Chapter 7

Air Standard Cycles

The power cycles can be classified into two important fields. The first is the power generation which the work done output of the system such as Heat Engine. The second is the refrigeration and air conditioning which the work done input to the system such as Heat Pump. Both of it are usually operating on a thermodynamic cycle. In the power generation systems, we will use the air standard cycles which the working fluid is returned to the initial state at the end of the cycle. Some assumptions were made to study the air standard cycles such as, (a) The working fluid is air and always ideal gas. (b) All processes are internally reversible. (c) Heat added to the cycle is from external heat source. (d) Heat rejected from the cycle is to the surrounding. The simplified model of heat engine is a piston cylinder device which called reciprocating engine and the basic components are shown in Fig. 7-1.

Fig. 7-1 Basic components of reciprocating engine The piston reciprocates in the cylinder between two fixed positions called the top dead center (TDC) and the bottom dead center (BDC). The distance between the TDC and the BDC is called the stroke, Lst. The diameter of the piston is called the bore, d. The
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thermodynamic cycle of reciprocating engine is four processes in two strokes as shown in Fig. 7-2. The maximum volume when the piston is at BDC. The minimum volume when the piston is at TDC which is called the clearance volume. The volume between TDC and BDC is called the displacement volume or swept volume. The ratio between maximum to minimum volume is called the compression ratio, r.

Fig. 7.2 Thermodynamic cycle of reciprocating engine

r= Vmax Vmin

The mean effective pressure, MEP, is the exerted pressure on the piston during the power stroke to produce the same net work done.
MEP = Wnet Wnet = Vstroke Vmax Vmin

The mean effective pressure can be used as a parameter to compare the performance of reciprocating engines of equal size. Reciprocating engines are classified as spark-ignition (SI) engines and compression-ignition (CI) engines. In spark-ignition engines, the combustion of the air fuel mixture is initiated by a spark plug. But in CI engines, the air fuel mixture is self

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ignited as a result of the compression temperature. The Otto and Diesel cycles are the ideal cycles for SI and CI reciprocating engines.

Otto Cycle
The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark ignition, (SI), reciprocating engines. The thermodynamic analysis of four-stork cycle can be simplified if the air standard assumptions are used. The Otto cycle is consists of four internally reversible processes as shown in Fig. 7-3.

Fig. 7-3 Otto cycle and P-v, T-s diagrams The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system and the change of kinetic and potential energies are disregarded. The energy balance for any of the processes is expressed in a unit mass basis as, Process 12, isentropic compression and r is the compression ratio,

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r=

v1 v2
k 1

T2 v1 = T1 v2

= r k 1 , T2 = T1 .r k 1

Process 23, constant volume heat addition, v2 = v3,

qin = C v (T3 T2 )

Process 34, isentropic expansion,

r= v1 v 4 = v 2 v3
k 1

T3 v 4 = T4 v3

= r k 1 , T3 = T4 .r k 1

Process 41, constant volume heat rejection, v4 = v1,

qout = C v (T4 T1 )

Otto cycle net work done is,

wnet = qin qout

The thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is,

th,Otto =
wnet qin q out q C (T T ) = = 1 out = 1 v 4 1 qin qin qin C v (T3 T2 )

th.Otto = 1 th.Otto = 1

T4 T1 T4 T1 1 T T1 = 1 = 1 k 1 4 k 1 k 1 T3 T2 T4 .r T1 .r r T4 T1 1 r k 1

From the relation of thermal efficiency for Otto cycle, it is clear that the thermal efficiency is very dependent on the compression ratio, r, and the specific heat ratio, k = Cp/Cv as shown in Fig. 7-4. The Otto cycle thermal efficiency increases with increasing the compression ratio r and the specific heat ratio k.

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Fig. 7-4 Dependent of Otto thermal efficiency on r and k

Diesel Cycle
The diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for compression ignition, (CI), reciprocating engines. The thermodynamic analysis of four-stork cycle can be simplified if the air standard assumptions are used. The Diesel cycle is consists of four internally reversible processes as shown in Fig. 7-5.

