1426 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO.

6, JUNE 2010
Predictive Torque Control of an Induction Machine
Fed by a Matrix Converter With Reactive
Input Power Control
Ren e Vargas, Member, IEEE, Ulrich Ammann, Member, IEEE, Boris Hudoffsky,
Jose Rodriguez, Senior Member, IEEE, and Patrick Wheeler, Member, IEEE
AbstractThis paper presents a new control method for a
matrix-converter-based induction machine drive. Adiscrete model
of the converter, motor, and input lter is used to predict the behav-
ior of torque, ux, and input power to the drive. The switching state
that optimizes the value of a quality function, used as the evalua-
tion criterion, is selected and applied during the next discrete-time
interval. Experimental results conrm that the proposed strategy
gives high-quality control of the torque, ux, and power factor with
a fast dynamic control response. The key implementation issues are
analyzed in depth to give an overview of the realization aspects of
the proposed algorithm.
Index TermsACAC power conversion, matrix converter
(MC), motor drives, predictive control, torque and ux control.
I. INTRODUCTION
T
HE MATRIX converter (MC) is a single-stage power con-
verter, capable of feeding an m-phase load froman n-phase
source without using energy storage components [1]. The MC
represents an alternative to the back-to-back converter in ap-
plications where size and weight are important. The absence of
large capacitors or inductances allows the MCto give a compact
solution [2], [3]. Several modulation techniques have been de-
veloped for MCs. These can be classied into two main groups:
scalar and space vector methods [4][7]. The higher number of
switching states and the direct interaction between the source
and load introduces a certain amount of complexity into the
analysis and implementation of an MC-based induction motor
drive [8][12].
Predictive control is a control theory that was developed at the
end of the 1970s [13]. Variants of this type of control strategy, as-
sociated with modulation techniques, have been used for power
Manuscript received May 5, 2009; revised July 27, 2009 and October 28,
2009. Current version published May 7, 2010. This work was supported by
the Chilean Research Fund CONICYT under Grant 1100404, by the Universi-
dad T ecnica Federico Santa Mara, and by the Institute of Power Electronics
and Electrical Drives, Universit at Stuttgart. Recommended for publication by
Associate Editor K.-B. Lee.
R. Vargas is with ABB Switzerland, R&D Traction Converters, Austrasse,
5300 Turgi, Switzerland (e-mail: rene.vargas@ieee.org).
U. Ammann and B. Hudoffsky are with the Institute of Power Electronics
and Electrical Drives, Universit at Stuttgart, Stuttgart 70550, Germany (e-mail:
ammann@ilea.uni-stuttgart.de; hudoffsky@ilea.uni-stuttgart.de).
J. Rodriguez is with the Electronics Department, Universidad T ecnica Fed-
erico Santa Mara, Valparaiso 2390123, Chile (e-mail: jrp@usm.cl).
P. Wheeler is with the School of Electrical and Electronic Engineer-
ing, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG10 1NX, U.K. (e-mail:
pat.wheeler@nottingham.ac.uk).
Color versions of one or more of the gures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org.
Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TPEL.2010.2040839
conversion and motor drive control [14][18]. The application
of this family of nonlinear control techniques for torque and
ux control in induction machines (IMs) has received attention
fromresearchers due to the techniques qualities of fast dynamic
torque response, low torque ripple, and reduced switching fre-
quency [19][23]. Model-based predictive control (MPC) has
been introduced for motor current control [24], [25] and im-
plemented on a variety of converter topologies [26][32]. An
alternative technique for controlling the torque and ux of an
IM has also been investigated [33]. The method has been con-
sidered for MCs through simulation studies [34], [35]. Both
approaches share a common element: a quality function, which
is evaluated for every valid switching state of the converter based
on predictions obtained from a model of the system.
The objective of this paper is to develop and experimentally
validate an MC-based IM drive control method using MPC.
This method features fast dynamic response, low torque ripple,
and reactive input power control. The simple approach is based
on the evaluation of an objective function through a unied
switching-state selection criteria. This use of quality functions
allows further attributes to be added to the method [24], such as
reduction of switching losses, common-mode voltage control,
spectrumregulation, etc. The method does not require additional
modulation stages and can utilize all the allowable space vectors
generated by the MC, including the rotating vectors.
II. POWER CIRCUIT AND BASIC CONCEPTS
The MC is a single-stage power converter based on an array
of controlled semiconductor switches. For a 3 3 scheme, a
three-phase source feeds, through the MC, a three-phase load,
as shown in Fig. 1. The input lter attenuates the high-frequency
switching components in the input current.
Three-phase variables are characterized as complex vectors
by means of a 2-D representation. Throughout this paper, this
representation is considered when vectors are used. FromFig. 1,
the output, or load voltage space, vector is dened as
v
o
=
2
3
(v
a
+a v
b
+a
2
v
c
) (1)
where a = e
j/23
, v
x
, with x {a, b, c}, are output phase volt-
ages. A similar denition can be applied to obtain the input
current vector i
e
, the source current vector i
s
, the source volt-
age vector v
s
, and the load or output current vector i
o
.
The MC topology has nine bidirectional switches, each with
a corresponding switching function S
xy
, with x {u, v, w}
0885-8993/$26.00 2010 IEEE
VARGAS et al.: PREDICTIVE TORQUE CONTROL OF AN INDUCTION MACHINE FED BY A MATRIX CONVERTER 1427
Fig. 1. Power circuit of the system.
and y {a, b, c}, as shown in Fig. 1. Considering that the load
should not be in an open circuit, due to its inductive nature, and
that phases of the source should not be short circuited, switching
functions should full, at all times, the following equation:
S
uy
+S
vy
+S
wy
= 1 y {a, b, c} (2)
where S
xy
= 0 represents switch xy open and S
xy
= 1 repre-
sents switch xy closed. This restriction allows the topology to
have 27 valid switching states and implies the requirement for
a commutation strategy in the switching process [8]. These 27
switching states can be classied into three groups according
to the kind of output voltage and input current vector that each
switching state generates, which are as follows.
1) All three output phases are connected to the same input
phase. Space vectors from this group of switching states
have zero amplitude.
2) Two output phases connected to a common input phase,
and the third output phase connected to a different input
phase. This group generates stationary space vectors with
varying amplitude and xed direction.
3) Each output phase is connected to a different input phase.
Space vectors have a constant amplitude, but its angle
varies at the supply angular frequency.
The trajectories of the output voltage space vectors, assuming
balanced three-phase input voltages of 230 V
rms
per phase, are
shown in Fig. 2. Vectors from group 1) can be identied by the
symbol , while groups 2) and 3) are represented by and ,
respectively.
Most control techniques (including most space vector mod-
ulation (SVM) based methods and direct torque control (DTC)
strategies [4], [6], [10]) use only zero and stationary vectors.
The method proposed in this paper considers all valid switch-
ing states, including the rotating vectors that have the benet of
producing lower common-mode voltage.
III. PREDICTIVE TORQUE CONTROL
Predictive torque control (PTC) consists of choosing, at xed
sampling intervals, one of the 27 feasible switching states of
the MC. A diagram of the PTC strategy is shown in Fig. 3. The
selection of the switching state for the following time interval
Fig. 2. Output voltage space vectors generated by the MC.
Fig. 3. Block diagram of the control strategy.
is performed using a quality function minimization technique.
The quality function g represents the evaluation criteria in order
to select the best switching state for the next sampling interval.
For the computation of g, the input current vector i
s
, the electric
torque T
e
, and the stator ux
s
on the next sampling interval
are predicted, assuming the application of each valid switching
state, by means of a mathematical model of the input lter and
IM. These predicted values are indicated by the superscript p
and are compared with their reference values denoted by the
superscript within g. A propotionalintegral (PI) controller
is used to generate the reference torque T

