ANATOMY EXAM II REVIEW 1.

Lymph Nodes *Elongated or bean-shaped structure *Most numerous lymphatic organs *Serve two functions: -Cleanse the lymph -Act as a site of B cell and T cell activation 2. Peyers Patches *Cluster of prominent lymphatic nodules found in the small intestine 3. Islets of Langerhans (Pancreatic Islets) *Endocrine cell clusters scattered throughout exocrine tissue *Secrete hormones of vital importance to blood glucose concentration 4. Development of Thymus *Degeneration with age 5. Permeability of lymph vs. capillaries *Lymphs are closed at one end unlike capillaries *Lymphatic endothelial cells are not joined by tight junctions like capillary endothelial cells *Lymph consists of a sac of thin endothelial cells that loosely overlap each other -Gaps between them are so large that bacteria, lymphocytes, and other cells and particles can enter along with tissue fluid -Overlapping edges of endothelial cells act as valvelike flaps that can open and close 6. Afferent/Efferent *Afferent lymphatic vessels lead into the node along its convex surface *Efferent lymphatic vessels emerge from the hilum and provide an exit from the node 7. Function of spleen *Produces red blood cells in fetus and may resume role in adults in case of extreme anemia *Lymphocytes and macrophages of white pulp monitor blood for antigens *Splenic blood capillaries are very permeable -Allow RBCs to leave bloodstream, accumulate in sinuses of red pulp, and reenter bloodstream later *Erythrocyte grave -Old RBCs rupture as they squeeze through capillary walls -Macrophages phagocytize their remains *Helps stabilize blood volume by transferring excess plasma from bloodstream to lymphatic system 8. Profile of lymphocytes *Several functional types -80% T cells -15% B cells -5% NK cells 9. Distribution/landscape of node

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*Cervical: occur in deep and superficial groups in neck -Monitor lymph coming from head and neck *Axillary: concentrated in armpit (axilla) -Receive lymph from upper limb and female breast *Thoracic: occur in thoracic cavity -Receive lymph from mediastinum, lungs, and airway *Abdominal: occur in abdominopelvic wall -Monitor lymph from urinary and reproductive systems *Intestinal and mesenteric: found in the mesenteries -Monitor lymph from digestive tract *Inguinal: occur in groin -Receive lymph from entire lower limb *Popliteal: occur at back of knee -Receive lymph from leg proper Tonsils *Patches of lymphatic tissue located at the entrance to the pharynx where they guard against pathogens *Three main sets of tonsils -Pharyngeal (adenoid): located on wall of pharynx behind nasal cavity -Palatine: located at posterior margin of oral cavity -Lingual: concentrated in patch on each side of root of tongue Antibodies *Gamma globulins produced by plasma cells in response to an antigen *Counteracts antigen by complement fixation, neutralization of toxins, agglutination, or precipitation *Shape: monomer (T or Y shape), dimer, or pentamer *Constant region: rest of chain with same amino acid sequence in all antibodies of a given class *Variable region: all 4 chains; gives antibody its uniqueness T cells *Cytotoxic T cells or Tc: the effectors that carry out attack on enemy cells *Helper T cells or Th: promote action of Tc cells; play roles in humoral immunity and nonspecific resistance *Regulatory T cells or Tr: inhibit multiplication and cytokine secretion by other t cells; limit immune responses *Memory T cells or Tm: responsible for memory in cellular immunity B cells *Produce surface receptors for antigens, divide, and produce immunocompetent B cell clones B cell selection *Antigen recognition: immunocompetent b cells are exposed to antigen; antigen only binds to B cells with complementary receptors *Antigen presentation: B cell internalizes antigen and displays processed epitope; helper T cell binds to B cell and secretes interleukin

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*Clonal selection: interleukin stimulates B cell to divide repeatedly and form clone *Differentiation: some cells become memory B cells; most differentiate into plasma cells *Attack: Plasma cells synthesize and secrete antibody; antibody employs various means to render antigen harmless Haptens *Molecules that are too small to be antigenic in themselves, but can stimulate an immune response by binding to a host macromolecule and creating a unique complex that the body recognizes as foreign Adaptive vs. Specific * Interferons *Protein secreted by certain cells infected by a virus *Alert neighboring cells and protect them from becoming infected -Bind to surface receptors and activate second messenger systems *Activate NK cells and macrophages to destroy infected cells Immunocompetence *T cells are capable of recognizing antigens presented to them by APCs Memory *When reexposed to same pathogen, body reacts so quickly there is no noticeable illness NK *Large lymphocytes that attack and destroy bacteria, transplanted tissue cells, and host cells that have either become infected with a virus or cancerous *Responsible for mode of defense Phagocytosis *C3b assists neutrophils and macrophages by the process of opsonization which coats microbial cells and serves as binding sites for phagocyte attachment Number of antigen receptors Anatomy of Respiratory *Respiration has 3 meanings -Ventilation of lungs (breathing) -Exchange of gases between air and blood and between blood and tissue fluid -Use of oxygen in cellular metabolism *Broad range of functions -Provides for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange between blood and air -Serves for speech and other vocalizations -Provides sense of smell -Helps control pH of body fluids -Helps regulate blood pressure -Promote flow of lymph and venous blood -Holding breath helps expel urination, defecation, and childbirth Tidal volume *Amount of air inhaled and exhaled in one cycle of quiet breathing

