Pe Notes

UNIT I
Power Semiconductor
Devices
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Introduction

What are Power Semiconductor Devices (PSD)?
They are devices used as switches or rectifiers in
power electronic circuits

What is the difference of PSD and low-power
semiconductor device?
Large voltage in the off state
High current capability in the on state

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Classification

Fig. 1. The power semiconductor devices family

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Important Parameters

Breakdown voltage.
On-resistance.
Trade-off between breakdown voltage and
on-resistance.
Rise and fall times for switching between on
and off states.
Safe-operating area.

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Power MOSFET: Structure

Power MOSFET has much higher current handling capability in
ampere range and drain to source blocking voltage(50-100V)
than other MOSFETs.

Fig.2.Repetitive pattern of the cells
structure in power MOSFET

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Power MOSFET: R-V Characteristics

An important parameter of a power MOSFET is on resistance:

, where
L

H
=
W C (V

V )

n ox GS T

Fig. 3. Typical R
DS
versus I
D
characteristics of a MOSFET.

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Thyristor: Structure
Thyristor is a general class of a four-layer pnpn
semiconducting device.

Fig.4 (a) The basic four-layer pnpn structure.
(b) Two two-transistor equivalent circuit.

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Thyristor: I-V Characteristics

Three States:
Reverse Blocking
Forward Blocking
Forward Conducting

Fig.5 The current-voltage
characteristics of the pnpn device.

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Applications

Power semiconductor devices have widespread
applications:
Automotive
Alternator, Regulator, Ignition, stereo tape
Entertainment
Power supplies, stereo, radio and television
Appliance
Drill motors, Blenders, Mixers, Air conditioners
and Heaters

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Thyristors

Most important type of power
semiconductor device.

Have the highest power handling
capability.they have a rating of 1200V

/
1500A with switching frequencies ranging
from 1KHz to 20KHz.

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Is inherently a slow switching device
compared to BJT or MOSFET.
Used as a latching switch that can be
turned on by the control terminal but
cannot be turned off by the gate.

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Different types of Thyristors

Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR).
TRIAC.
DIAC.
Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO).

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SCR

Symbol of
Silicon Controlled
Rectifier

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1
p

Structure

Gate Cathode

+ 19 -3

n 10 cm
J
3
-

+ 19 -3

n 10 cm
}
10m

17

p
10

J
2

13

n
10
-3

cm

14 -3

-5 x 10 cm
}
30-100m

}
50-1000m

J

17 -3

10 cm
+
19 -3

p
10 cm
}
30-50m

Anode

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Device Operation

Simplified model of a
thyristor

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V-I
Characteristics

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Effects of gate current

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Two Transistor Model of SCR

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E
C
A C

Considering PNP transistor

of the equivalent circuit,

I = I , I

1
= I
,

1
=
1
,

I
CBO

= I
CBO

, I
B

= I
B

1 1

I
B

= I
A

(
1
1
)

I
CBO

(
1
)

1 1

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C
2

Considering NPN transistor

of the equivalent circuit,

I
C
= I
C

, I
B

= I
B

, I
E

= I
K

= I
A

+ I
G

2 2 2

I =
2
I
k

+ I
CBO

I
C
=
2

(
I
A

+ I
G
)
+

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2
I
CBO

(
2
)

2 2

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C B

From the equivalent circuit,

we see that

I = I

2 1

I
A

=

2
I
g
+ I
CBO1
+ I
CBO 2

1
(
1

+
2
)

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1 2

Case 1: When I
g
= 0

I
A
=

I
CBO
+ I
CBO

1
(
1

+
2
)

Case 2: When I
G
0

I
A
=

2
I
g
+ I
CBO1
+ I
CBO 2

1
(
1

+
2
)

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Turn-on
Characteristics

t
o n

= t
d

+ t
r

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c

V
AK

t
C

t
q

t

I
A

Anode current
begins to
decrease

Commutation
di
dt

Recovery Recombination

t
q
=device off time
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
t
5

t

Turn-off
t
c
=circuit off time
t
rr
t
gr

t
q

Characteristi
t
c

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Methods of Thyristor Turn-on

Thermal Turn-on.
Light.
High Voltage.
Gate Current.
dv/dt.

