SolarDomesticHotWaterHeatingSystems Design,InstallationandMaintenance

Presentedby: ChristopherA.Homola,PE

A Brief History of Solar Water Heating Solar water heating has been around for many years because it is the easiest way to use the sun to save energy and money. One of the earliest documented cases of solar energy use involved pioneers moving west after the Civil War. They would place a cooking pot filled with cold water in the sun all day to have heated water in the evening. The first solar water heater that resembles the concept still in use today was a metal tank that was painted black and placed on the roof where it was tilted toward the sun. The concept worked, but it usually took all day for the water to heat, then, as soon as the sun went down, it cooled off quickly because the tank was not insulated.

A Brief History of the American Solar Water Heating Industry 1890 to 1930's - the California Era
The first commercial solar water heater was introduced by Clarence Kemp in the 1890's in California. For a $25 investment, people could save about $9 a year in coal costs. It was a simple batch type solar water heater that combined storage and collector in one box. The first thermosyphon systems with the tank on the roof and the collector below were invented, patented, and marketed in California in the 1920's by William Bailey. One of the largest commercial systems in California was installed for a resort in Death Valley. Natural gas was discovered in Southern California and cheap natural gas, aggressively marketed by utility companies, ended the solar water heating market. Patents were sold to a Florida company, owned by HM Carruthers in 1923 and the solar hot water industry began in the coastal cities of central Florida and southern Florida.

1930's to 1973 - the South Florida Era Floridians purchased or shipped to the Caribbean more than 100,000 thermosyphon water heaters between 1930 and 1954 when the industry collapsed. During the second World War (1942 to 1945) copper was reserved for the military and the solar industry was not able to make solar collectors. After the war, the Florida industry boomed again for about six years. Half of Miami homes had solar water heaters with over 80% of new homes having them installed. In the early 1950's electricity became cheap in Florida and utility companies gave away electric water heaters in an effort to eliminate the solar water heating industry. By 1973, there were only two full-time solar water heating companies left in the United States both operating out of Miami, Florida.

1973 to 1986 - Oil Embargo and Tax Credits The oil embargo of 1973 resulted in a rise in fuel prices. A few companies started experimenting with solar water heaters and designing systems but there were really no national solar collector manufacturers with widespread distribution until the late seventies. The federal government sponsored a few HUD Grants for domestic solar water heaters in the period just before the start of the 40% Federal tax rebate in 1979. The tax credit era, 1979 to 1986, started a nationwide boon in solar hot water systems that resulted in hundreds of manufacturers and thousands of contractors and distributors starting new businesses.

Equipment has improved since the 1980s. Improvements were precipitated by both certification design review and experienced installers. Today, more than 1.2 million buildings have solar water heating systems in the United States. Japan has nearly 1.5 million buildings with solar water heating. In Israel, 30 percent of the buildings use solarheated water. Greece and Australia are also leading users of solar energy. There is still a lot of room for expansion in the solar energy industry. There are no geographical constraints. For colder climates, manufacturers have designed systems that protect components from freezing conditions. Wherever the sun shines, solar water heating systems can work. The designs may be different from the early solar pioneers, but the concept is the same.

EnvironmentalBenefits
Solarwaterheatersdonotpollute. Solarwaterheatershelptoavoidcarbondioxide,nitrogenoxides,sulfur dioxide,andtheotherairpollutionandwastescreatedwhen thelocalutility generatespowerorfuelisburnedtoheatdomesticwater. Whenasolarwaterheaterreplacesanelectricwaterheater,theelectricity displacedover20yearsrepresentsmorethan50tonsofavoidedcarbon dioxideemissionsalone.

LongTermBenefits
Solarwaterheatersofferlongtermbenefitsthatgobeyondsimple economics. Inadditiontohavingfreehotwaterafterthesystemhaspaidforitselfin reducedutilitybills,ownerscouldbecushionedfromfuture fuel shortagesandpriceincreases. Solarwaterheaterscanassistinreducingthiscountry'sdependenceon foreignoil. It is estimated that adding a solar water heater to an existing home raises theresalevalueofthehomebytheentirecostofthesystem. Homeownersmaybeabletorecouptheirentireinvestmenttheysell theirhome.

EconomicBenefits Many home builders choose electric water heaters because they are easy to install and relatively inexpensive to purchase. However, research shows that an average household with an electric water heater spends about 25% of its home energycostsonheatingwater. It makes economic sense to think beyond the initial purchase price and consider lifetime energy costs, or how much you will spend on energy to use the appliance over its lifetime. The Florida Solar Energy Center studied the potential savings to Florida homeowners of common waterheating systems compared with electric water heaters. It found that solar water heaters offered the largest potential savings, with solar waterheater owners saving as much as 50% to 85% annually on theirutilitybillsoverthecostofelectricwaterheating.

EconomicBenefitsContinued Asolarhotwaterheaterheatsthesameamountofwaterforafractionofthe cost. Asolarhotwaterheatingsystemsperformanceisdependentonthe intensityofthesuninitslocation. Theinitialexpenseofinstallingasolarhot water heater ($3500 to $5500) tends to be greater than installing an electric ($450 to$650)orgas($750to$1000)waterheater. Thecostsvaryfromregiontoregion.Dependingonthepriceoffuelsources,the solarwaterheatercanbemoreeconomicaloverthelifetimeofthesystemthan heatingwaterwithelectricity,fueloil,propane,orevennaturalgasbecausethe fuel(sunshine)isfree.

EconomicBenefitsContinued However, at the current low prices of natural gas, solar water heaters cannot competewithnaturalgaswaterheatersinmostpartsofthecountryexcept innewhomeconstruction.Althoughyouwillstillsaveenergycostswitha solarwaterheaterbecauseyouwon'tbebuyingnaturalgas,itwon'tbe economicalonadollarfordollarbasis. Paybacks vary widely, but you can expect a simple payback of 4 to 8 years on awelldesignedandproperlyinstalledsolarwaterheater.Youcanexpect shorterpaybacksinareaswithhigherenergycosts.Afterthepayback period, you accrue the savings over the life of the system, which ranges from 15to40years,dependingonthesystemandhowwellitismaintained.

