Journal of Materials Processing Technology 161 (2005) 19

Advanced manufacturing engineering

A.G. Mamalis
Manufacturing Technology Division, National Technical University of Athens, 9, Iroon Polytechniou, Zografou, Athens 15780, Greece

Abstract In this paper reported are some of the activities of the Laboratory of Manufacturing Technology of the NTUA in manufacturing engineering, focusing onto some recent trends and developments in advanced manufacturing of advanced materials, mainly emphasizing my long-standing GreekUkrainianRussianHungarian scientic cooperation, also with international involvement worldwide, in the principal research and very important engineering topics nowadays, from industrial, research and academic point of view: ultraprecision engineering and nanotechnology and net-shape manufacturing of high-temperature ceramic superconductors. 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Ultraprecision; Nanotechnology processing; Manufacturing engineering

1. Introduction Quality of manufactured parts in forming, metal removal processing and net-shape manufacturing is mainly determined by their dimensional and shape accuracy, the surface integrity, and the functional properties of the products. Development of manufacture engineering is related to the tendency to miniaturization and is accompanied by the continuous increasing of the accuracy of the machined parts, see Fig. 1, reproduced from Ref. [1]. The two main trends towards miniaturization of products are the ultraprecision and the nanotechnology processing. The former is carried out by machine tools with very high accuracy, while the latter also employs new advanced methods that allow for atom manipulation or the so called bottom-up manufacturing, where machine particles are built-up atom by atom. Nanotechnology is therefore dened as the fabrication of devices with atomic or molecular scale precision, but it also includes all devices with size less than 100 nm. On the other hand, by ultraprecision processing, dened are these processes by which the highest possible dimensional accuracy has been achieved at a given time. The materials that present zero resistant at certain temperature above absolute zero are named superconductors and

the related phenomenon superconductivity, see Fig. 2, reproduced from Ref. [2]. The discovery of high-temperature superconductivity in 1986 resulted in very extensive research work regarding the discovery and synthesis of high-Tc superconducting materials, possessing superconductivity above liquid nitrogen boiling point, utilized to many engineering applications, from electronic sensors to rotating electrical generators and from nanometer-scale thin-lms to kilometerlong wires and coils. Therefore, design and net-shape manufacturing of superconducting components, starting from the initial synthesized powders, is nowadays of utmost industrial importance. Some of the activities of the Laboratory of Manufacturing Technology of the NTUA related to the above mentioned areas of advanced manufacturing are outlined below. 2. Micro- and nanoprocessing Ultraprecision processing refers to the achievement of dimensional tolerances of the order of 100 m and surface roughness of 10 nm. The dimensions of parts, or elements of parts, produced may be as small as 1 m and the resolution and repeatability of the machines used are of the order of 10 nm. These accuracy targets cannot be achieved by simple extension of conventional machining processes, but, also, new processes are required. Several cutting material removal processes, depending on the desired result, are suitable for ul-

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0924-0136/$ see front matter 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2004.07.055

A.G. Mamalis / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 161 (2005) 19

Fig. 1. Taniguchis classication [1].

traprecision machining, like drilling of microholes, milling of grooves, turning of mirror-like surfaces and micropins, whilst usually, ultraprecision turning is combined with other ultraprecision processes, such as grinding. Typical products of the above processes are miniaturized machined parts, mirror-like surfaces or macro-components with ultraprecision nished smooth surfaces, see Fig. 3 and Ref. [3]. Other processes are also used for performing ultraprecision cutting, like EDM, ECM, laser beam machining, ultrasonic machining, micropunching and injection molding. The original idea for the development of nanotechnology comes from the area of microelectronics and its applications in computer systems. According to this manufacturing concept, the smaller the particles are the reduced is their manufacturing cost and the higher is their productivity. This has already been achieved in the chips industry as it can be seen by comparing the size and the speeds of computers of the 1980s and today. Nanotechnology is made possible through technological advances made in several disciplines, as demonstrated in the nanotechnology tree, see Fig. 4 and Ref. [4]. Advancing now from the micrometer domain into the nanometer regime it renders difculties to use the ultraprecision processes outlined above. For such products new processes need to be employed, like the energy beam processes, based on the principle, that the energy carried on a

beam can remove material by melting, vaporization or ablation. These processes, developed during the last decade due to their application in the electronics industry may be listed: Photolithography, X-ray lithography, Micro EDM, Electron beam machining, Focused ion beam, Laser beam machining, Excimer and femtosecond lasers, Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM). Probably, the most important application of nanotechnology is the manufacturing of microchips. By reducing the dimensions of the chip components their number on the chip can be increased, making them even faster because the electric signal has to travel less distance between them. The dimensions of chip components cannot be reduced in size any further with todays manufacturing methods, because photolithography does not permit the manufacturing of particles with dimensions of 100 nm or less. Therefore, new methods are investigated, based, either on the same physical principles as photolithography, like LIGA, which is a deep etching process based on lithography, electroplating and molding or on completely new ideas. Electron beam machining, Focused ion beam and Laser beam machining are new processes, providing the energy for material removal in the form of heat. The main advantage of these methods, for both the tool and the workpiece, is the virtually zero machining force. Although the mechanical