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Thyristor Types

Phase-control Thyristors (SCRs).
Fast-switching Thyristors (SCRs).
Gate-turn-off Thyristors (GTOs).
Bidirectional triode Thyristors (TRIACs).
Reverse-conducting Thyristors (RCTs).

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Static induction Thyristors (SITHs).
Light-activated silicon-controlled rectifiers
(LASCRs).
FET controlled Thyristors (FET-CTHs).
MOS controlled Thyristors (MCTs).

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Phase Control Thyristor
These are converter thyristors.
The turn-off time t
q
is in the order of 50 to
100sec.
Used for low switching frequency.
Commutation is natural commutation
On state voltage drop is 1.15V for a 600V
device.

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They use amplifying gate thyristor.

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Fast Switching
Thyristors
Also called inverter thyristors.
Used for high speed switching applications.
Turn-off time t
q
in the range of 5 to 50sec.
On-state voltage drop of typically 1.7V for
2200A, 1800V thyristor.
High dv/dt and high di/dt rating.

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Bidirectional Triode
Thyristors (TRIAC)

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MT (+)

Mode-I
Operation

2

P
1

G
(+)
N
1

Ig
P
2

V

Ig

N
2

MT
1
()

MT2 Positive,
Gate Positive

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Mode-II
Operation

MT
2
(+)

Initial
conduction

G
P
1

N
1

P
2

N
3
N
2

V

Final
conduction

MT
1
()

MT2 Positive,
Gate Negative

Ig

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N

Mode-III Operation
MT
2
()

N
4

P
1

N
1

P
2

2

(+)

Ig

MT2 Negative,
Gate Positive

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Mode-IV Operation
MT
2
()

N
4

P
1

N
1

P
2

N
3

G
(-)

MT
1

(+)

MT2 Negative,
Gate Negative

Ig

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Triac Characteristics

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heavily doped ~ 10^15

BJT structure
provides the carriers
lightly doped ~ 10^8 lightly doped ~ 10^6

note: this is a current of electrons (npn case) and so the
conventional current flows from collector to emitter.

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BJT characteristics

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BJT characteristics

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BJT modes of operation

Mode

EBJ

CBJ
Cutoff Reverse Reverse
Forward
active
Forward Reverse
Reverse
active
Reverse Forward
Saturation Forward Forward

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BJT modes of operation

Cutoff: In cutoff, both junctions reverse biased. There is very little current flow, which
corresponds to a logical "off", or an open switch.

Forward-active (or simply, active): The emitter-base junction is forward biased and the
base-collector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford the
greatest common-emitter current gain, f in forward-active mode. If this is the case, the
collector-emitter current is approximately proportional to the base current, but many times
larger, for small base current variations.

Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted): By reversing the biasing conditions of the
forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-active mode. In this mode, the
emitter and collector regions switch roles. Since most BJTs are designed to maximise
current gain in forward-active mode, the f in inverted mode is several times smaller. This
transistor mode is seldom used. The reverse bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an
order of magnitude lower in this region.

Saturation: With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates
current conduction from the emitter to the collector. This mode corresponds to a logical
"on", or a closed switch.

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BJT structure (active)

current of electrons for npn transistor
I
E
I
C

conventional current flows from
collector to emitter.

E
-

V
BE
- V
CE
+

I
B

C
+

V
CB
+ -
B
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MOSFET
NMOS: N-channel Metal
Oxide Semiconductor

W
GATE

L
L = channel length

W = channel width

Metal (heavily
doped poly-Si)

DRAIN

SOURCE

A GATE electrode is placed above (electrically insulated
from) the silicon surface, and is used to control the
resistance between the SOURCE and DRAIN regions

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N-channel MOSFET
Gate

Source
I
S

n
I
G

gate
oxide insulator

p

Drain

I
D

n

Without a gate-to-source voltage applied, no current can
flow between the source and drain regions.

