if they ere only "akeshifts to con#ey the "atter of fa"ous books to those ho coul! not rea! the originals$ Alfre! !e&lore! the lo state of Latin,--but then he coul! substitute his o n language for it, an! that not "erely because he "ust, but also because the #ery scarcity of Latin ha! fa#oure! the culture of English$ 6or it as in no !ull or stagnant ti"e that Iessex ha! let Latin aneK it as in that #igorous stage of youth an! gro th hen Iessex as fitting herself to take an i"&erial &lace at ho"e an! raise her hea! a"ong the nations$ ;n al"ost all the transactions of life, &ublic an! &ri#ate, here Latin as use! in other countries, the Iest Saxons ha! for a long ti"e use! their o n tongue, an! hence it ca"e to &ass that, hen Alfre! sought to restore e!ucation an! literature, he foun! a language nearer to hi" than the Latin, an! one hich as fit, if not to su&erse!e the Latin, yet to be cou&le! along ith it in the ork

of national instruction$ 9f all Alfre!@s translations, the fore"ost &lace is !ue to that of Gregory@s QPastoral 4are$Q0+.,3 Both internally an! externally it is honoure! ith "arks of !istinction$ The translation is execute! ith a &eculiar care, an! a co&y as to be sent to e#ery See in the king!o"$ The #ery co&y that as !estine! for Iorcester is &reser#e! in the Bo!leianK an! there it "ay be seen by any &assing #isitor, lying o&en Vun!er glassW at the &age ith the Iorcester a!!ress, an! the bisho&@s na"e VIFrferthW inserte! in the salutation$ The co&y that as a!!resse! to :ehstan, bisho& of Lon!on, is not extantK but a transcri&t of it, ritten Vin Ianley@s o&inionW before the 4onUuest, is in the 4otton Library, or so "uch of it as the fire has left$ The Public Library at 4a"bri!ge has a re&resentati#e of the co&y hich as a!!resse! to Iulfsige, bisho& of Sherborne$ Another 4otton "anuscri&t, hich as al"ost consu"e! VTiberius, B$ xi$W, ha! ha&&ily been !escribe! by Ianley before the fire$ ;n this book the &lace for the bisho&@s na"e as blankK an! there as this "arginal note on the first leaf' Pleg"un!e arcebisc@$ is agifen his boc$ an! S iYulfe bisc@$ IerferYe bisc@$, Ti$e$T, Pleg"un!, archbisho&, has recei#e! his book, an! S ithulf, bisho&, an! Ierferth, bisho&$0++.3 This book, therefore, of hich only frag"ents no re"ain, as like the :atton "anuscri&t in the Bo!leian, one of Alfre!@s originals$ Thus the Bo!leian book V:atton -., for"erly 77W, for originality an! integrity re"ains uniUueK an! fro" it e Uuote the o&ening &art of Alfre!@s &refatory e&istle'-)E9S B94 S4EAL T9 I;9G9(A 4EAST(E$ Rlfre! <yning hateth gretan IFrferth bisce& his or!u" luflice an! freon!liceK an! the cythan hate thFt "e co" s ithe oft on ge"yn!, h elce iotan iu Fron gyon! Angelcynn, Fgther ge go!cun!ra ha!a ge orul!cun!raK an! hu gesFliglica ti!a tha Fron gion! AngelcynnK an! hu tha kyningas gas the thone qn al! hFf!on thFs folces on tha" !agu" Go!e an! his Fren! recu" hersu"e!onK an! hie Fgther ge hiora sibbe ge hiora sio!o ge hiora qn eal! innanbor!es gehiol!on, an! eac rt hiora ethel gery"!onK an! hu hi" tha s&eo Fgther ge "i! ige ge "i! is!o"eK an! eac tha go!cun!an ha!as hu giorne hie Fron Fgther ge y"b lare ge y"b liornunga, ge y"b ealle tha thio ot!o"as the hie Go!e scol!onK an! hu "an utanbor!es is!o" an! lare hie!er qn lon!e sohte, an! hu e hie nu sceol!on ute begietan gif e hie habban sceol!on$ S F clFne hio Fs othfeallenu qn Angelcynne thFt s ithe fea a Fron behionan :u"bre the hiora theninga cuthen un!erston!an on Englisc, oththe furthu" hn Fren!ge rit of LF!ene on Englisc arecceanK an! ic ene thFt noht "onige begion!an :u"bre nFren$ S F fea a hiora Fron thFt ic furthu" anne hnle&ne ne "Fg gethencean besuthan Te"ese tha tha ic to rice feng$ Go!e Fl"ihtegu" sie thonc thFt e nu Fnigne qn stal habbath lareo a$

T:;S B99< ;S T9 G9 T9 I9(4ESTE($ Alfre!, king, co""an!eth to greet IFrferth, bisho&, ith his or!s in lo#ing an! frien!ly ise' an! ; oul! ha#e you infor"e! that it has often co"e into "y re"e"brance, hat ise "en there for"erly ere a"ong the Angle race, both of the sacre! or!ers an! the secular' an! ho ha&&y ti"es those ere throughout the Angle raceK an! ho the kings ho ha! the go#ern"ent of the folk in those !ays obeye! Go! an! his "essengersK an! they, on the one han!, "aintaine! their &eace, an! their custo"s an! their authority ithin their bor!ers, hile at the sa"e ti"e they s&rea! their territory out ar!sK an! ho it then ent ell ith the" both in ar an! in is!o"K an! like ise the sacre! or!ers, ho earnest they ere, as ell as teaching us about learning, an! about all the ser#ices that they o e! to Go!K an! ho &eo&le fro" abroa! ca"e to this lan! for is!o" an! instructionK an! ho e no shoul! ha#e to get the" abroa! if e ere going to ha#e the"$ So clean as it fallen a ay in the Angle race, that there ere #ery fe on this si!e :u"ber ho oul! kno ho to ren!er their ser#ices into EnglishK an! ; een that not "any oul! be on the other si!e :u"ber$ So fe of the" ere there that ; cannot think of so "uch as a single one south of Tha"es hen ; took to the real"$ Go! Al"ighty be thanke! that e ha#e no any teachers in office$ The king goes on to say that he re"e"bere! ho , before the general !e#astation, the churches ere ell stocke! ith books, an! ho there ere &lenty, too, of clergy, but they ere not able to "ake "uch use of the books, because the culture of learning ha! been neglecte!$ Their &re!ecessors of a for"er generation ha! been learne!, but no the clergy ha! fallen into ignorance$ Iherefore, it see"e! that there as no re"e!y but to ha#e the books translate! into the language they un!erstoo!$ An! this Vthe king reflecte!W as accor!ing to &rece!entK for the 9l! Testa"ent as first ritten in :ebre , an! then the Greeks in their ti"e translate! it into their s&eech, an! subseUuently the (o"ans !i! the like for the"sel#es$ An! all other 4hristian nations ha! translate! so"e Scri&tures into their o n language$ 6orthy "e thincth betre, gif io s F thincth, thFt e eac su"F bec, tha the nie!bethearfostF sien eallu" "onnu" to iotonne, thFt e tha on thFt gethio!e en!en the e ealle gecna an "Fgen, an! ge !on s F e s ithe eathe "agon "i! Go!es fultu"e, gif e tha stilnesse habbath, thFt eal sio gioguth the nu is on Angelcynne friora "onna, thara the tha s&e!a hFbben thFt hie thF" befeolan "Fgen, sien to liornunga othfFste, tha h ile the hie to nanre otherre note ne "Fgen, oth thone first the hie el cunnen Englisc ge rit arF!an' lFre "on siththan furthur on LF!en gethio!e tha the "on furthor lFran ille an! to hieran ha!e !on ille$ Tha ic tha ge"un!e hu sio lar LF!en gethio!es Fr thissu"

afeallen Fs gion! Angelcynn, an! theah "onige cuthon Englisc ge rit arF!an, tha ongan ic on ge"ang othru" "islicu" an! "anigfeal!u" bisgu" thisses kynerices tha boc en!an on Englisc the is gene"ne! on LF!en Pastoralis, an! on Englisc :ier!e boc, h ilu" or! be or!e, h ilu" an!git of an!gite, s F s F ic hie geliorno!e Ft Pleg"un!e "inu" Frcebisce&e an! Ft Assere "inu" bisce&e an! Ft Gri"bol!e "inu" "Fsse &rioste an! Ft Johanne "inu" "Fsse &rioste$ Siththan ic hie tha gelorno! hFf!e s F s F ic hie forsto!, an! s F ic hie an!gitfullicost areccean "eahte, ic hie on Englisc a en!eK an! to Flcu" bisce&stole on "inu" rice ille ane onsen!anK an! on Flcre bith an Fstel, se bith on fiftegu" "ancessa$ 9n! ic bebio!e on Go!es na"an thFt nan "on thone Fstel fro" thFre bec ne !o, ne tha boc fro" thF" "ynstre$ 5ncuth hu longe thFr s F gelFre!e bisce&as sien, s F s F nu Go!e thonc el h Fr sien!onK forthy ic ol!e thFt hie ealneg Ft thFre sto e Fren, buton se bisce& hie "i! hi" habban ille oththe hio h Fr to lFne sie, oththe h a othre bi rite$ Therefore to "e it see"eth better, if it see"eth so to you, that e also so"e books, those that "ost nee!ful are for all "en to be acUuainte! ith, that e turn those into the s&eech hich e all can un!erstan!, an! that ye !o as e #ery easily "ay ith Go!@s hel&, if e ha#e the reUuisite &eace, that all the youth hich no is in Englan! of free "en, of those ho ha#e the "eans to be able to go in for it, be set to learning, hile they are fit for no other business, until such ti"e as they can thoroughly rea! English riting' after ar!s further instruction "ay be gi#en in the Latin language to such as are inten!e! for a "ore a!#ance! e!ucation, an! to be &re&are! for higher office$ As ; then reflecte! ho the teaching of the Latin language ha! recently !ecaye! throughout this &eo&le of the Angles, an! yet "any coul! rea! English riting, then began ; a"ong other #arious an! "anifol! businesses of this king!o" to turn into English the book that is calle! QPastoralisQ in Latin, an! QShe&her!ing BookQ in English, so"eti"es or! for or!, so"eti"es sense for sense, just as ; learne! it of Pleg"un!, "y archbisho&, an! of Asser, "y bisho&, an! of Gri"bal!, "y &riest, an! of John, "y &riest$ After that ; ha! learne! it, so as ; un!erstoo! it, an! as ; it ith fullest "eaning coul! ren!er, ; translate! it into EnglishK an! to each see in "y king!o" ; ill sen! oneK an! in each there is an QFstel,Q hich is of the #alue of /. "ancusses$ An! ; co""an! in the na"e of Go! that no "an re"o#e the QFstelQ fro" the book, nor the book fro" the "inster$ *o one kno s ho long such learne! bisho&s "ay be there, as no , thank Go!m there are in se#eral &lacesK an! therefore ; oul! that they Vthe booksW shoul! al ays be at the &laceK unless the bisho& shoul! ish to ha#e it ith hi", or it shoul! be any here on loan, or any one shoul! be

riting another co&y$ :ere e ha#e a !irect state"ent that the QPastoralQ as translate! by <ing Alfre! hi"self, after a course of stu!y in hich he ha! been assiste! by Pleg"un!, Asser, Gri"bal!, an! John$ :is interest in this book see"s to sho that his esti"ate of it as so"ething like that of 9Sana", ho sai! that Gregory@s QPastoral 4areQ !eter"ine! the character of the 4hristian hierarchy, an! for"e! the bisho&s ho for"e! the nations$ Gregory@s Q)ialogues,Q on the contrary, ere translate!, not by the king, but by Ierferth, bisho& of Iorcester, as e are infor"e! by Asser$0+++3 This translation is extant in "anuscri&ts, but it has not yet been e!ite!$ ;t is, &erha&s, the "ost consi!erable &iece of Anglo-Saxon literature that yet re"ains to be "a!e &ublic$ An! it is striking, though not unaccountable, that a book hich as one of the "ost &o&ular e#er ritten,0++-3 hich retaine! its &o&ularity for centuries, an! hich has left behin! it in literature an! in &o&ular 4hristian ethics bol! traces of its influence, shoul!, in the "o!ern re#i#al of Anglo-Saxon, ha#e been so long neglecte!$ As this book is &ractically inaccessible, an! as it as "oreo#er a book &eculiarly ger"ane an! congenial to the a#erage intelligence of these ti"es, it see"s to clai" a so"e hat fuller notice$ :ere, as in other translations, the king rote a fe or!s of &reface$

;c Rlfre! gyfen!u" 4riste "i! cyneha!es "Frnesse ge eortha! hFbbe cuthlice ongiten, an! thurh haligra boca rF!unge oft gehyre! $ thFt us tha" Go! s a "icele healicnysse orul! gethingtha forgifen hFfth $ is seo "Fste thearf thFt e h ilon ure "o! gelithian an! gebigian to tha" go!cun!u" an! gastlicu" rihte $ bet eoh thas eorthlican carfulnysse $ an! ic fortha" sohte an! ilno!e to "inu" getry u" freon!u" thFt hy "e of Go!es bocu" be haligra "anna thea u" an! un!ru" a riton thas Ffterfyligen!an lare $ thFt ic thurh tha "ynegunge an! lufe getry""e! on "inu" "o!e h ilu" gehicge tha heofenlican thing bet eoh thas eorthlican ge!refe!nyssa $ 4uthlice e "agan nu Ft Frestan gehyran hu se ea!iga an! se a&ostolica er Scs Gregorius s&rFc to his !iacone tha" Fs na"a Petrus $ be haligra "anna thFa u" an! life, to lare an! to bysne eallu" tha" the Go!es illan yrceath $ an! he be hi" silfu" thisu" or!u" an! thus c Fth'-;, Alfre!, by the grace of 4hrist, !ignifie! ith the honour of royalty, ha#e !istinctly un!erstoo!, an! through the rea!ing of holy books ha#e often hear!, that of us to ho" Go! hath gi#en so "uch e"inence of orl!ly !istinction, it is s&ecially reUuire! that e fro" ti"e to ti"e shoul! sub!ue an! ben! our "in!s to the !i#ine an! s&iritual la , in the "i!st of this earthly anxietyK an! ; accor!ingly sought an! reUueste! of "y trusty frien!s that they for "e out of &ious books about the con#ersation an!

"iracles of holy "en oul! transcribe the instruction that hereinafter follo ethK that ;, through the a!"onition an! lo#e being strengthene! in "y "in!, "ay no an! then conte"&late the hea#enly things in the "i!st of these earthly troubles$ Plainly e can no at first hear ho the blesse! an! a&ostolic "an St$ Gregory s&ake to his !eacon hose na"e as Peter, about the "anners an! life of holy "en for instruction an! for exa"&le to all those ho are orking the ill of Go!K an! he s&ake about hi"self ith these or!s an! in this "anner'-Su"on0++M3 !Fge hit gela"& thFt ic Fs s ythe ges ence! "i! tha" geruxlu" an! uneathnessu" su"ra orul!licra y"bhegena $ for tha" un!erfenge thyses bisceo&lican folgothes $ 9n tha" orul! sciru" e beoth full oft genea!o!e thFt e !oth tha thing the us is genoh cuth thFt e na ne sceol!on $ Tha gelyste "e thFre !iglan sto e the ic Fr on Fs on "ynstre $ seo is thFre gnornunge freon! $ fortha" "an si"le "Fg his sares an! his unrihtes "Fst gethencean gif he ana bith on !igolnysse $ ThFr "e o&enlice Ft y !e hit sylf eall s a h Ft s a "e "islico!e be "inre agenre isan $ an! thFr beforan "inre heortan eagan s utollice co"on ealle tha ge!onan unriht the ge une!on thFt hi "e sar an! sorge ongebrohton$ Iito!lice tha tha ic thFr sFt s ithe ges ence! an! lange sorgen!e $ tha co" "e to "in se leofesta sunu Petrus !iacon se fra" fry"the his iugothha!es "i! freon!licre lufe Fs hi cuthlice to "e getheo!e! an! getogen $ an! he si"le Fs "in gefera to s"eaunge haligre lare $ an! he tha locien!e on "e geseah thFt ic Fs ges ence! "i! hefigu" sare "inre heortan $ an! he thus c Fth to "e, QLa leof gela"& the Fnig thing ni es $ for h an hafast thu "aran gnornunge thonne hit Fr ge unelic FrefQ Tha c Fth ic to hi", QEala Petrus seo gnornung the ic !Fgh a"lice tholie sy"le heo is "e eal! for ge unan $ an! si"le heo is "e ni e thurh eacan$Q 9n a certain !ay it ha&&ene! that ; as #ery "uch harasse! ith the contentions an! orries of certain secular cares, in the !ischarge of this e&isco&al function$ ;n secular offices e are #ery often co"&elle! to !o the things that e ell enough kno e ought not to !o$ Then "y !esire turne! to ar!s that retire! &lace here ; for"erly as in the "onastery$ That is the frien! of sorro , because a "an can al ays best think o#er his grief an! his rong, if he is alone in retire"ent$ There e#erything &lainly sho e! itself to "e, hate#er !isUuiete! "e about "y o n occu&ationK an! there, before the eyes of "y heart !istinctly ca"e all the &ractical rongs hich ere ont to bring u&on "e grief an! sorro $ Accor!ingly, hile ; as there sitting in great o&&ression an! long silence, there ca"e to "e "y belo#e! son Peter the !eacon, ho, fro" his early youth, ith frien!ly lo#e as inti"ately attache! an!

