Definition: (Giori Lozanov) an approach based on lowering the students' affective filter as much as possible to encourage acquisition

(De)Suggestopedia

Example: using baroque music, sitting in comfy chairs, creating new identities all form part of this approach

Further Point: there is a 'receptive' 'activation' phase in class

Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - something that refers back to a previously mentioned item in a text.

Anaphoric Reference

Example: "Susan lives just round the corner. She's my best friend." 'She' refers back to 'Susan'

Further Point: can be seen in contrast to cataphoric reference (refers forward) and exophoric reference (refers to something 'outside' the text, which is common knowledge)

Definition: a test of a student's natural ability to learn a language (in this case)

Aptitude test

Example: in pronunciation, a test to check the ability to imitate/distinguish sounds in an unknown language

Further Point: clearly it is much simpler to test aptitude in systems like grammar, pronunciation or lexis, rather than skills

Definition: an inductive approach based on drilling and pattern practice, moving towards substitution of elements

Audio-Lingual Approach

Example: Teacher: "That cat is cute." Students: "That cat is cute." Teacher: "Dog." Students: "That dog is cute." etc Further Point: most interaction is teacher-student, students should 'overlearn' so that usage becomes habitual. Definition: the effect a test/exam has on the teaching leading up to it

Backwash

Example: a global language exam decides to include a speaking test for the time. This causes teachers to begin including speaking practice in their classes Further Point: the effect of backwash can be positive or negative

Definition: a belief that language is learned behaviour and we learn by imitation of good models

Behaviourism

Example: the Audio-lingual Method is the classroom approach of behaviourist ideology

Further Point: this approach works on a stimulusresponse-reward/punishment model

Bottom-up Processing

Definition: processing a text starting with the smaller elements of a text (words, sounds, etc) then building upwards to decode the text as a whole Example: listening or reading for the times of a particular train

Further Point: can be seen in comparison to 'Top-down' processing, which starts from 'global knowledge' to process meaning

Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - something that refers forward to another thing mentioned later in the text

Cataphoric Reference

Example: "Given that it is bad for you, smoking still remains very popular." 'It' refers forward to 'smoking'

Further Point: can be seen in contrast to anaphoric reference (refers back) and exophoric reference (refers outside the text)

Definition: a test where a number of words have been removed from a text. Students have to complete the text

Cloze test

Example: FCE Use of English Part 2, where students have fill the gaps left in the text

Further Point: traditionally, the missing words were every so many words (e.g. every 9th word was missing) - there are also open and multiple choice cloze tests

Definition: the words immediately around a particular item in the text which help to deduce its meaning

Co-text

Example: on the way back to the market (the underlined words are the co-text of 'back')

Further Point: the co-text can be the same topic as the context (they are about the same things) or can be a digression away from the context

Community Language Learning

Definition: (Charles Curran) an approach designed to form a group identity and lower the affective filter by building a conversation for later analysis/practice. Example: Ss sitting in a closed circle whisper to T (outside the circle) what they wish to say to another S in L1. T translates, drills and S records utterance. Further Point: a student-led process syllabus
Definition: how much a test tests what it is supposed to and nothing else (precision)

Construct validity

Example: a gap-fill where the gaps have other possible answers, apart from the desired answers, is less construct valid than one where there is only one answer per gap Further Point: we can talk about a test having high construct validity or low construct validity
Definition: to what degree a test tests what it is supposed to (thoroughness)

Content validity

Example: a test of present simple with more examples, including +, -, ?, short answer, has higher content validity than one with few + examples only Further Point: content validity also refers to how thoroughly a test reflects the course of study before it e.g. a grammar test following an integrated systems-skills course has low content validity

Definition: the basic gist of what a text is about

Context

Example: in a manual about how to use the internet, a context might be 'running a search on the web' Further Point: can be confused with 'co-text', which is text around a particular item in a text, which may or may not be about the context