Above a certain gate-to-source voltage (threshold
voltage V
T
), a conducting layer of mobile electrons is
formed at the Si surface beneath the oxide. These
electrons can carry current between the source and drain.

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N-channel vs. P-channel
MOSFETs

NMOS PMOS

n+ poly-Si p+ poly-Si

n+ n+ p+ p+

p-type Si n-type Si

For current to flow, V
GS
> V
T

Enhancement mode: V
T
> 0

Depletion mode: V
T
< 0
Transistor is ON when V
G
=0V
For current to flow, V
GS
< V
T

Enhancement mode: V
T
< 0

Depletion mode: V
T
> 0
Transistor is ON when V
G
=0V

(n+ denotes very heavily doped n-type material; p+ denotes very heavily doped p-type material)

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NMOS
MOSFET Circuit Symbols

G
G

n+ poly-Si

n+ n+
S S

p-type Si

PMOS

p+ poly-Si

p+ p+
G
G

Body

S S

n-type Si

Body

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MOSFET Terminals
The voltage applied to the GATE terminal determines whether
current can flow between the SOURCE & DRAIN terminals.

For an n-channel MOSFET, the SOURCE is biased at a lower
potential (often 0 V) than the DRAIN
(Electrons flow from SOURCE to DRAIN when V
G
> V
T
)

For a p-channel MOSFET, the SOURCE is biased at a higher
potential (often the supply voltage V
DD
) than the DRAIN

(Holes flow from SOURCE to DRAIN when V
G
< V
T
)

The BODY terminal is usually connected to a fixed potential.
For an n-channel MOSFET, the BODY is connected to 0 V
For a p-channel MOSFET, the BODY is connected to V
DD

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NMOSFET I
G
vs. V
GS
Characteristic

Consider the current I
G
(flowing into G) versus V
GS
:

V
GS
+

I
G

G
S D
oxide
semiconductor

V
DS

+

I
G

always zero!

V
GS

The gate is insulated from the
semiconductor, so there is no
significant steady gate current.

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NMOSFET I
D
vs. V
DS
Characteristics

Next consider I
D
(flowing into D) versus V
DS
, as V
GS
is varied:

S

V
GS
+

G

D
oxide
semiconductor
I
D

V
DS

+

I
D

V
GS
> V
T

zero if V
GS
< V
T

V
DS

Above threshold (V
GS
> V
T
):
inversion layer of electrons
appears, so conduction
between S and D is possible

Below threshold (V
GS
< V
T
):
no charge no conduction

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The MOSFET as a Controlled Resistor

The MOSFET behaves as a resistor when V
DS
is low:

Drain current I
D
increases linearly with V
DS

Resistance R
DS
between SOURCE & DRAIN depends on V
GS

R
DS
is lowered as V
GS
increases above V
T

NMOSFET Example:

I
D

oxide thickness t
ox

V
GS
= 2 V

V
GS
= 1 V > V
T

V
DS

Inversion charge density Q
i
(x) = -C
ox
[V
GS
-V
T
-V(x)]

I
DS
= 0 if V
GS
< V
T

where C
ox

ox
/ t
ox

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(
(

I
D
vs. V
DS
Characteristics

The MOSFET I
D
-V
DS
curve consists of two regions:
1) Resistive or Triode Region: 0 < V
DS
< V
GS
V
T

I = k

V

V

V
DS
(
V

D n

where

L
k
n

GS T

=
n
C
ox

2

DS
process transconductance parameter
2) Saturation Region:
V
DS
> V
GS
V
T

I
DSAT
=
k
n

2

W

V
GS

L

V
T

)
2

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where k
n

=
n
C
ox

CUTOFF region: V < V

G T

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The Evolution Of IGBT
Part I: Bipolar Power Transistors