e
to the predictive al-
gorithm. It also compensates deviations of the prediction model
caused by possible variations of the parameters of the IM.
A. Evaluation Criterion: Quality Function g
The quality function represents the evaluation criteria used to
decide which switching state is the best to apply. The function
is composed of the absolute error of the predicted torque, the
1428 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, JUNE 2010
absolute error of the predicted ux magnitude, and the absolute
error of the predicted reactive input power, resulting in
g =
T
|T

e
T
p
e
| +

s

p
s
| +
Q
|Q

in
Q
p
in
| (3)
where
T
,

, and
Q
are weighting factors that handle the re-
lationship between reactive input power, torque, and ux condi-
tions. The units of each weighting factor are dened to maintain
g as a magnitude without a physic interpretation. In this sense,

T
is measured in Newtonmeter inverse,

in webers inverse,
and
Q
in voltampere inverse.
In practice, only two of these factors are required to adjust
the method. The third can be kept constant. The reason is that
the weighting factors must handle the relative importance of the
errors in g and this task can be accomplished simply by changing
two ratio magnitudes. For example,
T
can be set as constant,
using

and
Q
to change the values of the weighting ratios

/
T
and
Q
/
T
. Through the development of this study, the
value of
T
is kept constant at
T
= 1(Nm)
1
. The values
of

and
Q
are modied to evaluate the performance of the
method and nd the optimum set of factors.
The quality function g must be calculated for each of the 27
feasible switching states. The state that generates the optimum
value, in this case a minimum, will be chosen and applied during
the next sampling period. The states that generate the higher
predictions of torque error, ux error, and reactive input power
error will be penalized with higher values of g, and thus, will
not be selected. In this sense, the technique assigns costs to the
objectives reected in g, weighted by
T
,
Q
, and

, and then
chooses the switching state that presents the lowest cost.
B. Models Used to Obtain Predictions
1) MC Model: The equation that relates load or output volt-
ages with input voltages of the MC can be expressed as
_
_
v
a
v
b
v
c
_
_
=
_
_
S
ua
S
va
S
wa
S
ub
S
vb
S
wb
S
uc
S
vc
S
wc
_
_
. .
T
_
_
v
eu
v
ev
v
ew
_
_
. (4)
Output voltages applied to the load can then be considered as de-
pendant variables of the switching functions, reected in matrix
T, and the input voltages. The relation between input currents
and output or load currents is expressed as
_
_
i
eu
i
ev
i
ew
_
_
=
_
_
S
ua
S
ub
S
uc
S
va
S
vb
S
vc
S
wa
S
wb
S
wc
_
_
. .
T
T
_
_
i
a
i
b
i
c
_
_
. (5)
Input currents depend on output currents and the switching state
of the MC, due to the inductive nature of the load.
2) Load Model: In this section, a mathematical discrete-
time model is derived to predict the behavior of the system
under a given switching state, based on well-known [19][23],
[33][35] dynamic equations for an IM. The stator and rotor
voltage equations in xed stator coordinates for a squirrel-cage
IM can be presented as
v
o
= R
s
i
o
+
d
s
dt
(6)
v
r
= R
r
i
r
+
d
r
dt
jp
r
= 0 (7)
where R
s
and R
r
are the stator and rotor resistances,
s
and
r
are the stator and rotor uxes, is the mechanical rotor speed,
and p is the number of pole pairs of the IM. The stator and rotor
uxes are related to the stator and rotor currents by

s
= L
s
i
o
+L
m
i
r
(8)

r
= L
m
i
o
+L
r
i
r
(9)
where L
s
, L
r
, and L
m
are the self- and mutual inductances.
Finally, the electric torque produced by the machine can be
obtained by
T
e
=
3
2
p
L
m
L
r
L
s
L
2
m
Im{