Fig. 7-5 Diesel cycle P-v and T-s diagrams Process 12, isentropic compression and r is the compression ratio,
r= v1 v2
k 1

T2 v1 = T1 v2

= r k 1 , T2 = T1 .r k 1

Process 23, constant pressure heat addition, P2 = P3, and the cut-off ratio, rc,
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rc =

v3 , v2

v3 / v 2 = T3 / T2 = rc , T3 = T2 .rc = T1 .r k 1 .rc

qin = C p (T3 T2 )

Process 34, isentropic expansion,

T3 v 4 = T4 v3 T4 = T1 .r
k 1

v1 = r v c 2
k 1

k 1

r = r c
k

k 1

r , T4 = T3 c r

k 1

k 1

r .rc . c r

= T1 .rc

Process 41, constant volume heat rejection, v4 = v1,

q out = C v (T4 T1 )

Diesel cycle net work done is,

wnet = qin qout

The thermal efficiency of Diesel cycle is,

th , Diesel =
wnet qin q out q C (T T1 ) (T T ) = 1 4 1 = = 1 out = 1 v 4 qin qin qin C p (T3 T2 ) k (T3 T2 )

th.Diesel = 1
th. Diesel = 1

T1 .rck T1 T4 T1 = 1 k (T3 T2 ) k T1 .r k 1 .rc T1 .r k 1

1 rck 1 r k 1 k (rc 1)

From the relation of thermal efficiency for Diesel cycle, it is clear that the thermal efficiency is very dependent on the compression ratio, r, cut-off ratio, rc, and the specific heat ratio, k = Cp/Cv as shown in Fig. 7-6. The Diesel cycle thermal efficiency increases with increasing the compression ratio r and the specific heat ratio k. But the Diesel cycle thermal efficiency increases with decreasing the cut-off ratio rc and

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Fig. 7-6 Dependent of Diesel thermal efficiency on r , rc, and k From Fig. 7-6, when the cut-off ratio equal 1, it becomes the thermal efficiency of Otto cycle. Therefore,

th ,Otto > th , Diesel

When both cycles operate on the same compression ratio r. Also, as the cut-off ratio decreases the thermal efficiency of diesel cycle increased as shown in Fig. 7-6.

Dual cycle

Fig. 7-7 Dual cycle P-v and T-s diagrams

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The ideal power cycle which the heat addition partially at constant volume and constant pressure processes is called Dual cycle as shown in Fig. 7-7. Compression ratio, r = v1/v2, cut-off ratio, rc = v4/v3, pressure ratio, rp = P3/P2. Process 12, isentropic compression,
T2 V1 = T1 V2
k 1

, T2 = T1 .r k 1

Process 23, heat added at constant volume, v3 = v2, or P/T=C

P3 P2 P = , T3 = T2 3 = T2 .rp = T1 .rp .r k 1 T3 T2 P2 qin ,v =c = C v (T3 T2 )

Process 34, heat added at constant pressure, P = C, or V/T=C

V4 V3 V = , T4 = T3 4 = T3 .rc , T4 = T1 .r k 1 .rp .rc T4 T3 V3 qin , p =c = C p (T4 T3 )

Process 45, isentropic expansion,

T5 V4 = T4 V5 T5 = T1 .r
k 1

rcV3 = V 5

k 1

rcV2 = V 1
k

k 1

r = c r

k 1

r , T5 = T4 c r

k 1

k 1

r rp .rc . c r

k 1

= T1 .rp .rc

Process 51, heat rejection at constant volume,

q out ,v =c = C v (T5 T1 )

The thermal efficiency of Dual cycle is, w q q out q = 1 out th = net = in qin qin qin qin = qin ,v =c + qin , p =c = C v (T3 T2 ) + C p (T4 T3 )
th , Dual = 1
th , Dual th , Dual
C v (T5 T1 ) (T5 T1 ) = 1 C v (T3 T2 ) + C p (T4 T3 ) (T3 T2 ) + k (T4 T3 )
k

T1 (rp .rc 1) (T5 T1 ) = 1 = 1 (T3 T2 ) + k (T4 T3 ) T1 r k 1 (rp 1) + kT1 .r k 1 .rp (rc 1)

k rp rc 1 1 = 1 k 1 + ( r 1 ) k . r ( r 1 ) r p p c

For Otto cycle, the cut-off ratio, rc = 1, the thermal efficiency yields,
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 th ,Otto

k r 1 rp rc 1 1 1 = 1 1 p = 1 k 1 = 1 k 1 1 k r r rp 1 r (rp 1) + k .rp (rc 1)

For Diesel cycle, the pressure ratio, rp = 1, the thermal efficiency yields,
th ,diesel
k rp rc 1 1 = 1 1 = 1 k 1 r r k 1 (rp 1) + k .rp (rc 1)

rck 1 k (rc 1)

Brayton Cycle
The Brayton cycle is used for gas turbines only where both the compression and expansion processes take place in a rotating machinery and can be modeled as a closed cycle as shown in Fig. 7-8.

