Fatigue

Machine Design II
Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram
FATIGUE CONSIDERATION IN DESIGN

OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE
In this module we will be discussing on design aspects related to fatigue failure, an important mode of failure in engineering components. Fatigue failure results mainly due to variable loading or more precisely due to cyclic variations in the applied loading or induced stresses So starting from the basic concepts of variable (non-static) loading, we will be discussing in detail how it leads to fatigue failure in components, what factors influence them, how to account them and finally how to design parts or components to resist failure by fatigue
WHAT IS FATIGUE?
Fatigue is a phenomenon associated with variable loading or more precisely to cyclic stressing or straining of a material. Just as we human beings get fatigue when a specific task is repeatedly performed, in a similar manner metallic components subjected to variable loading get fatigue, which leads to their premature failure under specific conditions.
WHAT IS FATIGUE LOADING?

Fatigue loading is primarily the type of loading which causes cyclic variations in the applied stress or strain on a component. Thus any variable loading is
basically a fatigue loading.
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
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Variable Loading
Variable loading results when the applied load or the induced stress on a component is not constant but changes with time i.e load or stress varies with time in some pattern. Most mechanical systems and devices consists moving or rotating components. When they are subjected to external loadings, the induced stresses are not constant even if the magnitude of the applied load remains invariant. In reality most mechanical components experience variable loading due to -Change in the magnitude of applied load Example: punching or shearing operations-Change in direction of load application Example: a connecting rod -Change in point of load application Example: a rotating shaft There are different types of fatigue/variable loading. The worst case of fatigue loading is the case known as fully-reversible load. One cycle of this type of loading occurs when a tensile stress of some value is applied to an unloaded part and then released, then a compressive stress of the same value is applied and released.
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A rotating shaft with a bending load applied to it is a good example of fully reversible load. In order to visualize the fully-reversing nature of the load, picture the shaft in a fixed position (not rotating) but subjected to an applied bending load (as shown here). The outermost fibers on the shaft surface lying on the convex side of the deflection (upper surface in the picture) will be loaded in tension (upper green arrows), and the fibers on the opposite side will be loaded in compression (lower green arrows). Now, rotate the shaft 180 in its bearings, with the loads remaining the same. The shaft stress level is the same, but now the fibers which were loaded in compression before you rotated it are now loaded in tension, and vice-versa. Thus if the shaft is rotated let us say at 900 revolutions per minute then the shaft is cyclically stressed 900 times a minute. To illustrate how damaging such type load is, take a paper clip, bend it out straight, then pick a spot in the middle, and bend the clip 90 back and forth at that spot (from straight to "L" shaped and back). When you bend it the other way, you reverse the stresses (fully reversing fatigue). You can notice that the clip will break in a few to about a maximum of 10 cycles. When you are bending it you are plastically-deforming the metal, you are, by definition, exceeding its yield stress. When you bend it in one direction, you are applying a high tensile stress to the fibers on one side of the OD, and a high compressive stress on the fibers on the opposite side. In the next cycle the phenomena is repeated, the tensile stress fibers are now compressed and vice versa, thus the material is cyclically strained which ultimately results in their premature failure.
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Fatigue Failure
Often machine members subjected to such repeated or cyclic stressing are found to have failed even when the actual maximum stresses were below the ultimate strength of the material, and quite frequently at stress values even below the yield strength. The most distinguishing characteristics is that the failure had occurred only after the stresses have been repeated a very large number of times. Hence the failure is called fatigue failure. ASTM Definition of fatigue The process of progressive localized permanent structural changes occurring in a material subjected to conditions that produce fluctuating stresses at some point or points and that may culminate in cracks or complete fracture after a sufficient number of fluctuations. Let us first make an attempt to understand the basic mechanism of fatigue failure
Fatigue Failure- Mechanism

A fatigue failure begins with a small crack; the initial crack may be so minute and can not be detected. The crack usually develops at a point of localized stress concentration like discontinuity in the material, such as a change in cross section, a keyway or a hole. Once a crack is initiated, the stress concentration effect become greater and the crack propagates. Consequently the stressed area decreases in size, the stress increase in magnitude and the crack propagates more rapidly. Until finally, the remaining area is unable to sustain the load and the component fails suddenly. Thus fatigue loading results in sudden, unwarned failure.
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Fatigue Failure Stages

Thus three stages are involved in fatigue failure namely -Crack initiation -Crack propagation -Fracture The macro mechanism of fatigue failure is briefly presented now. Crack initiation
Areas of localized stress concentrations such as fillets, notches, key ways, bolt holes and even scratches or tool marks are potential zones for crack initiation.
Crack also generally originate from a
geometrical discontinuity
or
metallurgical stress raiser like sites of inclusions As a result of the local stress concentrations at these locations, the induced stress goes above the yield strength (in normal ductile materials) and cyclic plastic straining results due to cyclic variations in the stresses. On a macro scale the average value of the induced stress might still be below the yield strength of the material. During plastic straining slip occurs and (dislocation movements) results in gliding of planes one over the other. During the cyclic stressing, slip saturation results which makes further plastic deformation difficult.
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As a consequence, intrusion and extrusion occurs creating a notch like discontinuity in the material.
Crack propagation This further increases the stress levels and the process continues, propagating the cracks across the grains or along the grain boundaries, slowly increasing the crack size. As the size of the crack increases the cross sectional area resisting the applied stress decreases and reaches a thresh hold level at which it is insufficient to resist the applied stress. Final fracture As the area becomes too insufficient to resist the induced stresses any further a sudden fracture results in the component.
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The micro mechanism of fatigue fracture
Cause
Material body
Cyclic stress
Effect
Atomic
Microscopic
Macroscopic
Crack propagation
1.Dislocation movements 2.Dislocation multiplication 3.Defect interaction 4.Cross slip
1. Slip formation 2. Slip saturation 3. Structure deterioration 4. Extrusion intrusion 5. Engergy changes 6. Crack nucleation and growth Crystallographically
1.Stable stages 2.Unstable stages 3.Critical length 4.Final fracture
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Variable stress in shaft under rotation