Bipolar Power Transistor Uses Vertical Structure For
Maximizing Cross Sectional Area Rather Than Using Planar
Structure

Base Emitter

N
+

Collector

P

Base
N
+

N
-

Emitter

Collector
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Part II:Power MOSFET

Power MOSFET Uses Vertical Channel Structure Versus
The Lateral Channel Devices Used In IC Technology
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Lateral MOSFET structure

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Part III: BJT
(discrete)
+ Power MOSFET
(discrete)

Discrete BJT + Discrete Power MOSFET In Darlington
Configuration

C

N-MOSFET
D
S
G

NPN
B

E
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Part IV: BJT
(physics)
+ Power MOSFET
(physics)
= IGBT

More Powerful And Innovative Approach Is To Combine
Physics Of BJT With The Physics Of MOSFET Within Same
Semiconductor Region

This Approach Is Also Termed Functional Integration Of
MOS And Bipolar Physics

Using This Concept, The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT) Emerged

Superior On-State Characteristics, Reasonable Switching
Speed And Excellent Safe Operating Area
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IGBT Fabricated Using Vertical Channels (Similar To Both
The Power BJT And MOSFET)
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Device Operation
Operation Of IGBT Can Be Considered Like A PNP
Transistor With Base Drive Current Supplied By The
MOSFET

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DRIVER CIRCUIT (BASE / GATE)

Interface between control (low power electronics) and (high power) switch.

Functions:
amplifies control signal to a level required to drive power switch

provides electrical isolation between power switch and logic level

Complexity of driver varies markedly among switches. MOSFET/IGBT drivers
are simple but GTO drivers are very complicated and expensive.

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ELECTRICAL ISOLATION FOR DRIVERS

Isolation is required to prevent damages on
the high power switch to propagate back to
low power electronics.

Normally opto-coupler (shown below) or high
frequency magnetic materials (as shown in
the thyristor case) are used.

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ELECTRICAL ISOLATION FOR DRIVERS

Power semiconductor devices can be categorized into 3
types based on their control input requirements:

a) Current-driven devices BJTs, MDs, GTOs
b) Voltage-driven devices MOSFETs, IGBTs, MCTs
c) Pulse-driven devices SCRs, TRIACs

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CURRENT DRIVEN DEVICES (BJT)

Power BJT devices have low current gain due to
constructional consideration, leading current than would
normally be expected for a given load or collector current.
The main problem with this circuit is the slow turn-off time.
Many standard driver chips have built-in isolation. For
example TLP 250 from Toshiba, HP 3150 from Hewlett-
Packard uses opto-coupling isolation.

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ELECTRICALLY ISOLATED DRIVE CIRCUITS

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EXAMPLE: SIMPLE MOSFET GATE DRIVER

Note: MOSFET requires V
GS
=+15V for turn on and 0V to
turn off. LM311 is a simple amp with open collector
output Q
1
.

When B
1
is high, Q
1
conducts. V
GS
is pulled to ground.
MOSFET is off.

When B
1
is low, Q
1
will be off. V
GS
is pulled to V
GG
. If
V
GG
is set to +15V, the MOSFET turns on.

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UNIT II
PHASE CONTROLLED
CONVERTERS
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Phase-Control Converters
Single-Phase
Semiconverter
Three-Phase
Full converter
Dual converter
Semiconverter
Full converter
Dual converter
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Semiconverter
..is a one-quadrant converter and it has one polarity
Full converter
..is a two-quadrant converter and the polarity of its
output can be either positive or negative.
However
the output current of full converter has
one polarity only
Dual converter
..can operate in four quadrants ; both the output
voltage and current can be either positive or negative
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( ) ( )
}
+ = =
t
o
o
t
e e
t
cos 1
2
sin
2
1
m
m dc
V
t td V V
Average Output Voltage
t
m
dm
V
V =
Maximum
Output Voltage
( ) o cos 1 5 . 0 + = =
dm
dc
n
V
V
V
Normalizing
Output Voltage
( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
}
2
2 sin 1
2
sin
2
1
2 2
o
o t
t
e e
t
t
o
m
m rms
V
t td V V
RMS Output Voltage
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If the converter has a purely resistive load of R and
the delay angle is , determine
(a) the rectification efficiency
(b) the form factor FF
(c) the ripple factor RF
and (d) the peak inverse voltage PIV of thyristor T
1
2 / t o =
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( )
( )
( )
% 27 . 20
3536 . 0
1592 . 0
3536 . 0
2
2
2
sin
2
1
2
1592 . 0
2
cos 1
2
sin
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
= = =
=
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|