boun! to "eK an! he as e#er "y co"&anion in the stu!y of sacre! lore$ An! he then looking on "e sa that ; as o&&resse! ith the hea#y grief of "y heart, an! he thus sai! to "e, QAh, sire, hath anything ne ha&&ene! to thee, by reason of hich thou hast "ore grief than as for"erly thy ontfQ Then sai! ; to hi", QAlas, Peter, the grief hich ; !aily en!ure it is to "e al ays ol! for use an! ontK an! it is to "e al ays ne through the increase of it$Q The e!ifying stories are so"eti"es as grotesUue as the strangest car#ings about a "e!iF#al e!ifice'-A nun,0++L3 alking in the con#ent gar!en, took a fancy to eat a leaf of lettuce, an! she ate, ithout first "aking the sign of the cross o#er it$ Presently she as foun! to be &ossesse!$ At the a&&roach of the abbot, the fien! &roteste! it as not his faultK that he ha! been innocently sitting on a lettuce, an! she ate hi"$0++/3 ;n the )ialogues e recognise that &eculiar i!eal of sanctity hich e i!entify not so "uch ith 4hristianity as ith "e!iF#al 4hristianity$ The bright sa"&les of 4hristian #irtues are too like those ty&es hich ha#e affor!e! "aterial to caricature$ 6or exa"&le, RUuitius, the goo! abbot, hose #irtues a!orn a series of narrati#es, &ractises in the follo ing "anner the #irtue of hu"ility'-Sothlice he Fs s ithe aclic on his ge F!u" an! s a forse enlic thFt, theah h ilc "an hi" ongean co"e the hine ne cuthon, an! he thone "i! or!u" gegrette, he Fs forse en thFt he nFs ongean gegrete!K an! s a oft s a he to othru" sto u" faran ol!e, thonne Fs his thea thFt he ol!e sittan on tha" horse the he on tha" "ynstre forcuthost fin!an "ihte, on tha" eac he breac hFlftre for bri!ele, an! ethera fella for sa!ele$ Horeo#er, he as #ery "ean in his clothing, an! so abject, that though any one "et hi" Vof those ho kne hi" notW, an! he greete! hi" ith or!s, he as so !es&ise! that he as not greete! in returnK an! as often as he oul! tra#el to other &laces, then as it his custo" to sit on the horse that he coul! fin! the "ost !es&icable in the abbey, on hich, "oreo#er, he use! a halter for a bri!le, an! shee&skins for sa!!le$ 4onstantius as the na"e of a sacristan ho co"&letely !es&ise! all orl!ly goo!s, an! his fa"e as s&rea! abroa!$ 9n one occasion, hen there as no oil for the la"&s, he fille! the" ith ater, an! they ga#e light just as if it ha! been oil$ Jisitors ere attracte! by the re&ort of his sanctity$ 9nce a country"an ca"e fro" a !istance Vco" feorran su" ceorlW to see a "an of ho" so "uch as sai!$ Ihen he ca"e into the church, 4onstantius as on a la!!er tri""ing the la"&s$ :e as an un!er-gro n, slight-built, shabby figure$ The country"an inUuire! hich

as 4onstantiusK an!, being tol!, as so shocke! an! !isa&&ointe!, that he s&oke sneeringly, Q; ex&ecte! to see a fine "an, an! this is not a "an at allmQ Hi! tha" the se Go!es er 4onstantius tha this gehyr!e, he sona s ithe blithe forlet tha leoht fatu the he beh earf, an! hrF!lice nyther astah an! thone ceorl becly&te an! "i! s ithlicre lufe ongann "i! his ear"u" hinc cly&&an an! cyssan an! hi" s ithe thancian, thFt he s a be hi" ge!e"!e, an! thus c Fth' QThu ana hFf!est ontyn!e eagan on "e an! "e "i! rihte oncneo e$Q Ihen 4onstantius the "an of Go! hear! this, he forth ith in great joy left the la"&s he as atten!ing to, an! ni"bly !escen!e! an! e"brace! the country"an, an! ith excee!ing lo#e began to hol! hi" in his ar"s, an! kiss hi", an! heartily thank hi", that he ha! so ju!ge! of hi"K an! thus he Uuoth'--QThou alone ha!st o&ene! eyes u&on "e, an! thou !i!st rightly kno "e$Q 9ur next an! last exa"&le is a story of a ell-kno n ty&e, an! &erha&s the ol!est extant instance of it'-Eac on othru" ti"an hit gela"& thFt hi" to beco" for geneosunge thingon s a s a his thea Fs Ser#an!us se !iacon an! abbo! thFs "ynstres the Liberius se eal!or"ann in geti"bro!e on suth Langbear!ena lan!es !Flu"$ Iito!lice he geneoso!e Bene!ictes "ynster gelo"lice $ to tha" thFt hi hi" bet ynon ge"Fnelice hi" on aguton tha s etan lifes or! $ an! thone ynsu"an "ete thFs heofonlican etheles $ thone hi tha gyta fullfre"e!lice geblissien!e thicgean ne "ihton $ huru thinga hi hine geo"rien!e onbyrig!on $ for tha" the se ylca er Ser#an!us eac fleo on lare heofonlicre gife$ Sothlice tha tha eallunga beco" se ti"a hyra reste an! stillnysse $ tha gelogo!e se ar urtha Bene!ictus hine sylfne on su"es sty&eles u&flora $ an! Ser#an!us se !iacon gereste hine on thFre nyther flore thFs ylcan sty&eles $ an! Fs on thFre ylcan sto e tru"stFger "i! ge issu" sta&u" fra" thFre nyther flora to thFre u& flora$ IFs eac Ft foran tha" ylcan sty&ele su" ru" hus $ on tha" hyra begra gingran hi gereston $ Tha tha se !rihtnes er Bene!ictus behogo!e thone ti"an his nihtlican gebe!es tha" brothru" resten!u" $ tha gesto! he thurh acol Ft anu" eahthyrle bi!!en!e thone Fl"ihtigan !rihten $ an! tha fFringa on tha" ti"an thFre nihte stillnysse hi" ut locien!u" geseah he ufan onsen!e! leoht afligean ealle tha nihtlican thystru $ an! "i! s a "icelre beorhtnesse scinan thFt thFt leoht the thFr ly"!e bet eoh tha" thystru" Fs beorhtre thonne !Fges leoht$ : Ft tha on thysre scea unge s ythe un!orlic thing Ffter fylig!e $ s a s a he sylf syththan rehte $ thFt eac eall "i!!anear! s ylce un!er anu" sunnan leo"an gelogo! $ Fre be foran his eagan gelF!e! $

Tha tha se ar urtha fF!er his eagena atihtan scear&nysse gefFstno!e on thFre beorhtnesse thFs scinen!an leohtes $ tha geseah he englas ferian on fyrenu" cli ene in to heofenu" Gor"anes sa le $ se Fs bisceo& 4a&uane thFre ceastre $ :e ol!e tha gelangian hi" sylfu" su"ne ge itan s a "iceles un!res$ an! Ser#an!u" thone !iacon cly&o!e tu a an! thri a $ an! ofthrF!lice his na"an ne"!e "i! hrea"es "icelnysse$ Ser#an!us tha earth ge!refe! for tha" unge unelican hrea"e s a "Fres eres $ an! he u& astah an! thi!er loco!e $ an! geseah eallunga lytelne !Fl thFs leohtes$ Tha" !iacone tha afien!u" for thus "ycelu" un!re $ se Go!es er be en!ebyr!nysse gerehte tha thing the thFr ge or!ene Fron $ an! on 4asino tha" stoc ic tha" ea fFstan ere Theo&robo thFr rihte bebea! $ thFt he on thFre ylcan nihte asen!e su"ne "ann to 4a&uanan thFre byri $ an! ge iste an! hi" eft gecyth!e h Ft Fre ge or!en be Ger"ane tha" bisceo&e$ Tha Fs ge or!en thFt se the thy!er asen!e! Fs ge"ette eallunga forthfere!ne thone ar urthan er Ger"anu" bisceo& $ an! he tha s"eathancollice axien!e on cneo thFt his forsith Fs on tha" ylcan ty"an the se !rihtnes er oncneo his u&stige to heofenu"$ Also at another ti"e it ha&&ene! that there ca"e to hi" for a #isit, as his custo" as, Ser#an!us, the !eacon an! abbot of the "onastery that Liberius the &atrician ha! for"erly built in South Lo"bar!y VTin 4a"&aniF &artibusTW$ ;n fact, he use! to #isit Bene!ict@s "onastery freUuently, to the en! that in each other@s co"&any they "ight be "utually refreshe! ith the s eet or!s of life, an! the !electable foo! of the hea#enly country, hich they coul! not, as yet, ith &erfect bliss enjoy, but at least they !i! in as&iration taste it, inas"uch as the sai! Ser#an!us as like ise aboun!ing in the lore of hea#enly grace$ Ihen, ho e#er, at length the ti"e as co"e for their rest an! re&ose, the #enerable Bene!ict as lo!ge! in the u&&er floor of a to er, an! Ser#an!us the !eacon reste! in the nether floor of the sa"e to erK an! there as in the sa"e &lace a soli! staircase ith &lain ste&s, fro" the nether floor to the u&&er floor$ There as, "oreo#er, in front of the sa"e to er a s&acious house, in hich sle&t the !isci&les of the" both$ Ihen, no , Bene!ict, the "an of Go!, as kee&ing the ti"e of his nightly &rayer !uring the brethren@s rest, then stoo! he all #igilant at a in!o &raying to the Al"ighty Lor!K an! then su!!enly, in that ti"e of the nocturnal stillness, as he looke! out, he sa a light sent fro" on high !is&erse all the !arkness of the night, an! shine ith a brightness so great that the light hich then glea"e! in the "i!st of the !arkness as brighter than the light of !ay$ Lo then, in this sight a #ery on!erful thing follo e! next, as he hi"self after ar!s relate!K that e#en all the orl!, as if &lace! un!er one ray of the sun, as !is&laye! before his eyes$

Ihen, no , the #enerable father ha! fastene! the intent obser#ation of his eyes on the brightness of that shining light, then sa he angels con#eying in a fiery grou& into hea#en the soul of Ger"anus, ho as bisho& of the city 4a&ua$ :e !esire! then to secure to hi"self a itness of so great a on!er, an! he calle! Ser#an!us the !eacon t ice an! thriceK an! re&eate!ly he na"e! his na"e ith a lou! excla"ation$ Ser#an!us then as !isturbe! at the unusual outcry of the honoure! "an, an! he "ounte! the stairs an! looke! as !irecte!, an! he sa #erily a s"all &ortion of that light$ An!, as the !eacon as then a"aSe! for so great a on!er, the "an of Go! relate! to hi" in or!er the things that ha! there ha&&ene!K an! forth ith he sent or!ers to the faithful "an Theo&robus in 4asinu" the chief house, that he in the self-sa"e night shoul! sen! a "an to the city of 4a&ua, an! shoul! ascertain an! re&ort to hi" hat ha! ha&&ene! about Ger"anus the bisho&$ Then it ca"e to &ass that he ho as thither sent foun! that the #enerable "an, Ger"anus the bisho& ha! in!ee! !ie!K an! he then cautiously enUuiring, !isco#ere! that his !e&arture as at that #ery ti"e that the "an of Go! ha! itnesse! his ascent to hea#en$ Petrus c Fth' QThis is s ithe un!orlic thing an! thearle to afienne$Q Book ii$, c$ M/$ Peter sai!' QThis is a #ery on!erful thing, an! greatly to be "ar#elle! at$Q ;n the translation of the Q4o"fort of Philoso&hy,Q the translator "akes his greatest effort an! exerts the ut"ost ca&abilities of his language$ :e is not boun! by any #erbal fi!elity to his authorK he rather a!a&ts the book to his o n use an! "ental exercitation$ ;n the original the author is #isite! in affliction by Philoso&hy, an! ith this hea#enly #isitant a !ialogue ensues, inters&erse! ith choral o!es$ Alfre! sinks the 6irst Person of the author, an! "akes the !ialogue run bet een :ea#enly Iis!o" an! the Hin! VthFt Hc!W$ The choral o!es Vgenerally calle! the Hetres of BoethiusW "ust ha#e been #ery har! for Alfre! to translate, an! they are !one so"e hat #aguely$ Ie ha#e the" in t o translations, one in &rose an! the other in #erse$ There is no !oubt that the &oetical #ersion as "a!e fro" the &rose #ersion, ithout any fresh reference to the Latin$ The t o are often #erbally i!entical, ith a little change in the or!er of or!s, an! so"e necessary a!!itions to satisfy the alliteration, or fill out the &oetic rhyth"$ ;t as long ago obser#e! by :ickes that the style of these &oe"s !iffere! little fro" &roseK but it as Hr$ Tho"as Iright ho first notice! that they ere, in fact, "erely a #ersifie! arrange"ent of the &rose translation$ The sa"e critic ga#e reasons for thinking that the #ersifie! "etres ere by so"e later han!, an! not by <ing Alfre!$ This has been recently the

subject of a #ery interesting !iscussion in the Ger"an &erio!ical QAnglia,Q it being "aintaine! by )r$ H$ :art"ann that they are by Alfre!, an! the o&&osite #ie Vthat of Hr$ T$ IrightW being a!#ocate! by )r$ A$ Leicht$ Ihen the Boethian "etres "ake their a&&earance in Anglo-Saxon &oetic !ress, they are consi!erably ex&an!e!$ The original &rose translation is itself ex&ansi#e, because the &oetry of Boethius is excee!ingly terse, an! cannot be ren!ere! into rea!able &rose ithout enlarge"ent$ The ork of the Saxon #ersifier is atten!e! ith further ex&ansion, because of the "echanical exigencies of the &oetic for"$ The t entieth "etre Viii$ ,W offers an extre"e case of this kin!$ :ere the original consists of t enty-six hexa"eters, an! the Anglo-Saxon &oe" has -7+ long lines$ ;n this case, ho e#er, the &oetic ex&ansion is not holly "echanicalK the &oet has "a!e so"e real a!!itions to the thought$ The chief of these is a ne si"ile, in hich the &oising of the Earth in s&ace is illustrate! by the yolk of an egg$ The &rose translation runs thus'-Thu gestathola!est eorthan s ithe un!orlice an! fFstlice thFt he ne helt on nane healfe $ ne on nanu" eorthlic thinge ne stent ne nan uht eorthlices hi ne healt $ thFt hio ne sige $ an! nis hire thonne ethre to feallanne of !une thonne u&$ Thou hast establishe! the earth #ery on!rously an! fir"ly that it !oes not heel0++O3 o#er on any si!e' an! yet it stan!s not on any earthly thing, nor !oes anything earthly hol! it u& that it sink notK an! yet it is no easier for it to fall !o n than u&$ The &oetic #ersion enlarges as follo s'-Thu gestathola!est thurh tha strongan "eaht ero!a ul!or cyning un!erlice eorthan s a fFste thFt hio on Fnige healfe ne hel!eth ne "Fg hio hi!er ne thi!er sigan the s ithor the hio sy"le !y!e$ : Ft hi theah eorthlices auht ne hal!eth is theah efn ethe u& an! of !une to feallanne fol!an thisse' thF" anlicost the on Fge bith

geoleca on "i!!an gli!eth h Fthre Fg y"butan $ S a stent eall eorul! still on tille strea"as y"butan laguflo!a gelac lyfte an! tungla an! sio scire scell scritheth y"butan !ogora geh ilce$ !y!e lange s a$ Thou !i!st establish through strong "ight glorious king of hosts on!erfully the earth so fast that she on any si!e heeleth not nor can hither or thither any "ore !ecline than she e#er !i!$ Lo nothing earthly though at all sustains her, it is eUually easy u& ar!s an! !o n ar!s that there shoul! be a fall of this earth' likest to that hich e see in an eggK the yolk in the "i!st an! yet gli!ing free the egg roun! about$ So stan!eth the orl! still in its &lace, hile strea"ing aroun!, ater-floo!s &lay, elkin an! stars, an! the shining shell circleth about !ay by !ay no as it !i! long ago$ The translation of 9rosius e"bo!ies a consi!erable &iece of original "atter$ 9rosius ha! gi#en, in the o&ening of his ork, a geogra&hical sketch of Euro&e an! Asia$ ;n the translation a large a!!ition is "a!e to the geogra&hy of Euro&e, an! it as an a!!ition not "erely to this book, but Vso far as a&&earsW to the stock of existing geogra&hical kno le!ge$ This insertion consists of three &arts, +$ A "a&-like !escri&tion of 4entral Euro&eK -$ *arrati#e of 9hthere, ho ha! #oyage! roun! the *orth 4a&eK M$ Joyage of Iulfstan fro" )en"ark along the

southern an! eastern coasts of the Baltic$ 9hthere@s *arrati#e is connecte! ith <ing Alfre! by na"e'--Q9hthere sF!e his hlafor!e Rlfre!e kynincge thFt he ealra *orth"anna north"est bu!e,Q Ti$e$T, 9hthere sai! to his lor!, <ing Alfre!, that he of all *orth"en ha! the "ost northerly ho"e$ The translation of Be!a ski&s lightly o#er "uch of the t enty-t o &reli"inary cha&ters, gi#ing goo! "easure, ho e#er, to the !escri&tion of Britain an! to the "artyr!o" of St$ Alban$ All about Gregory an! Augustine is full$ So also about Ea! ine, 9s al!, Ai!an, 9s y, an! St$ 4ha!$ VBut all that fa"ous section Viii$ -/, -OW hich !escribes the crisis bet een the churches, the syno! of Ihitby, an! the Scotian !e&arture, is o"itte! altogetherW$ 6ull "easure is gi#en to Theo!ore, the syno! of :ertfor!, Iilfri!, Nueen Rthel!rith, :il!a, an! 4F!"on$ So also 4uthbert an! John of :exha"$ 6ully ren!ere! are the failure of the ;rish an! the success of the Anglian "issions to Ger"anyK also the #isions hich e "ay call )antesUue$ VThe hole section about A!a"nan@s influence an! ritings V#$ +/, +O, +2W is o"itte!$W But about Al!hel" an! his ritingsK also )aniel, bisho& of IinchesterK the en! of Iilfri!K an! about Albinus, the successor of A!rian, is fully ren!ere!$ The Anglo-Saxon Gos&els "ust be "entione! here$ This is a book about hich e ha#e no external infor"ation, an! the "anuscri&ts are co"&arati#ely late$ But the !iction lea!s us to &lace it in or about the ti"es of Alfre!$ ;t is &robable that the QBeo ulfQ is the &ro!uct of the sa"e reignK hile the #olu"e of sacre! &oetry that is !esignate! by the na"e of Q4F!"onQ a&&ears Vat least the first &art of itW to be either of this ti"e or &ossibly ol!er$ ;f ith the abo#e e e"brace in our #ie the La s of this reign an! the e#i!ence of conte"&orary ork in the 4hronicles, e "ust be struck ith the extent of this great "uster of nati#e literature$ But e shall har!ly !o it justice unless e re"e"ber that this is the first national !is&lay of the kin! in the &rogress of "o!ern Euro&e$ *ati#e &oetry ha! been culti#ate! in the Anglian &erio!, an! there ha! been a #ernacular a&&aratus to assist the stu!y of Latin, but of a #arie! an! co"&rehensi#e literature in English or any other Euro&ean #ernacular, e fin! no trace until no $ Ie "ust not look u&on Alfre!@s translations as "ere hel&s to the Latin$ Ihat ith the free!o" an! in!e&en!ence of treat"ent, an! hat ith the original a!!itions, they ha#e a large clai" to the character of !o"estic &ro!ucts$ The #ery sche"e itself, that of using translation as a "e!iu" of culture, hich is no so fa"iliar to us, as then Uuite a no#el i!ea$ ;n his &reface to the QPastoral,Q the king casts about for &rece!ents, an! he fin!s none but the translations of Scri&ture into Greek an! into Latin, an! these !o not, in fact, "ake a true &arallel$ But he coul! har!ly ha#e use! this argu"ent ithout a conscious &ri!e that he ha! in his "other tongue an instru"ent not un&ractise!, an! not altogether un orthy to be the first of barbarian languages to trea! in the footste&s of the Greek an! Latin$

