hysteresis (hs'tr`ss), phenomenon in which the response of a physical system to an external influence

depends not only on the present magnitude of that influence but also on the previous history of the system !xpressed mathematically, the response to the external influence is a doubled"valued function# one value applies when the influence is increasing, the other applies when the influence is decreasing $agnetic hysteresis occurs when a permeable material li%e soft iron is magneti&ed by being sub'ected to an external magnetic field (he induced magneti&ation tends to lag behind the magneti&ing force )f a field is applied to an initially unmagneti&ed sample and is then removed, the sample retains a residual magneti&ation (it has become a permanent magnet) (he graph of the magnetic induction Bversus the magnetic field H is called a hysteresis loop (he area of the loop is proportional to the energy dissipated as heat when the system goes through a cycle# this represents a considerable energy loss in alternating"current machinery (hermal hysteresis occurs when the value of a given property of a body depends not only on the body's temperature but also on whether the temperature is rising or falling *n example is the dielectric constant versus temperature for certain crystals *nother %ind of hysteresis is a common feature of control or cybernetic systems * familiar example is a thermostat controlling a source of heat and set at some temperature (+ ,hen the room temperature falls through (+ to some lower temperature (-, the heating power is switched on ,hen the room temperature rises through ( + to some higher temperature (., the power is switched off (hus, for temperatures lower than ( -, the heat is always on# for temperatures higher than ( ., the heat is always off# but for temperatures between (- and (., the heat may be on or off (double"valued response), depending on which of the two temperatures ( -and (. occurred most recently in the system's history /nli%e the previous examples, this hysteresis effect is not naturally occurring# it is designed into the control system to prevent the damage to the system that would arise from switching on and off too fre0uently
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hysteresis
6agging of the magneti&ation of ferromagnetic material ( see ferromagnetism), such as iron, behind variations of the magneti&ing field ,hen such a material is placed in a coil of wire carrying an electric current, the magnetic field so created forces atoms in the material to align with the field (his increases the total magnetic field to a maximum when all the atoms are aligned, though the total field lags behind the magneti&ing field ,hen the intensity of the magneti&ing field is decreased to &ero, some field remains in the material, and if the magneti&ing field is reversed the total magneti&ation also reverses but again lags behind (he complete cycle, %nown as a hysteresis loop, dissipates energy in the form of heat as the magneti&ation is reversed
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hysteresis
(he lag between ma%ing a change, such as increasing or decreasing power, and the response or effect of that change )t typically refers to turn"on and turn"off points in electrical, electronic and mechanical systems 8or example, if a thermostat set for >+ degrees turns on when the temperature reaches ?< and turns off at >., the hysteresis is the range from ?< to >.
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hysteresis GHhisItJrIssK
(electronics) *n oscillator effect wherein a given value of an operating parameter may result in multiple values of output power or fre0uency

(electromagnetism) magnetic hysteresis (nucleonics) * temporary change in the counting"rate"voltage characteristic of a radiation counter tube, caused by its previous operation (physics) (he dependence of the state of a system on its previous history, generally in the form of a lagging of a physical effect behind its cause
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Hysteresis
* phenomenon wherein two (or more) physical 0uantities bear a relationship which depends on prior history $ore specifically, the response Y ta%es on different values for an increasing input X than for a decreasing X )f one cycles X over an appropriate range, the plot of Y versus X gives a closed curve which is referred to as the hysteresis loop (he response Y appears to be lagging the input X Bysteresis occurs in many fields of science 5erhaps the primary example is of magnetic materials where the input variable H (magnetic field) and response variable B (magnetic induction) are traditionally chosen 8or such a choice of con'ugate variables, the area of the hysteresis loop ta%es on a special significance, namely the conversion of energy per unit volume to heat per cycle 8or mechanical hysteresis, it is customary to ta%e the variables stress and strain, where the energy density loss per cycle is related to the internal friction (hermal hysteresis is characteristic of many systems, particularly those involving phase changes, but here the hysteresis loops are not usually related to energy loss See8erroelectrics
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Hysteresis
a phenomenon that consists in the fact that a physical 0uantity that characteri&es the state of a body (for example, magneti&ation) depends nonuni0uely on the physical 0uantity that characteri&es external conditions (for example, a magnetic field) Bysteresis is observed in cases in which the state of a body at a given instant is determined by external conditions not only at that instant but also at preceding instants (he nonuni0ue dependence of 0uantities is observed in any process, since a certain amount of time (the relaxation time) is always re0uired for a change in the state of a body, and the reaction of the body lags behind the factors responsible for the change (he slower the change in external conditions, the smaller the lag Bowever, for some processes the lag does not diminish as the change in external conditions becomes slower )n these cases the nonuni0ue dependence of the 0uantities is called a hysteretic relationship, and the phenomenon itself is called hysteresis Bysteresis is observed in various substances and physical processes Ef greatest interest are magnetic, dielectric, and elastic hysteresis Magnetic hysteresis $agnetic hysteresis is observed in magnetic materials, such as ferromagnets (he main feature of ferromagnets is the presence of spontaneous magneti&ation * ferromagnet usually is not uniformly magneti&ed but is divided into domainsNregions of uniform spontaneous magneti&ation whose degree of magneti&ation (the magnetic moment per unit volume) is identical, although the directions are different /nder the