Extrusion
Intrusion
Dislocation movement and slip
Slip saturation
Structural deterioration
Intrusion and Extrusion Crack Nucleation
Effect of cyclic stressing

Animate Basic features of failure appearance
A fatigue failure, therefore, is characterized by two distinct regions. The first of these is due to progressive development of the crack, while the second is due to the sudden fracture. The zone of sudden fracture is very similar in appearance to the fracture of a brittle material, such as cast iron, that has failed in tension. The crack propagation zone could be distinguished from a polished appearance. A careful examination (by an experienced person) of the failed cross section could also reveal the site of crack origin
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How to tackle fatigue failures

The number of cycles that a metal can endure before it breaks is a complex function of the static and cyclic stress values, the alloy, heat-treatment and surface condition of the material, the hardness profile of the material, impurities in the material, the type of load applied, the operating temperature, and several other factors.
Stress Life Relations

To understand the phenomena of fatigue failure a systematic study has been conducted by a German railway engineer A.Wohler by testing axles to failure in the laboratory under fully reversed loading. His work lead to the existence of a relation between applied stress and the number of cycles to failure. This relation or the S-N diagram became the standard way to characterize the behavior of materials under cyclic stressing, and evaluate the fatigue strength of materials.
How is the fatigue strength of a metal determined?

The fatigue behavior of a specific material, heat-treated to a specific strength level, is determined by a series of laboratory tests on a large number of apparently identical samples of that specific material. This picture shows a laboratory fatigue specimen. These laboratory samples are optimized for fatigue life. These laboratory standardized samples in are now and
geometry
configuration such that no extraneous factors other than the applied stress influence the fatigue life. They are Figure 1.2
machined with shape characteristics which maximize the fatigue life of a metal, and are highly polished to provide the surface characteristics
which enable the best fatigue life. A single test consists of applying a known, constant bending stress to a round sample of the material, and rotating the sample around the bending stress axis until it fails. As the sample rotates, the stress applied to any fiber on the outside surface of the sample varies from maximum-tensile to zero to maximum-compressive and back. The test mechanism counts the number of rotations (cycles) until the specimen fails. A large number of tests is run at each stress level of interest, and the results are statistically massaged to determine the expected number of cycles to failure at that stress level. The most widely used fatigue-testing device is the R.R Moore high-speed rotating beam machine. This machine subjects the specimen to pure bending (no transverse shear).
Standard Testing
A rotating bending machine (RBM) is mostly suitable to test the fatigue properties at zero mean stress. A schematic sketch of the test device is illustrated in the figure below. A standard test specimen is clamped in bearings at the ends and loaded at two points as shown. With this type of device the region of rotating beam between built-in ends is subjected to pure bending with a constant bending moment all along its length. While under the influence of this constant moment, the specimen is rotated by the drive spindles around the longitudinal axis; any point on the specimen is thus subjected to completely reversed stress pattern.
RBM-Fatigue Testing
Flexible coupling
Main Bearing
Load Bearing
Main Bearing
Motor
Test piece
w
2
Loading on the Test Specimen w/2
w
2
w/2
w/2
w/2
Bending Moment
The S-N Diagram

Tests on several specimens are conducted under identical conditions with varying levels of stress amplitude. The cyclic stress level of the first set of tests is some large percentage of the Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS), which produces failure in a relatively small number of cycles. Subsequent tests are run at lower cyclic stress values until a level is found at which the samples will survive 10 million cycles without failure.
The results are plotted as an S-N diagram (see the figure) usually on semi-log or on log-log paper, depicting the life in number of cycles tested as a function of the stress amplitude. A typical plot is shown in the figure below for two class of materials.
Low Cycle
High Cycle
Finite Life Infinite Life
140 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Sut120 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -----------------------------------------------------------------------------MPa100 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 90 80 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 70 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 60 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 50 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 40 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 30

10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
Number of stress cycle, N
Endurance or Fatigue Limit

In the case of the steels, a knee (flattening or saturation) occurs in the graph, and beyond this knee failure will not occur, no matter how large the numbers of cycles are. The strength (stress amplitude value) corresponding to the knee is called the endurance limit (Se) or the fatigue limit. However the graph never does become horizontal for non-ferrous metals and alloys, hence these materials do not have an endurance limit. Endurance Limit
Endurance or Fatigue limit - definition