s
}
=
3
2
p
L
m
L
r
L
s
L
2
m
(
r

s

r

s
) (10)
where

r
is the complex conjugate of vector
r
, and the sub-
scripts and represent real and imaginary components of the
associated vector.
Equations (6) and (7) can be rewritten, solving the stator and
rotor currents in terms of the stator and rotor uxes from (8) and
(9), as
d
s
dt
=
R
s
L
r
L
s
L
r
L
2
m

s
+
R
s
L
m
L
s
L
r
L
2
m

r
+v
o
(11)
d
r
dt
=
R
r
L
m
L
s
L
r
L
2
m

s

R
r
L
s
L
s
L
r
L
2
m

r
jp
r
. (12)
The next step is to dene a discrete-time model based on these
continuous-time equations. Using a forward Euler approxima-
tion [19], the following discrete equations are computed from
(11) and (12) as

p
s
(k + 1) =
_
1
T
s
R
s
L
r
L
s
L
r
L
2
m
_

s
(k)
+
T
s
R
s
L
m
L
s
L
r
L
2
m

r
(k) +T
s
v
o
(k) (13)

p
r
(k + 1) =
T
s
R
r
L
m
L
s
L
r
L
2
m

s
(k)
+
_
1
T
s
R
r
L
s
L
s
L
r
L
2
m
_

r
(k) jpT
s
(k)
r
(k)
(14)
where T
s
is the sampling period. An alternative approach is to
compute the state-space representation of (11) and (12), and
apply a discretization process similar to the one presented for
the input lter in the next section [31][33]. This approach must
deal with the fact that in (14) changes in time, causing the
state-space representation to be a linear time-varying system.
Although under certain assumptions, this method produces a
more accurate representation [33], the time-varying nature of the
VARGAS et al.: PREDICTIVE TORQUE CONTROL OF AN INDUCTION MACHINE FED BY A MATRIX CONVERTER 1429
system implies more computational requirements. This forces
the control platform to use a higher sampling time, which could
produce a deterioration in the performance of the drive [24].
Equations (10), (13), and (14) are used by the proposed
method to predict the stator ux and the electric torque pro-
duced by the IM during the next sampling interval if a certain
voltage vector v
o
(k) is applied from the MC.
3) Input Filter Model: The input lters dynamic can be
described by the following continuous-time equations [27], [31]
as
v
s
= R
f
i
s
+L
f
di
s
dt
+v
e
(15)
i
s
= i
e
+C
f
dv
e
dt
(16)
where L
f
and R
f
are the inductance and resistance fromthe line
and lter, and C
f
is the lter capacitance. This continuous-time
system can be rewritten as
x(t) =
_

_
0
1
C
f
1
Lf
R
f
L
f
_

_
. .
A
c
x(t) +
_

_
0
1
C
f
1
Lf
0
_

_
. .
B
c
u(t) (17)
with
x(t) =
_
v
e
i
s
_
and u(t) =
_
v
s
i
e
_
. (18)
A discrete state-space model can be derived when a zero-order
hold input is applied to a continuous-time system described in
state space form as (17). Considering a sampling period, T
s
, the
discrete-time system derived from (17) is
x(k + 1) = A
q
x(k) +B
q
u(k) (19)
with
A
q
= e
A
c
T
s
and B
q
=
_
T
s
0
e
A
c
(T
s
)
B
c
d. (20)
Discrete-time variables will match continuous-time variables at
the sampling instants [31]. To predict the grids current, it is
possible to solve i
s
(k + 1) from (19) as
i
p
s
(k + 1) = A
q
(2, 1)v
e
(k) +A
q
(2, 2)i
s
(k)
+B
q
(2, 1)v
s
(k) +B
q
(2, 2)i
e
(k) (21)
where (m, n) is the (m, n) element of matrix . To analyze
the resulting effect on the reactive input power, it is necessary to
consider the instantaneous power theory [36]. The instantaneous
reactive input power can be predicted, based on predictions of
the input current, as
Q
p
(k + 1) = Im{v
s
(k + 1)

i
p
s
(k + 1)}
= v
s
(k + 1)i
p
s
(k + 1) v
s
(k + 1)i
p
s
(k + 1).
(22)
Line voltages are low-frequency signals. Based on this, the
method considers v
s
(k + 1) v
s
(k).
Fig. 4. Time diagram of the calculations performed during the sampling in-
terval between time k and k + 1.
C. Time Frame for the Calculations
Equations (10), (13), (14), and (22) are used to obtain pre-
dictions of torque, ux, and reactive power for each of the 27
valid switching combinations. The cost of a switching state is
evaluated applying these predictions in (3). Nevertheless, it is
important to evaluate the predictions at the appropriate sam-
pling instant, taking into consideration the computational re-
quirements of a real implementation of the method. An expla-
nation of the tasks that the control processor must perform is
presented in Fig. 4. The switching state that was selected at the
preceding sampling interval will be applied between time (k)
and (k + 1) (shadowed sampling interval in Fig. 4). The algo-
rithmbegins by acquiring measurements of the systemvariables.
Then, the model is used to update, at time (k + 1), the variables
that will be required for the prediction. This process implies
a one-step-forward estimation using the equations described in
Section III-B, considering that the switching state that was pre-
viously selected at the preceding sampling interval is held during
the present interval (k) to (k + 1). Consequently, this process
implies just one application or use of the prediction model, i.e.,
only for the previously selected switching state, as indicated in
Fig. 4 as actualization at time (k + 1). This step, previous to the
exhaustive search algorithm based on predictions, is usually not
explained when presenting similar MPC strategies. However,
this delay affects the performance of the control technique and
has been considered in previous reports [17], [28], [29].
After updating the variables at time (k + 1), it is possible
to start with the predictive algorithm to analyze the effect that
every feasible switching state would produce if applied during
the next sampling interval. It is important to notice that this
process, presented in Fig 4 as predictions for each switching
state, is also computed within the shadowed sampling interval
(k) to (k + 1). It implies calculating predictions for each of the
27 switching states, in order to evaluate these predictions by
means of g and select the best state for the period (k + 1) to
(k + 2). The effect of the switching state under evaluation, to
be applied at time (k + 1), must be assessed at time (k + 2),
since this is when its effects will be noticeable in the system.
A ow diagram of the steps required to implement the strategy
on a digital control platform is presented in Fig. 5. It is worth
noting that the prediction equation used from time (k + 1) to
(k + 2) are the same as equations used from time (k) to (k + 1)
(see Section III-B) shifting one-step forward in time.
D. Adjusting the Weighting Factors
The PTC method presented in this paper uses three weight-
ing factors that the designer must adjust:
T
or torque control
1430 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, JUNE 2010
Fig. 5. Flow diagram of the implemented code on the control platform.
parameter,