Definition: a test graded according to explicit criteria

Criterion-referenced test

Example: a test marked using banded descriptors or can-do statements, such as FCE speaking

Further Point: usually for Proficiency tests which test

Definition: approaches which are based on the students being given rules to apply logically

Deductive Approaches

Example: the Grammar-Translation Approach is an example of a deductive approach

Further Point: deductive approaches can save time and some students may regard them as more adult Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - referring to something that you would only understand if you were present in the original conversation

Deixis

Example: "Can you pass me that, please?" You would only understand what 'that' was if you were present in the conversation Further Point: : often accompanied by hand gestures or other body language (paralinguistic features)

Definition: a test undertaken to test strengths and weaknesses in skills and systems

Diagnostic test

Example: a list of incorrect sentences for student to put into correct grammar, thereby testing grammatical areas they are good and bad at Further Point: the results of these tests are often used as needs analyses, thus dictating future course content

Definition: a type of reconstruction activity based on natural-speed dictation of a text

Dictogloss

Example: the teacher dictates a short text at natural speed and students just listen; on a second dictation they note key words and phrases, then work together to reconstruct the text Further Point: Usually holistic in language focus, but can be discrete item

Definition: A method from the 1880s based on speaking and listening instead of reading/writing, with lots of teacher talk and quick-fire 'display' questions.

Direct Method

Example: The teacher asking a string of questions about what the names of things are and what we use them for Further Point: a lot of the language content is not very 'natural'. Berlitz is the most famous proponent of this approach

Definition: a test of the language point or skill by focusing just on that language point/skill

Direct test

Example: testing use of linkers with a gap fill

Further Point: High face validity for the student

Definition: a test of one particular area of grammar, lexis or discourse

Discrete-item test

Example: a test on phrasal verbs or tenses

Further Point: typical as part of a product oriented syllabus / common in course books with a multi-layered syllabus with a central core syllabus of discrete items

Definition: the missing out of words in informal speech or writing. A type of grammatical cohesion.

Ellipsis

Example: "Where you going?" Here, the auxiliary 'are' has been elided or 'Having a great time' in a postcard

Further Point we commonly elide subject pronouns and auxiliaries

Definition: a type of grammatical cohesion - referring to something 'outside' of the text, which is commonly known by all

Exophoric Reference

Example: "Share prices slumped in the City today." 'The city' refers to the economic centre of a country, which is assumed knowledge. Further Point: can be seen in contrast to anaphoric reference (refers back within the text) and anaphoric reference (refers forward within the text)

Definition: requirements for learning which come from 'outside'

Extrinsic motivation

Example: a need to learn to get a job, pass an exam or because parents have made you

Further Point: can be balanced against 'intrinsic' motivation, where the impetus comes from inside

Definition: if a test looks like it tests what it is supposed to test (impression)

Face validity

Example: a learner may consider a pronunciation test which requires no speaking to not have face validity

Further Point: we can talk about a test having high face validity or low face validity Definition: describes a learner who only sees systems in terms of the general structure

Field-dependent learner

Example: a learner who would not notice grammatical or lexical patterns in dialogue

Further Point: we can also talk about field-independent learners, who see things in terms of larger structures

Definition: describes a learner who notices systems in larger structures

Field-independent learner

Example: a learner who notices verb patterns within dialogue

Further Point: we can also talk about field-dependent learners, who only see things in terms of general structures

Definition: evaluation during a course / study programme

Formative evaluation

Example: a weekly test of the grammar and lexis learnt in that week

Further Point: can be compared to summative evaluation, which is done after a course of study. Is also a way of assessing the course itself.