Fig. 7-8 A closed cycle of gas turbine engine The air standard assumptions are used for ideal cycle and the compression and expansion processes are internally reversible adiabatic. The heat addition and heat rejection processes are at constant pressure and occurred in heat exchangers. The four processes are shown in Fig. 7-9 as follows, Process 12, isentropic compression in a compressor and the pressure ratio rp = P2/P1,
T2 P2 = T1 P1
( k 1) / k

= rp

( k 1) / k

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Fig. 7-9 Brayton cycle P-v and T-s diagrams Process 23, heat addition at constant pressure, P2 = P3,
q in = C p (T3 T2 )

Process 34, isentropic expansion in a turbine, and rp = P3 /P4,

T3 P3 = T4 P4
( k 1) / k

= rp

( k 1) / k

Q P1 = P4 , P2 = P3 ,

T2 T3 = T1 T4

Process 41, heat rejection at constant pressure, P4 = P1,

q out = C p (T4 T1 )

The Brayton thermal efficiency is,

th =
wnet qin q out q T T 1 = = 1 out = 1 4 qin qin qin T3 T2 T4 .rp
4 ( k 1) / k

th = 1

T T1 T1 .rp
( k 1) / k

= 1

1 rp
( k 1) / k

Examples of Air Standard Cycles 1. The compression ratio of air-standard Otto cycle is 8. At the beginning of the compression stroke the pressure is 1 bar and the temperature is 17 C. The heat of 800 kJ/kg is added during the constant volume process. Determine: a. The pressure and temperature at each corner of the cycle, b. The thermal efficiency, and c. The mean effective pressure.
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Solution

Process 12, isentropic compression, r = 8.

v1 = r= RT1 0.287 290 = = 0.8323 1 100 P1 m 3 / kg m 3 / kg K

v1 , v 2 = 0.8323 / 8 = 0.10404 v2
k 1

T2 v1 = T1 v2

= r k 1 , T2 = T1 .r k 1 = 290 8 0.4 = 666.245

k

P2 v1 = r k , P2 = P1 .r k = 1 81.4 = 18.38 = P1 v 2

bar

Process 23, constant volume heat addition, v2 = v3,

qin = C v (T3 T2 ), 800 = 0.718 (T3 666.245) T3 = 1780.45 P3 = P2 K bar T3 1780.45 = 18.38 = 49.118 T2 666.245

Process 34, isentropic expansion,

T4 v3 = T3 v4 P4 v3 = P3 v4
k 1

=
k

1 r
k 1

, T4 = T3 / r k 1 = 1780.45 / 8 0.4 = 774.986 bar

1 k 1.4 = r k , P4 = P3 / r = 49.118 / 8 = 2.672

Process 41, constant volume heat rejection, v4 = v1,

qout = C v (T4 T1 ) = 0.718 (774.986 290) = 348.22 kJ / kg

The work done net is,

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wnet = qin q out = 800 348.22 = 451.78

kJ / kg

th,Otto =
MEP =

wnet 451.78 = = 0.5647 = 56.47 % 800 qin

wnet 451.78 = = 620.369 v1 v 2 0.8323 0.10404 KPa = 6.204 bar

2- An engine operates on the theoretical diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 15. The heat of 1300 kJ/kg is added at constant pressure for 10 % of the stroke volume. The pressure and temperature of the air at the beginning of compression are 100 kPa and 27 C. Determine, (a) The cut-off ratio, (b) The pressure and temperature at the end of each process, (c) The thermal efficiency of the cycle, (d) The mean effective pressure, and the output power from the engine if the mass flow rate equal 0.15 kg/s. Solution

Process 12, isentropic compression, r = 15.