This, then V; co"&rise the "atter of three &re#ious cha&ters an! of three that are to follo W is the QAnglo-SaxonQ0++23 literature, &ro&erly so calle!K for that ex&ression, if use! ith technical exactness, affor!s a ter" of !istinction for the later literature of the south as against the earlier literature of the north, hich has been calle! the Anglian &erio!$ 699T*9TES' 0+.73 Asser@s QLife of Alfre!,Q in QHonu"enta :istorica Britannica,Q L72A$ 0+.,3 ;t as &ublishe! for the first ti"e in +72+, being e!ite! by Hr$ S eet for the Early English Text Society$ 0++.3 Ianley@s Q4atalogue,Q &$ -+2$ 0+++3 QHonu"enta :istorica Britannica,Q L7O E$ 0++-3 QThe @)ialogues@ ere &rinte! as early as the year +L/7$Q--T$)$ :ar!y in Iillel"i Hal"$ QGesta (egu",Q i$, +7,$ 0++M3 :ere Gregory begins$ The translation so"eti"es !e#iates fro" the text'--QNua!a" !ie ni"is Uuorun!a" sFculariu" tu"ultibus !e&ressus, Uuibus in suis negotiis &leru"Uue cogi"ur sol#ere etia" Uuo! nos certu" est non !ebere, secretu" locu" &etii a"icu" "Froris, ubi o"ne Uuo! !e "ea "ihi occu&atione !is&licebat, se &atenter osten!eret, et cuncta UuF infligere !olore" consue#erant, congesta ante oculos licenter #enirent$ ;bi itaUue cu" afflictus #al!e et !iu tacitus se!ere", !ilectissi"us filius "eus Petrus !iaconus a!fuit, "ihi a &ri"F#o ju#entutis flore a"icitiis fa"iliariter obstrictus, atUue a! sacri #erbi in!agatione" socius$ Nui gra#i excoUui cor!is languore "e intuens, ait' *u" Uui!na" tibi aliUui! acci!it, Uuo! &lus te solito "Fror tenetf 4ui inUua"' HFror, Petre, Uue" Uuoti!ie &atior, et se"&er "ihi &er usu" #etus est, et se"&er &er aug"entu" no#us$Q 0++L3 An nunne$ This or! is of t o syllablesK there is no silent e final in Anglo-Saxon$ 0++/3 ;c sFt "e on anu" leahtrice, tha co" heo an! bht "em 0++O3 See Skeat, QEty"$ )ict$,Q T#$T QheelQ V-W$ 0++23 This ter" a&&ears in charters of the tenth centuryK also Asser styles the king QRlfre! Angulsaxonu" rex,Q QHon$ :ist$ Brit$,Q L7M 4$ See 6ree"an, Q*or"an 4onUuest,Q #ol$ i$, A&&en!ix A$

4:APTE( =$

RL6(;4$ Alfre! !ie! in ,.+$ 6ro" this to the *or"an 4onUuest there are +O/ years, an! the "i!!le of this &erio! is characterise! by the orks of the greatest of Anglo-Saxon &rose- riters$ The &ro!uctions of Alfre! an! the scholars that surroun!e! hi", are to be un!erstoo! as extraor!inary efforts, an! as beacons to raise "en@s "in!s rather than as s&eci"ens of the state of learning in the country, or e#en as "onu"ents of attain"ents that ere likely soon to beco"e general$ Although the literary "o#e"ent un!er Alfre! as so far sustaine! that it !i! not subseUuently !ie out, yet it oul! &erha&s be too "uch to say that he achie#e! a co"&lete re#i#al of learning$ ;n the inert state of the religious houses, the soil as un&re&are!$ Still, a taste as kin!le! hich continue! to &ro&agate itself until the ti"e hen the religious houses beca"e acti#e seats of e!ucation$ This !i! not ha&&en until the secon! half of the tenth century, hen the refor" of the "onasteries by Rthel ol! an! )unstan &ro!uce! that great e!ucational an! literary "o#e"ent of hich the re&resentati#e na"e is Rlfric$ The i"&etus hich Alfre! ha! i"&arte! !i! not cease ith his life$ ;f e look into the 4hronicles, e see that the Alfre!ian style of ork is continue! !o n to the !eath of his son E! ar!, in ,-L, an! that fro" that &oint the strea" of history ! in!les an! beco"es "eagre$ This "ay be ty&ical of hat ha&&ene! o#er a i!er surface$ The i"&ulse gi#en to translation "ay be su&&ose! to ha#e continue!, an! e "ay s&ecify t o translations likely to ha#e been "a!e at this ti"e$ These are the 6our Gos&els0++73 an! the &oetical Psalter$0++,3 A feature of the Gos&els is that the na"e of Jesus is regar!e! as a !escri&ti#e title, an! subjecte! to translation$ ;t ne#er a&&ears in its original for", but al ays as QSe :Flen!Q--that is, The :ealer, The Sa#iour$ To this &erio!, the first half of the tenth century, "ust be assigne! so"e translations of another sort$ There are so"e consi!erable re"ains of a translating &erio! that ga#e to the English rea!er a "ass of a&ocry&hal, ro"antic, fantastic, an! e#en heretical rea!ingK an! that &erio! can har!ly be any other than this$ ; i"agine that no as a conseUuence of the ne literary interest a akene! by <ing Alfre!, "any ol! book-chests ere ex&lore!, an! things ca"e to light hich ha! been store! in the "onasteries of Iessex e#er since the se#enth an! eighth centuries$ These ritings clai" a "anifest affinity ith the early &ro!ucts of the Gaulish "onasteries, an! fro" these they oul! naturally ha#e been !iffuse! in southern Britain$ But, since the religious life of Gaul ha! been touche! an! Uuickene! ith the refor" of the secon! Bene!ict in the ninth century, so"e ol! things oul! ha#e been con!e"ne! an! rejecte! there, hich "ight still enjoy cre!it ith the ol!-fashione! clergy of Iessex$

9f a&ocry&hal "aterials in Anglo-Saxon literature there are se#eral #arieties$ 6irst, there is the so-calle! Gos&el of *ico!e"us$ This is fro" a Latin #ersion of the Greek QActs of Pilate,Q an! it is our earliest extant source for that &rolific subject, the :arro ing of :ell$ The Greek text lai! clai" to a :ebre original'---her onginnath tha ge!onan thing the be uru" :Flen!e ge!one Fron $ eall s a Theo!osius se "Fra casere hyt fun!e on :ierusale" on thFs Pontiscan Pilates !o"erne $ eall s a hyt *ycho!e"us a rat $ eall "i! Ebreiscu" stafu" on "anegu" bocu" thus a riten' --here begin the actual things that ere !one in connexion ith our Sa#iour, just as Theo!osius the illustrious e"&eror foun! it in Jerusale" in Pontius Pilate@s court-houseK accor!ing as *ico!e"us rote it !o n all ith :ebre riting on "any lea#es as follo s$ The Q)ialogues of Solo"on an! SaturnQ belong to a legen!ary stock that has sent its branches into all the early #ernacular literatures of Euro&e$ The ger" is foun! in the Bible an! in Jose&hus$ ;n + <ings x$ +, e rea! that, hen the Nueen of Sheba hear! of the fa"e of Solo"on, she ca"e to &ro#e hi" ith har! Uuestions$ Jose&hus, in the QJe ish AntiUuities,Q #ii$ /, tells a curious story about har! Uuestions &assing bet een Solo"on an! :ira", king of Tyre$ 6ro" such a root a&&ear to ha#e gro n the "ultifor" legen!s in #arious languages hich &asse! un!er such na"es as the Q4ontro#ersy of Solo"on,Q the Q)ialogues of Solo"on an! Saturn,Q or of QSolo"on an! Harculfus$Q This beca"e at length a "ocking for" of literatureK often a burlesUue an! &aro!y of religion$ Hr$ <e"ble traces these legen!s to Je ish tra!itionK but of all the exa"&les &reser#e! he says Qthe Anglo-Saxon are un!oubte!ly the ol!est$$$$ Iith the sole exce&tion of one 6rench #ersion, they are the only for"s of the story re"aining in hich the subject is seriously an! earnestly treate!K an!, "onstrous as the absur!ities foun! in the" are, e "ay be ell assure! that the authors ere Uuite unconscious of their existence$Q0+-.3 There are, ho e#er, so"e &laces in hich one is "o#e! to !oubt hether the extra#agance is the &ro!uct of &ure si"&licity, an! ithout the least tinge of !rollery$ But the rea!er "ay ju!ge for hi"self$ The frag"ents &reser#e! are &artly &oetical an! &artly in &rose' the &oetry is rather insi&i!K our Uuotation shall be fro" the &rose$ The subject is the &raise an! eulogy of the Lor!@s Prayer, hich is &ersonifie! an! anato"ise!$ Saturnus asks, QIhat "anner of hea! hath the Pater *osterfQ An!, again, QIhat "anner of heart hath the Pater *osterfQ Ie Uuote fro" the ans er to the latter Uuestion'-Salo"on c Fth$ :is heorte is xii thusen!u" sitha beohtre thonne ealle thas seofon heofenas the us sin!on ofergesette, theah the hi syn ealle "i! thy !o"iscan fyre onFle!, an! theah the eal theos eorthe hi" neothan togegnes birne, an! heo hFbbe fyrene tungan, an! gyl!enne hracan,

an! leohtne "uth inne ear!ne $$$ $$$ he is rethra an! scear&ra thonne eal "i!!angear!, theah he sy binnan his feo er h o""u" fulge!rifen il!eora, an! anra geh ylc !eor hFbbe syn!erlice xii hornas irene, an! anra geh ylc horn hFbbe xii tin!as irene, an! anra geh ylc tin! hFbbe syn!erlice xii or!as, an! anra geh ylc or! sy xii thusen!u" sitha scear&ra thonne seo an flan the sy fra" hun!t elftigu" hyr!enna geon!hyr!e! $ An! theah the seofon "i!!angear!as syn ealle on efn abrF!!e on thisses anes onlicnesse, an! thFr sy eal geso"no! thFtte heofon oththe hel oththe eorthe Ffre acen!e, ne "agon by tha lifes linan on "i!!an y"b fFth"ian$ An! se Pater *oster he "Fg anna ealla gesceafta on his thFre s ithran han! on anes FxF&&les onlienesse gethDn an! ge ringan$ An! his gethoht he is s&ring!ra an! s iftra thonne xii thusen!u haligra gasta, theah the anra geh ylc gast hFbbe syn!erlice xii fetherho"an, an! anra geh ylc fetherho"a hFbbe xii in!as, an! aura geh ylc in! t elf sigefFstnissa syn!erlice$--<e"ble, &&$ +L7-+/-$ Solo"on sai!' :is heart is +-,... ti"es brighter than all the se#en hea#ens that o#er us are set, though they shoul! be all afla"e ith the !oo"s!ay fire, an! though all this earth shoul! blaSe u& to ar!s the" fro" beneath, an! it shoul! ha#e a fiery tongue, an! gol!en throat, an! "outh lighte! u& ithin $$$ $$$ he is fiercer an! shar&er than all the orl!, though ithin its four corners it shoul! be !ri#en full of il! !eer, an! each &articular !eer ha#e se#erally t el#e horns of iron, an! each &articular horn ha#e t el#e tines of iron, an! each &articular tine ha#e se#erally t el#e &oints, an! each &articular &oint be +-,... ti"es shar&er than the arro hich ha! been har!ene! by +-. har!eners$ An! though the se#en orl!s shoul! be all fairly s&rea! out after the fashion of this one, an! e#erything shoul! be there asse"ble! that hea#en or hell or earth e#er engen!ere!, they "ay not encircle the girth of his bo!y at the "i!!le$ An! the Pater *oster, he can by hi"self in his right han! gras& an! sUueeSe all creation like a ax-a&&le$ An! his thought it is "ore alert an! s ifter than +-,.. angelic s&irits, though each &articular s&irit ha#e se#erally t el#e suits of feathers, an! each &articular feather-suit ha#e t el#e in!s, an! each &articular in! t el#e #ictoriousnesses all to itself$ ; !o not un!ertake to assert that this &iece is as ol! as the first half of the tenth centuryK it is &lace! here only because this see"s to be the "ost natural &lace for the grou& of literature to hich it belongs$ As ; sai!, the rea!er "ust ju!ge for hi"self hether this is &erfectly serious$ ; belie#e that these Q)ialoguesQ are the only &art of Anglo-Saxon literature that can be sus&ecte! of "ockery$ The earliest laughter of English literature is ri!iculeK an! if this ri!icule see"s to touch things sacre!, it ill, on the hole, ; think, be foun! that

not the sacre! things the"sel#es, but so"e unreal or s&urious use of the", is really attacke!$ So here, if there is any a&&earance of a sly !erision, the thing !eri!e! is not the Pater *oster, but the #ain an! "agical uses hich ere too often ascribe! to the re&etition of it$ :ere e "ust fin! a &lace for the translation of QA&ollonius of Tyre$Q This has all the features of a Greek ro"ance, but it is only kno n to exist in a Latin text, so that it has been Uuestione! hether this Latin ro"ance is a translation fro" a Greek original, or a story originally Latin in i"itation of the Greek ro"ancists$ Iith those ho ha#e in#estigate! the subject, the hy&othesis of translation is "ost in fa#our, an! for the follo ing reason$ The story &resents an a&&earance of !ouble stratification, such as "ight naturally result if a heathen Greek ro"ance ha! been translate! into Latin by a 4hristian$ Although the &heno"enon coul! be eUually ex&laine! by su&&osing a Latin heathen original hich ha! been re- ritten by a 4hristian e!itor, yet the for"er is the "ore natural an! the "ore &robable hy&othesis$0+-+3 Ie no co"e to the Blickling :o"ilies, a recently-&ublishe! book of great i"&ortance$ ;t is not a ho"ogeneous ork, but a "otley collection of ser"ons of #arious age an! Uuality$ So"e of the later ser"ons are not so #ery !ifferent fro" those of RlfricK but these are not the ones that gi#e the book its character$ The ol!er sort ha#e #ery !istinct characteristics of their o n, an! they furnish a !ee& backgroun! to the :o"ilies of Rlfric$ They are &lainly of the age before the great 4hurch refor" of the tenth century, hen the line as #ery !i"ly !ra n bet een canonical an! uncanonical, an! hen Uuotations, legen!s, an! argu"ents ere a!"issible hich no sur&rise us in a ser"on$ ;n!ee!, one can har!ly esca&e the sur"ise that the el!er !iscourses "ay co"e !o n fro" so"e ti"e, an! &erha&s rather an early ti"e, in the ninth century$ 9ne of the ser"ons bears the !ate of ,2+ i"be!!e! in its contextK an! this, hich is &robably the lo est !ate of the book, is t enty years before the :o"ilies of Rlfric a&&eare!$ S&eaking of that freUuent to&ic of the ti"e, the en! of the orl!, hich is to take &lace in the Sixth Age, the &reacher says'---an! thisse is thonne se "Fsta !Fl agangen, efne nigon hun! intra an! lxxi$ on thys geare$--P$ ++,$ --an! of this is #erily the "ost &art alrea!y gone, e#en nine hun!re! years an! se#enty-one, in this year$ Perha&s there is no book hich has been &ublishe! in the &resent generation that has !one so "uch for the historical kno le!ge of Anglo-Saxon literature$ S&eaking generally, e "ay say that it re&resents the &reaching of the ti"es before RlfricK that it contains the sort of &reaching that Rlfric sat un!er in his youth V hen not at Abing!on or IinchesterWK the sort of &reaching, too, that Rlfric set hi"self to correct an! to su&erse!e$ ;t is a book hose #alue turns not so "uch u&on its o n !irect co""unications, as on the light it thro s all aroun! it, sho ing u& the &o&ular stan!ar!s of the ti"e, an! enabling us to recognise the true setting of "any a aif an! stray of