EconomicBenefitsContinued Youcandeterminethesimplepaybackofasolarwaterheaterbyfirst determiningthenetcostofthesystem.Netcostsincludethetotalinstalled costlessanytaxincentivesorutilityrebates.Afteryoucalculatethenet costofthesystem,calculatetheannualfuelsavingsanddividethenet investmentbythisnumbertodeterminethesimplepayback. Anexample:Yourtotalutilitybillaverages$160permonthandyourwater heatingcostsareaverage(25%ofyourtotalutilitycosts)at$40permonth. Ifyoupurchaseasolarwaterheaterfor$2,000thatprovidesanaverageof 60%ofyourhotwatereachyear,thatsystemwillsaveyou$24permonth ($40x0.60=$24)or$288peryear(12x$24=$288).Thissystemhasa simplepaybackoflessthan7years($2,000 $288=6.9).

For the remainder of the life of the solar water heater, 60% of the hot water will be free, saving $288 each year. You will need to account for someoperationandmaintenancecosts,whichareestimatedat$25 to$30 ayear.Thisisprimarilytohavethesystemcheckedevery3years. If you are building a new home or refinancing your present home to do a major renovation, the economics are even more attractive. The cost of including the price of a solar water heater in a new 30year mortgage is usually between $13 and $20 per month. The portion of the federal income tax deduction for mortgage interest attributable to the solar system reduces that amount by about $3 to $5 per month. If your fuel savings are more than $15 per month, the investment in the solar water heaterisprofitableimmediately.

Peak Power Benefit A typical residential solar water heating system (SWHS) for a family of four delivers 4 kilowatts of electrical equivalent thermal power when under full sun and when the temperature of the water in the storage tank is about the same as the air temperature. Such a system typically has about 64 square feet of solar collector surface area and produces approximately the same peak power as 400 square feet of photovoltaic panels.

Production Capacity Benefit Ratings of collectors and systems, along with other information specific to the local area, can be used to calculate the specific reduction in a utilitys peak demand. On average, for every solar water heating system that is installed, 0.5 kilowatts of peak demand is deferred from a utilitys load.

Energy Production Benefit Because peak performance occurs infrequently, a more realistic indication of solar thermal system performance is the rated daily energy output of the collectors or system. Using this method, a typical solar water heating system contributes 7 to 10 kilowatt-hours per day, depending on the solar resource and type of collector. Electric water heating for residential applications typically consumes about 12 kilowatt-hours per day, depending on ground water temperature. Annual site-specific energy savings for domestic water heating systems are available at www.solar-rating.org for all systems certified by the Solar Rating and Certification Corporation (SRCC). Using this data, a typical solar water heating system produces about 3,400 kilowatt-hours per year, depending on local conditions and type of collector.

WhatInfluencestheAmountofSolarRadiation?

Atmosphere AngleofIncidence Geography LatitudeandSeason AirPollutionandNaturalHaze

Atmosphere
The atmosphere absorbs certain wavelengths of light more than others. The exact spectral distribution of light reaching the earth's surface depends on how much atmosphere the light passes through, as well as the humidity of the atmosphere. In the morning and evening, the sun is low in the sky and light waves pass through more atmosphere than at noon. The winter sunlight also passes through more atmosphere versus summer. In addition, different latitudes on the earth have different average thicknesses of atmosphere that sunlight must penetrate. The figure below illustrates the atmospheric effects on solar energy reaching the earth. Clouds, smoke and dust reflect some solar insolation back up into the atmosphere, allowing less solar energy to fall on a terrestrial object. These conditions also diffuse or scatter the amount of solar energy that does pass through.

Angle of Incidence The suns electromagnetic energy travels in a straight line. The angle at which these rays fall on an object is called the angle of incidence. A flat surface receives more solar energy when the angle of incidence is closer to zero (i.e. perpendicular) and therefore receives significantly less in early morning and late evening. Because the angle of incidence is so large in the morning and evening on earth, about six hours of usable solar energy is available daily. This is called the solar window.

Absorptance vs. Reflectance Certain materials absorb more insolation than others. More absorptive materials are generally dark with a matte finish, while more-reflective materials are generally lighter colored with a smooth or shiny finish. The materials used to absorb the sun's energy are selected for their ability to absorb a high percentage of energy and to reflect a minimum amount of energy. The solar collector's absorber and absorber coating efficiency are determined by the rate of absorption versus the rate of reflectance. This in turn, affects the absorber and absorber coating's ability to retain heat and minimize emissivity and reradiation. High absorptivity and low reflectivity improves the potential for collecting solar energy.

Collecting and Converting Solar Energy Solar collectors capture the suns electromagnetic energy and convert it to heat energy. The efficiency of a solar collector depends not only on its materials and design but also on its size, orientation and tilt. Available solar energy is at its maximum at noon, when the sun is at its highest point in its daily arc across the sky. The sun's daily motion across the sky has an impact on any solar collector's efficiency and performance in the following ways. 1.Since the angle of incidence of the solar energy measured from the normal (right angle) surface of the receiving surface changes throughout the day, solar power is lower at dawn and dusk. In reality, there are only about 6 hours of maximum energy available daily. 2.The total energy received by a fixed surface during a given period depends on its orientation and tilt and varies with weather conditions, time of day and season.

Insolation Insolation is the amount of the suns electromagnetic energy that falls on any given object. Simply put, when we are talking about solar radiation, we are referring to insolation. In Florida (at about sea level), an object will receive a maximum of around 300 Btu/ft2hr (about 90 watts/ft2 or 950 watts/meter2) at high noon on a horizontal surface under clear skies on June 21 (the day of the summer equinox).