Endurance or fatigue limit can be defined as the magnitude of stress amplitude value at or below which no fatigue failure will occur, no matter how large the number of
stress reversals are, in other words leading to an infinite life to the component or part being stressed. For most ferrous materials Endurance limit (Se) is set as the cyclic stress level that the material can sustain for 10 million cycles. In general, steel alloys which are subjected to a cyclic stress level below the EL (properly adjusted for the specifics of the application) will not fail in fatigue. That property is commonly known as "infinite life". Most steel alloys exhibit the infinite life property, but it is interesting to note that most aluminum alloys as well as steels which have been casehardened by carburizing, do not exhibit an infinite-life cyclic stress level (Endurance Limit).
Endurance or Fatigue Strength

For such materials, which do not have an endurance limit, to use in design applications it is customary to define a fatigue or endurance strength (SN) as the value of the stress amplitude at a specified life (in terms of stress reversals) usually 5X106 or 107 cycles. The specification of fatigue strength without specifying the corresponding life is meaningless. The specification of a fatigue limit always implies infinite life.
Failure Line for S f
Sut
Endurance limit s e' exists for some meterials Other meteials show no endurace limit
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Se' SN
0 1 2 3 4 5
Log number of cycles N
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Factors Influencing Fatigue

i) Loading
Nature and type of loading: -Axial tension, bending, torsion and combined loading-Mean and Variable components in case of Repeated, Fluctuating and Alternating loading and Frequency of loading and rest periods ii) Geometry Size effects and stress concentration iii) Material Composition, structure, directional properties and notch sensitivity iv) Manufacturing Surface finish, heat treatment, residual stresses V) Environment Corrosion, high temperature, radiation
Material
As noted earlier there are two class of materials as for as the fatigue behavior is concerned, those material which exhibit well defined endurance limit and those without do not show endurance limit. Most ferrous materials and basic steels fall under the first category and some heat treated alloys of steel, aluminum etc. fall under the second category. Composition and strength of the material are interrelated and detail discussion on strength follows later. Strength is also related to micro structure and in this respect it is interesting to note that soft structure like ferrite resist fatigue better than hard structure
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like cementite. However because of the higher strength that can be achieved from the same material by altering the micro structure, such structures are preferred in spite of their poor resistance
IS
THERE
ANY
RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN
UTS
AND
FATIGUE
STRENGTH?
The endurance limit of steel displays some interesting properties. These are shown, in a general way,
Fatigue Behaviour in Steel
280 420
560
700
840
980 1120 1260 1400 1540 1680 1820 1960 2100
UTS MPa
50%
Polished
Notched
Corroded
in this graph, and briefly discussed below. It is a simplistic rule of thumb that, for steels having a UTS less than 1400 MPa, the endurance limit for the material will be approximately 45 to 50% of the UTS if the surface of the test specimen is smooth and polished.
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That relationship is shown by the line titled "50%". A very small number of special case materials can maintain that approximate 50% relationship above the 1400 MPa level. However, the EL of most steels begins to fall away from the 50% line above a UTS of about 1400 MPa, as shown by the line titled "Polished". For example, a specimen of SAE-4340 alloy steel, hardened to 32 Rockwell-C (HRc), will exhibit a UTS around 1400 MPa and an EL of about 700 MPa, or 50% of the UTS. If you change the heat treatment process to achieve a hardness of about 50 HRc, the UTS will be about 1820 MPa, and the EL will be about 590 MPa, which is only about 32% of the UTS. Several other alloys known as "ultra-high-strength steels" and some maraging steels have been demonstrated to have an EL as high as 45% of UTS at strengths as high as 2100 MPa. Also note that these values are EL numbers for fully-reversing bending fatigue. In above figure illustrated, the line titled "Notched" shows the dramatic reduction in fatigue strength as a result of the concentration of stress which occurs at sudden changes in crosssectional area (sharp corners in grooves, fillets, etc.). The highest EL on that curve is about 25% of the UTS (at around 350 MPa). The surface finish of a material has a dramatic effect on the fatigue life. That fact is clearly illustrated by the curve titled "Corroded". It mirrors the shape of the "notched" curve, but is much lower. That curve shows that, for a badly corroded surface (fretting, oxidation, galvanic, etc.) the endurance limit of the material starts at around 140 MPa for materials of 280 MPa UTS (50%), increases to about 180 MPa for materials between 280 and 1400 MPa UTS, then decreases back toward 140 MPa as the material UTS increases above 1400 MPa.
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WHY IS THE SURFACE SO IMPORTANT?

Fatigue failures almost always begin at the surface of a material. The reasons are that (a) the most highly-stresses fibers are located at the surface (bending fatigue) and (b) the intergranular flaws which precipitate tension failure are more frequently found at the surface. Suppose that a particular specimen is being fatigue tested (as described above). Now suppose the fatigue test is halted after 20 to 25% of the expected life of the specimen and a small thickness of material is machined off the outer surface of the specimen, and the surface condition is restored to its original state. Now the fatigue test is resumed at the same stress level as before. The life of the part will be considerably longer than expected. If that process is repeated several times, the life of the part may be extended by several hundred percent, limited only by the available cross section of the specimen. That proves fatigue failures originate at the surface of a component.
Frequency: or f in units of Hz. For rotating machinery at 3000 rpm, f = 50 Hz. In

general only influences fatigue if there are environmental effects present, such as humidity or elevated temperatures
Waveform: Is the stress history a shine wave, square wave, or some other wave form?
As with frequency, generally only influences fatigue if there are environmental effects.
Is the endurance limit an exact number?

