RESEARCH PAPER N 5: SENTENCES Borja, Fabiana Cecilia SENTENCE: a linguistic unit that normally includes a verb, a subject and

may also include an object, a complement and an adverbial, usually in the order: S+V+O+C+A. a sentence is the largest unit that can be analyzed grammatically, a unit that forms a complete item of information; a unit that begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop. Sentences can be classified into two sets of criteria: functional and syntactic. Functionally, sentences that make statements are classed as Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclamative. Syntactically, sentences can be classes as simple, Compound, Complex and Compound-complex. 1.- According to their structure, what types of sentences are there? How are they made up? Write an example of each type taking them from the reading material you have in Communication II. A simple sentence consists of one clause and contains one finite verb: He made the last statement in a tone of distinct regret. (The Open Window) A compound sentence consists of two or more main, or independent clauses, each of which contains a finite verb and one or more conjunctions. He made a desperate but only partially successful effort to turn the talk on to a less ghastly topic; he was conscious that his hostess was giving him only a fragment of her attention, and her eyes were constantly straying past him to the open window and the lawn beyond. (The Open Window) A complex sentence consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses, which are usually linked by a relative pronoun or a relative adverb: All these things, of which other women of her class would not even have been aware, tormented and insulted her. (The Necklace) A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more main clauses and one or more subordinate clauses: When they were out in the street they could not find a cab; they began to look for one, shouting at the drivers whom they saw passing in the distance. (The Necklace) CLAUSE: a sequence of words that normally includes a subject and a verb. Clauses are classified as main clauses, subordinate clauses and non-finite clauses. A main clause, also known as an independent clause or a principal clause, is usually said to be superordinate, that is, more important grammatically and semantically than, a subordinate clause in the same sentence. If it is isolated from the subordinate clause, the main clause can often function as a complete sentence. Subordinate clauses, also known as dependent clauses, can be subdivided into three types: nominal, relative and adverbial clauses. 2.- How can a noun clause be introduced? Write 5 different examples. A nominal clause, sometimes known as a noun clause or as a nominal relative clause, is a subordinate clause that functions like a noun or noun phrase in the subject, the object or the complement of the main clause in a sentence. Nominal relative clauses are introduced by a relative pronoun: who, whom, whose, whoever, that, what, whatever.

Examples: a.- Whoever you met may have looked like me. b.- I know that I have never seen you before. c.- What you say bewilders me. d.- Can you remember where we met before? e.- The questions is whether I should believe you. 3.- Write an example of a noun clause beginning with that after: a. a verb: I think that I love you. b. an adjective: I am afraid that I cannot help you. c. a noun: The idea that both of them are a couple is fantastic. d. a linking verb: I think that I love you 4.- What type of information do defining relative clauses give? A relative clause, which is traditionally known as an adjective clause or adjectival clause, modifies or relates to a noun, noun phrase or pronoun in the main clause or another clause in the sentence. A distinction can be made between defining and non-defining relative clause. A defining relative clause is a subordinate relative clause that defines, identifies or explains a noun, noun phrase or pronoun in another clause in the same sentence. A defining relative clause is also known as a restrictive relative clause because it restricts the meaning of the noun that it modifies. 5.- How can defining relative clauses be introduced? Write 5 different examples. A defining relative clause usually begins with a relative pronoun: who, whom, whose, where, why, which, when, that. Examples: a.- He is the lawyer who is in charge of the case. b.-This is my daughter whom I told you about. c.-That is the girl whose dog bit me. d.- We are doing the second course in the same place where we did the first. e.-The reason why I am writing this letter is to tell you my side of the story. f.- Choose the one which you think will suit you best. g.- I was studying at university when I got pregnant. h.- Have you done the homework that the teacher gave you yesterday? 6.- What type of information do non-defining relative clauses give? How are they separated from the main clause? Non-defining relative clauses, or non-restrictive, add extra information to the main clause and are not essential to identify what we are talking about. They are usually punctuated by commas, but defining relative clauses are not. 7.- How can non-defining relative clauses be introduced? Write 5 different examples. A non-defining relative clause usually begins with a relative pronoun: who, whom, whose, where, which, when, that. Examples: a.- The people, who are ready, can start doing the exam. b.- Maria, whom I met yesterday, is coming to my birthday.