+ =
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
}
m
m
rms
dc
m
m
rms
m dc
m
m dc
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V V
V
t td V V
q
t
t
t
t
t
t
e e
t
t
t
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1
2 / t o =
221 . 2
1592 . 0
3536 . 0
= = =
m
m
dc
rms
V
V
V
V
FF
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1
2 / t o =
983 . 1 1 221 . 2 1
2 2
= = = FF RF
m
V PIV =
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Semiconverter
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Single-Phase Semiconverter
( ) ( )
( )
}
}
=
+ = =
t
o
t
o
e e
t
o
t
e e
t
t td V V
V
t td V V
m rms
m
m dc
2 2
sin
2
2
cos 1 sin
2
2
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Single-Phase Semiconverter (RL-load)
( )
(
= = =
= + +

e
o
e
o
o e
L
R
L
R
L L L
L
L
e
R
E
e I t i I
E Ri
dt
di
L
1
0
0 1 1
1
1
( ) ( )
t L
R
S
L
S
L
S L
L
e
Z
V
R
E
I
R
E
t
Z
V
I
t V E Ri
dt
di
L
+ + =
= + +
e
o
u o u e
e
sin
2
sin
2
sin 2
1 2
2
2
Mode 1
o e s s t 0
Mode 2
t e o s s t
R
L e
u
1
tan
=
( )
2
2
L R Z e + =
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Single-Phase Semiconverter (RL-load)
RMS Current
for Thyristor
( )
}
=
t
o
e
t
t d i I
L R
2
2
2
1
RMS Current
for Thyristor
( )
}
=
t
o
e
t
t d i I
L A 2
2
1
RMS Output
Current
( ) ( )
} }
+ =
t
o
o
e
t
e
t
t d i t d i I
L L rms
2
2
0
2
1
2
1
2
1
AVG Output
Current
( ) ( )
} }
+ =
t
o
o
e
t
e
t
t d i t d i I
dc 2
0
1
2
1
2
1
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The single-phase semiconverter has an RL load of
L = 6.5mH, R = 2.5 Ohm, and E = 10 V. The input
voltage is V
S
= 120 V(rms) at 60 Hz. Determine
(a) the load current I
L0
at , and the load
current I
L1
at ,
(b) the average thyristor current I
A
(c) the rms thyristor current I
R
(d) the rms output current I
rms
and (e) the average output current I
dc
0 = t e
= = 60 o et
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Single-Phase
Full Converter
Rectification
Mode
Inversion
Mode
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Single-Phase Full Converter
( )
( )
2
sin
2
2
cos
2
sin
2
2
2 2
m
m rms
m
m dc
V
t d t V V
V
t d t V V
= =
= =
}
}
+
+
e e
t
o
t
e e
t
o t
o
o t
o
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Single-Phase Full Converter (RL-load)
( ) ( )
t L
R
S
L
S
L
e
Z
V
R
E
I
R
E
t
Z
V
I