PV Solar Radiation (Flat Plate, Facing South, Latitude Tilt)Static Maps These maps provide monthly average daily total solar resource information on grid cells of approximately 40 km by 40 km in size. The insolation values represent the resource available to a flat plate collector, such as a photovoltaic panel, oriented due south at an angle from horizontal to equal to the latitude of the collector location.

Resource: National Renewable Energy Laboratory www.nrel.gov/gis/solar.html

OptimumPerformanceConsiderations

OptimumTilt: Tolatitudeforgreatestperformanceoruptolatitudeminus5 degrees. OptimumSummerLoad:Latitudeminus15degrees(e.g.solarairconditioning). OptimumWinterLoad:Latitudeplus15degrees(e.g.solarspaceheating).

OptimumAzimuth: Towardtheequator(e.g.Facingsouthinnorthernhemisphere).

Figure 1. Sun Path Diagrams for 28 N. Latitude Seasonal Variations The dome of the sky and the suns path at various times of the year are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 2a And 2b. Collected Energy Varies with Time of Year And Tilt
For many solar applications, we want maximum annual energy harvest. For others, maximum winter energy (or summer energy) collection is important. To orient the flat-plate collector properly, the application must be considered, since different angles will be best for each different application.

Actual Collector Orientation Possibilities

Collector Orientation Collectors work best when facing due south. If roof lines or other factors dictate different orientations, a small penalty will be paid, as shown in Figure 3. As an example: for an orientation 20 degrees east or west of due south, we must increase the collector area to 1.06 times the size needed with due south orientation (dashed line on Figure 3) to achieve the same energy output. The orientation angle away from due south is called the azimuth and, in the Northern Hemisphere, is plus if the collector faces toward the east and minus if toward the west.

Figure 3. Glazed Collector Orientations

Tilt Angle The best tilt angle will vary not only with the collectors geographical location but also with seasonal function. Solar water heating systems are designed to provide heat year-round. In general: A)Mounting at an angle equal to the latitude works best for yearround energy use. B)Latitude minus 15 degrees mounting is best for summer energy collection. C)Latitude plus 15 degrees mounting is best for winter energy collection.

Various Collector Tilt Angles

Solar Water Heating System Basics Solarwaterheatingsystemsincludestoragetanksandsolar collectors. Therearetwotypesofsolarwaterheatingsystems:Active,which havecirculatingpumpsandcontrols,andPassive,whichdont. Mostsolarwaterheatersrequireawellinsulatedstoragetank. Solarstoragetankshaveanadditionaloutletandinletconnected toandfromthesolarcollector. Intwotanksystems,thesolarwaterheaterpreheatswater beforeitenterstheconventionalwaterheater. Inonetanksystems,thebackupheateriscombinedwiththe solarstorageinonetank.

Electric Back-Up Solar systems with single tanks are designed to encourage temperature stratification so that when water is drawn for service, it is supplied from the hottest stratum in the tank (i.e. top of tank). While a solar system tank in the United States normally contains a heating element, the element is deliberately located in the upper third of the tank. The electric element functions as back-up when solar energy is not available or when hot water demand exceeds the solar-heated supply.

Natural Gas Back-Up Natural gas back-up systems may use passive (thermosyphon or integral collector system) solar preheating plumbed in series for proper operation. Or two separate tanks may be used for active solar systems with natural gas back-up heating systems. The solar storage tank is piped in series to the auxiliary tank sending the hottest solar preheated water to the gas back-up tank.

SolarCollectors
Fourtypesofsolarcollectorsareusedforresidential applications: Flatplatecollector Integralcollectorstoragesystems Batchsystem Evacuatedtubesolarcollectors

FlatPlateCollector Flatplatecollectorsaredesignedtoheatwatertomedium temperatures(approximately140degreesFahrenheit).

Flat plate collectors typically include the following components:

1.Enclosure: A box or frame that holds all the components together. 2.Glazing: A transparent cover over the enclosure that allows the suns rays to pass through to the absorber. Most glazing is glass but some designs use clear plastic. 3.Glazing Frame: Attaches the glazing to the enclosure. Glazing gaskets prevent leakage around the glazing frame and allow for contraction and expansion. 4.Insulation: Material between the absorber and the surfaces it touches that blocks heat loss by conduction thereby reducing the heat loss from the collector enclosure. 5.Absorber: A flat, usually metal surface inside the enclosure that, because of its physical properties, can absorb and transfer high levels of solar energy. 6.Flow Tubes: Highly conductive metal tubes across the absorber through which fluid flows, transferring heat from the absorber to the fluid.

IntegralCollectorStorage(ICS)Systems In other solar water heating systems the collector and storage tank are separate components. In an integral collector storage (ICS) system, both collection and solar storage are combined within a single unit. Most ICS systems store potable water inside several tanks within the collector unit. The entire unit is exposed to solar energy throughout the day. The resulting water is drawn off either directly to the service location or as replacement hot water to an auxiliary storage tank as water is drawn for use.

Cutaway of an ICS system

Batch System

Batch solar water heater

The simplest of all solar water heating systems is a batch system. It is simply one or several storage tanks coated with black, solar-absorbing material in an enclosure with glazing across the top and insulation around the other sides. It is the simplest solar system to make. When exposed to sun during the day, the tank transfers the heat it absorbs to the water it holds. The heated water can be drawn directly from the tank or it can replace hot water that is drawn from an interior tank inside the building.

EvacuatedTubeSolarCollectors Thistypeofsystemfeaturesparallelrowsoftransparentglasstubes. Eachtubecontainsaglassoutertubeandmetalabsorbertubeattached toafin.Thefinscoatingabsorbssolarenergybutinhibitsradiativeheat loss.Thesecollectorsareusedmorefrequentlyforcommercial applications.