the ol! literature$ But it is u&on the ork of Rlfric that it she!s the "ost #aluable light$ There is in Rlfric@s :o"ilies a certain correcti#e ai", hich as but faintly seen before, an! hen seen coul! not be !istinctly ex&laine!K but no e ha#e both the ai" an! the occasion of it ren!ere! co"&arati#ely clear$ These :o"ilies su&&ly to those of Rlfric their true historical intro!uction$ They su&&ort the reasons hich Rlfric assigns for &ro!ucing ho"ilies$ ;n his &reface he s&eaks of certain English books to hich he !esigns his ser"ons as an anti!ote$ :e ha! translate! his !iscourses Vhe saysW out of the Latin, not for &ri!e of learning, Qbut because ; ha! seen "uch heresy VTge! il!TW in "any English books, hich unlearne! "en in their si"&licity thought "ighty ise$Q *ot only !o the Blickling :o"ilies contain enough of unscri&tural an! a&ocry&hal "aterial to justify the charge of QTge! il!TQ in its #aguer sense of error, but e ha#e also !ocu"entary groun!s for belie#ing that a careful theologian of that ti"e, such as Rlfric un!oubte!ly as, oul! ha#e brought the" un!er the in!ict"ent of heresy$ ;t use! to be thought that the ol!est extant list of con!e"ne! books &rocee!e! fro" Po&e Gelasius, an! as of about A$)$ L,LK but no that list is assigne! to the eighth or e#en ninth century$ ;n this ;n!ex e fin! sources for "uch of the literature hich e ha#e been consi!ering in this cha&terK e fin! the QActs of Pilate,Q QJourneys of the A&ostles,Q QActs of Peter,Q QActs of An!re the A&ostle,Q QThe 4ontra!iction of Solo"on,Q QThe Book Physiologus$Q0+--3 The "aterial hich gi#es the Blickling collection its &eculiar character is largely a&ocry&hal, an!, in the light of the abo#e list, heretical$ A ne #itality is i"&arte! to Rlfric@s ser"ons by their contrast ith these ol!er ones$ ;t is &lain that there is a co""on source behin! both sets of ser"onsK the ell-establishe! series of to&ics for each occasion see"s clearly to &oint to so"e stan!ar! collection of Latin ho"ilies no lost$0+-M3 The e#i!ent i!entity of the lines on hich the !iscourses run "akes co"&arison the easier an! the "ore satisfactory$ ;n the ser"on for Ascension )ay, Rlfric@s treat"ent is in &ointe! contrast ith the ol!er book$ The Blickling is full of the signs an! on!ersK so"e, in!ee!, Scri&tural, but far "ore a&ocry&halK an! it is effusi#e o#er these$ Ihereas Rlfric teaches that the #isible "iracles belonge! to the infancy of the 4hurch, an! ere as artificial atering to a ne ly-&lante! treeK but, hen the heathen belie#e!, then those "iracles cease!$ *o Vhe saysW e "ust look rather for s&iritual "iracles$ The :o"ily on St$ John Ba&tist is a goo! exa"&le$ Accor!ing to the ol! book, John is calle! Qangelus,Q because he li#e! on earth the angelic life, but Rlfric takes it as "essenger, an! this "ay hint the !ifference of treat"ent$ ;n the sa"e !iscourse there is a contrast hich touches the chronology$ The ol! :o"ily says that there are only t o *ati#ities ke&t sacre! by the 4hurch--that of the Lor! an! that of :is forerunner$ Rlfric takes u& this to&ic ith a !ifference$ :e says that there are three *ati#ities, hich are celebrate! annually, a!!ing that of the Blesse! Jirgin to the &re#ious t o$ *o , it as &recisely in the tenth century that this thir! began to be obser#e! in the churches of the

IestK0+-L3 an! the change took &lace in the inter#al that se&arates these t o sets of ho"ilies$ 9n the Assu"&tio St$ HariF, the el!er ho"ily is a ju"ble of a&ocry&hal legen!$ :ere Rlfric &resents a contrast, an! "anifestly an intentional one$ ;n the &rea"ble he recalls certain teaching of Jero"e, Qthrough hich he Uuashe! the "isgui!e! narrati#e hich half-taught "en ha! tol! about her !e&arture$Q Then, after an ex&osition of the Gos&el for the !ay, he returns to the Assu"&tion in a &assage hich, hen rea! in the light of the el!er :o"ily, is #ery &ointe!'--QIhat shall e say to you "ore &articularly about this festi#al, exce&t that Hary as on this !ay taken u& to hea#en fro" this eary orl!, to ! ell ith :i", here she rejoices in eternal life for e#er"oref ;f e shoul! say "ore to you about this !ay@s festi#al than e rea! in those holy books hich ere gi#en by Go!@s ins&iration, e shoul! be like those "ountebanks ho, fro" their o n i"aginations or fro" !rea"s, ha#e ritten "any false storiesK but the faithful teachers, Augustine, Jero"e, Gregory, an! other such, ha#e in their is!o" rejecte! the"$ But still these absur! books exist, both in Latin an! in English, an! "isgui!e! "en rea! the"$ ;t is enough for belie#ers to rea! an! to relate that hich is trueK an! there are #ery fe "en ho can co"&letely stu!y all the holy books that ere in!ite! by Go!@s :oly S&irit$ Let alone those absur! fictions, hich lea! the un ary to &er!ition, an! rea! or listen to :oly Scri&ture, hich !irects us to hea#en$Q The :o"ilies of Rlfric are in t o series, of hich the first as &ublishe! in ,,., an! a!!resse! to Sigeric, Archbisho& of 4anterburyK the secon! in ,,+, after that )anish in#asion in hich Byrhtnoth fell$ These ere long ago &ublishe! by the Rlfric Society$ But there is another set, a&&ro&riate! to the co""e"oration of saints, after the "anner of the Bene!ictine hagiogra&hies$0+-/3 These ha#e a Latin &reface, &ointe!ly agreeing ith the &refaces to the &re#ious series$ ;f their "iraculous narrati#es so"eti"es contain hat e shoul! not ha#e ex&ecte! fro" Rlfric, an! if this lea!s us to !oubt the authorshi&, e "ay reflect that the contrast is not so great as that bet een the Q4ura PastoralisQ an! the Q)ialoguesQ of Gregory$ As a slight s&eci"en of the character of these latter !iscourses, ; ill gi#e a fe lines fro" that on St$ S ithun'-Ea!gar cyning tha Ffter thysu" tacnu" $ ol!e thFt se halga er ur!e u& ge!on $ an! s&rFc hit to Athel ol!e tha" ar urthan bisceo&e $ thFt he hine u&& a!y!e "i! ar urthnysse $ Tha se bisceo& Athel ol! "i! abbo!u" an! "unecu" !y!e u& thone sanct "i! sange urthlice $ an! bFron into cyrcan sce Petres huse $ thFr he stent "i! urth"ynte $ an! un!ra gefre"ath$ <ing Ea!gar then, after these tokens, ille! that the holy "an shoul! be translate!, an! s&ake it to Athel ol!, the #enerable bisho&, that he shoul! translate hi" ith honourable sole"nity$ Then the bisho& Athel ol!, ith

abbots an! "onks, raise! the saint ith song sole"nly$ An! they bare hi" into the church St$ Peter@s house, here he stan!s in honoure! "e"ory, an! orketh on!ers$ 8 8 8 8 8

Seo eal!e cyrce Fs eall be hangen "i! criccu" $ an! "i! croo&era scea"elu" fra" on!e oth otherne $ on Fgtheru" hge $ the thFr ur!on ge hFle!e $ an! "an ne "ihte s a theah "acian hi healfe u&$ The ol! church as all hung roun! ith crutches an! ith stools fro" one en! to the other, on either all, of cri&&les ho there ha! been heale!' an! yet they ha! not been able to &ut half of the" u&$ Rlfric@s &lace in literature consists in this'--That he is the #oice of that great 4hurch refor" hich is the "ost signal fact in the history of the latter half of the tenth century$ 9f this refor", the first ste& as the restoration of the rule of Bene!ict in the religious houses$ The great "o#e"ent ha! begun in Gaul early in the ninth century, an! its extension to our islan! coul! har!ly be !elaye! hen &eaceful ti"es left roo" for attention to learning an! religion$ Both in 6ranklan! an! in Englan! the religious re#i#al follo e! the literary oneK only there it follo e! Uuickly, an! here after a long inter#al$0+-O3 The chief author of this re#i#al as 9!o V!ie! ,O+W, an! the chief con!uctors of it ere Rthel ol!, )unstan, 9s al!$ The lea!ers of this "o#e"ent ere "uch in co""unication ith the 6rankish "onasteries, es&ecially ith the fa"ous house at 6leury on the Loire$ Jarious kin!s of literature ere cherishe!, but that hich is "ost &eculiar to this ti"e is the biogra&hies of Saints$ Lanferth, a !isci&le of Rthel ol!, rote Latin hagiogra&hies, an! fro" his Latin as !eri#e! the extant ho"ily of the "iracles of St$ S ithun$ Iulstan, a "onk of Iinchester an! a !isci&le of Rthel ol!, as a Latin &oet, an! rote hagiogra&hy in #erseK a"ong the rest, he #ersifie! the ork of Lanferth on St$ S ithun$ Rlfric as an alu"nus of Rthel ol! at Iinchester, an! &erha&s at Abing!on earlierK fro" Iinchester he as sent to 4ernel V4erne Abbas in )orsetshireW, to be the &astor of Rthel ear!@s house an! &eo&le, an! there he rought at his ho"ilies$ The highest title that e fin! associate! ith his na"e is that of abbotK an! this &robably is in relation to Egonesha" VEynsha", 9xonW, here Rthel ear! foun!e! a religious house, an! Rlfric su&erinten!e! it$ ;n Rthel ear! the eal!or"an e ha#e our first exa"&le of a great lay &atron of literature' "uch of Rlfric@s ork as un!ertaken at the instance of Rthel ear!$ ;t as at his reUuest that he engage! in the translation of the 9l! Testa"ent, an! hen he ha! !one the Pentateuch V ith freUuent o"issionsW, an! so"e &arts of Joshua an! Ju!ges,0+-23 he cease!, an! !eclare! he oul! translate no "ore, ha#ing a "isgi#ing lest the

narration of "any things unlike 4hristian "orality "ight confuse the ju!g"ent of the si"&le$ This is the earliest recor!e! instance of a !e#out 4hristian ithhol!ing Scri&ture fro" the &eo&le for their goo!$ An!, hen e take it in conjunction ith the authorise! !iffusion of the Bene!ictine hagiogra&hies of the ti"e, e see hat as a&&ro#e! &lace! by the si!e of that hich as "istruste!$ The so-calle! Q4anons of RlfricQ are a "ixe! co"&osition, in hich so"e "atters of historical an! !octrinal instruction are unite! ith !irections an! regulations an! exhortations for correcting the &ractices of the ignorant &riests$ They ere co"&ile! by Rlfric, at the reUuest of Iulfsige, Bisho& of Sherborne VA$)$ ,,--+..+W, for the benefit of his clergy$ The refor"ation of the "onasteries ha! alrea!y "a!e consi!erable &rogress, an! this see"s like an extension of the sa"e "o#e"ent to e"brace the secular clergy$ A"ong the !i#ers "atters touche! in the Articles are these'--The relati#e authority of the councilsK the first four are to be ha! in re#erence like the four gos&els VTha feo er sinothas sin! to heal!enne s a s a tha feo er 4ristes becW--the #est"ents, the books, an! the garb of the &riestK the se#en or!ers of the 4hristian "inistryK so"e &oints of &riestly !uty as regar!s "arriages an! funeralsK of Ba&tis" an! the Eucharist, ith rebuke of su&erstitious &racticesK the &riest to s&eak the sense of the Gos&el to the &eo&le in English on Sun!ays an! high !ays, as also of the Lor!@s Prayer an! the 4ree!K but, ithal, the i""e!iate &ractical ai" of the hole see"s, abo#e all things, to be the celibacy of the clergy$0+-73 Rlfric as the author of the "ost i"&ortant e!ucational books of this ti"e that ha#e co"e !o n to us--na"ely, his QLatin Gra""ar,Q in English, for"e! after )onatus an! PriscianK his QGlossary of Latin Ior!sQK an! his Q4olloUuiu",Q or con#ersation in Latin, ith interlinear Saxon$0+-,3 But for us, as for the "en of the sixteenth century, the "ost i"&ortant of Rlfric@s orks are his :o"ilies$ The English of these :o"ilies is s&len!i!K in!ee!, e "ay confi!ently say that here English a&&ears fully Uualifie! to be the "e!iu" of the highest learning$ An! their interest has been greatly enhance! of late years by t o i"&ortant a!!itions to our &rinte! Anglo-Saxon library$ The first of these as the QBlickling :o"ilies,Q e!ite! by )r$ Horris, hich thre a ne light u&on Rlfric, an! a!!e! greatly to the significance of his :o"ilies$ The circuit of Anglo-Saxon ho"iletic literature has again been greatly enlarge! by a "ore recent &ublication, na"ely, that of the Q:o"ilies of Iulfstan$Q0+M.3 These ho"ilies are Uuite !istinct in character fro" all the &rece!ing$ There is nothing of contro#ersy, an! little in the sha&e of argu"ent' si"&ly the assertion of 4hristian !og"a an! the enforce"ent of 4hristian !uty$ The one to&ic that lies beyon! these as "ore &ractical, in the #ie of that !ay, than it is in our #ie --; "ean the re&eate! intro!uction of Antichrist an! the near a&&roach of the en! of the orl!$ ;n the Uuotation the E an! Y Vfor thW are ke&t, as in Hr$ *a&ier@s text$ 5ton beon d uru" hlafor!e hol!e an! getreo e an! Ffre

eallu" "ihtu" his urYsci&e rFran an! his illan yrcan, forYa" eall, Eet e Ffre for rihthlafor!hel!e !oY, eal e hit !oY us sylfu" to "ycelre Eearfe, forYa" Ya" biY ito!lice Go! hol!, Ee biY his hlafor!e rihtlice hol!K an! eac ah hlafor!a geh ylc EFs for "icle Eearfe, EFt he his "en rihtlice heal!e$ An! e bi!!aY an! beo!aY, EFt Go!es Eeo as, Ee for urne cynehlafor! an! for eal cristen folc Eingian scylan an! be go!ra "anna Fl"essan libbaY, EFt hy EFs georne earnian, libban heora lif s a s a bec hi" isian, an! s a s a heora eal!ras hy" tFcan, an! began heora Eeo !o" georne, Eonne "Fgon hy FgEer ge hy" sylfu" el fre"ian ge eallu" cristenu" folce $ an! e bi!!aY an! beo!aY, EFt Flc cil! sy binnan Erittigu" nihtu" gefulla!K gif hit Eonne !ea! eorYe butan fulluhte, an! hit on &reoste gelang sy, Eonne Yolige he his hd!es an! !F!bete georneK gif hit Eonne Eurh "Fga ge"eleaste ge yrYe, Eonne Eolige se, Ye hit on gelang sy, Flcere ear! ununge an! rFcnige of ear!e oYYon on ear!e s iYe !eo&e gebete, s a bisco& hi" tFce $ eac e lFraY, EFt "an Fnig ne lFte unbisc&o! to lange, an! itan Ea, Ye cil!es onfcn, EFt heo hit on rihtan geleafan gebringan an! on gc!an Eea an an! on Eearflican !F!an an! d forY on hit isian to Ya" Ee Go!e licige an! his sylfes Yearf syK Eonne beoY heo rihtlice eals a hy gena"o!e beoY, go!fF!eras, gif by heora go!bearn Go!e gestrynaY$ :o"ily xxi#$ Let us be al ays loyal an! true to our Lor!, an! e#er by all "eans "aintain his orshi& an! ork his ill, because all that e#er e !o out of sincere loyalty, e !o it all for our o n great a!#antage, inas"uch as Go! ill assure!ly be gracious to the "an ho is &erfectly loyal to his lor!K an! like ise it is the boun!en !uty of e#ery lor!, that he his "en honourably sustain$ An! e entreat an! co""an!, that Go!@s "inisters, ho "ost interce!e for our royal lor!, an! for all 4hristian folk, an! ho li#e by goo! "en@s al"s, that they accor!ingly gi#e !iligent attention to li#e their life as the bookes gui!e the", an! so as their su&eriors !irect the", an! to !ischarge their ser#ice heartilyK then "ay they !o "uch goo! both to the"sel#es an! to all 4hristian &eo&le$ An! e entreat an! co""an! that e#ery chil! be ba&tise! ithin thirty !aysK if, ho e#er, it shoul! !ie ithout ba&tis" an! it be along of the &riest, then let hi" suffer the loss of his or!er an! !o careful &enanceK if, ho e#er, it ha&&en through the relati#es@ neglect, then let hi" ho as in fault suffer the loss of e#ery habitation, an! be ejecte! fro" his ! elling, or else in his ! elling un!ergo #ery se#ere &enance, as the bisho& "ay !irect hi"$ Also e instruct you, that none be left unbisho&&e! too longK an! they ho are s&onsors for a chil! are to see that they bring it u& in right belief, an! in

goo! "anners an! in !utiful con!uct, an! al ays continually gui!e it to that hich "ay be &leasing to Go! an! for his o n goo!K then ill they #erily be as they are calle!, Qgo!fathers,Q if they train their go!-chil!ren for Go!$ :itherto Iulfstan has been re&resente! in &rint by one ser"on only, the "ost re"arkable, in!ee!, of all his !iscourses--being an a!!ress to the English hen the )anish ra#ages ere at their orst, A$)$ +.+-, the year in hich Rlfheah, Archbisho& of 4anterbury, as "artyre!$ ;n this !iscourse the "iseries of the ti"e are ascribe! to the #engeance of Go! for national sinsK an! the co"ing of Antichrist is sai! to be near$ Iulfstan as Archbisho& of %ork fro" +..M to +.-M$ Beautiful an! #aluable as his ser"ons are in the"sel#es, their #alue is greatly increase! by their connexion ith the &rece!ing series, an! by the continuity they gi#e to this branch of our ol! literature$ Iith the QBlickling :o"ilies,Q in all their #ariety, an! those of Rlfric, an! those of Iulfstan, in our &ossession, it is har!ly too "uch to say that e ha#e a #ernacular series of ser"ons that fairly re&resents the Anglo-Saxon &reaching for a &erio! of one hun!re! an! fifty years$ 699T*9TES' 0++73 The Anglo-Saxon Jersion of the :oly Gos&els, e!$ Thor&e, +7L-$ 0++,3 E!ite! by Thor&e fro" the ele#enth-century "anuscri&t at ParisK 9xfor!, +7M/$ This contains Psal"s li$-cl$ in &oetryK the first fifty are in &rose$ )ietrich Vin :au&t@s Q^eitschriftQW &ointe! out that the &rose as ele#enth-century ork, but the &oetical #ersion as "uch ol!er$ :e sur"ise! that the &rose translation ha! been "a!e for the &ur&ose of gi#ing co"&leteness to a "utilate! book, an! that the hole Psalter ha! once existe! in Anglo-Saxon #erse$ Since then so"e frag"ents of the "issing &sal"s ha#e been foun!$ See Grein, QBibliothek !er Angelsechs$ Poesie,Q #ol$ ii$, &$ L+-$ 0+-.3 QThe )ialogue of Solo"on an! Saturnus, ith an :istorical ;ntro!uction$Q By John H$ <e"ble, H$A$ Rlfric Society, +7L7, &$ -$ See )ean Stanley, QJe ish 4hurch,Q ii$ +2.$ 0+-+3 (oh!e, Q)er Griechische (o"an,Q &$ L.7$ 0+--3 The list "ay be seen in the Q)ictionary of 4hristian AntiUuitiesQ T#$T Prohibite! Books$ 0+-M3 The series that goes by the na"e of Eusebius of E"esa has "uch general si"ilarity to the reUuire! collection$ 0+-L3 Q)ictionary of 4hristian AntiUuities,Q #ol$ ii$, &$ ++LM$ 0+-/3 This thir! set of :o"ilies is no for the first ti"e in course of &ublication by the Early English Text Society, un!er the e!itorshi& of