It is important to remember that the Endurance Limit of a material is not an absolute nor fully repeatable number. In fact, several apparently identical samples, cut from adjacent sections in one bar of steel, will produce different EL values (as well as different UTS and YS) when tested, as illustrated by the S-N diagram below. Each of those three properties
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(UTS, YS, EL) is determined statistically, calculated from the (varying) results of a large number of apparently identical tests done on a population of apparently identical samples. The plot below shows the results of a battery of fatigue tests on a specific material. The tests at each stress level form statistical clusters, as shown. a curve is fitted through the clusters of points, as shown below. The curve which is fitted through these clusters, known as an "S-N Diagram" (Stress vs. Number), represents the statistical behavior of the fatigue properties of that specific material at that specific strength level. The red points in the chart represent the cyclic stress for each test and the number of cycles at which the specimen broke. The blue points represent the stress levels and number of cycles applied to specimens which did not fail. This diagram clearly demonstrates the statistical nature of metal fatigue failure.
110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 1*100
1*101
1*102
1*103
1*104
1*105
1*106
1*107
1*108
Cycles
DO REAL-WORLD COMPONENTS EXHIBIT THE "LABORATORY" EL?

Unfortunate experience has taught engineers that the value of the Endurance Limit found in laboratory tests of polished, optimized samples does not really apply to real-world components.
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Because the EL values are statistical in nature, and determined on optimized, laboratory samples, good design practice requires that one tries to determine what the actual EL will be for each specific application. This is a time consuming process and at preliminary design levels may not be feasible or desirable. As more and more knowledge is gained on the fatigue aspects, this is now over come by applying a number of correction or modification factors as discussed in the next lesson.
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Our real concern is how to design a component so that failure by fatigue could be precluded. We have noted earlier that -Materials response to fatigue loading is characterized by its S-N behavior obtained through a standard test -The most important factors that affect the fatigue performance (strength) are also noted in the previous lecture. -Standard test conditions do not account for all these factors. -Components in real use will be subjected to different or varied conditions. In order to design for satisfactory fatigue life (prior to testing actual components), good practice requires that the "laboratory" Endurance Limit value be reduced by several adjustment factors. These reductions are necessary to account for: (a) the differences between the application and the testing environments, and (b) the known statistical variations of the material. This procedure is to insure that both the known and the unpredictable factors in the application (including surface condition, actual load, actual temperature, tolerances, impurities, alloy variations, heat-treatment variations, stress concentrations, etc. etc. etc.) will not reduce the life of a part below the required value. Please read that paragraph again, and understand it well. An accepted contemporary practice to estimate the maximum fatigue loading which a specific design can survive is the Marin method, in which the laboratory test-determined EL of the particular material (tested on optimized samples) is adjusted to estimate the maximum cyclic stress a particular part can survive.
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This adjustment of the EL is the result of six fractional factors. Each of these six factors is calculated from known data which describe the influence of a specific condition on fatigue life. Those factors are: (a) Surface Condition (ka): such as: polished, ground, machined, as-forged, corroded, etc. Surface is perhaps the most important influence on fatigue life; (b) Size (kb): This factor accounts for changes which occur when the actual size of the part or the cross-section differs from that of the test specimens; (c) Load (Kc): This factor accounts for differences in loading (bending, axial, torsional) between the actual part and the test specimens; (d) Temperature (kd): This factor accounts for reductions in fatigue life which occur when the operating temperature of the part differs from room temperature (the testing temperature); (e) Reliability (ke): This factor accounts for the scatter of test data. For example, an 8% standard deviation in the test data requires a ke value of 0.868 for 95% reliability, and 0.753 for 99.9% reliability. (f) Miscellaneous (Kf): This factor accounts for reductions from all other effects, including residual stresses, corrosion, plating, metal spraying, fretting, and others. These six fractional factors are applied to the laboratory value of the material endurance limit to determine the allowable cyclic stress for an actual part: Cyclic Stress = ka * kb * Kc * kd * ke * kf * EL Thus designers are now able to tackle this situation by applying as many modification factors as possible so that most important deviations of the real design condition from the standard test conditions are accounted. So the next part of the discussion will deal with the endurance strength modification factors. Real-World Allowable
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Endurance Strength Modification Factors