Evacuated-tube collectors generally have a smaller solar collecting surface because this surface must be encased by an evacuated glass tube. They are designed to deliver higher temperatures (approximately 300 degrees Fahrenheit). The tubes themselves comprise the following elements: 1.Highly tempered glass vacuum tubes, which function as both glazing and insulation. 2.An absorber surface inside the vacuum tube. The absorber is surrounded by a vacuum that greatly reduces the heat loss.

ActiveSolarWaterHeatingSystems
TherearetwoSolarWaterHeatingSystemtypes:ActiveandPassive TherearetwotypesofActiveSolarWaterHeatingSystems: DirectCirculationSystems IndirectCirculationSystems

DirectCirculationSystems Pump circulates domestic water through the collector(s) and into the building. This type of system works well in climates where it rarely freezes.

DirectPumpedSystem

DirectSystemwithPhotovoltaicPoweredPump

Direct System with Automatic Drain-down system configuration

The direct pumped system has one or more solar energy collectors installed on the roof and a storage tank located somewhere within the building. A pump circulates the water from the tank up to the collector and back again. This is called a direct (or open loop) system because thesunsheatis transferred directly to the potable water circulating through the collector and storagetank.Neitheranantifreezenorheatexchangerisinvolved. This system has a differential controller that senses temperature differences between water leaving the solar collector and the coldest water in the storage tank. When the water in the collectorisabout1520Fwarmerthanthewaterinthestoragetank,thepumpisturnedonby thecontroller.Whenthetemperaturedifferencedropstoabout35F,thepumpisturnedoff. Inthisway,thewateralwaysgainsheatfromthecollectorwhen thepumpoperates. A flushtype freeze protection valve installed near the collector provides freeze protection. Whenever temperatures approach freezing, the valve opens to let warm water flow through thecollector. The collector should always allow for manual draining by closing the isolation valves (located abovethestoragetank)andopeningthedrainvalves. Automaticrecirculationisanothermeansoffreezeprotection.Whenthewaterinthecollector reaches a temperature near freezing, the controller turns the pump on for a few minutes to warmthecollectorwithwaterfromthestoragetank.

DirectSystemAdvantages

Servicewateruseddirectlyfromcollectorloop. Noheatexchanger moreefficientheattransfertostorage. Circulationpump(ifneeded)needsonlytoovercomefriction losses systempressurized.

DirectSystemDisadvantages

Qualityofservicewatermustbegoodtopreventcorrosion,scale ordepositsincomponents. Freezeprotectiondependsonmechanicalvalves. Recommendedinclimateswithminimal/nofreezepotential, andgoodwaterquality.

IndirectCirculationSystems Pumpcirculatesanonfreezing,heattransferfluidthroughthecollector(s) andaheatexchanger. Thisheatsthewaterthatthenflowsintothehome. Thistypeofsystemworkswellinclimatespronetofreezingtemperatures.

IndirectPumpedSystemUsingAntiFreezeSolution

This system design is common in northern climates, where freezing weather occursmorefrequently.Anantifreezesolutioncirculatesthroughthecollector, and a heat exchanger transfers the heat from the antifreeze solution to the storagetankwater.Whentoxicheatexchangerfluidsareused,adoublewalled exchanger is required. Generally, if the heat exchanger is installed in the storagetank,itshouldbelocatedinthelowerhalfofthetank. A heat transfer solution is pumped through the collector in a closed loop. The loopincludesthecollector,connecting piping,the pump,an expansiontankand a heat exchanger. A heat exchanger coil in the lower half of the storage tank transfers heat from the heat transfer solution to the potable water in the solar storagetank.Analternativeofthisdesignistowraptheheat exchangeraround thetank.Thiskeepsitfromcontactwiththepotablewater. The differential controller, in conjunction with the collector and tank sensors, determines when the pump should be activated to direct the heat transfer fluid through the collector. The photovoltaic panel located on the roof supplies the powertooperatethecirculatingpump.

IndirectPumpedSystemUsingAntiFreezeSolution andWrapAroundHeatExchanger

Afailsafemethodofensuringthatcollectorsandcollectorlooppipingneverfreeze istoremoveallthewaterfromthecollectorsandpipingwhenthesystemisnot collectingheat.Thisisamajorfeatureofthedrainbacksystem.Freezeprotection isprovidedwhenthesystemisinthedrainmode.Waterinthe collectorsand exposedpipingdrainsintotheinsulateddrainbackreservoirtankeachtimethe circulatingpumpshutsoff.Aslighttiltofthecollectorsisrequiredinordertoallow completedrainage.Asightglassattachedtothedrainbackreservoirtankshows whenthereservoirtankisfullandthecollectorhasbeendrained. Inthisparticularsystem,distilledwaterisrecommendedtobeusedasthecollector loopfluidtransfersolution.Usingdistilledwaterincreasestheheattransfer characteristicsandpreventspossiblemineralbuildupofthetransfersolution. Whenthesunshinesagain,thecirculatingpumpisactivatedbyadifferential controller.Waterispumpedfromthereservoirtothecollectors,allowingheatto becollected.Thewaterstoredinthereservoirtankcirculates inaclosedloop throughthecollectorsandaheatexchangeratthebottomofthe storagetank. Theheatexchangertransfersheatfromthecollectorloopfluidtothepotablewater locatedinthestoragetank.

IndirectSystemAdvantages
Freezeprotectionprovidedbyantifreezefluidordrainback. Collector/pipingprotectedfromaggressivewater.

IndirectSystemDisadvantages
Mustaccountforreducedheattransferefficiencythroughheat exchanger. Addedmaterials=addedcost. Ifnotusingwater,fluidsrequiremaintenance. Mostdesignsrequireaddedpumpingcost.

Passive Solar Water Heaters Passive solar water heaters rely on gravity and the tendency for water to naturally circulate as it is heated. Passive solar water heater systems contain no electrical components, are generally more reliable, easier to maintain, and possibly have a longer work life than active solar water heater systems. The two most popular types of passive solar water heater systems are: Integral-Collector Storage (ICS) andThermosyphon systems.