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Fig. 2. Time line for discovery of superconductors [2].

properties of the workpiece do not affect the machining process, its thermal properties, like the melting point, the boiling point and the heat capacity, greatly inuence the machining characteristics, which may cause problems. Furthermore, due

Fig. 3. Mirror surfaces made of superhard materials [2].

Fig. 4. The nanotechnology tree [4].

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Fig. 5. Nanotechnology: present and potential impact [5].

to the excessive heat generated on the machined surface, a heat-affected zone is developed, since the molten material remaining on the machined surface re-solidies during cooling, whilst the structure of the layers underneath the surface changes, resulting in phase transformations in ferrous materials, which may induce residual stresses and changes in the surface hardness. A typical application of Focused ion beam is the sharpening of diamond cutting tools to a cutting edge of 10 nm. In Excimer and Femtosecond laser processing, very high quantum energy is induced into the workpiece, exceeding the energy among atoms, permitting each molecule to be decomposed into atoms, which are removed from the workpiece. The great advantage of this method, in contrast with the previous methods, is that the developed heat-affected layer is very small. This particular feature of these processes allows for performing very accurate cutting surfaces almost without defects. Their main disadvantages are the low machining speed and, thus the low efciency, and the high cost of the required equipment. In order to use ultraprecision machines in the nanometer regime, three-dimensional control of the position of the tool and the workpiece is necessary, obtained with CNC ultraprecision machine systems, that can provide such control, and with the aid of new measuring methods as the Scanning Tunneling Microscopy and the Atomic Force Microscopy. In particular, Scanning Tunneling Microscopy is very important in nanotechnology, because it makes possible atom manipulation. The main disadvantage of this method is that it can be only applied to conducting materials and, therefore, Atomic Force Microscopy has been designed to overcome this disadvantage. Note, that, the above described nanotechnology pro-

cesses need to be controlled for surface integrity and dimensional accuracy, which constitutes the eld of nanometrology. Atomic Force Microscopy is the latest device developed for that reason but Laser and X-ray interferometers are also used in nanometrology, which is a specic area of nanometrology in the form measurement, e.g. the roundness or the atness of the machined workpiece. This kind of metrology is very demanding and difcult to achieve, because there are many sources of uncertainty involved, especially in largescale structures, like astronomical mirrors, where the measuring of roughness, dimensions and shape is essential for the functionality of the structure. From all that above mentioned, a big question arises. Which is the future of nanotechnology?, see Fig. 5. There is not a straightforward answer, since the future of nanotechnology lies somewhere between science and ction. The new applications and devices that are currently under investigation by scientists and engineers, promise to bring revolution to each eld they will be applied. Nanotechnology has already a profound place in manufacturing in many elds of science and engineering. It appears that the computer science and medicine may be most likely affected, since they both are directed towards molecular scale manipulation of matter. Nevertheless, other elds of application, like materials science, automotive industry and space research, will be greatly beneted from the evolution of nanotechnology. In the eld of computer science, new quantum computers are designed. Automotive and aerospace industry have a demand for systems-on-a-chip, in which miniaturization allows all electronic systems, like computer, memory, guidance, navigation, communication, power, sensors, actuators,