effect of an external magnetic field the number and si&e of the domains magneti&ed along the field increase at the expense of other domains $oreover, the magnetic moments of certain domains may rotate in the direction of the field *s a result the magnetic moment of the sample increases (he dependence of the magnetic moment M of a ferromagnetic sample on the intensity H of the external magnetic field (the magneti&ation curve) is shown in 8igure - )n a sufficiently strong magnetic field the sample is magneti&ed to saturation (as the field increases further, the value of M remains virtually unchangedNpoint *) Bere the sample consists of one domain with a magnetic moment of saturation $ soriented along the field *s the intensity H of the external magnetic field is reduced, the magnetic moment M of the sample will decline along curve ) primarily because of the appearance and growth of domains whose magnetic moment is oriented against the field (he growth of the domains is due to the movement of the domain walls (his movement is hindered by the presence in the sample of various defects (such as impurities or inhomogeneities) that strengthen the domain walls at some points# very strong magnetic fields are re0uired to displace them (herefore as the field H drops to &ero, the so" called residual magnetic moment $r (point B) is retained * sample can be completely demagneti&ed only in a sufficiently strong field of opposite direction, which is called a coercive field (coercive force) B c (point 1) *s the magnetic field of reverse orientation is further increased, the sample is once again magneti&ed along the field to saturation (point D) $agnetic reversal (from point D to point *) ta%es place along curve )) (hus, as the field undergoes a cyclical change, the curve characteri&ing the change in the magnetic moment of the sample forms a magnetic hysteresis loop )f the field H changes cyclically with such limits that magneti&ation does not reach saturation, a nonlimiting magnetic hysteresis loop is produced (curve )))) 9y reducing the extent of the change in field H to &ero, the sample can be completely demagneti&ed (point O can be reached) (he magneti&ation of the sample from point O proceeds along curve )O

Figure 1. $agnetic hysteresis loop for a ferromagnetPH is the intensity of the magnetic field, M is the magnetic moment of the sample, Bc is the coercive field, $r is the residual magnetic moment, and $s is the saturation magnetic moment (he nonlimiting hysteresis loop is shown by the dotted line (he domain structure of the sample for certain points on the loop is shown schematically

)n magnetic hysteresis different values of the magnetic moment M correspond to the same value of the external magnetic field intensity H (his nonuni0ueness is due to the influence of the states of the sample that precede the given state (that is, to the magnetic prehistory of the sample) (he shape and si&e of magnetic hysteresis loops and the 0uantity B c may range within wide limits in various ferromagnets 8or example, in pure iron, Bc= - oersted, and in a magnico alloy Bc= Q<+ oersteds * magnetic hysteresis loop is strongly affected by processing of the material, during which the number of defects is changed (8igure .) (he area of a magnetic hysteresis loop is e0ual to the energy lost in the sample in one cycle of field change (his energy ultimately is used to heat the sample Cuch energy losses are called hysteresis losses )n cases when losses to hysteresis are undesirable (for example, in transformer cores and in the stators and rotors of electrical machinery), magnetically soft materials with a low Bc and a small hysteresis loop area are used En the other hand, magnetically hard materials with a high Bc are re0uired to manufacture permanent magnets *s the fre0uency of the alternating magnetic field (the number of magnetic reversal cycles per unit time) increases, other losses caused by eddy currents and magnetic viscosity are added to hysteresis losses *t high fre0uencies the area of the hysteresis loop increases correspondingly Cuch a loop is sometimes called a dynamic loop, in contrast to the static loop described above