IntegralCollectorStorageSystem

Inanintegralcollectorstoragesystem,thehotwaterstoragesystemisthecollector. Coldwaterflowsprogressivelythroughthecollectorwhereitis heatedbythesun. Hot waterisdrawnfromthetop,whichisthe hottest, and replacement water flows into the bottom. This system is simple because pumps and controllers are not required. On demand, cold water from the building flows into the collector and hot water fromthecollectorflowstoastandardhotwaterauxiliarytankwithinthebuilding. Aflushtypefreezeprotectionvalveisinstalledinthetoppipingnear thecollector. As temperatures near freezing, this valve opens to allow relatively warm water to flowthroughthecollecttopreventfreezing. In areas of the country, the thermal mass of the large water volume within the integralcollectorstoragecollectorprovidesameansoffreezeprotection.

ThermosyphonSystem

As the sun shines on the collector, the water inside the collector flow tubes is heated. As it heats, this water expands slightly and becomes lighter than the cold water in the solar storage tank mounted above the collector.Gravitythenpullsheavier,coldwaterdownfromthe tankand intothecollectorinlet.Thecoldwaterpushestheheatedwaterthrough the collector outlet and into the top of the tank, thus heating the water inthetank. In a thermosiphon system there is no need for a circulating pump and controller. Potable water flows directly to the tank on the roof. Solar heated water flows from the rooftop tank to the auxiliary tank installed atgroundlevelwheneverwaterisusedwiththebuilding. The thermosiphon system features a thermally operated valve that protects the collector from freezing. It also includes isolation valves, which allow the solar system to be manually drained in case of freezing conditions,ortobebypassedcompletely.

Typical Components of a Direct Flat Plate Collector System

AIR VENT Allows air that has entered the system to escape, and in turn prevents air locks that would restrict flow of the heat-transfer fluid. An air vent must be positioned vertically and is usually installed at the uppermost part of the system. In active direct systems supplied by pressurized water, an air vent should be installed anywhere air could be trapped in pipes or collectors. Indirect systems that use glycol as the heat-transfer fluid use air vents to remove any dissolved air left in the system after it has been pressurized or charged with the heat-transfer fluid. Once the air has been purged in these indirect systems, the air vent mechanism is manually closed. TEMPERATURE-PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE Protects system components from excessive pressures and temperatures. A pressuretemperature relief valve is always plumbed to the solar storage (as well as auxiliary) tank. In thermosiphon and ICS systems, where the solar tanks are located on a roof, these tanks may also be equipped with a temperature-pressure relief valve since they are in some jurisdictions considered storage vessels. These valves are usually set by the manufacturer at 150 psi and 210 F. Since temperature pressure relief valves open at temperatures below typical collector loop operating conditions, they are not commonly installed in collector loops. PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE Protects components from excessive pressures that may build up in system plumbing. In any system where the collector loop can be isolated from the storage tank, a pressure relief valve must be installed on the collector loop. The pressure rating of the valve (typically 125 psi) must be lower than the pressure rating of all other system components, which it is installed to protect. The pressure relief valve is usually installed at the collector.

PRESSURE GAUGE Is used in indirect systems to monitor pressure within the fluid loop. In both direct and indirect systems, such gauges can readily indicate if a leak has occurred in the system plumbing. VACUUM BREAKER Admits atmospheric pressure into system piping, which allows the system to drain. This valve is usually located at the collector outlet plumbing but also may be installed anywhere on the collector return line. The vacuum breaker ensures proper drainage of the collector loop plumbing when it is either manually or automatically drained. A valve that incorporates both air vent and vacuum breaker capabilities is also available. ISOLATION VALVES These valves are used to manually isolate various subsystems. Their primary use is to isolate the collectors or other components before servicing. DRAIN VALVES Used to drain the collector loop, the storage tank and, in some systems, the heat exchanger or drain-back reservoir. In indirect systems, they are also used as fill valves. The most common drain valve is the standard boiler drain or hose bib.

CHECK VALVES Allow fluid to flow in only one direction. In solar systems, these valves prevent thermosiphoning action in the system plumbing. Without a check valve, water that cools in the elevated (roof-mounted) collector at night will fall by gravity to the storage tank, displacing lighter, warmer water out of the storage tank and up to the collector. Once begun, this thermosiphoning action can continue all night, continuously cooling all the water in the tank. In many cases, it may lead to the activation of the back-up-heating element, thereby causing the system to lose even more energy. FREEZE-PROTECTION VALVES Are set to open at near freezing temperatures, and are installed on the collector return line in a location close to where the line penetrates the roof. Warm water bleeds through the collector and out this valve to protect the collector and pipes from freezing. A spring-loaded thermostat or a bimetallic switch may control the valve. TEMPERATURE GAUGES Provide an indication of system fluid temperatures. A temperature gauge at the top of the storage tank indicates the temperature of the hottest water available for use. Temperature wells installed at several points in the system will allow the use of a single gauge in evaluating system operation.

SelectingaSolarWaterHeatingSystem Investigatelocalcodes,covenants,andregulations. Considertheeconomicsofasolarwaterheatingsystem. Evaluatethesitessolarresource. Determinethecorrectsystemsize. Estimateandcomparesystemcosts.

Building Codes, Covenants, and Regulations for Solar Water Heating Systems
Before installing a solar water heating system, you should investigate local building codes, zoning ordinances, and subdivision covenants, as well as any special regulations pertaining to the site. A building permit will probably be required to install a solar energy system onto an existing building. Not every community or municipality initially welcomes renewable energy installations. Although this is often due to ignorance or the comparative novelty of renewable energy systems, compliance with existing building and permit procedures to install a system is unavoidable. The matter of building code and zoning compliance for a solar system installation is typically a local issue. Even if a statewide building code is in effect, it's usually enforced locally by the city, county, or parish. Common problems owners have encountered with building codes include the following: Exceeding roof load Unacceptable heat exchangers Improper wiring Unlawful tampering with potable water supplies.