Definition: an approach to writing that prioritises the relationship between the reader and the writer - the purpose of the text, the social context and intended audience

Genre Approach

Example: analysing authentic examples to consider how and why they have been written as well as language and layout Further Point: recently there has been a move to combine approaches - the 'genre-process approach', which combines analysis of authentic examples of the genre with good procedures in the writing process

Grammar-Translation Approach

Definition: A deductive approach based on the translation of literary texts from and into L2 with a focus on lexis lists and grammar rules Example: Spanish students are given a section of Don Quixote in Spanish and piece by piece translate it into English Further Point: Seen as a way of 'sharpening the mind' rather than language learning. The only speaking was reading translated texts aloud.

Definition: students work things out by themselves so that they are more cognitively engaged and the rules are more memorable

Guided Discovery

Example: giving students examples and guiding them to work out the rules is an example of inductive guided discovery

Further Point: can be deductive (give students rules to match to examples) as well as inductive

Definition: describes a learner who learns language through global exposure to language

Holistic learner

Example: a student who doesn't feel the need to sequentially work through things and doesn't feel the need to make constant connections between things Further Point: these types of learner benefit from doing a wide range of activities in a wide range of topics - breadth of experience is important

Definition: the impact of the test on society, educational systems and individuals.

Impact

Example: the experience of preparing for a test will affect the individual and how they view language and language courses Further Point: Two further aspects of the testing system can impact on individuals - feedback on their performance and decisions made based on results

Definition: a test of something within the context of something else

Indirect test

Example: testing a student's use of linkers by getting them to write a discursive essay.

Further Point: Can be oral or written, often in the form of an informal test, e.g. students talk about their holiday experiences as a way to test their use of the present perfect / past simple tenses in the lead in stage of a lesson

Definition: approaches which are based on the students initially being given examples from which they work out the rules for themselves

Inductive Approaches

Example: the Audio-lingual Method is an example of an inductive approach - students work out form patterns from oral repetition Further Point: the idea is that working things out for oneself is more memorable/has more cognitive depth

Definition: the everyday testing we do in class - not under test conditions i.e. not timed or graded etc

Informal test

Example: eliciting, test-teach-test, monitoring etcetera

Further Point: this is the most common type of testing carried out on a language course

Definition: a belief that we are born 'hard-wired' for language learning i.e. with an innate capacity

Innatism

Example: Chomsky's Universal Grammar theory holds that all people from all cultures have the same innate 'rules' inside them Further Point: many believe that this knowledge has to be triggered within a 'critical period' and is therefore sometimes not relevant to learning L2 Definition: desire to learn caused by the need to achieve something

Instrumental motivation

Example: needing to pass an exam or to get a career promotion

Further Point: this kind of motivation could be either intrinsic or extrinsic Definition: the need to learn is based on the student's requirement to 'fit in' inside an L2 environment

Integrative motivation

Example: needing to know a language because you've moved to another country

Further Point: this kind of motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic

Definition: a test of various aspects of systems or skills at the same time

Integrative test

Example: a cloze test tests lexis and grammar and discourse at the same time

Further Point: used as a measure of general linguistic ability rather than knowledge of a single item Definition: using a mixture of 'top-down' and 'bottom-up' processing in order to decode meaning

Interactive Processing

Example: looking for your name on a list of exam results (top-down= knowing it's alphabetical, so starting roughly in the right place; bottom up= recognising your name) Further Point: interactive processing is, in reality, what we normally do when trying to decode a text, although the 'perfect mixture' of the two is still up for debate Definition: a desire to learn based on some kind of internal requirement or satisfaction

Intrinsic motivation

Example: a learner who comes to English classes because s/he loves learning languages

Further Point: can be balanced against 'extrinsic' motivation, where the impetus comes from outside Definition: a test type where two sentences are given - one complete and one incomplete. Students must use a given key word to complete the second sentence so that the meaning of both sentences is the same Example: FCE Use of English Part 4

Key-word transformation

Further Point: key word transformations are used to gauge a student's grammar and lexis

Definition: an approach based on the belief that students need training in 'learning' to make them more effective learners

Learner (Strategy) Training

Example: by teaching a student to underline the key words in rubric, they will become more effective at ensuring the question is answered correctly Further Point: Learner training also emphasises the importance of learner autonomy and self-assessment as a means of improvement