or ux control parameter, and

Q
or reactive in-
put power control parameter. These weighting factors handle
the cost assigned to each specic objective within the quality
function g. As mentioned, only two of these factors are required
to adjust the method, the third can be kept constant. In this sense,
the value of
T
is set constant at
T
= 1 (Nm)
1
.
The proposed control technique can be classied as nite-
state model predictive control (FS-MPC). FS-MPChas emerged
as a promising control tool for power converters and drives [24].
One of the major advantages is the possibility to control several
system variables with a single control law, by including them
with appropriate weighting factors, as PTC does with torque,
ux, and reactive input power (it would be possible to add
further variables in order to improve the performance of the drive
in specic topics). However, these coefcients are determined
empirically. The design problem is to select appropriate values
for these weighting factors. The topic has been treated in [24]
and [37] and the reported method implies testing feasible values
until reaching to an appropriate result. The method exposed in
these publications gives guidelines to starting the search process
and sets boundaries for the exploration. In the specic case of
PTC, an appropriate starting point for the search process is to
consider the three objectives with an equal relative importance.
This implies considering the nominal values (indicated by a
subscript N) of the variables that are being balanced in the
equation. In this sense

T
T
N
=

N
=
Q
(i
s
N
v
s
N
) = K (23)
where K is an arbitrary constant. As an example, for K = 73
and considering the parameters of the experimental setup (see
Table I), the result is
T
= 1 (Nm)
1
,

= 72 Wb
1
, and

Q
= 0.02 (VA)
1
. The value of K was chosen in order to
TABLE 1
PARAMETERS OF THE MC SETUP AND CONTROL METHOD
obtain the required value of
T
= 1 (Nm)
1
. Note that this is
only a suggested starting point for a search process over

and

Q
for nding the optimum values [37].
A series of 6161 simulations were carried out in order to
analyze the performance of the method under a wide range of
parameter values and to dene the optimum set of weighting
factors. This exhaustive search process was performed setting

T
= 1(Nm)
1
and sweeping
Q
in 101 equidistant values
between 0 and 0.025 (VA)
1
, and

in 61 equidistant intervals
between 1 and 301 Wb
1
. Each value of
Q
is tested with each
value of

, resulting in the total of 6161 simulations.

The total harmonic distortion (THD) of the input current i
s
,
and the standard deviation of the ux and torque signals were
considered as merit functions, dened to evaluate the perfor-
mance of the system working under each set of parameters. The
following denition for the standard deviation of a data vector
x was considered:

x
=

_
1
n 1
n

i=1
(x
i
x)
2
where x =
1
n
n

i=1
x
i
(24)
and n is the number of elements in the sample. The result of the
exhaustive search process, in terms of the standard deviation of
the ux and torque, and the THD of the input current, is shown
in Fig. 6. In the graphics, a logarithmic function is applied to
the merit functions, to help in the visualization of the plotted
information. The darker areas represent the regions where the
merit functions reach lowvalues, indicating a good performance
of the system in terms of the specic objective (ux, torque, and
input current, respectively). These regions are highlighted in the
images by a white scattered line, dened as acceptable regions
on each case.
It is possible to observe, based on Fig. 6 (left), that there is
a minimum acceptable value of

, and that for greater values

of

, higher values of
Q
are admissible. From Fig. 6 (center),
VARGAS et al.: PREDICTIVE TORQUE CONTROL OF AN INDUCTION MACHINE FED BY A MATRIX CONVERTER 1431
Fig. 6. Simulation results obtained from an exhaustive search process over
Q
and

(
T
= 1 (Nm)
1
constant). (Left) Standard deviation of
s
. (Center)
Standard deviation of T
e
. (Right) i
s
THD (all three merit functions in a logarithmic scale).
Fig. 7. Superposition of the three acceptable regions in order to nd the area
of suitable set of parameters.
it can be inferred that for high values of

and
Q
, the torque
performance is penalize and a worse performance of T
e
is
obtained. This make sense, since
T
is kept constant, therefore
the relative importance of the torque error is reduced in g as the
other weighting factor increase. Also from Fig. 6 (center), it can
be observed that there is a minimum value of

from which
an appropriate torque response can be obtained, in concordance
with the physics fact that the presence of ux is required in
order to generate electric torque from the IM. Finally, the input
current THDpresents an acceptable region near the center of the
analyzed range for

and for a narrow set of values for

Q
[see
Fig. 6 (right)]. The explanation for that phenomenon lies in the
fact that the method requires an appropriate output performance
in order to achieve an acceptable control of the input variables.
To nd the best set of weighting factors, it is necessary to
consider the three objectives analyzed in Fig. 6. This task can
be graphically shown by superposing the three curves that in-
dicate acceptable regions on each case. The result is shown in
Fig. 7. The optimum region, according to this procedure, is a
range of values of

between 80 and 250 Wb

1
. For
Q
, the
set of suggested values lies between 0.002 and 0.005 (VA)
1
.
Evidently, the selection of