The most important deviations that occur in design situation compared to standard test conditions are Size variations Surface finish differences load variations temperature differences Other miscellaneous-effects
Differences-load variations-temperature differences-other miscellaneous-effects To account for these conditions a variety of modifying factors, each of which is intended to account for a single effect, is applied to the endurance limit value of test specimen obtained under laboratory conditions. Consequently we may write Se = Se* ka kb kc kd keS = endurance limit of mechanical element (to be designed) Se* = endurance limit of test specimen. ka = surface factor kb = size factor kc = load factor kd = temperature factor ke = miscellaneous-effects factor
Modification Factors
Surface Factor ka the surface of the rotating-beam specimen is highly polished, with final polishing in the axial direction to smooth out any circumferential scratches. For other conditions the modification factor depends upon the quality of the finish and upon the tensile strength. Sufficient data is available in the literature relating the basic strength of the material and its surface finish or surface condition to the modification factor which is nothing but the percentage of standard endurance that could be realized under this condition. Typical charts are given below. A more practical approach can be to use an empirical relation of the type ka = aSbut
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is available in literature to account for the various surface condition values of constant a and b are shown in the table below.
FACTOR a SURFACE FINISH Kpsi 1.34 2.70 14.4 39.9 EXPONENT b MPa 1.58 4.51 57.7 272 -0.085 -0.265 -0.718 -0.995
Ground Meachined or cold rolled Hot Rolled As- forged
100 Polished 90 80 70 60 50 Hot rolled 40 As Forge 30 20 corroded in salt water 10 0 300 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 Tensile Strength (MPa) corroded in tap water Machined Ground
1800
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1.1 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 280 560 840 1120 1400 1680 50.0 25.0 6.3 3.125 12.5 1.6 0.025 0.05 0.1 0.2
0.4 1.6 0.8
Failute Strength Sut (MPa)
Size Factor Kb
The size factor accounts for the variations in the size of the component when compared to the test specimen. The size factor has been evaluated using sets of data points, from available literature. The larger the size higher the probability of internal defects, hence lower the fatigue strength. An empirical relation for the case of bending and torsion can be expressed as given below
d / 7.62 )0.107 = 1.24d 0.107 2.79 d 51mm k b = ( 51 d 254mm 0.859 0.000837d
Size Factor
For large sizes, kb further reduces to 0.60 and lower Note that for axial loading there is no size effect, therefore use kb = +1.0 in this case
Load Factor-Axial Loading

Though there is no apparent size effect for specimens tested in axial or pushpull fatigue, there is definite difference between the axial fatigue limit and that in reserved bending. A very extensive collection of data has been made by R.W.Landgraf (Ford motor
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company), on axial fatigue. These results were analyzed, resulting in the modification values for axial loading as shown in the table.
Load Factor-Torsional Loading

A collection of 52 data points comparing the torsional endurance limit with the bending endurance limit yielded a load factor for torsion of 0.565. Using a different set of data points, Mischke obtained the result kc =0.585. Both of these are very close to the value of 0.577 shown in the table. Note that this value incidentally happen to be the relation between torsional and tensile yield strengths according to the distortion energy theory.
Load Factor
Hence for the three basic types of loading normally encountered in most practical applications, namely axial, bending and torsional stressing the effect could be accounted by the load factor as shown in the table 0.923 1 kc = 1 0.577 Axial Loading S<1520MPa(220Kpsi) Axial Loading S<1520MPa(220Kpsi) Bending Torsion and shear
Temperature factor
The limited amount of data available show that the endurance limit for steels in creases slightly as the temperature rises and then begins to fall off in the 400 to 700 F range, not unlike the behaviour of the tensile strength shown figure below
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1.0 Sut 0.9 0.8 ST/SRT 0.7 0.6 0.5 0 Sy
RT
200
400
600
Temperature, oC
For this reason it is probably true that the endurance limit is related to tensile strength at clevated temperatures in the same manner as at room temperature. It seems quite logical, therefore, to employ the same relations to predict endurance limit at elevated temperatures as are used at room temperature, at least, this practice will provide a useful standard against which the performance of various materials can be compared. Two types of problems arise when temperature is a consideration. If the rotating- beam endurance limit is known at room temperature, then use
kd =
ST SRT
Miscellaneous Effects Factor Ke

Similarly the other factors take into account the deviations of actual condition of use from the standard testing. Though the factor ke is intended to account for the reduction in
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endurance limit due to all other effects, it is really intended as a reminder that these must be accounted for, because actual conditions of use vary from standard test condition; values of ke are not always available.
Endurance - Limit - Preliminary Observations

The determination of endurance limit by fatigue testing is now a routine, though a lengthy procedure. Generally stress testing is preferred to strain testing for endurance limits. For preliminary and prototype design and for some failure analysis as well, a quick method of estimating endurance limit is needed. There are great quantities of data in the literature on the results of rotating-beam tests and simple (static) tension tests of specimen taken from the same bar or in got. By plotting the resulting tensile and endurance strength values as in shown in Figure, it is possible to see whether there is any correlation between the sets of results. The graph appears to suggest that the endurance limit ranges from about 40 to 60 percent of the tensile strength for steels up to about 1400 MPa (200 kpsi). Beginning at about Sut = 1400 MPa (200 kpsi), the scatter appears to increase, but the trend seems to level off, as suggested by the dashed horizontal line at Se=700MPa (100 kpsi). Hence for preliminary design purposes the standard laboratory endurance strength of can be derived from its ultimate tensile strength values using the following relations
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Stress Concentration Effect

Fatigue Stress Concentration
The existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes, grooves, or notches, in a part increase the magnitude of stresses significantly in the immediate vicinity of the discontinuity. Fatigue failure mostly originates from such places. Hence its effect must be accounted and normally a fatigue stress-concentration factor Kf is applied when designing against fatigue, even if the materials behavior is ductile.
Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor

Recall that a stress concentration factor need not be used with ductile materials when they are subjected to only static loads, because (local) yielding will relieve the stress concentration. However under fatigue loading, the response of material may not be adequate to nullify the effect and hence has to be accounted. The factor Kf commonly called a fatigue stress concentration factor is used for this. Normally, this factor is used to indicate the increase in the stress; hence this factor is defined in the following manner. Fatigue stress concentration factor can be defined as
k = f
Fatigue strength (limit) of unnotched specimen Fatigue strength (limit) of notched free specimen
The other form of use, where necessary is the miscellaneous-effects factor ke applied as a strength reduction factor on the fatigue limit value. With this approach we define
1 Kf
ke =
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980 840
700 560
Carbon Steel Alloy Steel
140 120
100 Kpsi 80
Wrought irons
420 280 140 0

+ +++ +++
60 40 20 0
0 140 280 420 560 700 840 980 1120 1260 1400 1540 1680 1820 1960 2100
Tensile Strength Sut ,MPa
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Stress Concentration Effect

Fatigue Stress Concentration
The existence of irregularities or discontinuities, such as holes, grooves, or notches, in a part increase the magnitude of stresses significantly in the immediate vicinity of the discontinuity. Fatigue failure mostly originates from such places. Hence its effect must be accounted and normally a fatigue stress-concentration factor Kf is applied when designing against fatigue, even if the materials behavior is ductile.
Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor

Recall that a stress concentration factor need not be used with ductile materials when they are subjected to only static loads, because (local) yielding will relieve the stress concentration. However under fatigue loading, the response of material may not be adequate to nullify the effect and hence has to be accounted. The factor Kf commonly called a fatigue stress concentration factor is used for this. Normally, this factor is used to indicate the increase in the stress; hence this factor is defined in the following manner. Fatigue stress concentration factor can be defined as
k = f
Fatigue strength (limit) of unnotched specimen Fatigue strength (limit) of notched free specimen
The other form of use, where necessary is the miscellaneous-effects factor ke applied as a strength reduction factor on the fatigue limit value. With this approach we define
1 Kf
ke =
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Geometric stress concentration factor Kt and Fatigue Stress Concentration factor Kf

This form of definition needs that the fatigue stress concentration factor or the endurance strength values for different notch geometries on each of the material to be used should be evaluated. However once sufficient data was available a simple approach, useful at preliminary design stages was evolved to determine the fatigue stress concentration factor value from the geometrical (theoretical) stress concentration values, data charts for which is readily available, using a notch sensitivity relation.
Notch Sensitivity
Notch sensitivity q is defined by the equation
q=
Kf 1 Kt 1
Actual intensification of stresses over nominal stress Theoretical intensifcation of stress over nominal stresses
The values of q are between zero and unity. It is evident that if q=0, then Kf =1, and the material has no sensitivity to notches at all. On the other hand if q=1, then Kf = Kt, and the material has full notch sensitivity. In analysis or design work, find Kt first, from geometry of the part. Then select or specify the material, find q, and solve for Kf from the equation K f = 1 + q(K t 1)
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Notch sensitivity curves

use these values with bending and axial load use these values with torsion 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 q 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 0 0 0.02 0.5 0.04 1.0 0.08 0.10 0.06 Notch radius r (in.) 1.5 2.0 2.5 Notch radius r (mm) 0.12 3.0 0.14 3.5 0.16 4.0 Aluminium alloy (based on 2024- T6 data)
Steel Su ksi and Bhn as marked
S-N Diagram-Operational Regions and Design Concepts Low Cycle Fatigue

The body of knowledge available on fatigue failure from N=1 to N=1000 cycles is generally classified as low-cycle fatigue. Low Cycle Fatigue
High Cycle Fatigue

High-cycle fatigue, then, is concerned with failure corresponding to stress cycles greater than 103 cycles.(Note that a stress cycle (N=1) constitutes a single application and removal of a load and then another application and removal of load in the opposite direction. Thus N= means that the load is applied once and then removed, which is the case with the simple tensile test.) High Cycle Fatigue
Finite and Infinite Life

We also distinguish a finite-life and an infinite-life region. Finite life region covers life in terms of number of stress reversals upto the knee point.(in case of steels) beyond which is the infinite-life region. The boundary between these regions cannot be clearly defined except for specific materials; but it lies somewhere between 106 and 107 cycles, for materials exhibiting fatigue limit.
Finite Life Infinite Life
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Stressing other than fully reversed loadings.

Quite frequently it is necessary to determine the strength of parts corresponding to stress situations other than complete reversals. Many times in design the stresses fluctuate without passing through zero. Some of the stress time relationships and the components of stresses involved with such situations and the relations among them will be discussed now. One type is zero-to-max-to zero, where a part which is carrying no load is then subjected to a load, and later, the load is removed, so the part goes back to the no-load condition. An example of this type of loading is a chain used to haul logs behind a tractor. Another type of fatigue loading is a varying load superimposed on a constant load. The suspension wires in a railroad bridge are an example of this type. The wires have a constant static tensile load from the weight of the bridge, and an additional tensile load when a train is on the bridge. For such type of stressing how to proceed will be looked now.
Cyclic Stressing
As the name implies, the induced stresses vary in some pattern with time. This can be due to variation in the applied load itself or because of the conditions of use as seen earlier. Let us assume that the pattern of such a variation is sinusoidal. Then the following are the basic terminology associated with variable stresses. The definitions included here are elementary. They are introduced for clarity and convenience.
Maximum stress: max

The largest or highest algebraic value of a stress in a stress cycle. Positive for tension
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1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

C A B
-1.2-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Compression Sm /S uc
Tension S m / S ut
Ration of the mean