Definition: an overview of a learner's strengths and weaknesses in terms of what learner styles and intelligences they have

Learner Profile

Example: Student A is a good visual and auditory learner, but doesn't get much out of kinaesthetic activities Further Point: learner profiles can be used to base the needs of your students on when designing courses and activities Definition: the mode in which learners best acquire information, knowledge, language, etc

Learning Styles

Example: some students learn best through seeing things (visual learners) Further Point: We can think of styles in terms of VAKOG (Visual, Auditory, Kinaesthetic, Olfactory and Gustatory). Students normally have a blend of these styles

Mastery orientation

Definition: students who are motivated by the desire to improve a skill regardless of how others are performing have mastery orientation Example: a student who sets him/herself goals to achieve and doesn't care if people do better in an exam is mastery-oriented Further Point: can be balanced against performance orientation, where students are motivated by the desire to be better than those around them

Multiple Intelligences

Definition: definitions of learner styles/types divided into different 'intelligences' conforming to a different sphere of activity Example: some people are good with numbers and patterns - they have logical/mathematical intelligence Further Point: 7 intelligences have been identified, though many now include an 8th (naturalist).

Definition: a test type where students have to match two or more sets of linked words, pictures or sentences

Multiple matching

Example: FCE Reading Part 3

Further Point: this test type often relies on the student's knowledge of lexical fields and synonyms

Definition: a test where a number of answers are given. Students have to choose the correct answer

Multiple-choice test

Example: FCE Reading Part 1, where students have a choice of ABCD answers

Further Point: this type of test has high reliability as it is objective (does not involve the marker's subjective opinion)

Definition: an inductive approach formed by Krashen that students should have as much comprehensible input (i+1) as possible

Natural Approach

Example: classes where students listen to a large amount of language and read a lot, roughly at their level, would be using the natural approach Further Point: there is no focus on form in the natural approach.

Definition: a test graded in comparison to the whole group of exam takers

Norm-referenced test

Example: A test in which there had to be a certain number of passes, grade Bs, grade As, etc

Further Point: usually for Proficiency tests which test

Noticing

Definition: the idea that exercises which lead students to pay attention to form will lead to noticing these forms in future input, leading to acquisition Example: teacher highlights 'let's face it' in a text in class and later a student consciously notices the phrase in their reading/listening and they acquire it Further Point: Studies in L2 acquisition suggest that we need to consciously notice language for input to become intake

Definition: a test that where there can only be right or wrong answers i.e. no subjective judgement on part of the marker

Objective test

Example: a multiple-choice test, where only one of the option is correct

Further Point: the fact that answers can only be right or wrong means that the test will have higher reliability

Definition: repetition of all or part of a grammatical structure or pattern

Parallelism

Example: "We will fight them on the beaches. We will fight them on the landing grounds. We will fight them in the fields and in the trees." Here, 'we will' has been paralleled again and again. Further Point: normally used for dramatic effect

Definition: a skill that allows the speaker (or writer) to report something said in a different way, or to circumlocute difficulties

Paraphrase

Example: A: "He totally blew his top." B: "You mean he got angry? Why?"

Further Point: paraphrase is often used in academic writing to outline what other authors have said without resorting to a quote

Definition: students who are motivated by the desire to be better than the people around them have performance orientation

Performance orientation

Example: a student who systematically goes around after a test to see if they have the highest marks is performance-oriented Further Point: can be balanced against mastery orientation, where students are motivated by the desire to improve a skill regardless of others

Definition: a test done to place a student in the correct level/class at the start of a course

Placement test

Example: a multiple-choice grammar test followed by a spoken interview to ascertain ability

Further Point: placement tests can have a 'forward wash' effect, rather than backwash, as they are before the course.