Professor Skeat$ 0+-O3 ;n like "anner the literary re#i#al of the fifteenth century as follo e! by the religious re#i#al of the sixteenth$ 0+-23 Q:e&tateuchus,Q e!$ Th aites, +O,7' re&rinte! by Grein$ 0+-73 QA 4ollection of all the Ecclesiastical La s, 4anons, Pc$, Pc$, of the 4hurch of Englan!, fro" its 6irst 6oun!ation to the 4onUuest, that ha#e hitherto been &ublishe! in the Latin an! Saxonic Tongues$ An! of all the 4anons an! 4onstitutions Ecclesiastical, "a!e Since the 4onUuest an! Before the (efor"ation $$$ no first translate! into English $$$ by John Johnson, H$A$, Lon!on, +2-.$Q A *e E!ition, by John Baron, of Nueen@s 4ollege Vno )r$ Baron, (ector of 5&ton Scu!a"oreW, 9xfor!, John :enry Parker, +7/.$ ;n t o #olu"es, 7#o$ Jol$ i$, &$ M77$ 0+-,3 See abo#e, &$ L.$ The Q4olloUuiu"Q is &rinte! in Thor&e@s QAnalecta$Q 0+M.3 Iulfstan, QSa""lung !er ih" Sugeschriebenen :o"ilien nebst 5ntersuchungen _ber ihre Echtheit' :erausgegeben #on Arthur *a&ier$ Erste Abtheilung' Text un! Jarianten$ Berlin +77M$Q

4:APTE( =;$ T:E SE49*)A(% P9ET(%$ :o still the legen!ary lay 9@er &oet@s boso" hol!s its s ay$ HA(H;9*$ Bet een the Pri"ary an! the Secon!ary Poetry e "ust ackno le!ge a i!e bor!erlan! of transition$ So"e &oetical orks lying in this inter#al e ha#e alrea!y foun! occasion to notice, an! ha#e gi#en the" such s&ace as e coul! affor!$ Ie ha#e s&oken of the 4F!"on, an! of the &oetical PsalterK an! ith these ; "ust grou& the QJu!ith,Q a noble frag"ent, hich is foun! in the 4otton Library in the sa"e "anuscri&t #olu"e ith the Beo ulf$ This frag"ent &reser#es M/. long lines at the close of a &oe" hich a&&ears--by the nu"bering of the 4antos--to ha#e been of about four ti"es that length$ This re"nant contains hat oul! naturally ha#e been the "ost #igorous an! stirring &arts of the &oe"' the riotous !rinking of :olofernes, the trenchant act of Ju!ith, her return ith her "ai! to Bethulia, their enthusiastic rece&tion, the "uster for battle, the antici&ation of carnage by the bir!s an! beasts of &rey, the !estruction of the in#a!ing host$ The &oetry hich is !istinctly Secon!ary is containe!--the best

s&eci"ens of it--in t o fa"ous books, that of Exeter, an! that of JercelliK an! in both of these books it is largely connecte! ith the na"e of a single &oet, 4yne ulf$ :ere is at once an in!ication of the secon!ary &oetryK not "erely that e ha#e a &oet@s na"e, for e also entitle &oe"s by 4F!"on@s na"eK but that the &oet hi"self su&&lies us ith his na"e, an! has left it--#aile! an! enig"atic--for &osterity to !eci&her$ 4uriously an! fancifully !i! 4yne ulf inter ea#e into the lines of his #erse the (unes hich s&elt his na"eK an! it nee!e! the skill of <e"ble to ex&lain it to us$ There are three of the extant &oe"s in hich he has thus left his "ark, na"ely t o in the Exeter book an! one in the Jercelli book$ ;n t o cases out of the three this ingenious contri#ance is at the close of the &oe"$ ;n the Jercelli book it occurs in the Elene, the last of the &oe"s in the "anuscri&t, an! Hr$ <e"ble re"arke! that it as Qa&&arently inten!e! as a tail-&iece to the hole book$Q0+M+3 This naturally suggests the inference, hich in!ee! is generally acce&te!, that all the &oe"s in the Jercelli book are by 4yne ulf$ But hen a like inference is !ra n for the Exeter book, inas"uch as the sa"e (unic !e#ice is there foun! in t o &ieces, that therefore the book is si"&ly a #olu"e of 4yne ulf@s &oe"s, there see"s less reason to acUuiesce$ That a large &art of the book is 4yne ulf@s &oetry ill be generally thought &robable$ The first thirty-t o lea#es of the "anuscri&t, hich corres&on! to the first +.M &ages in Thor&e@s e!ition, contain a series of &ieces hich are really &arts of one hole, as as sho n by Professor )ietrich, of HarburgK0+M-3 an!, as one of these connecte! &ieces has 4yne ulf@s (unic "ark, it see"s to follo that the hole Q4hristian E&icQ is by hi"$ Again in the "i!!le of the #olu"e fro" the O/th to the 2/th leaf there is the &oe" of St$ Juliana ith the (unes of 4yne ulf@s na"e at its close, an! this is therefore un!oubte!ly his$ This brings us to Hr$ Thor&e@s -7Oth &age$ The four &ieces hich lie bet een the abo#e, "ore es&ecially t o of the", St$ Guthlac an! the PhAnix, "ay ell be his$ But fro" the close of St$ Juliana VThor&e, &$ -7OW the &ieces beco"e shorter an! "ore "iscellaneous, exhibiting greater !i#ersity both of subject an! of Uuality, being altogether such as to suggest that they ha#e been collecte! fro" #arious sources an! are of !ifferent ages$ So that on this #ie the #olu"e "ight be inter&rete! as containing V+W Poe"s by 4yne ulfK an! V-W a "iscellaneous collection$ Thus 4yne ulf@s &art oul! close ith QSt$ Juliana,Q hich en!s ith the (unic !e#ice, like the Elene closing his &oe"s in the Jercelli book$0+MM3 About the &erson of this &oet nothing is kno n, beyon! hat the &oe"s the"sel#es "ay see" to con#ey$ :is !ate has been #ariously esti"ate! fro" the 7th to the ++th century$ The latter is the "ore &robable$ ;f e look at his "atter, e obser#e its great affinity ith the hagiology of the tenth century, the high &itch at hich the &oetry of the :oly (oo! has arri#e!, an! the ex&ansion gi#en to the subject of the )ay of Ju!g"ent$ ;f e consi!er his language an! "anner, e re"ark the facility an! co&ious flo of his &oetic !iction, but ith a so"ething that suggests the retenti#e "in! of the stu!entK his cu"ulation of ol! heroic &hraseology not unlike the ro"antic &oetry of

Scott, joine! occasionally ith a !e&arture fro" ol! &oetic usage hich see"s like a sli& on the &art of an acco"&lishe! i"itator$0+ML3 9ccasionally he has a Latin or! of no#el intro!uction$ All these signs forbi! an early !ate, but they agree ell ith <e"ble@s #ie of the ti"e an! &erson of 4yne ulf$ :e &ro&ose! to i!entify our &oet ith that <enul&hus ho in ,7- beca"e abbot of Peterborough, an! in +..O beca"e Vafter RlfheahW bisho& of Iinchester$ To this &relate Rlfric !e!icate! his Life of St$ Rthel ol!, an! he is &raise! by :ugo 4an!i!us as a great e"en!er of books, a fa"ous teacher, to ho" Vas to another Solo"onW "en of all ranks an! or!ers flocke! for instruction, an! ho" the abbey regrette! to lose hen after fourteen years of his &resi!ency he as carrie! off to the see of Iinchester by #iolence rather than by election$0+M/3 The 4anto in the Q4hristian E&icQ in hich the 4yne ulf-(unes a&&ear, is on the near a&&roach of )o"es!ay$ This &iece closes ith a &rolonge! an! !etaile! Si"ile, such as occurs only in the later &oetry$ Life is a &erilous #oyage, but there is a hea#enly &ort an! a hea#enly &ilot'-*u is thon gelicost s a e on laguflo!e ofor cal! Fter ceolu" lithan geon! si!ne sF sun! hengestu" flo! u!u fergen$ *o it is likest to that as if on liUui! floo! o#er col! ater in keels e na#igate! through the #ast sea ith ocean-horses ferrie! the floating oo!$ ;s thFt frecne strea" ytha ofer"Fta the e her onlacath geon! thas acan orul! in!ge hol"as ofer !eo& gela!$ A frightful surge it is of a#es i""ense that here e toss u&on through this uncertain orl!-in!y Uuarters o#er a !ee& &assage$ IFs se !rohtath strong Fr thon e to lon!e

geli!en hFf!on ofer hreone hrycg-tha us hel& bic o" thFt us to hFlo hythe gelF!!e Go!es gFst sunu' ;t as !isci&line strong ere e to the lan! ha! saile! Vif at allW o@er the rough s ell-hen hel& to us ca"e, so that us into safety &ort ar!s !i! gui!e Go!@s hea#enly Son' An! us giefe seal!e thFt e oncna an "agun ofer ceoles bor! h Fr e sFlan sceolon sun! hengestas eal!e yth "earas ancru" fFste$ An! he ga#e us the gift that e "ay es&y fro" aboar! o@ the shi&, &lace here e shall bin! the stee!s of the sea, ol! a"blers of ater, ith anchors fast$ 5tan us to thFre hythe hyht stathelian tha us gery"!e ro!era al!en! halge on heahthu" the he heofnu" astag$ Let us in that &ort our confi!ence &lant, hich for us lai! o&en the Lor! of the skies, Vholy &ort in the heightsW hen he ent u& to hea#en$ The gran!est of the allegorical &ieces is that on the PhAnix$ 9f the &e!igree of the fable e ha#e alrea!y s&okenK as also of the Latin &oe" hich the Anglo-Saxon &oet follo e!$ ;t is rather an a!a&tation than a translation, an! it has a secon! &art in hich the allegory is ex&laine!$ At the close there is a &layful alternation of Latin an! Saxon half-lines, hich !oes not at all lessen the &robability that the

&oet "ay ha#e been the ingenious 4yne ulf$ :afaY us alyse! lucis auctor, EFt e "otun her "erueri, go! !F!u" begietan gau!ia in celo, EFr e "otun "axi"a regna secan, an! gesittan se!ibus altis, lifgan in lisse lucis et &acis, agan ear!inga al"a letitiF, brucan blF! !agaK-blan!e" et "ite" geseon sigora frean sine fine, an! hi" lof singan lau!e &erenne, ea!ge "i! englu" alleluia$ 5s hath a-loose! the author of light, that e "ay here orthily "erit, ith goo! !ee!s obtain !elights in the sky, here e "ay be able "agnificent real"s to seek, an! to sit in hea#enly seats, li#e in fruition of light an! of &eace, ha#e habitations ha&&y an! gla!, brook genial !ays'-gentle an! kin! see Jictory@s Prince for e#er an! e#er, an! &raise to hi" sing, &erennial &raise, ha&&y angels a"ong Alleluiam 9f the other allegorical &ieces the Ihale as !eri#e! fro" the book Physiologus, an! &robably the Panther also$ The hale is use! as a si"ilitu!e of !elusi#e security$ The story rea&&ears in the Arabian *ights, here it is the chief inci!ent in the first #oyage of Sin!ba!$

The "onster lies on the sea like an islan!, an! !elu!es the unsus&ecting "ariner$ ;s EFs hi gelic hreofu" stane, s ylce orie bi F!es ofre son! beorgu" y"bseal! sF ryrica "Fst,0+MO3 s a EFt enaE Fg liEen!e, EFt hy on ealon! su" eagu" litenK an! Eonne gehy!aE heah stefn sci&u to Ea" rnlon!e oncyr ra&u"K setlaY sF "earas sun!es Ft en!e$0+M23 ;n look it is like to a stony lan!, ith the e!!ying hirl of the a#es on the bank, ith san!hea&s surroun!e! a "ighty sea-reefK so they earily een ho ri!e on the a#e, that so"e islan! it is they see ith their eyesK an! so they !o fasten the high figure-hea!s to a lan! that no lan! is ith anchor belaye!K sea-horses they settle no farther to sail$ Ihen they ha#e lighte! their fires, an! are getting co"fortable, then all goes !o n$ This is an a&ologue of "is&lace! confi!ence in things earthly$ But the great an! absorbing subject of &oetry in this age is :agiogra&hy$ Ie still see the ol! !iscre!ite! a&ocry&hal literature in occasional use, but it retires before the "ore a&&ro#e! "e!iu" of &o&ular e!ification, the Li#es an! Hiracles of the Saints$ These offer "aterial #ery a&t for &oetical treat"ent$ E#en the :o"ilies, hen on the li#es of Saints, are often clothe! in the &oetic garb$ ;n the Exeter book there are t o of this class of &oe"sK St$ Guthlac an! St$ Juliana$ ;n St$ Juliana, a characteristic &assage is that in hich the te"&ter #isits her in the guise of an angel of light, a!#ising her to yiel! an! to sacrifice to the go!s$ At her &rayer, the fien! is

re!uce! to his o n sha&e, re"in!ing us of a fa"ous &assage in Hilton$ St$ Guthlac is !istresse! by fien!s, an! a"ong the trials to hich he is ex&ose!, one is this, that he sees in #ision the e#il life of a !isor!erly "onastery$ Ihen he has en!ure! his trials, an! he returns to his chosen retreat, the elco"e of the bir!s is #ery char"ing$ But the greatest &ieces of this sort are the t o in the Jercelli bookK the An!reas an! the Elene$ ;n the An!reas e ha#e an ancient legen! hich is no kno n only in Greek, but hich no !oubt lay before the Anglo-Saxon &oet in a Latin #ersion$ ;n this story Hatthe is i"&risone! in Hir"e!onia, an! he is encourage! by the ho&e that An!re shall co"e to his ai!$ An!re is on!erfully con#eye! to Hir"e!onia, here he arri#es at a ti"e of fa"ine, an! he fin!s the &eo&le casting lots ho shall be slain for the others@ foo!$ 9n the inter#ention of An!re the !e#il co"es on the scene an! suggests that he is the cause of their troubles$ Then follo s a long series of tortures to hich the saint is subjecte!$ Ihen his en!urance has been &ut to extre"e &roof, the or! of !eli#erance co"es to hi" an! he &uts forth "iraculous &o er$ :e calls for a floo!, an! it co"es an! s ee&s the cruel &ersecutors a ay$ But the hole en!s in a general con#ersion, an! the !ro ne! are restore! to life$ :e is escorte! to his shi& an! has a ha&&y #oyage back to Achaia like the return of any hero cro ne! ith success$ :ere e are re"in!e! of the return of Beo ulfK an! i!ely !ifferent as the t o &oe"s are, they ha#e not only &oints of si"ilarity but also a certain likeness of ty&e$ There is, ho e#er, this great !issi"ilarity, that in the An!reas the &oet sto&s to s&eak of hi"self an! of his ina!eUuate &erfor"ance, but still he ill gi#e us a little "ore$ The "ost no#el an! extraor!inary &art is the #oyage of An!re to Hir"e!onia$ The shi&-"aster is a )i#ine &erson, an! the instructi#e con#ersation hich the saint a!!resses to hi", is excee!ingly ell "anage!, for hile it #erges on the hu"orous, it is &erfectly re#erentK a strong contrast ith the free use of such situations in the later "e!iF#al !ra"a$ Another feature hich calls for notice is the sarcas" ith hich the !ro ning &eo&le are tol! there is &lenty of !rink for the" no $ The QEleneQ o&ens ith the outbreak of barbarian ar, an! 4onstantine in ca"& on the )anube, frightene! at the "ultitu!e of the :uns$ ;n a !rea" of the night he sees an angel ho sho s hi" the 4ross, an! tells hi" that ith this QbeaconQ he shall o#erco"e the foe$ ;;$ 4o"forte! by his !rea", he ha! a cross "a!e like that of the #ision, an! un!er this ensign he as #ictorious$ Then he asse"bles his ise "en to inUuire of the" ho the go! as that this sign belonge! tof *o one kne , until so"e christene! folk, ho Vaccor!ing to this &oetW ere then #ery fe , ga#e the reUuire! infor"ation$ 4onstantine is ba&tise! by Sil#ester$ ;;;$ ^ealous to reco#er the true 4ross, he sen!s his "other, Elene, ith a great eUui&"ent to Ju!ea$ ;J$ She &roclai"s an asse"bly, an! M,... co"e together, an! she reUuires of the" to choose those ho can ans er hate#er Uuestions she "ay ask$ J$ They select /.. for that &ur&ose$ Ihen they are co"e to the Uueen, she a!!resses a chi!ing s&eech to the" about their blin!ness in rejecting :i" ho ca"e accor!ing to &ro&hecyK