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to t on a tiny chip. Such systems cannot be materialized with present technologies, but their deployment will lead to a new era of computer and aviation systems, space transportation and exploration. The expectation of such systems is to reduce the cost of air transportation and make them even more reliable. Another area the scientists are turned to is biotechnology, which can be considered as the application of biological knowledge and techniques to produce innovative materials, devices and systems. There is a great overlap among biotechnology, nanotechnology and information technology. The coupling of these technologies with other leading edge aerospace technologies can produce breakthroughs in vehicle concepts, enable new science, introduce new computer systems, and improve communications, transportation and health care. The future medical aspects of nanotechnology concentrate on the combination of mechanical and electrical systems with human cells and tissues. A great expectation is also the minimization of invasive surgery. New miniaturized machines will enter the human body, focus on the damaged area and proceed with its healing task. The development of new biocompatible materials will permit the replacement of damaged nerves by articial equivalents, the restoration of hearing or sight and the improved adhesion of living tissue cells on prosthetic implants. Interest in nanotechnology is greatly increasing worldwide leading to an extensive research funded each year. The USA and Japan are the leading forces of nanotechnology research, but Europe and other countries are also moving towards this kind of technology due to its increasing demand. The Virtual Institute VISION On-Line, built upon the present activities of the European Society for Precision Engineering and Nanotechnology, is constituted from regional centers in UK, France, Germany and Italy and ofcial national nodes in Spain, Greece, Netherlands, Belgium, Finland, Canada and Japan, with a clear focus to on-line technical assistance, education and training, addresses a range of on-line services to promote industrial growth in the ultraprecision technologies, including ultraprecision engineering, microengineering and microelectronics, microelectromechanical systems, nanotechnology and the support precision technologies, nano and precision metrology. The new and expanding markets of these technologies are demanding miniaturized, more reliable and customized devices at ever-increasing rates and reduced cost. A comprehensive review on nanotechnology is presented in Ref. [5].

location. The resulting materials and systems can be rationally designed to exhibit novel and signicantly improved optical, chemical, mechanical and electrical properties. 3.1. Carbon nanotubes The newly invented third type of carbon, after graphite and diamond, the C60 , may be used as a dry lubricant in mechanical applications. Carbon nanotubes [6] are promising building blocks for nanosystems; they consist of honeycomb lattices, rolled into cylinders with Atomic Force Microscopy, having a nanometer-scale diameter and length of about a micron. Their weight is about one-sixth of the weight of steel, the Youngs modulus about ve times and their tensile strength more than 100 times those of steel. They are even stronger than diamond, because their carbon-carbon band lengths are shorter than the related ones in diamond. A potential structure of a nanotube system is shown in Fig. 6. Such materials are very light and, at the same time, very strong and, therefore, they can be used as structural materials for aerospace and bone surgery applications. Furthermore, due to their current carrying capacity (for example, the current carrying capacity of nanometer-scale carbon wires is about 100 thousand times better than that of copper) they are suitable for applications in integrated circuits for performing functions currently performed by semiconductor devices in electronic circuits. 3.2. Nanoparticles Nanoparticles have larger active surfaces per unit volume and mass, exhibiting greater chemical activity and, therefore, they can be used as catalysts. Nanostructured materials can also be built in such a way that they will be biocompatible for implants. The following types of metal-base nanopowders are very commonly used: Aluminium oxide nanopowders. The synthesized product is a highly porous white powder with the bulk density 0.60.7 g/cm3 and specic surface 20 m2 /g. The shape

3. Nanostructured materials Nanotechnology processes made possible the manipulation of atoms and, therefore, the design and manufacture of the nanostructured materials. Materials often behave in a different way when they are nanostructured. This is accomplished by having every atom or molecule in a designated

Fig. 6. A potential structure of a nanotube circuit [6].

A.G. Mamalis / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 161 (2005) 19

of Al2 O3 particles is predominantly spherical, with an average particle size varying from 30 up to 300 nm, depending on the synthesis conditions. Magnesium oxide whiskers. The synthesized product is a highly porous white powder. Its particles mainly have a shape of the whisker with an average diameter of 60 nm and a relation of whiskers length to its diameter about 100. The synthesized particles can be covered with a thin (10 nm) solid layer of carbon during the synthesis process. Zirconium dioxide nanopowders. The synthesized product is the highly porous white powder white light yellow shade. Zirconium dioxide ZrO2 + 6% Y2 O3 , with an average size of particles 200 nm may be synthesized, with the synthesized powder stabilized in equilibrium tetragonal modication. Zirconium dioxide ZrO2 + 6% Y2 O3 , with an average size of particles 30 nm is also formed. The particles form friable conglomerates by the size up to 500 nm, whilst the stabilization of high temperature oxide cubic modication is caused by the small size of particles and additives of yttrium oxide. Zirconium dioxide ZrO2, with a characteristic particle size 5 nm. The powder has cubic modication, the stabilization of which is determined by the small size of particles. Mixtures of nanopowders. There is an opportunity of producing the mixtures of the listed above powders assortment during the synthesis process. The obtained powdery products are characterized by the uniformity of components allocation in the mixture. The formula can be controlled and set at a stage of initial component preparation. The synthesized nanopowders were utilized for modifying wolframic and non-wolframic hard facing alloys. The positive changes in material structure allow for increasing wear resistance by 150200%, fracture toughness by 50%, stability resistance at metals treatment by cutting by 150200%. The electro-technical pseudo-alloys, reinforced by synthesized nanoparticles of ZnO meet the requirements of the technical specications for metal ceramics contact. Nanopowders of metal oxides and carbides may also consist another group of mixtures. Turbostratum graphite may also form mixwith interplanar distance 3, 42 A tures with metals like Ti, Mg, Zr burns and the metal carbides are forming by self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS). At synthesis of titanium carbide with turbostratum graphite the burning rate has increased more than twice in comparison with burning rates of titanium mixture with synthetic graphite and different carbon soot.