Minimum stress: max
The smallest or lowest algebraic value of a stress in a stress cycle. Positive for tension.
Nominal stress: nom

As obtained or calculated from simple theory in tension, bending and torsion neglecting geometric discontinuities nom = F/A or M/Z or T.r/J Hence max = Fmax/ A or Mmax/Z or Tmax.r/Jp min = Fmin/ A etc
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Mean stress (Mid range stress) : m The algebraic mean or average of the
maximum and minimum stress in one cycle.
+ min m = max 2
Stress range: r The algebraic difference between the maximum and minimum stress in
one cycle.
r = max min
Stress Amplitude: a Half the value of the algebraic difference between the maximum
and minimum stress in one cycle or half the value of the stress range.
a =
max min r = 2 2
Types of Variations
(a) (Completely)Reversible stressing: Stress variation is such that the mean stress is zero; Same magnitude of maximum and minimum stress, one in tension and the other in compression .Now for Completely reversible loading m = max= min; R = - 1 and A = 0
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Stress
+
max a
0 _
m=0
min
(a) Fully reversed
(b) Repeated stressing:

Stress variation is such that the minimum stress is zero. Mean and amplitude stress have the same value for repeated loading
min = 0 = a = max / 2 R = 0 and A = 1
Stress
+
a
------------------------------------------------------
max
t=0
0
min
_
(b) Repeated
(c) Fluctuating stressing:

Both minimum and maximum stresses are positive and mean stress also being positive (tensile)
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Stress
+
max a
------------------------------------------------------
0
m
t
min
_
(b) Flutuating
(d) Alternating stressing:

Positive maximum stress and negative minimum stress; mean stress is generally positive but can also be negative.
Stress
+
max
------------------------------------------------------
0 _
t=0
------------------------------------------------------
min
General Cyclic Loading Influencing Parameters

What are the important parameters to characterize a given cyclic loading history such as the typical ones highlighted above? Note that the following parameters are common to all such types of variations Stress Range:
= max min
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Stress amplitude: a =
1 ( max min ) 2
1 ( max + min ) 2
Mean stress:
m =
Stress ratio:
R=
min max
Recall the following relations from the earlier discussions

max + min min m = max 2 2 a min R= A= max m
m =
What is the effect of such variations on the Fatigue Strength?

Some typical types of variation in the cyclic stressing of materials have been highlighted All such and several other types of variations can be bounded by two main parameters the variable component of the stress or the stress amplitude and the mean component of stress or the mean stress. The effect of stress amplitude is already noted in the S-N diagram. Now let us note the effect of the mean stress. By varying both the mean stress and the stress amplitude, or the alternating component, we can learn some thing about the fatigue resistance of parts when subjected to such situations. Three methods of plotting the results of such tests are in general use and are shown in figures below
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Su Sy
max
min
Se
45
Sy
Se
Mean Stress
1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2

C A B
-1.2-1.0 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Compression Sm /S uc
Tension S m / S ut
Ration of the mean
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4.0 -0.6
2.33 -0.4
1.5 -0.2
A=1 R=0
0.67 0.2
0.43 0.4
0.25 0.6
0.11 0.8
0 1.0
A= R=-1.0 840 700 560 420 280 140

0 140 280
S ut
-840 -700 -560 -420 -280 -140
420 560 700 840 980 1120 1260
Minimum stress
min
,MPa
It is evident from the above figures that the presence of mean stress reduces the magnitude of variable component or the stress amplitude that can be sustained before failure. The higher the magnitude of mean stress the lower is the magnitude of amplitude stress that can be sustained. However note that if the nature of mean stress is compressive, then it has no effect on the magnitude of the variable component or the stress amplitude value.
Failure Criteria
Yield line
Gerber line Se Sa Soderberg line 0 Goodman line

A
Sm Alternating stress
S yt
S ut
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DESIGN APPROACH FOR FATIGUE LOADINGS Design for Infinite Life

It has been noted that if a plot is made of the applied stress amplitude verses the number of reversals to failure to (S-N curve) the following behaviour is typically observed.
e
103 104 106 105 Cycle of failure, Nf 107
Completely Reversible Loading

If the stress is below the (the endurance limit or fatigue limit), the component has effectively infinite life. e 0.35TS 0.50TS for the most steel and copper alloys. If the material does not have a well defined e , often e , is arbitrarily defined as Stress that gives N f = 107 For a known load (Moment ) the section area/(modulus) will be designed such that the resulting amplitude stress will be well below the endurance limit. Design approach can be better learnt by solving a problem. Determine a suitable diameter for the axle of a rail carriage of tentative dimensions and loading shown in the reference to figure below for fatigue endurance.
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This design criterion in the case is that to induced stress should be less than the endurance limit of the material used for the axle. So the giving equation is
se
1 2
200
F 100 1500 2200
Loading on the Test Specimen w/2
w/2
w/2
w/2
Bending Moment
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A suitable material suggested for the application can be medium carbon material like 45 C8, If is evident that the shaft is subject to binding bonds. By drawing to bending moment diagram the maximum bending moment can be determined. In this case
M max = F.l = 82*103 * 200 = 16.4*106 Nmm
The induced stress
=
For circular cross section
M Z = 0.16705*106 d3 MPa
32M d3
The number of stressing is going to be fully reversed because of rotating shaft with constant load application point. Now we have to estimate the endurance limit for the material of the shaft. The ultimate strength of this steel =670 Mpa. Based on the relation between the EL
and UTS the basic endurance limit is =0.5Sut = 335 Ma. The design endurance limit Se is to be estimated now as noted earlier
Se = Se * k a k b k c
Ka Surface factor. Assuming shaft surface is machined in nature
k a = aSb = 4.45(670)0.265 ut = 0.793

ks - size factor . The diameter is unknown. Instead of taking this factor to be one, assuming the diameter can be in the range 60-140 mm, for an average value of 100mm the factor is going to be
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ks = 0.859 0.0008378 *100 = 0.775