Definition: Presentation - Practice - Production model for the teaching of discrete items of grammar and lexis

PPP

Example: Introducing key examples of target language in context, followed by restricted use to build accuracy/confidence, then target language is used in a freer context to practise accuracy/fluency Further Point: An accuracy to fluency model which is much criticised nowadays

Definition: how easy the exam/test is to administer and mark

Practicality

Example: a test that has a cover grid for the marker to quickly see what is right and wrong has high practicality. Further Point: increasing a test's practicality often has an inverse effect on its reliability or validity Definition: how much a test accurately predicts how the student will use the language in real life

Predictive validity

Example: writing a dialogue of buying something in a shop tests what language a student would use in that real-life situation Further Point: we can talk about a test having high predictive validity or low predictive validity

Definition: an approach to writing where what the writer does is of prime importance

Process Approach

Example: task analysis, brainstorming, planning, drafting, editing and re-writing would be a typical process for writing Further Point: the process approach still required some analysis of genre and models before the student could decide what needed to be written

Definition: the use of idealised model texts in order to give students an example of what is expected in their writing, in terms of layout and structure

Product Approach

Example: giving students a model application letter for analysis, then trying to imitate it within the confines of a new 'question' Further Point: this was the first systematic approach to teaching writing

Proficiency test

Definition: a test to discover a learner's general abilities in skills and systems, not related to a particular course or text or programme of study Example: Cambridge Main Suite exams like PET, FCE or CAE

Further Point: Proficiency tests can be 'norm-referenced' (graded in comparison to other test takers), or 'criterion-referenced' (graded to explicit criteria)

Definition: a test to find out if the aims of a course/part of a course have been achieved, and the content absorbed

Progress test

Example: A grammar test at the end of the month, testing what has been covered in class

Further Point: also called an achievement test or can be classed as formative testing (during a course)

Definition: the consistency of the results gained from the test

Reliability

Example: 2 students of identical level should get the same result, or the same student sitting the test on different occasions Further Point: we can also talk about 'marker reliability' in that the marker should also mark the same across different tests

Definition: the repeating of key lexis. A type of lexical cohesion as it provides language links throughout a text

Repetition

Example: "This year we'll be stronger because this year we need to be. This year we deserve it." 'This year' has been repeated again and again.

Further Point: normally used for clarity or dramatic effect

Definition: an example of a student's work to see what their rough ability is. Not taken under test conditions

Sample

Example: at the start of the course, getting students to write a letter to evaluate their strengths and weaknesses Further Point: you can take samples of productive skills (writing, speaking) but not receptive skills

Definition: a reading sub-skill which involves looking through a text very quickly to find specific information

Scanning

Example: you want to find the birth and death year of a famous person, so you look very quickly through a text focusing on years until you find it Further Point: often involves bottom-up processing in that you are trying to find specific word items. You know what you are looking for.

Definition: a mental representation of a situation or the context of a text

Schemata

Example: If you see an article with the title 'riding a bike', you picture the act of riding a bike, which brings to mind words and possible situations involved with it e.g. falling off, mending a puncture, etc Further Point once our schemata are activated, we can predict information and language within familiar circumstances, topics, etc, which aids top-down processing

Definition: describes a learner that needs to analyse elements sequentially

Serialist learner

Example: a student who wants to do tenses in a strict order would be a serialist

Further Point: serial learners can be thought of in opposition to holistic learners who learn through global exposure

Definition: a test type where students have to provide a short answer to a given question

Short answer

Example: In what year was JFK assassinated? ____________________________________

Further Point: questions of this type have to be very focussed to ensure they are reliable and objective
Definition: a reading sub-skill which involves moving you eyes over the text quickly to get a general idea of the topic, content and main ideas

Skimming

Example: looking quickly over an essay you find that a) it is about computers, b) the 1st paragraph is on advantages, c) the 2nd paragraph is on disadvantages, and d) that the author thinks computers are good Further Point: involves interactive processing - through recognition of words combined with prediction