but she !oes not re#eal her ai"$ After ar!s, the Je s in consternation !iscuss a"ong the"sel#es hat the i"&erial la!y can "ean$ At length one Ju!as !i#ines that she ants the 4ross hich is hi!!en, an! hich it is of the greatest conseUuence to kee& fro" !isco#eryK for his gran!father ^acheus, hen a-!ying, tol! his son, the s&eaker@s father, that hene#er that 4ross as foun! the &o er of the Je s oul! en!$ J;$ The s&eaker further sai! that his father tol! hi" the history of the Sa#iour@s life, an! ho his son Ste&hen ha! belie#e! in hi" an! ha! been stone!$ The s&eaker as a boy hen his father tol! hi" this, an! see"s to ha#e thus learnt about his brother Ste&hen for the first ti"e$0+M73 J;;$ Ihen they are su""one! into the i"&erial &resence they all &rofess to kno nothing about the subject of her inUuiry, they ha! ne#er hear! of such a thing beforem She threatens$ Then they select Ju!as as a ise "an ho kno s "ore than the rest, an! they lea#e hi" as a hostage$ J;;;$ The Uueen ill kno here the (oo! is$ Ju!as &lea!s that it all ha&&ene! so long ago that he kno s nothing about it$ She says it as not so long ago as the Trojan ar, an! yet &eo&le kno about that$ Ihen he &ersists, she or!ers hi" to be i"&risone! an! ke&t ithout foo!$ :e en!ures for six !ays, but on the se#enth he yiel!s$ ;=$ (elease! fro" &rison he lea!s the ay to 4al#ary$ :e utters a fer#ent su&&lication in :ebre , in hich he &lea!s that :e ho in the fa"ous ti"es of ol! re#eale! to Hoses the bones of Jose&h oul! "ake kno n by a sign the &lace of the (oo!, #o ing to belie#e in 4hrist if his &rayer is grante!$ =$ A stea" rises fro" the groun!$ There they !ig, an! at a !e&th of t enty feet three crosses are foun!$ Ihich is the holy (oo!f A !ea! "an is carrie! byK Ju!as brings the cor&se in contact ith the crosses one after another, an! the touch of the thir! restores life$ =;$ Satan la"ents that he has suffere! a ne !efeat, hich is all the har!er as the agent is QJu!as,Q a na"e so frien!ly to hi" beforem :e threatens a &ersecuting king ho shall "ake the ne ly-con#erte! "an renounce his faith$ Ju!as returns a s&irite! ans er, an! :elena rejoices to hear the ne con#ert rise su&erior to the Iicke! one$ =;;$ The re&ort s&rea!s, to the joy of 4hristians an! the confusion of the Je s$ The Uueen sen!s an e"bassy to the e"&eror at (o"e ith the ha&&y ti!ings$ The greatest curiosity as !is&laye! in the cities on their roa!$ 4onstantine, in his exaltation, sent the" Uuickly back to :elena ith instructions to buil! a church in their unite! na"es on the sacre! s&ot of the !isco#ery$ The Uueen gathere! fro" e#ery si!e the "ost highly-skille! buil!ers for the churchK an! she cause! the holy (oo! to be stu!!e! ith gol! an! je els, an! then fir"ly secure! in a chest of sil#er'-Tha seo c en bebeh! crFftu" getD!e sun!or dsecean tha selestan tha the rFtlicost yrcan cuthon stdn-gefcgu" on tha" ste!e- ange gir an Go!es te"&el s a hire gasta ear! reqr! of ro!eru" $

:eo tha rc!e heht gol!e be eorcean an! gi"cynnu" "i! tha" Fthelestu" eorcnanstdnu" besettan searocrFftu"K an! tha in seolfren fFt locu" belscan $ ThFr thFt lifes treq sglest sigebeh"a siththan uno!e Fthelu anbroce $ Then the Uueen ba!e of crafts"en !eft at large to seek the skilfullest, the "ost curious an! cunning to ork structures of stoneK-u&on that chosen site Go!@s te"&le to grace as the Guar!er of souls ga#e her re!e fro" on high$ She the (oo! hight ith gol! to inlay an! the glory of ge"s, ith the "ost &riSe! of &recious stones to set ith high artK-an! in a sil#er chest secure enlock'-so there the Tree of life !earest of tro&hies thencefor ar! ! eltK fabric of honour$ =;;;$ :elena sen!s for Eusebius, Qbisho& of (o"e,Q an! he, at her bi!!ing, "akes Ju!as bisho& in Jerusale", an! changes his na"e to 4yriacus$ Then she inUuires after the nails of the crucifixion, an!, at the &rayer of 4yriacus, their hi!ing-&lace is re#eale!$ Ihen the nails ere brought to the Uueen she e&t alou!, an! the fountain of her tears flo e! o#er her cheeks an! !o n u&on the je els of her a&&arel$ =;J$ She seeks gui!ance by oracle as to the !is&osal of the nails$ She is !irecte! to "ake of the" rings for the bri!le of the chief of earthly kings$ :e ho ri!es to ar ith such a bri!le shoul! be in#incibleK an! a &ro&hecy to that effect is Uuote!m :elena obeys, an! sen!s the bri!le o#er sea to 4onstantine,--Qno conte"&tible giftmQ :elena asse"bles the chief "en of the Je s, bi!s the" sub"it to 4yriacus, an! kee& u& the anni#ersary of the 6in!ing of the 4ross$ 6inally, for those ho kee& the !ay is &roclai"e! a bene!iction so un"easure! an! &rofuse as to lea#e behin! it an air in hich the sole"n e#a&orates in the histrionic$

:ere "ore than in any other &iece of Anglo-Saxon &oetry e feel near the "e!iF#al !ra"a$ Al"ost e#ery canto is like a sceneK an! little a!a&tation oul! be reUuire! to &ut it u&on the stage$ The narrati#e at the beginning is like a &rologue, an! then after the close of the &iece e ha#e an e&ilogue, in hich the author s&eaks about hi"self, an! ea#es his na"e ith (unes into the #erses in the "anner alrea!y !escribe!$ The briefest frag"ent in the Jercelli book is about 6alse 6rien!shi&K an! it contains a long-!ra n si"ile in hich the bee is rather har!ly treate!$ Anlice beoY s a Ea beon beraY buton Ftso"neK arlicne anleofan an! Ftterne tFgel habbaY on hin!anK hunig on "uYe ynsu"e ist' h ilu" un!iaY sare "i! s ice Eonne se sFl cy"eY$ S a beoY gelice Ea leasan "en, Ea Ee "i! tungan treo a gehataY fFgeru" or!u", facenlice EencaYK Eonne hie Ft nehstan near e bes icaY' habbaY on gehatu" hunig s"Fccas, s"eYne sib c i!eK an! in siofan innan Eurh !eofles crFft !yrne un!e$ Likene! they are to the bees ho bear both at one ti"e, foo! for a king@s table, an! #eno"ous tail ha#e in reser#eK honey in "outh, !electable foo!' in !ue ti"e they oun! sorely an! slyly hen the season is co"e$ Such are they like, the leasing "en,

those ho ith tongue gi#e assurance of troth ith fair-s&oken or!s, false in their thoughtK then !o they at length shre !ly betray' in &rofession they ha#e the &erfu"e of honey, s"ooth gossi& so s eetK an! in their souls &ur&ose, ith !e#ilish craft, a stab in the !ark$ The Q(unic Poe"Q0+M,3 is a string of e&igra"s on the characters of the (unic al&habet, beginning ith 6, 5, t, 9, (, 4, accor!ing to that &ri"iti#e or!er, hence that al&habet as calle! the Q6uthorc$Q Each of these characters has a na"e ith a "eaning, "ostly of so"e ell-kno n fa"iliar thing, a&t subject for e&igra"$ Ihen learne! "en began to look at the (unes ith an eye of eru!ite curiosity, they often range! the" in the A, B, 4 or!er of the (o"an al&habetK hence it gi#es the (une &oe" so"e air of antiUuity that it runs in the ol! 6uthorc or!er$ An!, in!ee!, so"e of the #ersicles "ay &erha&s be ancientK that is, they "ay &ossibly !ate fro" a ti"e hen (unes ere still in &ractical use$ But certainly "uch of this cha&let of #ersicles "ust be regar!e! as late an! !ilettante ork$ The (une na"es are not all clearly authenticK for exa"&le, QEohQ is rather !ubiousK but the &oet treats the na"e as "eaning %e , an! gi#es us an interesting little e&igra" on the %e -tree'-E9: bith utan uns"ethe treo hear! hrusan fFst hyr!e fyres yrtru"u" un!er rethe! ynan on Fthle$ %EI is out ar!ly un&olishe! treeK har! an! groun!-fast, guar!ian of fireK ith roots un!er attle! the ho"e of the Iant$0+L.3 The (i!!les are "ostly after Si"&hosius an! Al!hel"K0+L+3 but so"e are aboriginal$ The for" is "ostly that of the e&igra", only instea! of ha#ing the na"e of the subject at the hea! of the &iece as ith e&igra"s, these little &oe"s en! ith a Uuestion hat the subject is$ These (i!!les are foun! in the Exeter book in three batchesK Grein has !ra n the" all together, an! "a!e eighty-nine of the"$ That on the Book-Hoth, of hich the Latin has been gi#en abo#e, &$ 77, is unri!!le! by the translator'--

HoYYe or! fiFtK "e EFt Euhte rFtlicu yr! Ea ic EFt un!or gefrFgnK EFt se yr" fors ealg era gie! su"es Eeof in Eystro Ery"fFstne c i!e an! EFs strangan staYol$ StFlgiest ne Fs ihte Ey glea ra Ee he Ea" or!u" s ealg$ Hoth or!s !e#oure!K to "e it see"e! a eir! e#ent hen ; the on!er learntK that the or" s allo e! sentence of "an Vthief in the !arkW !ocu"ent sure, bin!ing an! all$ The burglar as ne#er a hit the "ore ise for the or!s he ha! gul&e!$ To ar! the en! of the &erio!, the &oetic for" beco"es "uch !ilute!$ The &oetic !iction anes, so !oes the figure! style an! the &arallel structureK an! hat re"ains is an alliterati#e rhyth"ical &rose, hich, fro" the nature of the subjects treate!, a&&ears to ha#e been #ery taking for the ear of the &eo&le$ 9f this sort is the Lay of <ing Abgar, hich Professor Ste&hens assigns to the reign of 4nut$ The Abgar legen! is in Eusebius V!ie! ML.W Q:istory,Q i$ +M$ Abgar, king of E!essa, being sick, rote a letter to the Sa#iour Vit being the ti"e of :is earthly "inistryW &raying hi" to co"e an! heal hi", an! a!!ing, that if, as he hears, the Je s seek to &ersecute :i", his city of E!essa, though a little one, is stately, an! sufficient for both$ $$$ an! ic ol!e the bi!!an thFt thu ge"e!e"ige the sylfne thFt thu siYige to "e an! "ine untru"nysse gehFle for than the ic eo" yfele gahFf!$ He is eac gesF! thFt tha Ju!eiscan syr iath an! runiath hi" bet ynan hu hi the berF!an "agon, an! ic hFbbe ane burh, the unc ba" genihtsu"ath$ $$$ an! ; oul! thee &ray,

that thou con!escen! to co"e unto "e, an! "y infir"ity cure, for ; a" in e#il case$ To "e is eke sai! that the Je s are &lotting an! ro ning together ho they "ay !estroy theeK an! ; ha#e a burgh large enough for us both$0+L-3 The i"&ression hich this secon!ary &oetry lea#es is, that the ol! ancestral for" coul! no longer furnish an a!eUuate &oetry for the gro ing "in! of the nation$ ;n contrast ith the ex&an!ing &rose, it see"s to shrink an! fa!e before our eyes$ ;ts only "eans of enlarge"ent see"s to be in forgetting its o n tra!itions an! assi"ilating itself to the &rose$ Horeo#er, e ha#e traces of #arious tentati#e salliesK one &oet trying rhy"es,0+LM3 another trying hexa"eters,0+LL3 hich re"in!s us of the efforts an! essays of the unsatisfie! &oetic genius in the "i!!le of the sixteenth century$ The Bene!ictine re#i#al ha! !ra n off the interest fro" the ol! nati#e the"es of song to subjects less fitte! for &oetry, or ith hich the &oetry of the ti"e as not yet skille! to !eal$ The ol! &oetry fitte! the ol! heroic the"es ith hich it ha! gro n u&K an! no it thro#e better on a&ocry&hal an! legen!ary fables than on the #erities of the faith hich ere rather beyon! its strength$ ;n the ne Seal the ol! #ein of &oetry as lost or neglecte!, an! its &lace as not yet a&&ro&riately fille!$ 6or this ant a &ro#ision as alrea!y "aking in the south$ A fresh s&irit of &oetry ha! risen in the region here (o"an an! Arabic fancy "et, an!, after kin!ling 6rance, as co"ing to Englan! on the ings of the 6rench language$ Iith the ne ro"ances ca"e ne "o!els of &oetic for"$ A long struggle ensue! bet een the nati#e garb of English &oetry an! that of the 6rench$ Both li#e! together until the fourteenth century, hen the #ictory of the 6rench for" as finally !eter"ine! in 4haucerK an! 6rance set the fashion in &oetry to Englan!, as it !i! generally to "o!ern Euro&e$ 699T*9TES' 0+M+3 ;n Iright@s QBiogra&hia Literaria,Q Anglo-Saxon Perio!, &$ /.-, TseU$T, these three (unic &assages are collecte! an! translate!$ ;n Bos orth@s QAnglo-Saxon )ictionary,Q e!$ Toller, #$ 4yne ulfK the (unic &assage is Uuote! fro" the Elene, an! translate!$ This &oet@s (unic !e#ice affects us so"e hat as hen, at the en! of a #olu"e of 4oleri!ge@s &oe"s, e co"e u&on his e&ita&h, ritten by hi"self'-QSto&, 4hristian &asser-bym--Sto&, chil! of Go!m An! rea! ith gentle breast$ Beneath this so! A &oet lies, or that hich once see"@! he-9h, lift one thought in &rayer for S$T$4$mQ

0+M-3 ;n :au&t@s Q^eitschrift,Q ix$ 0+MM3 Ie ha#e alrea!y seen in the cha&ter on the Iest Saxon la s, that a book"aker of the Saxon &erio! a&&en!e! the la s of ;ne to the la s of Alfre!, as if he foun! it natural to treat the ol! "aterial as an a&&en!ix to the ne $--But there is also so"ething on the other si!e$ ;n the after &art of the Exeter book there are three batches of ri!!les, an! the first ri!!le of the first series VThor&e, &$ M7.W, is a chara!e u&on the na"e of 4yne ulf, as as sho n by :einrich Leo$ This has naturally le! to the sur"ise that 4yne ulf has ha! "ore to !o ith the ri!!les than si"&ly to &reface the" in his o n honour$ 0+ML3 Thus'--Qofer ealne yr"enne grun!$Q Juliana Tinit$TK an! in the sa"e &oe" e fin! Qbeal!orQ use! of a o"anm 0+M/3 All this is "arre! by Iillia" of Hal"esbury, ho re&resents hi" as ha#ing trafficke! for this &ro"otion, an! as ha#ing been cut off before he ha! long enjoye! it$ An! yet the t o &ictures are not inco"&atible$ The &oetry sets before us a &oet of the "ost s&len!i! gifts, but ; kno nothing that in!icates a su&eriority of character$ ;n!ee!, the co"&arison ith Solo"on suggests a "oral ty&e to hich the kno n an! su&&ose! ritings of 4yne ulf a&tly corres&on!$ 0+MO3 Q)orsu" i""ane "ari su""o$Q Rnei! i$ 0+M23 Hilton has set this to his o n !ee& "usic'-Q:i" ha&ly slu"b@ring on the *or ay foa", The &ilot of so"e s"all night-foun!er@! skiff )ee"ing so"e islan!, oft, as sea"an tell, Iith fixe! anchor$$$$Q 0+M73 The rea!er ill not stu"ble at a fe historical inaccuracies in a narrati#e here a s&eaker in :elena@s ti"e is a brother of the &roto"artyr$ 0+M,3 <e"ble, Q(unes of the Anglo-Saxons,Q &&$ +M-+,$ Grein, #ol$ ii$, &$ M/+K an! literary notice at &$ L+M$ 0+L.3 ;t "ay not be kno n to all rea!ers, that this is an English or!K an! historically, &erha&s, the best English na"e, for the "ole Vtal&aW$ Along the Elbe it a&&ears in a for" nearer to that of the text' QIin or& o!er Iin!- or&, T!er Haul urfT$Q Bre"isch-*ie!ersachsisches Iprterbuch$ 0+L+3 See Prof$ )ietrich in :au&t@s Q^eitschrift,Q xi$ 0+L-3 Prof$ Ste&hens, QT#en!e 9l!e-Engelske )igte,Q <iobenha#n, +7/M$ 0+LM3 QThe (i"ing Poe",Q 4o!$ Exon$ e!$ Thor&e, &$ M/-$ 0+LL3 Stubbs, QSt$ )unstan,Q Preface$