(
+ + =
e
o
u o u e sin
2
sin
2
0
Mode 1 = Mode 2
R
L e
u
1
tan
= ( )
2
2
L R Z e + =
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Single-Phase Full Converter (RL-load)
RMS Current
for Thyristor
( )
}
+
=
o t
o
e
t
t d i I
L R
2
2
1
RMS Current
for Thyristor
( )
}
+
=
o t
o
e
t
t d i I
L A
2
1
RMS Output
Current
R R R rms
I I I I 2
2 2
= + =
AVG Output
Current
A A A dc
I I I I 2 = + =
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Single-Phase Dual Converter
High-Power Variable-Speed Drives
2 1
2 2
1 1
cos
2
cos
2
dc dc
m
dc
m
dc
V V
V
V
V
V
=
=
=
o
t
o
t
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Three-Phase
Semiconverter
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3 Phase Controlled Rectifiers
Operate from 3 phase ac supply voltage.
They provide higher dc output voltage.
Higher dc output power.
Higher output voltage ripple frequency.
Filtering requirements are simplified for
smoothing out load voltage and load
current.
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Extensively used in high power variable
speed industrial dc drives.
Three single phase half-wave converters
can be connected together to form a three
phase half-wave converter.
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3-Phase
Half Wave Converter
(3-Pulse Converter)
with
RL Load
Continuous & Constant
Load Current Operation
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Vector Diagram of
3 Phase Supply Voltages
V
AN
V
CN
V
BN
120
0
120
0
120
0
RN AN
YN BN
BN CN
v v
v v
v v
=
=
=
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3 Phase Supply Voltage
Equations
We deifine three line to neutral voltages
(3 phase voltages) as follows
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( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
sin ;
Max. Phase Voltage
2
sin
3
sin 120
2
sin
3
sin 120
sin 240
RN an m
m
YN bn m
m
BN cn m
m
m
v v V t
V
v v V t
V t
v v V t
V t
V t
e
t
e
e
t
e
e
e
= =
=
| |
= =
|
\ .
=
| |
= = +
|
\ .
= +
=
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v
an
v
bn
v
cn
v
an
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i
o
=I
a
Constant Load
Current
I
a
I
a
Each thyristor conducts for 2t/3 (120
0
)
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To Derive an
Expression for the
Average Output Voltage of a
3-Phase Half Wave Converter
with RL Load
for Continuous Load Current
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( )
( )
( )
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
30
6
5
150
6
7
270
6
2
Each thytistor conducts for 120 or radians
3
T is triggered at t
T is triggered at t
T is triggered at t
t
e o o
t
e o o
t
e o o
t
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
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( )
( )
5
6
6
5
6
6
3
sin .
2
3
cos
2
3 5
cos cos
2 6 6
m
dc
m
dc
m
dc
V
V t d t
V
V t
V
V
t
o
t
o
t
o
t
o
e e
t
e
t
t t
o o
t
+
+
+
+
(
(
=
(
(

(
(
=
(
(

(
| | | |
= + + +
| |
(
\ . \ .

}
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( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0 0
0
Note from the trigonometric relationship
cos cos .cos sin .sin
5 5
cos cos sin sin
6 6
3
2
co
cos 150 cos sin 150 sin
3
2
cos 30
s .cos sin sin
6 6
.cos
m
dc
m
dc
A
V
V
B A B A B
V
V
t t
o o
t
t t
o
o
o
o
t
o
+ =
(
| | | |
+
| |
(
\ . \ .
(
=
(
| | | |
+
( | |
\ . \ .
+
=
( )
( )
0
sin 30 sin o
(
(
(

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( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0 0
Note: cos 1
cos 180 30 cos sin 180 30 sin
3
2
cos 30 .cos sin 30 sin
cos 30 cos sin 30 sin
3
2
cos 30 .cos sin 30 s
80 30 cos 30
sin 180 30 sin 30
in
m
dc
m
dc
V
V
V
V
o o
t
o o
o o
t
o o
=
(
+
(
=
(
+

(
+ +
(
=
(
+
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( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
0
3
2cos 30 cos
2
3 3
2 cos
2 2
3 3 3
3 cos cos
2 2
3
cos
2
Where 3 Max. line to line supply voltage
m
dc
m
dc
m m
dc
Lm
dc
Lm m
V
V
V
V
V V
V
V
V
V V
o
t
o
t
o o
t t
o
t
(
=