Building Codes, Covenants, and Regulations for Solar Water Heating Systems Continued

Potential zoning issues include the following: Obstructing sideyards Erecting unlawful protrusions on roofs Siting the system too close to streets or lot boundaries. Special area regulationssuch as local community, subdivision, or homeowner's association covenantsalso demand compliance. These covenants, historic district regulations, and flood-plain provisions can easily be overlooked.

Renewable Energy Funding Sources The Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency (DSIRE) is a comprehensive source of information on state, local, utility, and federal incentives that promote renewable energy and energy efficiency. The website is http://www.dsireusa.org.

Federal Level Funding

Federal Incentives for Renewable Energy U.S. Department of Treasury - Renewable Energy Grants Eligible Renewable Technologies: Solar Water Heating, Solar Space Heating, & Photovoltaic Systems Energy Efficient Mortgages Federal Housing Authority (FHA) & Veterans Affairs (VA) programs Eligible Renewable Technologies: Solar Water Heating, Solar Space Heating, & Photovoltaic Systems

State Level Funding State of Ohio Incentives for Renewable Energy Ohio Department of Development - Advanced Energy Program Grants - Multi-Family Residential Solar Thermal Incentive Eligible Renewable Technologies: Solar Water Heating & Solar Space Heating Systems Applicable Sectors: Multi-Family Residential, Low-Income Residential Ohio Department of Development - Advanced Energy Program Grants - Non-Residential Renewable Energy Eligible Renewable Technologies: Solar Water Heating, Wind, & Photovoltaic Systems Applicable Sectors: Commercial, Industrial, Nonprofit, Schools, Local Government, State Government, Agricultural, Institutional

SiteAssessment

SolarPathFinder

http://www.solarpathfinder.com

Collector Positioning
Flat-plate collectors for solar water heating are generally mounted on a building or the ground in a fixed position at prescribed angles. The angle will vary according to geographic location, collector type and use of the absorbed heat. Since residential hot water demand is generally greater in the winter than in the summer, the collector ideally should be positioned to maximize wintertime energy collection, receiving sunshine during the middle six to eight daylight hours of each day. Minimize shading from other buildings, trees or other collectors. Plan for lengthening winter shadows, as the sun's path changes significantly with the seasons.

Ideally, the collector should face directly south in the northern hemisphere and directly north in the southern hemisphere. However, facing the collector within 30 to 45 either east or west of due south or north reduces performance by only about 10 percent. A compass may be used to determine true south or north. The closer to the equator, the less the need to maintain the orientation and direction of the collector, but be aware of the seasonal position of the sun in the sky and how it may affect the seasonal performance of the system.

The optimum tilt angle for the collector is about the same as the site's latitude plus or minus 15. An inexpensive inclinometer will aid in determining tilt angles. If collectors will be mounted on a sloped roof, check the roof's inclination to determine whether the collectors should be mounted parallel to the roof or at a different tilt. In general, collectors should be mounted parallel to the plane of a sloped roof unless the performance penalty is more than 30 percent. The mounted collector should not detract from the appearance of the roof. Total length of piping from collector to storage should not exceed 100 feet. The longer the pipe run, the greater the heat loss. If a greater length is necessary, an increase in piping diameter or pump size may be required. If the collectors will be roof-mounted, they should not block drainage or keep the roof surface from properly shedding rain. Water should not gather or pool around roof penetrations. Roof curbs may be require.

To Estimate Shading of a Rooftop/Pole Mount on the Future Site

To Estimate Needed Pole Height to Avoid Shading

To Estimate How Much to Crop Tree to Avoid Shading

Duringthesitevisit,theassessorshouldprovide:
Abasicanalysisoftheprojectsenergyneeds. Recommendationsforenergyefficiencyinordertoreducethe sizeandcostoftheproposedrenewableenergysystem. Provideanevaluationoftherenewableenergyresourceatthe site. Informationregardingthebestplacetositethesolarsystem. Additionally,theassessorshouldfollowupwithawrittenreport detailingthesiteassessmentinformation.

SiteAssessmentBenefits
Arenewableenergysiteassessmentconductedbyacertified assessorprovidesanopportunitytodiscusswithanexperienced, objectivethirdpartyaboutthecharacteristicsofthepropertyand learnaboutavarietyofequipmentandoptions. Asiteassessmentisessentialwhenconsideringasolarproject. Thesiteassessorsreportcanbeusedtopresentasummaryof informationandoptionstodecisionmakersfortheirapproval.

CostofaRenewableEnergySiteAssessment
Certifiedassessorsestablishtheirownfeesfortheirservices. On average, the full cost of an assessment is between $300 and $500. The cost varies depending on the number of technologies being assessed and the complexity of the system, as well as the assessorstravelcosts. When arranging for a site assessment, discuss with the assessor your expectations so that you can receive an accurate cost estimate.

SizingtheSolarHotWaterHeatingSystem Just as you have to choose a 30, 40, or 50gallon conventional water heater, you need to determine the right size solar water heater to install. Sizing a solar water heater involves determining the total collector area and the storage volume required to provide 100% of your household's hot water during the summer. Solar equipment experts use worksheets or special computer programs to assist you in determininghowlargeasystemyouneed. Solarstoragetanksareusually50,60,80,or120galloncapacity.Asmall(50to60 gallon) system is sufficient for 1 to 3 people, a medium (80gallon) system is adequate for a 3 or 4person household, and a large (120gallon) system is appropriatefor4to6people. Aruleofthumbforsizingcollectors:allowabout 20squarefeetofcollectorareafor each of the first two family members and 8 square feet for each additional family member if you live in the Sun Belt. Allow 12 to 14 additional square feet per person ifyouliveinthenorthernUnitedStates.