$any other properties of a ferromagnet, such as electrical resistance and mechanical deformation, depend on the magnetic moment * change in magnetic moment also brings about a change in these propertiesNfor example, gal"vanomagnetic and magnetostrictive hysteresis, respectively, are observed Dielectric hysteresis @ielectric hysteresis is usually observed in ferroelectrics such as barium titanate (he dependence of the polari&ation P on the electrical field intensity E in ferroelectrics (8igure 4) is similar to the dependence of M on H in ferromagnets and is due to the presence of spontaneous electrical polari&ation and electrical domains and to the difficulty of rearranging the domain structure Bysteresis losses ma%e up a large part of dielectric losses in ferroelectrics )nsofar as other characteristics of ferroelectrics such as deformation are associated with polari&ation, other types of hysteresis, such as pie&oelectric hysteresis (8igure ;) and the hysteresis of the electrooptical effect, are related to dielectric hysteresis )n some cases double dielectric hysteresis loops are observed (8igure Q) (his is due to the fact that a phase transition involving rearrangement of the crystalline structure ta%es place in the sample under the influence of the electrical field (his type of dielectric hysteresis is closely related to the hysteresis during phase transitions

Figure 2. !ffect of mechanical and thermal treatment on the form of the magnetic hysteresis loop for permalloyP (-) after cold hardening, (.) after annealing, (4) curve for soft iron (for comparison)

Figure 3. @ielectric hysteresis loop in a ferroelectricP P is the polari&ation of the sample, and E is the intensity of the electrical field

Figure 4. Bysteresis loop of the reverse pie&oelectric effect in barium titanateP / is the deformation, and ! is the intensity of the electrical field

Figure 5. @ouble dielectric hysteresis loop

Figure 6. !lastic hysteresis loopP R is the mechanical stress, and u is the deformation

Elastic hysteresis !lastic hysteresis, or the hysteretic dependence of the deformation u on the mechanical stress , is observed in any real materials for sufficiently great stress (8igure ?) !lastic hysteresis occurs whenever a plastic (inelastic) deformation occurs * plastic deformation results from the displacement of defects, such the dislocations that are always present in real materials )mpurities, inclusions, and other defects, as well as the crystal lattice itself, tend to hold a dislocation in certain positions in the crystal (herefore, stresses of sufficient magnitude to shift the dislocation are re0uired $achining and the introduction of impurities lead to the pinning of dislocations, as a result of which strengthening of the material occurs 5lastic deformation and elastic hysteresis are observed at greater stresses (he energy loss in the sample in one cycle ultimately goes to heat the ob'ect 6osses to elastic hysteresis contribute to internal friction )n the case of elastic deformations there are, in addition to hysteresis losses, other losses such as those caused by viscosity (he magnitude of these losses, in contrast to hysteresis losses, depends on the fre0uency of change of (or u) (he concept of elastic hysteresis is sometimes used more broadlyNfor example, in terms of a dynamic elastic hysteresis loop, which includes all losses at a given fre0uency

REFERENCES
Sirens%ii, 6 O Magnetizm, .nd ed $oscow, -:?> Oonsovs%ii, C O Sovremennoe uchenie o magnetizme $oscow"6eningrad, -:Q. 9o&orth, A Ferromagnetizm $oscow, -:Q? ((ranslated from !nglish ) Tona, 8 , and L Chirane Segnetoele triches ie ristally $oscow, -:?Q ((ranslated from !nglish ) 5ostni%ov, O C !nutrennee trenie v metalla h $oscow, -:?: Fiziches ii entsi lo"e#iches ii slovar$, vol - $oscow, -:?+ * 5 6!O*D)/S and @ L C*DD)SEO