Kc load factor This being a fully reversible bending Kc=1.0 as the diameter is uniform stress concentration effect is neglected. Hence the actual endurance strength is likely to be Se = 0.5Sut * k a k b k c . Now the final design equation is
1 32.M 3 32.M = 206 MPa or d = 3 s d e
= 0.5*670*0.793*0.775
Assuming a factor safety (N) of 1.5 the design Endurance strength is going to be 137.31 Substituting the values
1 3.2 *16.4 *106 3 d= *137.31
106.75 mm This values can be rounded off to the nearest Preferred size of = 110mm. In the next step, let us perform a critical analysis of the problem. Because of the step in diameter between the bearing and wheel region (1-2) stress Concentration is going to be there and this section may be critical where failure can Occur. Accounting for the stress concentration effect we can write
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= Kf
32M d3
K f = 1 + (k t 1)q For D r 5 = 1.22 and = = 0.05k t = 1.96 d d 90
For 45 C4 steel with Sut =670 and notch radius r= 5 q= 0.9
K f = 1 + (1.9 1)0.9 = 1.81

Now that the surface condition is not the same and correction factor for size is to be modified. The surface factor for ground finish condition is
0.086 k a = aSb ut = 1.58(670) = 0.903
The size Correlation factor is going to be ks= 0.703 Hence the actual endurance strength now is 0.5*670*0.903*0.783*1.0 = 231.86
1.81* 32 *82 *103 *100 = = 207.379 .903

The corresponding factor of safety now is
S 231.86 N= e = = 1.11 207.379
The factor of safety may not be adequate and the diameter can be modified accordingly.
Machine Design II
Design approach for other type of cyclic loadings

The proceeding approaches to design the component assumes fully reversed fatigue load, so that the mean stress m is zero. How do you handle the case where
m 0?
m1 m2 m m3 m3
m1 > m2 > m2 > m2 1 m

Sa Soderberg line 0 0
A
Gerber line Goodman line
log N1
a
Alternating stress m
TS
The four different failure criterion and their mathematical equations have been note earlier for such cyclic loadings having a definite mean stress For design applications the induced stresses a and m can replace Sa and Sm in the above equations and each strength is divided by a factor of safety N. The resulting equation is Soderberg's criteria (line) is
Kf
1 + m = Se Sut N
Goodman relation or criteria is
Kf
1 + m = Se Sut N
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Gerber parabolic relation:

N m Kf + S Se ut N a =1
2
(Note Se is corrected endurance limit values and Kf factor accounts for stress concentration effects.) The meaning of these equations is illustrated in Figure, using the modified Goodman theory as an example. From the above approach we can evolve basic design equations involving the three main type of loadings axial tension or compression, bending and torsion.
Machine Design II
Four criteria of failure are diagrammed in figure, the Soderberg's, the modified Goodman, the Gerber, and yielding. It is evident that only the Soderbergs criterion guards against yielding. The linear theories of Figure can be placed in equation form: The equation for the Soderbergs criteria (line) is Sa Sm + =1 Se Syt

Fatigue

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Fatigue

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Machine Design II

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

FATIGUE CONSIDERATION IN DESIGN

WHAT IS FATIGUE LOADING?

basically a fatigue loading.

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Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Fatigue Failure- Mechanism

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Fatigue Failure Stages

Crack also generally originate from a

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

The micro mechanism of fatigue fracture

1.Dislocation movements 2.Dislocation multiplication 3.Defect interaction 4.Cross slip

1.Stable stages 2.Unstable stages 3.Critical length 4.Final fracture

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Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Variable stress in shaft under rotation

Dislocation movement and slip

Intrusion and Extrusion Crack Nucleation

Effect of cyclic stressing

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Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

How to tackle fatigue failures

Stress Life Relations

How is the fatigue strength of a metal determined?

The S-N Diagram

Finite Life Infinite Life

Number of stress cycle, N

Endurance or Fatigue Limit

Endurance or Fatigue limit - definition

Endurance or Fatigue Strength

Failure Line for S f

Log number of cycles N

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Factors Influencing Fatigue

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Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Fatigue Behaviour in Steel

980 1120 1260 1400 1540 1680 1820 1960 2100

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Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

WHY IS THE SURFACE SO IMPORTANT?

Frequency: or f in units of Hz. For rotating machinery at 3000 rpm, f = 50 Hz. In

Is the endurance limit an exact number?

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Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 1*100

DO REAL-WORLD COMPONENTS EXHIBIT THE "LABORATORY" EL?

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Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram

Indian Institute of Technology Madras

Prof. K.Gopinath & Prof. M.M.Mayuram