on their basis can be utilized as a basic material or as the modifying additives at manufacturing of: sintered powdery ceramics, hard-a1loy and ceramic composites; nanoparticles reinforced metal and polymeric matrix composite; abrasive pastes and suspensions and polishing ones; chemical catalysts and sorbents. Crushing of the brittle materials grains can be achieved by shock loading. These phenomena are used for producing nanoscale materials of micro- and macroscale grains. By applying properly calculated and directed shock waves created by explosion Al2 O3 , MgO, ZrO2 , Mo, Ti, W and ceramic superconductors with the composition of YBa2 Cu3 O7x. are treated for reducing their grain size into nanoscale. Compaction of nanomaterials by shock waves has he advantage that during the compaction phase grain growth does not occur. The high-speed shock waves with high energy content can be created either by initiating high explosives (explosive compaction) or by discharging electric capacitors (electrodynamic compaction), see Ref. [2].

4. Processing of high-Tc superconductors 4.1. Fabrication of metal-sheathed YBCO and BSCCO parts High temperature superconducting materials are fabricated by various physico-chemical techniques (solid-state reaction, solgel, etc.) in the form of powders. A method that can produce monoliths from powders without changing their unique properties would be very desirable. High-energy rate powder compaction techniques, e.g. explosive and electromagnetic compaction, may be considered as tool to produce superconductive ceramics with unique properties. Shock consolidation of powders is one-stage densication/bonding process that presents potential for the above-mentioned special and difcult-to-consolidate materials. The shock waves originated from explosive detonation and propagated through the porous media, can create high shock pressures and high temperatures that result in fracturing the original grains and in sintering. The compacted solid contains a variety of primarily line defects that would provide ux pinning centers in Type II superconductors. Several industrial applications of bulk superconducting ceramics of the YBCO and BSCCO compounds have been developed by the author and his collaborators, using explosive and electromagnetic dynamic compaction techniques and subsequent net-shape manufacturing processes. These applications include wires for electrical power transmission, electrical switches for measuring technology and HTS conductors for electrical machines, e.g. rotating synchronous generators, levitated bearings and fault current limiters. They can lead to the level-off of the electricity and they signicantly

3.3. Nanoproducts under shock It involves the production of ultrane materials (metals, ceramics, mixtures) by explosive compaction techniques. The nanopowders, synthesized by explosion, and mixtures

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Fig. 7. Process ow diagram for the fabrication of high-Tc superconducting machines [2].

contribute to the modern society as a solution of the energy conservation and environmental problems. A process ow diagram, from the synthesis of high-Tc superconducting powders to the nal stages of the construction of superconducting machines, developed by the author and his collaborators in France, Hungary and Russia is shown in Fig. 7 [2,79]. A very great novelty is indicated from the subsequent mechanical processing of the densied high-Tc superconducting ceramics, employed to produce a sound nal product. Employing various forming techniques, like rolling, wire drawing, extrusion and forging and subsequent metal removal processing, e.g. machining and grinding wires, rods, plates, strips and forged parts with superconducting core and metal sheath are produced, see Figs. 8 and 9. Optimization of the processing parameters is, therefore, necessary to allow for the fabrication of these sound components, which process their superconducting properties and, therefore, modeling and simulation of the processes and the compaction mechanisms are on hand [9], see Fig. 10. 4.2. Fabrication of steel-sheathed MgB2 superconducting wires and tapes Magnesium diboride is a brittle intermetallic compound which starts to decompose at about 1000 C. For preparing metal-sheathed superconducting wires and tapes of this ma-

terial, the powder in tube (PIT) technique is combined with different sintering methods. There is a need of developing methods to fabricate fully dense MgB2 to enhance the superconducting properties as Jc, Hc2 and, furthermore, to increase the mechanical strength and fracture toughness, but the PIT methods and the similar techniques do not result in fully dense superconducting materials. To overcome the problems mentioned above, dynamic powder-compaction techniques, e.g. explosive and electromagnetic compaction, are used for fabricating steel sheathed MgB2 wires and tapes. The main reason of applying these techniques is that the dynamic treatment of powders does not merely consist of a simple compression as in conventional compaction processes, but it involves a shock wave passing through the powder body resulting in useful changes in the state of the starting material. The methodology pertaining to manufacturing of such superconductors is shown in Fig. 11. 4.3. Fabrication of superconducting coated conductors A technique for fabricating superconducting wires and tapes is to deposit HTS lms on metallic substrates. Superconducting ceramics has been deposited on polycrystalline metal substrates where the superconducting materials are caxis oriented but not aligned in plane. For achieving high critical currents and transport currents, the superconducting

A.G. Mamalis / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 161 (2005) 19

Fig. 9. Compacted/cladded superconducting compounds [7].