Definition: the effect a test/exam has on the teaching that follows the test/exam

spin off

Example: a teacher notices that students are doing consistently poorly in the listening part of a language test, causing the teacher to focus more on listening Further Point: forward wash can be positive or negative

Subjective test

Definition: a test that allows a variety of answers to be given and relies on a marker to 'judge' subjectively the correctness of the answer Example: writing a letter for a marker to grade Further Point: the fact that two markers may vary widely in their judgement means that these tests will have lower reliability

Substitution

Definition: use of (usually) determiners and adverbs of place and time to substitute a previous element to avoid repetition. A type of grammatical cohesion. Example: "Shall we meet at the King's Head pub?" "Okay, see you there." 'There' is substituted for 'the King's Head pub' Further Point: very similar in function to anaphoric reference, but that is usually demonstratives or pronouns and the definite article

Definition: evaluation after a course / study programme

Summative evaluation

Example: an end of course test

Further Point: can be compared to formative evaluation, which is done during a course of study. Is also a way of assessing the course itself. Definition: describes a learner that needs the 'packaging' and presentation of data which the teacher, syllabus or course provides

Syllabus-bound learner

Example: a student who doesn't feel s/he can learn outside of formal education is syllabus-bound

Further Point: the opposite kind of learner is described as a syllabus-free learner Definition: a learner who can learn from general elements in a learning context and outside of a classroom

Syllabus-free learner

Example: a learner who likes individual exercises and feels they work best on their own could be described as syllabus-free Further Point: it is considered syllabus-free learners learn best when left to their own devices and can be restricted by course requirements

Definition: an approach based on the belief that students learn by using, with a focus on being fluent first and accurate later

Task-Based Learning (TBL)

Example: students try a communicative task, the teacher provides help and upgrades language, the students have a better go at the task Further Point: comes out of the belief that 'teaching is not the same as learning' - led to a move away from the PPP model

Test-Teach-Test

Definition: a method where you find out student ability initially, work on problem areas as necessary and then check student improvement Example: Teacher tests knowledge of articles with a gap fill, then teaches rules, then students correct the gap fill by applying the rules Further Point: this can be for discrete items or for skills e.g. to test for the presence/absence of a particular sub-skill

Definition: (Michael Lewis) marked by the belief that lexis is the most important element - language is ' grammaticised lexis' not 'lexicalised grammar'

The Lexical Approach

Example: syllabi that focus on lexical chunks and collocation with little or no grammar input are lexical in their approach Further Point: at low levels there is a strong emphasis on reading and listening Definition: the teacher elicits and speaks as a last resort, uses gestures, charts and Cuisenaire rods to work on structures.

The Silent Way

Example: Teacher taps Fidel chart of phonemes in 3 places repetitively. Students provide word: r-e-d. Red.

Further Point: interesting that the silent way works on a structural syllabus, but is inductive in approach

Definition: a learner is happy to wait for a language rule and cope with only part of the story

Tolerance of Ambiguity

Example: a student accepts the reason, "that's just the way it is," is tolerant of ambiguity

Further Point: students can be intolerant of ambiguity as well and feel they need to know rules they can apply in any situation

Definition: applying world or context knowledge in our decoding of the meaning of a text

Top-Down Processing

Example: looking at a title of an article and then thinking about what is known about that 'topic' before starting to read Further Point: can be seen in comparison to 'Bottom-up processing', which starts at individual parts of the text (words, discourse markers, etc)

Definition: (James Asher) an approach based on students responding at first physically and then verbally to teacher commands

Total Physical Response (TPR)

Example: Teacher: "If you like chocolate, stand up." (all students stand up) "If you also like crisps, sit down." (some students sit down) etc Further Point: there is lots of listening at lower levels leading to more reading at higher levels Definition: a test type where students are given a word that they have to change the form of to complete a sentence or longer text

Word formation
Example: FCE Use of English Part 3 Further Point: word formation tests the students lexical knowledge