affects the allowable range of

Q
,
and the center of the optimum area is close to

= 180 Wb
1
and
Q
= 0.003 (VA)
1
. This suggested set of optimum values
(based on simulations) are far from the starting point proposed
based by (23), but at least this starting point lies in the area
where the system can operate. Equation (23) suggests only a set
of parameters to begin with the search algorithm.
The suggested set of optimum values and acceptable regions,
obtained from the search process based on simulations, will still
have to undertake an experimental validation in order to nd the
optimum set of parameters. This task is completed in the next
sections.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The objective of this section is to present the performance
of the method on an experimental platform, analyzing the main
implementation issues. Throughout this section, the procedure
used to adjust the methods parameters is analyzed and con-
trasted based on experimental results.
Similar control strategies have been analyzed in simulations.
An IM is controlled by predicting its torque and ux in [34].
No reactive input power control is considered, being equivalent
to the presented method if
Q
= 0. The reactive power control
feature is added in [35], but only to work with unity power factor
(PF). That means that the method is equivalent to the presented
technique if Q

in
= 0, directly minimizing the absolute reactive
input power [see (3)]. The addition of Q

in
allows the method
to work with a PF different to the unity if required [31] (in
most applications, it is desired to have cos = 1). Despite these
differences, which can be overcome for certain values of
Q
and Q

in
, and the loads parameters, the presented results can
be contrasted to simulation results included in [34] and [35].
Most of the conclusions over the performance of the method
and the behavior of the MC drive can also be observed, and are
independent of these differences. Simulations were used in this
paper only for the exhaustive search process described in the
previous section. The analysis included in this section is based
1432 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, JUNE 2010
Fig. 8. Experimental setup. (Upper) Converter. (Lower right) Machine.
(Lower left) interface circuits.
solely on experimental results, as a solid basis to demonstrate
the effectiveness of the method.
A. Setup Description and Implementation Issues
An 11 kW, 4-pole IM is connected to an MC with 50 A peak
output current capability running at 400 Vgrid voltage. The MC
consists of an arrangement of 18 insulated-gate bipolar transis-
tors (IGBTs) (IXDN 55N120D1) in common emitter congu-
ration, and additional lter and protection components. Control
of the commutation and overcurrent protection is provided by
an eld programmable gate array (FPGA) circuit, following a
current-controlled four-step commutation scheme. The dc load
machine is fed froma line-commutated thyristor rectier with an
appropriate armature current control to apply torque within the
range from 50 to 50 Nm, whereas the IM control system con-
tains a speed controller, according to Fig. 3. The experimental
setup converter, IM, and necessary interface boards are shown
in Fig. 8. A powerful dSPACE 1103 rapid prototyping platform
is used to implement the predictive control strategy. Its 1 GHz
clock frequency allows for a sampling time of 14.5 s for the
predictive torque and reactive input power control. The super-
imposed speed control loop is handled at 290 s sampling time,
using a standard PI controller. The predictive torque and reactive
power control algorithm is implemented in C code, following
the two-step approach previously explained to compensate the
calculation delay. Field weakening is easily achieved by reduc-
ing the ux reference value for a speed rage over 1330 r/min. A
complete list of parameters of the system and control strategy
are included in Table I.
A key aspect of the experimental implementation of the con-
trol method is the ux observer (see Fig. 3). Since the proposed
method is based on the calculation of the actual ux in the IM,
this estimation has to be as accurate and reliable as possible.
Equations (13) and (14) are used to predict the future behav-
ior of the IM, but there might be differences in the result of
the calculation and the real value, depending on the knowledge
Fig. 9. Block diagramof the electrical part of an IM(discrete-time equations).
of the machines parameters. To reduce the error, a simple P
(proportional) controller is applied in the predictive formulas,
specically in the stator voltage equation, to implement the ux
observer. In this ux observer, the P controller corrects the pre-
dicted value based on the measurement of the stator current. By
correcting the calculated stator current, both the stator and rotor
ux estimations are corrected to be closer to their actual values.
The procedure is explained in the following paragraph and is
based on the previously presented IM model.
As stated in Section III-B.2, (13) and (14) are discrete-time
versions of the stator and rotor voltage equations, respectively,
reached after solving the stator and rotor currents in terms of the
stator and rotor uxes. It is possible to express (13) to explicitly
show the stator current as

s
(k + 1) =
s
(k) T
s
R
s

_
L
r
L
s
L
r
L
2
m

s
(k)
L
m
L
s
L
r
L
2
m

r
(k)
. .
i
o
(k)
_

_
+T
s
v
o
(k).
(25)
By means of (13) and (14), it is possible to build an equivalent
block diagram for the electrical part of the IM, as shown in
Fig. 9, with = 1/L
s
L
r
L
2
m
. As presented in the gure, (13)
and (14) allow access to the stator and rotor ux from a one-
step prediction. Note that this model includes both the stator
and rotor voltage equations. If the machines parameters were
exactly known, no more effort would be necessary to match the
observed to the real values, and these equations could be used as
they are for the ux observer. Since there is always a mismatch
in the parametersas well as variations caused by temperature,
etc.the ux observing equations can be improved by adding
an additional input based on measurements to correct the result
considering the real behavior of the machine.
VARGAS et al.: PREDICTIVE TORQUE CONTROL OF AN INDUCTION MACHINE FED BY A MATRIX CONVERTER 1433
Fig. 10. Block diagram of the ux observer.
The ux observer, utilized in the experimental validation, uses
both the stator and rotor voltage equations (13) and (14). The
stator equation (13), or more explicit (25), is modied to use the
measured stator current and to include a P controller to correct
the estimated stator current calculated by the model based on the
observed stator and rotor uxes [38]. The implemented stator
equation is expressed as