4:APTE( =;;$ T:E *9(HA* 49*N5EST A*) A6TE( T:AT$ The first of these cha&ters took a brief sur#ey of the literature that &rece!e! an! ele#ate! the Anglo-Saxon literature' this conclu!ing cha&ter "ust be still briefer in sketching the "anner of its !ecline$ ;t oul! be true to say that the *or"an 4onUuest !ealt a fatal blo to Anglo-Saxon literatureK but it oul! also be true to say that the culti#ation of Anglo-Saxon literature ne#er ca"e to an en! at all$ ; ill &resently en!ea#our to reconcile this see"ing contra!ictionK but first ; ha#e so"e little re"ain!er to tell of the "ain narrati#e$ There are t o s"all sets of ritings hich ha#e not yet been !escribe!$ These are the liturgical an! scientific re"ains$ 9f liturgical, e ha#e the QBene!ictionale of RYel ol!,Q0+L/3 an! e ha#e the so-calle! Q(itual of )urha",Q ith its interlinear *orthu"brian gloss$ But the "ost fa"ous book of this kin! is that hich is calle! QThe Leofric Hissal,Q because Leofric, the first Bisho& of Exeter Vof 4re!iton, +.LO-+./.K of Exeter, +./.-+.2-W ga#e it to his cathe!ral$ ;t is no in the Bo!leian Library$ Q;t is one of the only three sur#i#ing Hissals kno n to ha#e been use! in the English 4hurch !uring the Anglo-Saxon &erio!,Q the other t o being the Hissal of (obert of Ju"ilges, Archbisho& of 4anterbury, no in (ouen Library, an! the Q(e!e Boke of )arbye,Q in the Parker Library at 4a"bri!ge$0+LO3 ;t "ay see" al"ost i!le to talk of the QscientificQ re"ains of Anglo-Saxon ti"es$ 6or Science, in its gran!est sense,--the recognition of constant or!er in nature an! the reign of la ,--ha! not yet !a ne! u&on the orl!$ Science, in this sense, !ates only fro" the se#enteenth century, an! its &atriarchal na"es are 4o&ernicus, Galileo, an! <e&ler$ But, ne#ertheless, the earlier an! feebler efforts at the ex&lanation of &heno"ena ha#e a real an! a lasting #alue for hu"an history, an! hat they lack in scientific Uuality has so"eho the effect of thro ing the" all the "ore into the ar"s of the literary historian$ There is, ho e#er, one s"all Anglo-Saxon riting hich nee!s not this a&ology, an! hich "ay be consi!ere! as a real contribution e#en to science$ ; "ean the Geogra&hy hich <ing Alfre! inserte! into his translation of 9rosius$ All our other scientific relics are but co"&ilation an! translation in the &ri"iti#e &aths of He!icine, an! Botany, an! Astrono"y$ Ie ha#e so"e consi!erable lists of Anglo-Saxon Botany$ The #ernacular na"es of &lants, "any of the", see" to in!icate a Latin tra!ition !ating fro" (o"an ti"es$0+L23 ;n the "e!ical treatises e see the &ractice of "e!icine greatly "ingle! ith su&erstition$ Iitchcraft is reckone! a"ong

the causes of !isease, an! for"ulF are &ro#i!e! for breaking the s&ell$ The QLeech BookQ contains a series of &rescri&tions for !i#ers ail"ents, ith !irections for &re&aration an! "e!ical treat"ent$ 9ne batch of these &rescri&tions is sai! to ha#e been sent to <ing Alfre! by Elias, Patriarch of Jerusale"$ A #ery &o&ular book as the :erbariu" of A&uleius$ ;t as translate! into Anglo-Saxon, an! four "anuscri&ts of this translation are still extant$0+L73 9n astrono"ical an! cos"ical "atters there exists a ell- ritten little treatise of unkno n authorshi&$ ;t has been attribute! to Rlfric, an! it is "ost likely a ork of his ti"e$ ;t see"s to ha#e been #ery &o&ular$0+L,3 ;t is, as it &rofesses to be in the &rologue, a &o&ular abri!g"ent of Be!a, Q)e *atura (eru"$Q ;t begins ith a succinct abstract of the creation, the sixth !ay being thus ren!ere!'-9n Ya" syxtan !Fge he gesco& eall !eor cynn, ealle nytena Ee on feo er fotu" gaY, Ea t egen "enn A!a" Efan$ 9n the sixth !ay he create! all ani"al-kin!, an! all the beasts that go on four feet, an! the t o "en A!a" an! E#e$ The ecli&se of the "oon is ell ex&laine!$ After saying that *ight is the sha!e of the earth hen the sun goes !o n un!er it, before it co"es u& the other si!e,-Iorul!lice uY itan sF!on, ?EFtG seo scea!u astihY u& oY YFt heo becy"Y to EFre lyfte ufe ear!an, an! Eonne be yrnY se "ona h ilti!u" Eonne he full byY on YFre scea!e ufe ear!re, an! faggeteY oYYe "i! ealle as eartaY, for Ea" Ee he nFfY EFre sunnan leoht Ea h ile Ee he EFre scea!e or! ofer yrnY oY YFt EFre sunnan leo"an hine eft onlihton$ Iorl!ly &hiloso&hers sai!, that the sha!o "ounts u& until it arri#es at the to& of the at"os&here, an! then so"eti"es the "oon hen he is full runs into the u&&er &art of the sha!o , an! is !arkene! or utterly blackene!, foras"uch as he hath not the sun@s light so long as he tra#erses the sha!o @s &oint until that the sun@s rays again enlighten hi"$ The *or"an 4onUuest ga#e the !eath-blo to our ol! nati#e literature, in the sense that the use of the literary Anglo-Saxon in its first integrity, as at once a learne! language an! a s&oken language, !i! not exten! beyon! the generation that itnesse! that great !ynastic change$ ;n this strict sense e "ight &oint to the close of the Iorcester 4hronicle in +.2, as the ter"ination of Anglo-Saxon literature$ There is, in!ee!, a Saxon 4hronicle that as e#en begun after that !ate, one hich co"&rises the hole Saxon &erio!, an! as continue! by original riters !o n to ++/L, but it is not ritten in nor"al Anglo-Saxon$ ;t re&resents the flectional !ecay hich the li#ing an! &o&ular English as un!ergoing$

;t exhibits, also, so"ething of that ne gro th hich as to co"&ensate for the loss of flection$ An! it alrea!y bears "arks of that 6rench influence hich as so largely to affect the hole co"&lexion of the language$ ; Uuote fro" the last Annal in the Saxon 4hronicle of Peterborough'-++/L$ 9n Eis gFr Fr! Ee <ing Ste&han !e! an! bebyrie! Eer his if an! his sune Fron bebyrie! Ft 6aures fel!, Eet "instre hi "ake!en $ ta Ee <ing as !e!, Ea as Ee eorl beion!e sF $ an! ne !urste nan "an !on oEer bute go! for Ee "icel eie of hi" $ ta he to Engle lan! co" $ Ea as he un!er fangen "i! "icel urtsci&e $ an! to king bletcF! in Lun!ene on Ee Sunnen !Fi be foren "i! inter !Fi $ an! hel! EFr "icel curt$ ;n this year as <ing Ste&hen !ea! an! burie! here his ife an! his son ere burie! at 6e#ersha", the "inster he "a!e$ Ihen the <ing as !ea!, then as the earl beyon! sea, an! no "an !urst !o other than goo! for the great a e of hi"$ Ihen he ca"e to Englan!, then as he recei#e! ith great orshi&, an! consecrate! king in Lon!on on the Sun!ay before 4hrist"as )ayK an! he hel! there a great court$ :ere, then, at the #ery latest, e "ust close the canon of Anglo-Saxon literature$ An! here our subject branches in t oK e ha#e to follo ith a brief glance hat ha&&ene! in t o !i#ergent lines of succession$ As hen, in the early "ountainous course of so"e gro ing ri#er, a broken hill has fallen across its be!, the ol! ater- ay is choke!, an! the !escen!ing aters "ake ne channels to the right an! to the leftK so it as ith the fortunes of our nati#e language an! literature after the *or"an 4onUuest$ The strea" of largest #olu"e as the s&ontaneous an! &o&ular utterance hich a"use! in hall an! taught in churchK the lesser strea" as the artificial "aintenance of Anglo-Saxon literature hich ent on in the ol! seats of religion an! learning$ The *or"an 4onUuest brought in a #ast bo!y of ro"antic literature$ :eroic or entertaining tales in a balla! for" ere at that ti"e highly &o&ularK an! a &eculiar talent for this sort of narrati#e as !e#elo&e! in 6rance an! a"ong the *or"ans$ The ol!est 6rench ro"ances ere those of hich the central figure as 4harles the Great$ ;t as one of these, the QSong of (olan!,Q that ani"ate! the conUuering *or"ans at Senlac$ Accor!ing to high authorities, it as in the next generation after the 4onUuest that the Q4hanson !e (olan!Q took that final e&ic for" hich no it bears, an! &robably the &oet@s ho"e as in Englan!$0+/.3 6or a long ti"e the s&eech of the u&&er society as holly 6rench$ The t o languages Uuickly "et one another in the "arket, an! in all the necessary business of lifeK but in res&ect of literature they long stoo! a&art$ Such as the state of things in this islan! !uring the ti"e in hich the 4arling cycle &re#aile!$ Iith that cycle the English language ne#er ca"e into contact at all in its &al"y !aysK an! the fe 4arling &oe"s that exist in English are of later !ate, an! are of a "ixe! nature$ Ihen at length, to ar!s the close of the t elfth century, a

literary intercourse ha! s&rung u& bet een the t o languages, the hero of &o&ular song as no longer 4harles, but Arthur$ ;n the English &oetry of Laya"on V+-./W, foun!e! u&on the 6rench of (obert Iace, e see the story of Arthur in that early stage here it still &ur&orts to be history rather than ro"ance$ Laya"on re&resents the first great ste& fro" the ol! literature to the ne K an! he is the first to gi#e an English ho"e to that i!eal king ho as to be the chosen the"e of S&enser an! of Tennyson$ Ie ill Uuote the !eath of Arthur an! his funeral cortlge'-T:E PASS;*G 96 A(T:5($ Line -7,/7-$ Tha nas ther na "are, i than fehte to laue, of t a hun!re! thusen! "onnen, tha ther leien to-ha enK buten Arthur the king one, an! of his cnihtes t eien$ Arthur es for un!e! un!erliche s ithe$ Ther to hi" co" a cnaue, the es of his cunneK he es 4a!ores sune, the eorles of 4orn aile$ 4onstantin hehte the cnaueK he es than kinge !eore$ Arthur hi" loke!e on, ther he lai on fol!en, an! thas or! sei!e, "i! sorhfulle heorte$ 4onstantin thu art ilcu"e, thu eore 4a!ores sune' ich the bitache here, "ine kineriche' an! ite "ine Bruttes, a to thines lifes' an! hal! heo" alle tha laen, tha habbeoth iston!en a "ine !aen' an! alle tha laen go!e, tha bi Jtheres !aen sto!e$ An! ich ulle uaren to Aualun, to uairest alre "ai!eneK to Argante there Uuene, aluen s ithe sceone' an! heo scal "ine un!en, "aiken all isun!e, al hal "e "akien, "i! hale eie !renchen$ An! seothe ich cu"en ulle

to "ine kineriche' an! unien "i! Brutten, "i! "uchelere unne$ Then as there no "ore in that fight left ali#e, out of -..,... "en, that there lay cut to &iecesK but Arthur the <ing only an! t o of his knights$ Arthur as oun!e! !angerously "uch$ There to hi" ca"e a youth ho as of his kinK he as son of 4a!or, the earl of 4orn all$ 4onstantine hight the youthK to the king he as !ear$ Arthur looke! u&on hi", here he lay on the groun!, an! these or!s sai!, ith sorro ful heart$ 4onstantine thou art elco"e thou ert 4a!or@s son' ; here co""it to thee, "y king!o"K an! gui!e thou "y Britons aye to thy life@s costK an! assure the" all the la s, that ha#e stoo! in "y !ays' an! all the la s so goo!, that by 5ther@s !ays stoo!$ An! ; ill fare to A#alon, to the fairest of all "ai!ensK to Argante the Uueen, elf excee!ing sheen' an! she shall "y oun!s, "ake all soun!K all hole "e "ake, ith healing !rinks$ An! sith return ; ill, to "y king!o"' an! ! ell ith Britons, ith "ickle joy$ Rfne than or!en, ther co" of se en!en, that es an sceort bat lithen, sceouen "i! #then' an! t a i""en therinne, un!erliche i!ihte' an! heo no"en Arthur anan,

an! aneouste hine uere!en, an! softe hine a!un lei!en, an! forth gunnen hine lithen$ E#en ith these or!s, lo ca"e fro" sea en!ing, that as a short boat "o#ing, !ri#ing ith the a#es' an! t o o"en therein, of "ar#ellous as&ect' an! they took Arthur anon, an! straight hi" bore a ay an! softly !o n hi" lai!, an! forth ith hi" to sea they gan to "o#e a ay$ Tha es hit i urthen, that Herlin sei!e hilenK that eore uni"ete care, of Arthures forth-fare$ Then as it co"e to &ass hat Herlin sai! hilo"eK that there shoul! be "uch curious care, hen Arthur out of life shoul! fare$ Bruttes ileueth ete, that he beo on liue, an! unnie in Aualun, "i! fairest alre aluen' an! lokieth euere Bruttes ete, han Arthur cu"e lithen$ Britons belie#e yet, that he be ali#e, an! ! elling in A#alon ith the fairest of all el#es' still look the Britons for the !ay of Arthur@s co"ing o@er the sea$ ;n this &oetry there is a ne #ein of &o&ularity$ Since e left the &ri"ary &oetry e ha#e been on the track of a literature hose s&ring as in book-learning$ A foreign eru!ition ha! thro n the lore of the nati#e "instrel into the sha!e$ But so"e relics of !o"estic "aterial rea&&ear ith the ne gush of &o&ular song in the +Mth century$ A"ong the "ass of stories hich fill that ti"e, e fin! here an! there an ol! English tale, an! so"eti"es it is a translation back fro" the 6rench$ The ro"ance of <ing :orn is one of these$ The na"es of the &ersonages, an! the general course of the &lot--the Saracens not ithstan!ing--are essentially Saxon$ There are lines hich are al"ost &ure Saxon &oetry, an! there are inci!ents that recall the Beo ulf$ The story is as follo s'--:orn as the son of the <ing of Su!!eneK he

as of "atchless beauty, an! he ha! t el#e co"&anions, a"ong ho" t o ere s&ecially !ear to hi"K they ere Athulf an! 6ikenil!, the best an! the orst$ The lan! as conUuere! by Saracens, ho sle the king, but sent off :orn an! his t el#e in a shi& to &erish at sea$ They ca"e to a lan! here the king as Ayl"ar, ho thus a!!resse! the"'-Ihannes beo e, faire gu"es, That her to lon!e beoth icu"e, Alle throttene 9f bo!ie s ithe kene$ QIhence be ye, fair gentle"en, that here to lan! are co"ef All thirteen of bo!y #ery keen$ By hi" that "a!e "e, so fair a ban! sa ; at no ti"eK say hat ye seekfQ :orn tells his story, an! Ayl"ar likes hi", an! bi!s Athelbrus, his ste ar!, teach hi" oo!craft, an! the har& an! song, an! also to car#e an! be cu&bearer'-Bifore "e to ker#e An! of the cu&e ser#e$ The Princess (y"enhil! falls in lo#e ith :orn, an! this is an occasion to &ro#e the loyalty of Athulf$ She or!ers Athelbrus to sen! :orn to herK but he, fearing the conseUuences, an! being s&ecially res&onsible for :orn, sen!s Athulf instea!$ Athulf fin!s that the &rincess has been !ecei#e!, an! !eclares at once that he is not :orn$ Ihen at length :orn !oes "eet (y"enhil!, he &oints out to her the ineUuality of his rank$ She gets her father to knight hi"$ She also gi#es hi" a ring, in hich the stones are of such #irtue that if he looks on the" an! thinks of her he nee! fear no oun!s'-The stones beoth of suche grace That thu ne schalt in none &lace 9f none !untes beon of !ra!$ :e ri!es forth in search of a!#entures to &ro#e his knighthoo!$ :e falls in ith a cre of Saracens, slays +.. of the", an! brings the hea! of the "aster Saracen on the &oint of his s or! to the king, here he sits in hall a"ong his knights, an! &resents it in ackno le!g"ent of his !ubbing Vco"&are &$ +M. abo#eW$ 6ikenil! tells Ayl"ar of :orn@s lo#e for his !aughter, an! Ayl"ar banishes :orn$ )e&arting, he &ro"ises (y"enhil! to return in se#en years or she shall be free to "arry another$ :e lea#es the faithful Athulf behin! to look after (y"enhil!$ :e arri#es at the court of <ing Thurston, an! there he calls hi"self 4utber!$ The lan! is infeste! by &agan in#a!ers$ 4utber! slays a giant an! "any of the Saracens ho ere ith hi"$ Thurston offers hi" his !aughter an! the king!o" ith her$ 4utber! tells the king that it "ust not be so, but that he ill clai" his re ar! hen he has relie#e! the king of all his troubles, hich ill be at se#en years@ en! Vco"&are &$ +M+ abo#eW$ Hean hile, (y"enhil! is sought in "arriage by <ing Ho!i, an! the !ay is

fixe!$ ;n her !istress she sen!s in all !irections to seek :ornK her "essenger fin!s :orn an! !eli#ers his "essage, but he ne#er returns to the &rincess, because he is !ro ne!$ *o :orn tells <ing Thurston his story, an! entreats his hel&$ :e a!!s that he ill &ro#i!e a orthy husban! for his !aughter, na"ely, Athulf, one of the best an! truest of knights$ Thurston asse"bles his "en an! they go ith :orn$ :orn lea#es the" un!er the oo! hile he goes to ar!s the &alace$ :e "eets a &al"er an! changes clothes ith hi"$ ;n the &alace he takes his &lace ith the beggars, an! hen (y"enhil! rises to offer ine to the guests he gets s&eech of her an! lets her see the ring she ha! gi#en hi"$ This lea!s to a full recognition an! the betrothal of :orn ith (y"enhil!$ Such is the tale of <ing :orn$ But, of all the ol! nati#e stories that cro& u& in this later ti"e, the "ost re"arkable is the QLay of :a#elok the )ane,Q a large subject hich e can only just in!icate here$0+/+3 9f the learne! branches a goo! !eal continue! unbroken by the 4onUuest$ Such as "ostly the case ith :o"ilies an! Li#es of saints, an! Poetry of the allegorical an! instructi#e kin!$ ;n the Exeter Song-book e sa &ieces that ha! been taken fro" the ol! book QPhysiologus$Q This allegorical &oetry retaine! its &lace through all the changes$0+/-3 :ere is a &assage fro" the QIhale,Q in the language of the thirteenth century'-Iiles that e!er is so ille, the si&es that arn on se for!ri#en Vloth he" is !eth, an! lef to li#enW biloken he" an! sen this fisK an eilon! he enen it is$ Thereof he aren s ithe fagen, an! "i! here "igt tharto he !ragen, si&es onfesten, an! alle u& gangen$ 9f ston "i! stel in the tun!er el to brennen one this un!er, ar"en he" el an! heten an! !rinkenK the fir he feleth an! !oth he" sinken, for sone he !i#eth !un to grun!e, he !re&eth he" alle ithuten un!e$ These exa"&les "ay suffice to re&resent that ne literature hich began to rise after the #iolent re"o#al of the ol!$ They !o not belong to the history of Anglo-Saxon literature exce&t in!irectly as a foil an! a contrast$ They sho ho rea!y ere ne for"s to take the &lace of the ol!$ But hile the English language as thus follo ing the natural an! s&ontaneous course of its !e#elo&"ent, there still sur#i#e! a &o erful interest in the ol! classical Englisc$ The seat of this literature as in the ol! "onasteries, hich beca"e stronghol!s of ancient culture an! tra!ition$ The ol! books ere &eruse! an! re-co&ie!, an! a scholarly kno le!ge of the ol! language as "a!e an object of stu!y$ This as