SizingtheSolarHotWaterHeatingSystem Continued A ratio of at least 1.5 gallons of storage capacity to 1 square foot of collector area preventsthesystemfromoverheatingwhenthedemandforhotwaterislow. In very warm, sunny climates, experts suggest that the ratio should be at least 2 gallonsofstorageto1squarefootofcollectorarea. For example, a family of four in a northern climate would need between 64 and 68 squarefeetofcollectorareaanda96 to102gallonstoragetank. (Thisassumes20squarefeetofcollectorarea forthefirstperson,20forthesecond person,12to14forthethirdperson,and12to14forthefourthperson. Thisequals64to68squarefeet,multipliedby1.5gallons ofstoragecapacity, which equals96to102gallonsofstorage.) Because you might not be able to find a 96gallon tank, you may want to get a 120 gallontanktobesuretomeetyourhotwaterneeds.

Resources AnalysisTools Preliminary Screening: To determine if a project is a possible candidateforsolarhotwaterheating,tryusingtheFederalRenewable Energy Screening Assistant (FRESA) software. This is a windows based softwaretoolwhichscreensprojectsforeconomicfeasibility.Itisable to evaluate many renewable technologies including solar hot water, photovoltaics,andwind. Another and somewhat more detailed screening tool, Retscreen, is provided by Natural Resources Canada. Go to http://www.retscreen.net/ todownloadthesimulationsoftware.

ResourcesContinued AnalysisTools Detailed Performance: Once preliminary viability has been established, it will eventually be necessary to evaluate system performance to generate more precise engineeringdataandeconomicanalysis.Thiscanbeaccomplishedbaseduponhourly simulation software or by hand correlation methods based on the results of hourly simulations.Twosoftwareprogramswhichareavailableinclude: FCHART, acorrelationmethodavailablefromtheUniversityofWisconsin.Goto http://www.fchart.com/ todownloadthesimulationsoftware. TRNSYS, softwareavailablefromtheUniversityofWisconsin.Goto http://sel.me.wisc.edu/trnsys/ todownloadthesimulationsoftware.

FCHART can be used with the following: Collector Types Flat-Plates Evacuated Types Integral Collectors System Types Water Storage Heating Building Storage Heating Domestic Water Heating Integral Collector-Storage DHW Indoor and Outdoor Pool Heating Features Life-cycle economics with cash flow Weather data for over 300 locations Weather data can be added Monthly parameter variation 2-D incidence angle modifiers English and SI units Approved for use in California Versions for Mac, DOS, and Windows

F-Chart Example Input Parameter Input Screen for Flat-Plate Collector

F-Chart Example Input Parameter Input Screen for General Solar Heating System

F-Chart Example Output

F-Chart Example Output Graphical Output Screen showing Solar vs. Month

Installation

InstallationoftheSolarHotWaterSystem Theproperinstallationofsolarwaterheatingsystemsdependsonmany factors. Thesefactorsincludesolarresource,climate,localbuildingcoderequirements, andsafetyissues.

Wind Loading
A mounted collector is exposed not only to sunlight and the rigors of ultraviolet light but also to wind forces. For example, in parts of the world that are vulnerable to hurricanes or extreme wind storms, the collector and its mounting structure need to be able to withstand intermittent wind loads up to 146 miles per hour. This corresponds to a pressure of about 75 pounds per square foot. Winds, and thermal contraction and expansion may cause improperly installed bolts and roof seals to loosen over time. As always, follow local code requirements for wind loading.

Roof Mounting Considerations Do not mount collectors near the ridge of a roof or other places where the wind load may be unusually high. The figure below shows a desirable location for a roof-mounted collector. Mounting collectors parallel to the roof plane helps reduce wind loads and heat loss.

Example of a Collector mounted down from roof ridge to reduce wind loading and heat losses

Ground Mounting In an alternative to roof mounting, the collector for a solar water heating system may be mounted at ground level. The lower edge of the collector should be at least one foot above the ground so it will not be obstructed by vegetation or soaked by standing water.

Roof Mounted Collectors

There are four ways to mount flat-plate collectors on roofs: 1. Rack Mounting. This method is used on homes with flat roofs. Collectors are mounted at the prescribed angle on a structural frame. The structural connection between the collector and frame and between the frame and building, or site must be adequate to resist maximum potential wind loads.

Example of a Rack-mounted collector

2. Standoff Mounting. Standoffs separate the collector from the finished roof surface; they allow air and rainwater to pass under the collector and minimize problems of mildew and water retention. Standoffs must have adequate structural properties. They are sometimes used to support collectors at slopes that differ from that of the roof angle. This is the most common mounting method used.

Example of a Standoff-mounted collector

3. Direct Mounting. Collectors can be mounted directly on the roof surface. Generally, they are placed on a waterproof membrane covering the roof sheathing. Then the finished roof surface, the collector's structural attachments, and waterproof flashing are built up around the collector. A weatherproof seal must be maintained between the collector and the roof to avoid leaks, mildew and rotting.

Example of a Direct- or flush-mounted collector

4. Integral Mounting. Integral mounting places the collector within the roof construction itself. The collector is attached to and supported by the structural framing members. The top of the collector serves as the finished roof surface. Weather tightness is crucial in avoiding water damage and mildew. Only collectors designed by the manufacturer to be integrated into the roof should be installed as the water/moisture barrier of buildings. The roofing materials and solar collectors expand and contract at different rates and have the potential for leaks. A well sealed flashing material allows the expansion and contraction of the materials to maintain a water seal.