p
s
(k + 1) =
p
s
(k) T
s
R
s
i
o
(k)
+PT
s
[i
o
(k) i
p
o
(k)]
. .
Correction Term
+T
s
v
o
(k) (26)
where i
o
(k) is the measured stator current and i
p
o
(k) is the
stator current calculated from the estimated uxes, as a result
from the observer equations. Note that the correction term is
proportional to the error between the measured and the estimated
stator currents. The concept of adding an error compensator to
the observer model, comparing the model current i
p
o
(k) and
the machine current i
o
(k) to generate a correction term in the
estimation, has been studied and analyzed in the literature [39].
The rotor equation is used without modications in the model.
The resulting block diagram of the ux observer is shown in
Fig. 10. From the gure, it is possible to observe that the uxes
estimations are obtained based on both the stator and rotor volt-
age equations, using the machine equations presented in Fig. 9.
The models calculation is enhanced by including information
obtained from measuring the stator current of the IM, as stated
in (26).
The value of the electric torque T
p
e
(k + 1) is obtained from
(10), using
p
s
(k + 1) and
p
r
(k + 1) fromthe ux observer. For
the second prediction step, there is no additional correction term,
i.e., (13) and (14) are directly used to get the values of
p
s
(k + 2)
and
p
r
(k + 2) based on
p
s
(k + 1),
p
r
(k + 1), and v
o
(k + 1),
or voltage vector under evaluation. Once more, T
p
e
(k + 2) is
determined by applying
p
s
(k + 2) and
p
r
(k + 2) into (10).
For more details regarding ux estimation, see [38] and [39].
The effect of errors and uncertainties in the loads param-
eters using predictive control is treated in [24] and [26]. It is
worth mentioning that previous knowledge of the loads param-
eters is a requirement on any control method in order to tune
linear controllers and select the modulation frequency. The im-
plementation described for the ux observer helps the method
to mitigate the effect of these uncertainties in the predictions.
The feasibility of the proposed control algorithm is backed up
with experimental results.
Through the subsequent experimental tests, the torque
weighting factor is set constant at
T
= 1 (Nm)
1
(as stated
previously), and
Q
and

are modied to nd the best set of

parameters.
B. Adjusting the Flux Control Parameter
The ux control parameter

is vital for an appropriate per-

formance of the drive. On the other hand, the
Q
factor mostly
affects the input power performance. Thus, the system can work
with
Q
= 0 (VA)
1
maintaining an appropriate torque and
ux control, but diminishing the interaction with the mains (see
Figs. 6 and 7).
Three experimental results for the proposed method under a
speed reversal are presented in Fig. 11, each one with a represen-
tative value of

. In the rst case,

= 50 Wb
1
, close to the
lowest value admitted by the experimental setup. The method
is sensitive to low values of

to maintain an appropriate
ux control is critical in every control method for IMsand
the proposed technique is unable to control torque or ux with
lower values. This fact is noticeable during the speed reversal,
with an increased ripple on the ux signal. On the other hand,
with

= 600 Wb
1
, the priority for the method is placed on
controlling ux, assigning a lower relative cost to the torque ob-
jective. The result is an excellent ux signal, but a considerably
deteriorated torque response. An adequate tradeoff is reached
with

= 300 Wb
1
, in which ux and torque are properly
controlled. This supposes a selected value slightly above the
suggested range based on simulations (see Fig. 7), but still close
to the upper limit of 250 Wb
1
.
C. Adding Reactive Input Power Control
The MC must not only act as drive for the machine, but it
must also be able to control input currents in order to regulate the
input PF. This objective is achieved by PTCthrough the last term
in g(3), weighted by
Q
. The
Q
parameter must balance the
importance of reactive input power control with other objectives
reected in g, i.e., torque and ux control. By assigning cost to
the reactive input power error in the quality function g, switching
states that produce higher differences between Q

in
and Q
p
in
will
be penalized and not selected to be applied during the next
sampling interval. The requirement in most cases is to work
with unity PF. For this reason, the reference reactive power
is zero, i.e., Q

in
= 0. Hence, the method will directly try to
minimize the predicted reactive power Q
p
in
by synchronizing
input currents with input voltages, achieving a close to unity PF.
The use of a value of Q

in
different to zero enables the method
to work with inductive or capacitive PF [31].
1434 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, JUNE 2010
Fig. 11. Speed reversal with a value of

lower than the optimum,

= 50 Wb
1
, with the selected value,

= 300 Wb
1
, and with a higher value,

= 600 Wb
1
: speed, electric and reference torque and ux (real component).
Fig. 12. Steady-state performance of the drive without reactive input power control
Q
= 0 (VA)
1
, with control using the selected value
Q
= 0.003 (VA)
1
,
and with a higher value
Q
= 0.007 (VA)
1
: electric and reference torque, input current, and voltages phase and reactive input power.
Setting the appropriate value of
Q
enables the method for
a correct interaction with the mains. As for

, the analysis
is based on testing the performance of the system with several
values, to evaluate the conclusions obtained from the simu-
lated search process. Three representative cases are presented
in Fig. 12. The system is tested in steady state at 1000 r/min
with a 15-Nm load. To study the performance of the method
on each case, the standard deviation of the torque signal
T
and
the measured PF are included in the gure. The rst case [see
Fig. 12 (left)] presents the performance of the converter with

Q
= 0 (VA)
1
, i.e., assigning no cost to reactive input power.
Evidently, the efforts of the method are focused on maintaining
torque and ux control, reaching a low standard deviation of T
e
,
but disregarding the input performance of the MC. This is re-
ected on a low PF, a signicant ripple in the input current, and
a considerable amount of reactive power delivered to the mains.
The opposite occurs with
Q
= 0.007 (VA)
1
[see Fig. 12
(right)]. In this case, a high importance is placed on control-
ling reactive power. As a result, input currents present lower
distortion and are synchronized with the respective input phase
voltages, generating almost no reactive input power and close
to unity PF. The problem is that the machines torque is not
properly controlled [see Fig. 12 (right)] due to the exaggerated
importance given to reactive power control, reaching the highest
deviation of T
e
with
T
= 0.77 Nm. An appropriate balance
is reached with
Q
= 0.003(VA)
1
in Fig. 12 (center). Both
torque and reactive input power are suitably controlled, with