sustaine! not only by senti"ent, an! curiosity, an! literary taste, but also by a sense of cor&orate interest$ The titles of the ol! "onasteries to their lan!s ere holly or #ery largely containe! in Saxon ritings, an! these gre in i"&ortance ith the gro ing habits of !ocu"entary legality un!er *or"an rule$ A language hich as at once nati#e an! recon!ite, far "ore recon!ite than the Latin of the or!inary scholar, coul! not but be i"&ressi#e as a !ocu"entary "e!iu"$ The nu"ber of extant Saxon books an! !ee!s hich ere either originally co"&ose! after the 4onUuest, or at least re-co&ie! an! re-e!ite!, is Uuite enough to &re&are us to recei#e hat Hatthe Parker sai! in the Latin &reface to his e!ition V+/2LW of QAsserQ'-Q6urther"oreK inas"uch as the "e!iu" of "any legal !ocu"ents an! #enerable "e"orials an! royal charters &reser#e! in archi#es, !ating, so"e before, so"e after, the co"ing of the *or"ans into Englan!, is Saxon both in language an! in riting, ; ill a!#ise all ho stu!y the institutions of this real", to un!ergo the slight an! insignificant labour hich is necessary to "ake the"sel#es "asters of this language$ ;f they ill but !o this, they ill !oubtless "ake !isco#eries !aily, an! ill bring to light things hich no lie hi!!en an! re"oteK yea, they ill ithout effort clear u& the intricacies an! &er&lexities of a great nu"ber of things$ An! in ages &ast there ere societies of religious &ersons ho ere or!ere! by our forefathers for this ork, that so"e a"ong the" "ight be traine! in the kno le!ge of this tongue, an! "ight trans"it the sa"e in succession to those ho ca"e after$ To it, in Ta#istock Abbey, in the county of )e#on, an! in "any other fraternities V ithin "y "e"oryW this as an establishe! thingK to the en!, as ; su&&ose, that acUuaintance ith a literature hose language is antiUuate! "ight not &erish for lack of use$Q Thus e see that in the centuries bet een the 4onUuest an! the (efor"ation the ol! E*GL;S4 as a recognise! subject of stu!yK an! that it enjoye!, as the Latin !i!, the honours of an ancient language hich as too "uch estee"e! to be allo e! to &erish$ An!, therefore, it as sai! abo#e that the Anglo-Saxon language an! literature ne#er !ie! outK for the kno le!ge of it as ke&t u& till the ti"e hen, through the general (e#i#al of learning, ne "oti#es ere su&&lie! for its !iligent stu!y, an! the #ery "an in ho" the ne "o#e"ent is i"&ersonate! is he ho testifies that the stu!y ha! laste! !o n to a ti"e ithin his o n "e"ory$ 699T*9TES' 0+L/3 Iritten an! illustrate! ith "iniatures by or!er of RYel ol!, Bisho& of Iinchester, A$)$ ,OM-,7L$ :exa"eter #erses in a su&erior style of &en"anshi&, na"ely, the ol! Latin rustic, recor! the history of the book, an! gi#e the scribe@s na"e as Go!e"an, &erha&s the Abbot of Thorney, ho began A$)$ ,2.$ The illu"inations are engra#e! in QArchFologia,Q xxi#$

0+LO3 The QLeofric Hissal,Q e!ite! by 6$E$ Iarren, B$)$, 4laren!on Press, +77M$ 0+L23 Particulars "ay be foun! in "y QEnglish Plant *a"es fro" the Tenth to the 6ifteenth 4entury,Q 9xfor!, 4laren!on Press, +77.$ 0+L73 The "e!ical treatises ha#e been collecte! in three #olu"es V(olls SeriesW by Hr$ 4ockayne, un!er the title of QSaxon Leech!o"s$Q 0+L,3 There are four co&ies of it in the 4otton Library, an! one in 4a"bri!ge 5ni#ersity libraryK so"e also in other collections$ ;t has been &rinte! fro" a 4otton "anuscri&t ritten, the e!itor says, about A$)$ ,,.$ QPo&ular Treatises on Science,Q e!ite! by T$ Iright, +7L+$ 0+/.3 QLa 4hanson !e (olan!,Q &ar Loon Gautier, e!$ 2 V+77.W, ;ntro!uction$ 0+/+3 This &oe", of hich there are "any external traces, ha! long been gi#en u& as lost, as !e&lore! by Tyr hitt an! by (itson, an! as acci!entally !isco#ere! in a Bo!leian "anuscri&t, latent a"i!st legen!s of saints$ 6ro" this uniUue HS$ it as e!ite! by Sir 6$ Ha!!enK an! again V+7O7W by the (e#$ I$I$ Skeat, ho says in his &reface'--QThere can be little !oubt that the tra!ition "ust ha#e existe! fro" Anglo-Saxon ti"es, but the earliest "ention of it is &resente! to us in the 6rench #ersion of the (o"ance$$$$ The story is in no ay connecte! ith 6ranceK $$$ 6ro" e#ery &oint of #ie , $$$ the story is holly English,Q &$ i#$ 0+/-3 An ol! English Hiscellany, containing a QBestiary,Q Pc$, e!$ ($ Horris VE$E$T$S$W, +72-, &$ +2$ The QPhisiologusQ is Uuote! in 4haucer, a&&arently fro" this #ery QBestiaryQK an! )r$ Horris says that scra&s of it are foun! e#en in EliSabethan riters$ ; a!! a translation of the &iece Uuote!'--QIhilst that eather is so ba!, the shi&s that are !ri#en about on the sea V!eath is un elco"e, "en lo#e to li#eW look about the" an! see this fishK they een it is an islan!$ They are #ery gla! of it, an! ith all their "ight they !ra to ar!s it, "ake the shi&s fast, an! all go ashore$ Iith stone an! steel an! tin!er they "ake a goo! fire on this "onster, an! ar" the"sel#es ell, an! eat an! !rinkK the hale feels the fire an! "akes the" sink, for he Uuickly !i#es to the botto", he kills the" all ithout oun!$Q

;*)E=$ Abgar, Lay of, -L+ Abing!on 4hronicle, M-, +2M

Rlfric, Abbot, -M, L., O2, -.2, -+M, --+, -L/ Bata, L. Rlfheah, Archbisho&, --L Rthelberht, 7+ Rthelre!@s La s, +OL Rthel ear!, +7M, --. Rthel ol!, Bisho&, -/, /+, +7+, -.2, -+,, -LM Ai!an, Bisho&, ,, Alcuin, -M, ,,, ++2 Al!hel", -+, /M, 7O Alfre!, +/, -L, +7O ff$, -.2, -LL Alfre! Je el, L, Alfre!@s La s, +/L ff$ An!reas, the, ,., -MM f$ QAnglo-Saxon,Q -.O A&ollonius of Tyre, +7, -+A&uleius, -L/ Architecture, /Arnol!, Tho"as, +-+, +MO Arthur, /,, -L, Arun!el Harbles, L7 Ashburnha" :ouse, MAsh"olean Huseu", L, Asser, LM, +7M, +72, -/O Athelstan@s La s, +/, Augustine, Archbisho&, /A#itus, Bisho&, +L

Balla!s, the, +L/ ff$ Baron, )r$, --+ Be!a, -+, OL, 7+, +.- ff$, -.L, -L/ Bene!ict of *ursia, +/ of Aniane, -., Beo ulf, the, M-, L/, /7, O7, 2+, +-. ff$, --/ Bisco&, Bene!ict, 7O, ,, Blickling :o"ilies, L2, +M,, -+M ff$ Blu"e, )r$, LO Bo!leian Library, ML Boethian Hetres, 2+, -.- ff$ Boethius, +L, -.+ ff$ Boniface VIinfri!W, -+ Bos orth, )r$, LL, --O Bra!for!-on-A#on, /M Buckley, Professor, L. Burials, Saxon, // Byrhtnoth, -+2 4F!"on, +L, --, M,, O7, ,,, +++ 4Fsar, O4a"!en, Iillia", LM, +7M 4anons of Rlfric, O2, --. 4anterbury, -., 2,, ,7 4arling (o"ances, -L7 4en alh, +7.

4eolfri!, Abbot, +.4harles the Great, +72, -L7 4haucer, -2, -L-, -/L 4hronicles, the, -., --, O+, +O, ff$ 4ockayne, 9s al!, -L/ 4ol"an, Bisho&, ,, 4onybeare, L/ 4otton Library, M-, -L/ 4otton, Sir (obert, M+, M/ 4oxe, :enry 9cta#ius, M,, L. 4uthbert, St$, ,,, +.L 4yne ulf, --O ff$ )anihel, Bisho&, -+ )asent, Sir George, O7 )ay, John, M/, L)ays of the Ieek, 2M )ialogues, Gregory@s, +O, MO, +,M ff$ of Solo"on, Pc$, -+. ff$ )ietrich, Professor, -.7, --2, -L. )ocu"ents, Legal, +O2 )unstan, Archbisho&, -/, LM, -.2, -+, )urha" (itual, +++, -LM Ea!"er, /Ebert, A!olf, +.M, ++7 E!!a, the, O/ E!!i, -+, ,,

E! in, <ing, ,7 Egbert, Archbisho&, -+, ,, Elene, the, ,., -ML ff$ E&inal Gloss, ,+, ,2 Ett"_ller, Lu! ig, +-+, +ML Eusebius of 4Fsarea, -L+ of E"esa, -+O E#esha", O, Exeter Book, -,, 77, --/ ff$, -/L$ Eynsha", --. 6elix, Bisho&, 7. 6lorence, +7L 6loriacu", -/ 6rankish Art, /+ Gra#es, /O 6ree"an, E$A$, /L, +L+, +7L, -.O 6uthorc, the, -M, Gibson, E!"un!, L/ Gil!as, O. Glossaries, ,. Go!e"an, -LM Gos&els in A$-S$, 2M, -./, -.7 Gough, (ichar!, M, Gregory the Great, +/, -., 7/ of Tours, +7, +,, 7/ Grein, )r$, +-+, +M/, -.7, --., -M,$

Grettir, Saga of, +M2 Gri"bal!, +72 Gri"", Jacob, LO, 2M, +/M Grun!t#ig, )r$, +-+ Guthlac, St$, --2, -MGuthru", +/O, +/, :a!rian, Abbot, -+, 7/ :arley, (obert, ML :atton, Lor!, MO :a#elok the )ane, -/L :elian!, the, --, -M, O7, ++O :enry of :unting!on, +7L :eyne, HoritS, +-+ :ickes, George, LL :ickey, E$:$, +LL :ig!en, +7/ :il!, Abbess, +.. :o"ilies of Rlfric, 2L, +.-, -+L ff$ of Iulfstan, --- ff$ see Blickling$ :orn, (o"ance of, -/+ ff$ :ugo 4an!i!us, --, ;llu"inate! Books, /+ ;ne@s La s, +/+ ;nscri&tions, L2 ;rish Teachers, 7O

;si!ore of Se#ille, 7/ Jarro , +.M Jero"e, -+2 Je ellery, L, John of Saxony, +72 Joscelin, LM Ju!ith, the, --/ Juliana, St$, --2, -MJunius, 6ranciscus, M2, LL, ++<e"ble, J$H$, ,., +-+, +/L, -+., --O, --7, -M, <entish )ialect, 7L, ,., ,2 La s, 7. La"bar!e, Iillia", +/. Lanferth, -+, La&&enberg, J$H$, LO, +O, Lau!, Archbisho&, ML La s, the, OO, +/. ff$ Laya"on, -2, -L, Leofric, Bisho&, -7, -LL Hissal, -,, -LM Lu"by, Professor, +.M Lin!isfarne, ++2 Gos&els, MM, /+, +++ Hacray, I$)$, ML Ha!!en, Sir 6$, -/L Hai!ulf, 7O

Haine, Sir :$, +/L, +OM Harshall, )r$, LL Hatthe Parker, -,, L-, -/O Hayor, Professor, +.M Hetcalfe, 6$, LL Hilton, John, +L, ++-, ++/, -MHore, Bisho&, L+, +.+ Horfil, I$($, +L7 Horley, :enry, +ML Horris, )r$ ($, ---, -/L H_llenhof, )r$ <arl, +ML *a&ier, Arthur, --*ico!e"us, Gos&el of, -., *orthu"bria, -+ *orthu"brian )ialect, +++ *otker, +/ 9!in, 2/ 9!o, Archbisho&, -/, -+, 9r", -2 9rosius, +M, -.L 9s al!, Bisho&, -+, Palgra#e, Sir 6rancis, +/-, +OL Panther, the, -M+ Parker, Archbisho&, -,, L-, -/O

Parker, J$:$, /L Parker Library, LL, -LL Pastoral 4are, the, +O, MO, +77 ff$ Paulinus, Bisho&, ,7 Pauli, (einhol!, +O, Paulus )iaconus, -M Pericles VShakes&eareW, +7 Peterborough 4hronicle, -O, MO, +27, +7+, +7L PhAnix, the, ,, --2, -M. Physiologus, the, -+/, -M+, -/L Pilate, Acts of, -., Pleg"un!, Archbisho&, +72 Psalter V<entishW, ,L VPoeticalW, ,., -.7 (a linson, (ichar!, M7, L/ (i!!les, 72, -L. (obert of Ju"ilges, -LL (ochester Book, -O (uine! 4ity, the, +L. (ule of St$ Bene!ict, L. (unes, 27, +++, --O, -M7 (unic Poe", -M, (ush orth, John, M7 (uth ell 4ross, +++ San!ers, I$ Base#i, L+ Schal!e"ose, +-+

Sch"i!, (einhol!, +/. Scott, Sir Ialter, +/., --7 Scul&ture, // Sie#ers, E!ouar!, ++O Sigeric, Archbisho&, -+2 Si"eon of )urha", +22, +7L Si"&osius, +., -L. ?Transcriber@s note' Sy"&osius an! Si"&hosius in textG Skeat, Professor, LL, +++, -+7, -/L S"arag!us, -M Solo"on an! Saturn, -., ff$ So"ner, Iillia", LL S&ell, 2/ S&el"an, Sir :enry, LM, LL Sir John, LL S&enser, E!"un!, +MO, -L, St$ Augustine@s, 4anterbury, -., M/ Stallybrass, J$S$, 2. Ste&hens, Professor George, L2, +++, ++2, -L+ Stubbs, Professor, +O-, +7M, +7/ S eet, Hr$, MM S ithun, St$, O,, -+7, -+, Tacitus, OTa#istock, -/O Tennyson, Alfre!, +MO, +L2, -L, Theo!ore, Archbisho&, -+, 7/, +.. Thorkelin, G$J$, L/, +-+

Thorney, -LM Thor&e, Benja"in, LO, +-+, +/., -.7, --Th aites, E! ar!, --. Trial by Jury, +OM ff$ Jercelli Book, LO, ,., --/, -MM ff$ Jigfusson, )r$ Gu!bran!, +M7 Iace, (obert, -2, -L, Ialahfri! Strabo, -M Ial!here V6rag"entW, L2 Ianley, :u"&hrey, L/ Iarren, 6$E$, -LL Iatson, ($ S&ence, ++M Iear"outh, +.Ielan!, /7, 2. Ierfrith, Bisho&, MO, +72, +7,, +,M Iest oo!, Professor, M., M,, /+ Ihale, the, -M+, -// Iheloc, Abraha", LM, +/. Ihitby, ,, Ii!sith, the, +L7 Iilfri!, ,,, +.. Iilkins, Bisho&, +/. Iillebror!, ,, Iillia" of Hal"esbury, +7/ Iinchester 4hronicle, +2+, +27

Iinfri! VBonifaceW, -+, ,, Iinton Book, -O Io!en, OO Iorcester 4hartulary, -O 4hronicle, M-, +2M Ior!s orth, 4anon, L7 Iright, Tho"as, +7M, --O, -L/ I_lcker, Professor, ++-, +L. Iulfstan, Archbisho&, --L Iulstan, Latin &oet, -+, %ork, -+ ^euner, (u!olf, MM ^u&itSa, Julius, L+ T:E E*)$ 8 8 8 8 8

I%HA* A*) S9*S, P(;*TE(S, G(EAT N5EE* ST(EET, L9*)9*, I$4$

49((;GE*)A$ ?Transcriber@s note' These corrections ha#e been "a!e in the transcribe! text, exce&t the first, hich refers to a &age hea!ing$G Page +.M, :ea!ing, TforT QAnglicanQ Trea!T QAnglian$Q Q ++/, line --, TforT Q#oraQ Trea!T Q ora$Q Q +/., Q -M, TforT QLo"bar!eQ Trea!T QLa"bar!e$Q Q +/L, Q +O, TforT Q:istoryQ Trea!T Qhistory$Q Q -.7, Q +-, TforT QtranslationsQ Trea!T Qtranslation$Q

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