Example of an Integral-mounted collector

Roof Work Considerations The most demanding aspects of installing roof-mounted collectors are the actual mounting and roof penetrations. Standards and codes are sometimes ambiguous about what can and cannot be done to a roof. Always follow accepted roofing practices, be familiar with local building codes, and communicate with the local building inspector. These are prime roof work considerations: 1. Perform the installation in a safe manner. 2. Take precautions to avoid (or minimize) damage to the roof area. 3. Position collectors for the maximum performance compatible with acceptable mounting practices. 4. Seal and flash pipe and sensor penetrations in accordance with good roofing practices. Use permanent sealants such as silicone, urethane or butyl rubber. 5. Locate collectors so they are accessible for needed maintenance.

Maintenance

Maintenance Regular maintenance on simple systems can be as infrequent as every 35 years, preferably by a qualified contractor with experience and knowledge of solar hot water heating systems. Systems with electrical components usually requireareplacementpartortwoafter10years.

CorrosionandScalinginSolarWaterHeatingSystems The two major factors affecting the performance of properly sited and installed solar waterheatingsystemsincludescalingandcorrosion. Corrosion Most welldesigned solar systems experience minimal corrosion. When they do, it is usually galvanic corrosion, an electrolytic process caused by two dissimilar metals comingintocontactwitheachother.Onemetalhasastrongerpositiveelectricalcharge andpullselectronsfromtheother,causingoneofthemetalsto corrode. The heattransfer fluid in some solar energy systems sometimes provides the bridge overwhichthisexchangeofelectronsoccurs. Oxygen entering into an open loop solar system will cause rust in any iron or steel component. Such systems should have copper, bronze, brass, stainless steel, plastic, rubbercomponentsintheplumbingloop,andplasticorglasslinedstoragetanks.

Scaling Domestic water that is high in mineral content ("hard water") may cause the buildup or scaling of mineral (calcium) deposits in solar heating systems. Scale buildup reduces systemperformanceinanumberofways.Ifthesystemusesdomesticwaterastheheat transferfluid,scalingcanoccurinthecollector,distribution piping,andheatexchanger. In systems that use other types of heattransfer fluids (such as glycol), scaling can occur on the surface of the heat exchanger that transfers heat from the solar collector to the domestic water. Scaling may also cause valve and pump failures on the domestic water loop. Scaling can be avoided by using a water softener(s) or by circulating a mild acidic solution (suchasvinegar) through the collector or domestic water loop every 35 years, orasnecessarydependingonwaterconditions. There may be the need to carefully clean heat exchanger surfaces with mediumgrain sandpaper. A "wraparound" external heat exchanger is an alternative to a heat exchangerlocatedinsideastoragetank.

PeriodicInspectionList Thefollowingaresomesuggestedinspectionsofsolarsystemcomponents. Collectorshading Visually check for shading of the collectors during the day (midmorning, noon, and midafternoon) on an annual basis. Shading can greatly affect the performance of solar collectors. Vegetation growth over time or new construction on the building or adjacent property may produce shading that wasn'ttherewhenthecollector(s)wereinstalled. Collectorsoiling Dusty or soiled collectors will perform poorly. Periodic cleaning may be necessaryindry,dustyclimates. Collectorglazingandseals Look for cracks in the collector glazing, and check to see if seals are in good condition.Plasticglazing,ifexcessivelyyellowed,mayneedto bereplaced. Pipingandwiringconnections Lookforfluidleaksatpipeconnections.Allwiringconnections shouldbetight. Pipingandwiringinsulation Lookfordamageordegradationofinsulationcoveringpipesandwiring.

Roofpenetrations Flashing and sealant around roof penetrations should be in good condition. Supportstructures Checkallnutsandboltsattachingthecollectorstoanysupport structuresfor tightness. Pressurereliefvalve(onliquidsolarheatingcollectors) Makesurethevalveisnotstuckopenorclosed. Pumps Verify that distribution pump(s) are operating. Check to see if they come on when the sun is shining on the collectors after midmorning. If the pump is notoperating,theneitherthecontrollerorpumphasmalfunctioned. Heattransferfluids Antifreeze solutions in solar heating collectors need to be replaced periodically. If water with a high mineral content (i.e., hard water) is circulated in the collectors, mineral buildup in the piping may need to be removed by adding a descaling or mild acidic solution to the water every fewyears. Storagesystems Checkstoragetanks,etc.,forcracks,leaks,rust,orothersignsofcorrosion.

Manufacturers ACRSolarInternationalCorporation http://www.solarroofs.com FAFCO,Inc. VeluxAmerica http://www.fafco.com http://www.veluxusa.com

Heliodyne,Inc. http://www.heliodyne.com SiliconSolarInc. http://sunmaxxsolar.com Solarhart SunEarth,Inc. Solene,LLC http://www.solarhart.com http://www.sunearthinc.com http://www.soleneusa.com http://www.thermomax.com

ThermoTechnologies

TradeAssociations AmericanSolarEnergySociety(ASES) FloridaSolarEnergyCenter(FSEC) SolarEnergyIndustriesAssociation(SEIA) http://www.ases.org http://www.fsec.ucf.edu http://www.seia.org

SolarRating&CertificationCorporation(SRCC)http://www.solarrating.org

About the American Solar Energy Society Established in 1954, the American Solar Energy Society (ASES) is the nonprofit organization dedicated to increasing the use of solar energy, energy efficiency, and other sustainable technologies in the United States

About the Florida Solar Energy Center The Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC) was created by the Florida Legislature in 1975 to serve as the states energy research institute. The main responsibilities of the center are to conduct research, test and certify solar systems and develop education programs.

About the Solar Energy Industries Association Founded in 1974, the Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA) is the leading national trade association for the solar energy industry. The mission of the Solar Energy Industries Association is to expand markets, strengthen research and development, remove market barriers and improve education and outreach for solar energy professionals.

About the Solar Rating and Certification Corporation In 1980 the Solar Rating and Certification Corporation (SRCC) was incorporated as a non-profit organization whose primary purpose is the development and implementation of certification programs and national rating standards for solar energy equipment.

The End