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*Normally about 500 mL IRV *Inspiratory reserve volume *Possibility to inhale additional 3000 mL with maximum effort beyond amount normally inhaled RV *Residual volume *About 1300 mL remains after a maximum voluntary expiration ERV *Expiratory reserve volume *Exhale another 1200 mL beyond amount normally exhaled with maximum effort Larynx *Cartilaginous chamber about 4 cm long *Voice box *Functions: -Keep food and drink out of airway -Sound production Epiglottis *Superior opening of larynx *Closes airway and directs food and drink into esophagus behind it Terminal bronchioles *Final branches of conducting division *Contain cilia that prevent congestion of terminal bronchioles and alveoli Boyles Law *At a constant temperature, the pressure of a given quantity of gas is inversely proportional to its volume. Daltons Law *Total atmospheric pressure is a sum of these individual gases Henrys Law *At the air-water interface, for a given temperature, the amount of gas that dissolves in the water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in the air Charless Law *The volume of a given quantity of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature Intrapulmonary *Internal pressure Endocrine/exocrine * Lobule *Portion of the lung ventilated by one bronchiole Respiratory membrane thickness *Consists only of squamous alveolar cell, squamous endothelial cell of capillary, and their shared basement membrane -Have total thickness of only 0.5 micrometers

39. Respiratory Stimuli * 40. Lung compliance *The ease with which the lungs expand or more exactly, the change in lung volume relative to a given pressure change 41. CO2 Transport *Transported in 3 forms: -90% is hydrated to form carbonic acid, then dissociates into bicarbonate and hydrogen ions CO2 +H2OH2CO3HCO3+H *5% binds to amino groups of plasma proteins and hemoglobin to form carbamino compounds Hb +CO2 Hb CO2 *Remaining 5% of CO2 is carried in blood as dissolved gas 42. Gas emboli *Presence of gas bubbles in the bloodstream that obstruct circulation 43. Pontine Respiratory Group (PRG) *Located on each side of the pons *Modifies the rhythm of the VRG *Receives input from higher brain centers and issues output to DRG and VRG *Hastens or delays transition from inspiration to expiration Adapts breathing to special circumstances (i.e. sleep) 44. Effects of high altitude on erythrocytes (RBCs) *Increases erythrocyte count 45. Emphysema *Respiratory disorder where alveolar walls break down and lung exhibits larger but fewer alveoli -Much less respiratory membrane available for gas exchange -Lungs become fibrotic and less elastic 46. Pacemaker cells of stomach? * 47. Deglutination *Swallowing *Complex action involving over 22 muscles in the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus 48. Structure of villi *About 0.5 to 10 mm high, with tongue to finger-like shapes *Largest in the duodenum and become progressively smaller in distal regions of small intestine *Covered with columnar absorptive cells and goblet cells; core is filled with areolar tissue 49. Lacteal *Lymphatic capillary *Absorbs most lipids and give villi contents a milky appearance 50. Paneth cells *Clustered at base of each crypt *Secrete lysozyme, phospholipase, and defensins 51. Chemical digestion

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*A series of hydrolysis reactions that breakdown dietary macromolecules into their monomers -Polysaccharides into monosaccharides Mechanical digestion *The physical breakdown of food into smaller particles -Cutting and grinding action of teeth Peritoneal *Intraperitoneal: when an organ in enclosed by mesentery on both sides -Within the peritoneal cavity *Retroperitoneal: when an organ lies against posterior body wall and is covered by peritoneum on anterior side only -Outside peritoneal cavity Layers of GI *Mucosa: consists of loose connective tissue layer (lamina propria) and thin layer of smooth muscle (muscularis mucosae) *Submucosa: thicker layer of loose connective tissue containing blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, a nerve plexus, and in some places glands that secrete lubricating mucus *Muscularis externa: consists usually of two layers of muscle on outer surface Composition of saliva *Salivary amylase: enzyme that begins starch digestion in mouth *Lingual lipase: enzyme that is activated by stomach acid and digests fat after food is swallowed *Mucus: binds and lubricates food mass and aids in swallowing *Lysozyme: enzyme that kills bacteria *Immunoglobin A (IgA): antibody that inhibits bacterial growth *Electrolytes: includes sodium, potassium, chloride, phosphate, and bicarbonate salts Function of stomach *Primarily a food storage organ *Mechanically breaks up food particles, liquefies the food, and begins chemical digestion of proteins and fat Gastric Pits *Parietal cells: secrete hydrochloric acid, intrinsic factor, and ghrelin (hunger hormone); found mostly in gastric glands, but a few in pyloric glands *Chief cells: secrete gastric lipase and pepsinogen; dominate lower half of gastric glands *Goblet cells: secrete mucus; predominate in cardiac and pyloric glands, but also found in gastric glands *Enteroendocrine cells: secrete hormones and paracrine messengers that regulate digestion; most abundant in gastric and pyloric glands Pepsinogen Pepsin *Pepsinogen secreted by chief cells then hydrochloric acid removes some of its amino acids and converts it to pepsin Oral cavity *Mouth *Functions:

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-Ingestion (food intake) -Taste and other sensory responses to food -Chewing -Chemical digestion -Swallowing -Speech -Respiration Amylase *Enzyme found in the saliva and pancreatic area that digests starch CCK *Cholecystokinin *Secreted by mucosa of duodenum and proximal jejunum *Stimulates pancreatic acini to secrete enzymes *Induces contractions of gallbladder and relaxation of hepatopancreatic sphincter -Causes discharge of bile into duodenum Gastrin *Hormone produced by enteroendocrine G cells in the pyloric glands *Stimulate parietal cells to secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor Secretin *Stimulates ducts of both the liver and pancreas to secrete an abundant sodium bicarbonate solution *Produced by small intestine, mainly in response to the acidity of chime arriving from stomach Digestion of protein, carbohydrate, lipid, and N.A.