Fig. 8. Compacted superconducting axisymmetric compounds [7].

Fig. 10. (a) Initial nite element mesh of the experimental conguration. (b) Final deformation of the aluminium sheathed superconducting discs.

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Fig. 11. Fabrication of steel-sheathed MgB2 superconductors.

nologies of the future. Their products nd wide applications in various technological elds, replacing traditional manufacturing processing in industry. The new applications and devices that are currently under investigation by scientists and engineers promise to bring revolution to each eld they will be applied. In the eld of computer science, new quantum computers are designed. Automotive and aerospace industry have a demand for systems-on-a-chip in which miniaturization allows for all electronic systems, like computer, memory, guidance, navigation, communication, power, sensors, actuators, to t on a tiny chip. The potential of high-temperature superconductivity is very high. High-Tc superconductors promise more efcient and powerful devices, by increasing the energy efciency and the amount of electricity that can ow through it, bringing, therefore, greater industrial competitiveness and improving the publics quality of life. These new ceramics materials, manufactured with advanced processing techniques, possess profound advantages compared to conventional conductors, as they can carry much higher currents, create larger magnetic elds, and carry electric current with no energy loss to resistance.

layers must be biaxially textured, preferably c-axis oriented, without large-angle grain boundaries. Superconducting ceramic layers deposited on polycrystalline metal substrates generally do not meet this requirement. In order to fabricate superconducting wires or tapes with high critical current densities, it is necessary to align the grains biaxially. High quality superconducting layers can be obtained using textured metallic substrates. Consequently, there is a need to provide biaxially textured metallic substrate for fabrication of superconducting wires and stips. The preferred substrate material is Ni, whilst suitable materials are also the Ni-base alloys. Most materials are isotropic and their usage in practice is rare (in this eld the magnetic materials are exemptions because their anistropy are used many times). Plastic deformation, obtained by rolling, heat treatment and suitable cooling in magnetic elds can be used for the modication of the texture of the anisotropic materials. The anisotropy of the material can be used to improve the properties by suitable technologies, which can result in dened textures. Plastic deformation, not smaller than 50%, can occur only on dened slip-planes and slip-directions and it is the cause of texturing. The recrystallisation depends on the forming and growing of critical magnitude of grains.

References
[1] N. Taniguchi, Nanotechnology, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996. [2] A.G. Mamalis, D.E. Manolakos, A. Szalay, G. Pantazopoulos, Processing of High-Tc Superconductors at High Strain Rates, Technomic Publishing Co., Lanchaster, PA, USA, 2000, p. 280. [3] A.G. Mamalis, A.I. Grabchenko, M. Horv` ath, I. M eszaros, D. Paulmier, Ultraprecision metal removal processing of mirror-surfaces, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 108 (2001) 269. [4] J. Corbett, P.A. McKeown, G.N. Peggs, R. Whatmore, Nanotechnology: international developments and emerging products, Ann. CIRP 49 (2) (2000) 523. [5] A.G. Mamalis, New trends in nanotechnology, Proceedings of the Symposium on the Occasion of the 50th Anniversary of the Department of Manufacturing of the Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary, May 2001, pp. 4153. [6] A.G. Mamalis, L.O.G. Vogtl ander, A. Markopoulos, Nanotechnology and nanostructured materials: trends in carbon nanotubes, Precision Eng. 28 (2004) 16. [7] A.G. Mamalis, Manufacturing of bulk high-Tc superconductors, J. Inorg. Mater. 2 (2000) 623. [8] A.G. Mamalis, Technological aspects of high-Tc superconductors, J. Mater. Process. Tecnol. 99 (2000) 1. [9] A.G. Mamalis, F. Marquis, D.E. Manolakos, I.N. Vottea, Finite element modeling of the explosive compaction/cladding of aluminium sheathed/SSR YBCO discs, in: Proceedings of the Symposium on Powder Materials Current Research and Industrial Practices, Chicago, Illinois, USA, 2003.

5. Conclusions In conclusion, it may be said that ultraprecision engineering and nanotechnology are considered nowadays as the tech-