v1 = r= RT1 0.287 300 = = 0.861 P1 100 m 3 / kg m 3 / kg

v1 , v2 = 0.8323 / 15 = 0.0574 v2
k 1

T2 v1 = T1 v2

= r k 1 , T2 = T1 .r k 1 = 300 15 0.4 = 886.253

k

P2 v1 = = r k , P2 = P1 .r k = 100 151.4 = 4431.265 P1 v2

KPa

Process 23, constant pressure heat addition, P2 = P3,

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q in = C p (T3 T2 ), 1300 = 1.005 (T3 886.253) T3 = 2179.785 K v1 v3 1 = 0.1 1 v2 v2

m 3 / kg

v3 v 2 = 0.1 (v1 v 2 ),

rc = 1 + 0.1 (r 1) = 1 + 0.1 (15 1) = 2.4 v3 = rc v 2 = 2.4 0.0574 = 0.13776

Process 34, isentropic expansion,

T4 v3 = T3 v4
k 1

v2 .rc = v 1

k 1

r = c r

k 1

2. 4 T4 = 2179.785 15 P4 v3 v2 .rc = = P3 v 4 v1
k

1.4 1

= 1047.277
k

rc = r
1.4

2. 4 P4 = 4431.265 15

= 340.64

kPa

Process 41, constant volume heat rejection, v4 = v1,

q out = C v (T4 T1 ) = 0.718 (1047.277 300) = 536.346 kJ / kg

The work done net is,

wnet = qin q out = 1300 536.346 = 763.654 kJ / kg

th, Diesel =
MEP =

wnet 763.654 = = 0.5874 = 58.74 % qin 1300

wnet 763.654 = = 950.29 KPa = 9.5029 v1 v 2 0.861 0.0574 & air = 763.654 0.15 = 114.548 Power = wnet m kW

bar

3. An air-standard Dual cycle operates with a compression ratio of 14. The conditions at the beginning of compression are 100 kPa and 300 K. The maximum temperature in the cycle is 2200 K and the heat added at constant volume is twice the heat added at constant pressure. Determined, (a) The pressure, temperature, and specific volume
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at each corner of the cycle, (b) The thermal efficiency of the cycle, and (c) The mean effective pressure. Solution

Process 12, isentropic compression, r = 14.

T2 v1 = T1 v2
k 1

, T2 = T1 .r k 1 = 300 14 0.4 = 862.129

k

P2 v1 , P2 = P1 .r k = 100 141.4 = 4023.271 = P1 v 2 RT 0.287 300 v1 = 1 = = 0.861 m 3 / kg P1 100 v2 = RT2 0.287 862.129 = = 0.0615 P2 4023.271 m 3 / kg

kPa

Process 23, heat added at constant volume, v3 = v2, or P/T=C

qin ,v =c = 2 qin , p =v , T3 = 1847.877 K C v (T3 T2 ) = 2 C p (T4 T3 ) 0.718 (T3 862.129) = 2 1.005 (2200 T3 )

P3 P2 T 1847.877 = , P3 = P2 3 = 4023.271 = 8623.43 T3 T2 T2 862.129 v3 = v 2 = 0.0615 qin ,v =c = C v (T3 T2 ) = 0.718 (1847.877 862.129 ) = 707.767 m 3 / kg

kPa

kJ / kg

Process 34, heat added at constant pressure, P = C, or V/T=C

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P4 = P3 = 8623.43 v4 = rc =

kPa, T4 = 2200

RT4 0.287 2200 = = 0.0732 8623.43 P4 v 4 0.0732 = = 1.19 v3 0.0615

m 3 / kg

qin , p =c = C p (T4 T3 ) = 1.005 (2200 1847.877 ) = 353.884

kJ / kg

Process 45, isentropic expansion,

T5 v 4 = T4 v5
k 1

v4 = v 1

k 1

0.0732 T5 = 2200 0.861

1.4 1

= 819.88
1.4

v4 P5 v 4 = = v P4 v 1 5 v5 = v1 = 0.861

0.0732 , P = 8623 . 43 5 0.861 m 3 / kg

= 731.139

kPa

Process 51, heat rejection at constant volume,

q out ,v =c = C v (T5 T1 ) = 0.718 (819.88 300 ) = 373.273 kJ / kg

The thermal efficiency of Dual cycle is,

qin = qin ,v =c + qin , p =c = 707.767 + 353.884 = 1061.651 wnet = qin q out = 1061.65 373.273 = 688.377 kJ / kg kJ / kg

th , Dual =
MEP =

wnet qin q out q 373.273 = = 1 out = 1 = 0.6484 = 64.84 % qin qin qin 1061.651 kPa = 8.61 bar

wnet 688.377 = = 861.01 v1 v 2 0.861 .0.0615

4. A gas turbine power plant operates on a simple ideal Brayton cycle that has a pressure ratio of 12. The compressor inlet pressure and temperature are 1 bar and 300 K. The inlet temperature to the turbine is 1000 K. Determine the thermal efficiency and the air mass flow rate required for a net power of 3 MW. Solution