c.- I am taking Peter, whose car has broken, to the wedding. d.- Tilcara, where I have been last winter, is a very calm town. e.- I painted my room blue, which is my favorite color. f.- In 2001, when I was finishing High school, the Twin Towers collapsed. 8.- How are coordinating relative clauses introduced? Where do these clauses come? What do they refer to? Coordinated relative clauses are introduced by a coordinated conjunction which links the clauses. Clauses of a compound sentence are connected with a coordinate conjunction. These words and phrases provide a connection between ideas. There are four different types of relationship that coordinate conjunctions in compound sentences signal: Meanings 1.addition Coordinate conjunction And not onlybut also not onlybuttoo/as well bothand 2. choice Or eitheror Nor neithernor 3. contrast But Yet 4.cause-and-effect For (cause) or result So (effect or result) 9.- Write an example of the different types of adverbial clauses. An adverbial clause functions like an adverb and modifies a verb, an adjective or an adverb in another clause. Depending on the kind of information they offer, they can be subdivided into clauses of: TIME: (Introduced by: when, before, after, until, since, while) I was working while Josephine was doing her homework. PLACE: (introduced by: where, wherever) Put your hand where I can see them! MANNER: (introduced by: as, as if, as though) She looked at me as if she wanted to tell me something. CAUSE: (introduced by: because, since, as, for) Emanuel did not attend the class because he has not finished his homework. CONCESSION: (introduced by: although, though, despite, however, nevertheless, and yet, even so, while, whereas) Although my boyfriend broke my heart, I still love him. CONDITION: (introduced by: if, unless) I am a nice girl unless you treat me badly. CONTINGENCY: (introduced by: in case, only if) I will go to the wedding only if the weather is nice. RESULT: (introduced by: so/suchthat)

The weather was so cold that I decided to stay in bed. PURPOSE: (introduced by: so, so that, so as to, with the intention of, with the aim of, in order that, in order to) I subscribed to salsa lessons in order to lose weight. COMPARISON: (introduced by: as..as, soas, than) My aunt and I are not as connected as you think. 10.- Write an example of a variation of: a. conditional clause of type I: To express that something is less likely to happen If my mother should retire, she will take painting classes. b. conditional clause of type II: To express a very polite request If my daughter would like to see the parade, I would take her gladly. 11.- Besides if, what other subordinate conjunctions can we use to introduce an adverbial clause of condition? Write an example with each. We also use the subordinating conjunctions unless, as long as, and providing/provided that, on condition that: Examples: a.- Ill help Marcela with Grammar providing that she helps me with Phonetics. b.- Our marriage will end in divorce unless we solve our communication problem. c.- We are able to sit for the exam as long as 80% of the written papers are passed. d.- I prepare lunch and dinner every day on condition that my mother washes the dishes. 12.- Write an example of the 2 different types of mixed conditionals. What does each clause refer to in each sentence? CONDITIONAL CLAUSE A. IF + TYPE III If Daniel had sent me money last month, An event that occurred in the past has a consequence in the present. B. IF+ TYPE II If you were not the father of my son, If I wasted my time, (hypothetical) MAIN CLAUSE TYPE II I wouldn't feel so disappointed now. To refer to a present situation resulting from a previous event. TYPE III I would have forgotten you already. (past) I could not have finished my homework.

13.- What tenses and modals can we use after wish? What do they express in each case? Wish + would: When we want sb/sth to change, or when we want sb to do sth. I wish my mother would stop bossing me around. Wish + Past Perfect: To refer to the past. When we express regret about a past situation.

I wish I hadnt eaten so much during the Winter holidays! I wish I had stayed on at college! ~ sb/sth/yourself + adj: He's dead and it's no use wishing him alive again. ~ sb/sth/yourself + adv./prep: She wished herself a million miles away. ~ to do sth: I wish to speak to the manager. ~ sb sth: She could not believe that he wished her harm. Its high time + Simple Past: Its high time we went to bed. Its time {Simple Past: its time we went to bed {for sb to do sth: its time for us to go to bed

Its time {for us to leave {we left.

Its high time we left. Its about time to leave. Would rather + Simple Past: when we would like, prefer, sb to do sth in the present or future I would rather we left early tomorrow. I would rather you stayed here now Would rather + Past Perfect: To express dissatisfaction with what sb did in the Past. I would rather you had been more polite yesterday.