T
= 0.3 Nm and a close to unity PF.
The selected value of
Q
= 0.003 (VA)
1
agrees with the
optimum value delivered by the search process based on sim-
ulations. On the other hand, it was expected that the standard
deviation of T
e
resulted higher on the experimental tests than in
simulations, due to the ideal conditions assumed in the last case.
For instance, in simulations, the load torque is considered to be
constant, while in the experimental setup, a dc load machine
is fed from a line-commutated thyristor rectier. Nevertheless,
the validity of the information provided from simulations was
corroborated with the experimental results in Figs. 11 and 12.
The performance of the complete drive-control strategy is
shown, during a speed reversal, in Figs. 13 and 14. Results pre-
sented in Fig. 13 were obtained considering only torque and ux
control,

= 300 Wb
1
and
Q
= 0 (VA)
1
, while in Fig. 14,
reactive input power control is included, using the optimum set
of weighting factors

= 300 Wb
1
and
Q
= 0.003 (VA)
1
.
Note that
T
= 1 (Nm)
1
at all times. Both cases present sim-
ilar output behavior, with a fast torque response, smooth fre-
quency transition on the output current, and sinusoidal ux. In
Fig. 14, PTC is controlling not only machines variables, but
VARGAS et al.: PREDICTIVE TORQUE CONTROL OF AN INDUCTION MACHINE FED BY A MATRIX CONVERTER 1435
Fig. 13. Speed reversal without the term to control reactive input power
Q
= 0 (VA)
1
: speed, electric and reference torque, output current, ux (real and
imaginary components), input current, and voltages phase and reactive input power.
Fig. 14. Speed reversal including the term to control reactive input power
Q
= 0.003 (VA)
1
(optimum set of weighting factors): speed, electric and reference
torque, output current, ux (real and imaginary components), input current, and voltages phase and reactive input power.
also the input performance of the converter. This fact causes a
tradeoff noticeable while approaching to nal speed and reach-
ing steady state in the torque signal, with a slight amount of
ripple in Fig. 14.
The main difference, as expected, can be observed in the input
current and reactive input power. Fig. 13 presents a distorted
current that redounds in a signicant amount of reactive power to
the mains. In contrast, a more sinusoidal input currentwith an
appropriate amount of ripple, expected for the topologyand in
synchrony with the input phase voltage is obtained considering
reactive power control in Fig. 14. As a result, the reactive input
power is relatively low.
The behavior of input and output electric variables without
and including reactive input power control is shown in Figs. 15
and 16. Both cases were measured in steady state at 1000 r/min
and with a 25-Nm load. It can be observed how the addition
of the term to control reactive input power causes the current to
match in phase with the input voltage, considerably reducing its
ripple and the reactive input power delivered to the grid by the
converter. The input current distortion observed in Fig. 15 causes
an alteration on the envelope waveform of the output voltage,
v
ab
, which corresponds to the maximum line-to-line voltage at
the input capacitors (v
ex
, where x = u, v, w, in Fig. 1). This
slight distortion has no effect on the load current, as shown in
1436 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER ELECTRONICS, VOL. 25, NO. 6, JUNE 2010
Fig. 15. Input and output electric variables in steady state without reactive
input power control,
Q
= 0 (VA)
1
: output current and voltage, input current
(voltages phase in dotted line), and reactive input power.
Fig. 16. Input and output electric variables in steady state including reactive
input power control,
Q
= 0.003 (VA)
1
(optimum set of weighting factors):
output current and voltage, input current (voltages phase in dotted line), and
reactive input power.
Figs. 15 and 16 for two reasons: the low-pass ltering nature of
the load and the fact that the predictive method considers the
instantaneous (updated) value of the input voltages, considering
this variation in the strategy.
In Figs. 17 and 18, the harmonic content of the input current
and output voltage for
Q
= 0 (VA)
1
and
Q
= 0.003 (VA)
1
are shown. Figs. 17 and 18 represent the spectrum analysis of
variables shown in Figs. 15 and 16 in the time domain, respec-
tively. It is possible to observe a drastic reduction on the input
currents distortion by including the strategy to control reactive
power. The THD of i
u
was reduced from 75.1% to 17.6%, also
adding the correct phase to synchronize it with the input voltage,
as shown in Fig. 16. A high amount of energy can be seen at
the input lters resonance frequency f
r
= 1/2
_
L
f
C
f
near
2 kHz. The method effectively avoids exciting this resonance in
order to reduce the total distortion in Fig. 18.
The output voltage presents, in both cases, a spread spec-
trum, with signicant energy in a wide range of frequencies.
This is an attribute of many nonlinear or nonmodulated control
methods. For the presented predictive approach, a concentrated
spectrum can be reached by applying the strategy described
Fig. 17. Spectrum analysis without the strategy to control reactive power,

Q
= 0 (VA)
1
. (Top) Input current i
u
. (Bottom) Output voltage v
ab
.
Fig. 18. Spectrum analysis including the strategy to control reactive power,