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Process 12, isentropic compression, rp = P2/P1=12,

T2 P2 ( k 1) / k = = rp , T2 = 300 12 (1.41) / 1.4 = 610.181 T1 P1 P2 = rp P1 = 12 1 = 12 bar
( k 1) / k

Process 23, heat addition at constant pressure, P2 = P3, T3 = 1000 K.

q in = C p (T3 T2 ) = 1.005 (1000 610.181) = 391.768 kJ / kg

Process 34, isentropic expansion, rp = P3 /P4= 12.

T3 P3 = T4 P4 T4 = T3 / rp
( k 1) / k

= rp

( k 1) / k

( k 1) / k

= 1000 / 12 (1.41) / 1.4 = 491.657

Process 41, heat rejection at constant pressure, P4 = P1,

q out = C p (T4 T1 ) = 1.005 (491.657 300) = 192.615 wnet = qin q out = 391.768 192.615 = 199.153 kJ / kg
wnet 199.153 = = 0.5083 = 50.83 % 391.768 qin 1 rp
( k 1) / k

kJ / kg

th =

th = 1

= 1

1 12 (1.41) / 1.4

= 50.83 % kg / s

& air , m & air = 3 10 3 / 199.153 = 15.064 Power = wnet m

Problems
1- The compression ratio in air-standard Otto cycle is 8. At the beginning of the compression stroke the pressure is 1 bar and the temperature is 25 C. The heat
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transfer to the air per cycle is 1800 kJ/kg. Determine; the pressure and temperature at the end of each process of the cycle, the thermal efficiency, and the mean effective pressure. 2- 1 kg of air undergoes an Otto cycle with a compression ratio of 8.7. Initial state of air is 1 bar and 15 C. The heat added is 1500 kJ. Determine; the pressure, volume, and temperature at the beginning of each process, the expansion work, compression work, and net work, the thermal efficiency of the cycle, and the mean effective pressure. 3- An air-standard diesel cycle has compression ratio of 15 and the heat transferred to the working fluid per cycle is 1800 kJ/kg. At the beginning of the compression process the pressure is 1 bar and the temperature is 25 C. Determine; the pressure and temperature at each point of the cycle, the thermal efficiency of the cycle, and the mean effective pressure 4- An engine operates on the theoretical diesel cycle with a compression ratio of 15. The heat is added for 10% of the stroke. The pressure and temperature of the air at the beginning of compression are 98 kPa and 17 C. Determine; the cut-off ratio, the pressure and temperature at the end of each process, the amount of heat added, the thermal efficiency of the cycle, and the volume flow rate of air, measured at the beginning of compression, needed to produce 200 kW. 5- The intake conditions for an air-standard Dual cycle operating with a compression ratio of 15 are 1bar and 300 K. The pressure ratio during constant volume heating is 1.5 and the volume ratio during the constant pressure part of the heating process is 1.8. Calculate; the temperatures and pressures around the cycle, the heat input and the heat rejection, and the thermal efficiency of the cycle. 6- An air-standard Dual cycle operates with a compression ratio of 18. The conditions at the beginning of compression are 1bar and 300 K. the maximum temperature in the
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cycle is 2500 K. The heat added at constant volume is twice the heat added at constant pressure. Plot the cycle on P-V and T-S diagrams and find; the pressure, temperature, specific volume at each corner of the cycle, the thermal efficiency of the cycle, and the mean effective pressure. 7- Air is used as the working fluid in the simple Brayton cycle that has a pressure ratio of 12. The compressor inlet pressure and temperature are 0.96 bar and 300 K. The inlet temperature to the turbine is 1000 K. Determine the thermal efficiency and the mass flow rate of air required for a net power of 30 MW. 8- Air is used as the working fluid in the simple Brayton cycle that has a pressure ratio of 14. The compressor inlet temperature is 300 K, and a turbine inlet temperature of 1100 K. Determine the mass flow rate of air for a net power output of 100 MW assuming that the adiabatic efficiency of the compressor is 90 % and the adiabatic efficiency of the turbine is 85 %. Calculate also the work ratio, back work ratio.

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