Q
= 0.003 (VA)
1
(optimum set of weighting factors). (Top) Input current
i
u
. (Bottom) Output voltage v
ab
.
in [28]. The MCs switched output pattern and the methods
xed time period for the switching states transitions is notice-
able by a higher amplitude harmonic at the sampling frequency
f
s
= 1/T
s
= 69 kHz. Nevertheless, the average switching fre-
quency per IGBT f
sf
is considerably lower. The highest reach-
able value is f
sf
= f
s
/6 = 11.5 kHz, assuming the maximum
number of transitions as each T
s
[27], [31]. In practice, the mea-
sured average switching frequency per IGBT was f
sf
= 6 kHz.
A last test of the performance of the drive is shown in Fig. 19,
applying a step change on the reference torque using the op-
timum set of weighting factors. The IM starts from standstill,
delivering only magnetizing current from the MC. No torque is
applied from the drive. At time t = 94 ms, the reference torque
T

e
is modied externally (the speed controller is bypassed) from
zero to maximumtorque. It is possible to observe in Fig. 19 how
the machines torque reaches its reference value in around 1 ms,
the motors current is fast forced to a sinusoidal waveform, and
the speed increases with a rate proportional to T
e
. The torque
measurement is obtained based on the result delivered by the
ux observer and (10).
VARGAS et al.: PREDICTIVE TORQUE CONTROL OF AN INDUCTION MACHINE FED BY A MATRIX CONVERTER 1437
Fig. 19. Behavior of the system under a step change on the reference torque (0 to 80 Nm): speed, output current, and electric and reference torque.
V. CONCLUSION
The proposed control method for an MC-based IM drive has
been shown to give excellent performance, effectively control-
ling both the machine and the input current. The method has a
fast torque response, unity PF with low reactive power deliv-
ered to the mains, and low torque and ux ripple. PTC consid-
ers a ctional cost assigned to specic objectives, balanced by
weighting factors. These factors are determined by analyzing
the performance of the system for different values.
The presented control approach represents a basic frame in
which other features can be added [24][31], for example, to
improve the efciency of the drive [32]. The objectives of this
paper are to introduce the method and its theoretical background,
analyzing, in depth, the most relevant issues related to its im-
plementation and showing its excellent performance based on
experimental results. An assessment with conventional control
and modulation methods was not included in the scope of this
paper and is a topic that will be faced in the next step of this
research.
PTC takes advantage of the discrete nature of the MCs
switching states and the control processor. The method also
utilizes the rotating vectors, usually discarded by MC modula-
tion techniques. The high sampling frequency required should
not be a problem nowadays, opening interesting possibilities
with a conceptually different approach to optimization in the
control of power converters and drives.
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Ren e Vargas (S05M09) received the Engineer
and M.Sc. degrees in electronics engineering, in
2005, and the Ph.D. degree for his work on predic-
tive control applied to matrix converters, in 2009,
from the Universidad T ecnica Federico Santa Mara
(UTFSM), Valparaso, Chile.
For a total period of eight months within
20062008, he was with the Institute of Power Elec-
tronics and Electrical Drives, University of Stuttgart,
Germany. In 2009, he was a Research Assistant at
the Power Electronics Research Group, UTFSM. In
2010, he joined ABB Switzerland, R&D Traction Converters, as Development
Engineer. He has authored or coauthored over 20 papers in leading international
conferences and journals, mainly on the topic of new control techniques applied
to power conversion and drives.
Ulrich Ammann (M06) received the Dipl.-Ing. de-
gree in electrical engineering in 2002 from the Uni-
versity of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany, where he
is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in
discrete-time modulation schemes, including predic-
tive techniques.
In 2002, he joined the Institute of Power Electron-
ics and Electrical Drives, University of Stuttgart, as
a Research Assistant. His current research interests
include electric drives, high-power current sources,
and automotive power electronics.
Boris Hudoffsky received the Dipl.-Ing. (F.H.) de-
gree in mechanical engineering and automation
in 2001 from the University of Applied Science
Furtwangen, Furtwangen, Germany, and the Dipl.-
Ing. degree in electrical engineering in 2007 from the
University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany, where he
is currently working toward the Ph.D. degree in cur-
rent measurement at the Institute of Power Electron-
ics and Electrical Drives.
Since 2001, he has been with TR Electronic
GmbH, Trossingen, Germany for three years.
Jose Rodriguez (M81SM94) received the Engi-
neer degree in electrical engineering from the Uni-
versidad T ecnica Federico Santa Mara (UTFSM),
Valparaso, Chile, in 1977, and the Dr.-Ing. de-
gree in electrical engineering from the University of
Erlangen, Erlangen, Germany, in 1985.
Since 1977, he has been a Professor with the
UTFSM, where he was the Director of the Electron-
ics Engineering Department from 2001 to 2004, the
Vice Rector of academic affairs from 2004 to 2005,
and has been a Rector since 2005. During his sabbat-
ical leave in 1996, he was with Siemens Corporation, Santiago, Chile, where
he was responsible for the mining division. He has extensive consulting experi-
ence in the mining industry, particularly in the application of large drives, such
as cycloconverter-fed synchronous motors for semiautogenous grinding mills,
high-power conveyors, controlled ac drives for shovels, and power quality is-
sues. He was the Director of more than 40 R&Dprojects in the eld of industrial
electronics. He has coauthored more than 250 journal and conference papers,
and has contributed one book chapter. His research group has been recognized
as one of the two centers of excellence in engineering in Chile in 2005 and
2006. His current research interests include multilevel inverters, new converter
topologies, and adjustable-speed drives.
Prof. Rodriguez is an active Associate Editor of the IEEE Power Electronics
and the IEEE Industrial Electronics Societies since 2002. He was the Guest
Editor of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS in ve op-
portunities [Special Sections on Matrix Converters (2002), Multilevel Inverters
(2002), Modern Rectiers (2005), High-Power Drives (2007), and Predictive
Control of Power Electronic Drives (2008)].
PatrickWheeler (M00) received the B.Eng. (Hons.)
degree and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering
from the University of Bristol, Bristol, U.K., in 1990
and 1994, respectively.
Since 1993, he has been with the University of
Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K., where he was a Re-
search Assistant in the Department of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering, a Lecturer in the Power Elec-
tronics, Machines and Control Group during 1996,
and has been a Full Professor in the same research
group since January 2008. He has authored or coau-
thored more than 200 papers in leading international conferences and jour-
nals. His research interests include power conversion and more electric aircraft
technology.