(
=
(

(
= =

=
= =
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( )
max
The maximum average or dc output voltage is
obtained at a delay angle 0 and is given by
3 3
2
Where is the peak phase voltage.
And the normalized average output voltage is
m
dm
dc
m
d
dcn n
V
V V
V
V
V V
o
t
=
= =
= = cos
c
dm
V
o =
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( )
( )
( )
1
5
2
6
2 2
6
1
2
The rms value of output voltage is found by
using the equation
3
sin .
2
and we obtain
1 3
3 cos 2
6 8
m
O RMS
m
O RMS
V V t d t
V V
t
o
t
o
e e
t
o
t
+
+
(
(
=
(
(

(
= +
(

}
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3 Phase Half Wave
Controlled Rectifier Output
Voltage Waveforms For RL
Load
at
Different Trigger Angles
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0
0
30
0
30
0
60
0
60
0
90
0
90
0
120
0
120
0
150
0
150
0
180
0
180
0
210
0
210
0
240
0
240
0
270
0
270
0
300
0
300
0
330
0
330
0
360
0
360
0
390
0
390
0
420
0
420
0
V
an
|
V
0
|
V
0
V
an
o
o
o=30
0
o=60
0
V
bn
V
bn
V
cn
V
cn
et
et
o=30
0
o=60
0
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0
30
0
60
0
90
0
120
0
150
0
180
0
210
0
240
0
270
0
300
0
330
0
360
0
390
0
420
0
|
V
0
V
an
o
o=90
0
V
bn
V
cn
et
o=90
0
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3 Phase Half Wave
Controlled Rectifier With
R Load
and
RL Load with FWD
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a a
b b
c c
R
V
0
L
R
V
0
+
T
1
T
2
T
3
n n
T
1
T
2
T
3
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3 Phase Half Wave
Controlled Rectifier Output
Voltage Waveforms For R Load
or RL Load with FWD
at
Different Trigger Angles
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0
0
30
0
30
0
60
0
60
0
90
0
90
0
120
0
120
0
150
0
150
0
180
0
180
0
210
0
210
0
240
0
240
0
270
0
270
0
300
0
300
0
330
0
330
0
360
0
360
0
390
0
390
0
420
0
420
0
V
s
V
0
V
an
o
o=0
o=15
0
V
bn
V
cn
et
V
an
V
bn
V
cn
et
o=0
0
o=15
0
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0
0
30
0
30
0
60
0
60
0
90
0
90
0
120
0
120
0
150
0
150
0
180
0
180
0
210
0
210
0
240
0
240
0
270
0
270
0
300
0
300
0
330
0
330
0
360
0
360
0
390
0
390
0
420
0
420
0
o
o
V
0
o=30
0
V
an
V
bn
V
cn
et
V
0
o=60
0
V
an
V
bn
V
cn
et
o=30
0
o=60
0
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To Derive An
Expression For The Average Or
Dc Output Voltage Of A
3 Phase Half Wave Converter
With Resistive Load
Or
RL Load With FWD
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( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0
1
0 0
1
0
2
0 0
2
0
30
6
30 180 ;
sin
5
150
6
150 300 ;
sin 120
O an m
O bn m
T is triggered at t
T conducts from to
v v V t
T is triggered at t
T conducts from to
v v V t
t
e o o
o
e
t
e o o
o
e
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
+
= =
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
+
= =
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( )
( )
( )
( )
0
3
0 0
3
0
0
7
270
6
270 420 ;
sin 240
sin 120
O cn m
m
T is triggered at t
T conducts from to
v v V t
V t
t
e o o
o
e
e
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
+
= =
= +
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( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
0
0
0
180
30
0 0
180
30
180
30
3
.
2
sin ; for 30 to 180
3
sin .
2
3
sin .
2
dc O
O an m
dc m
m
dc
V v d t
v v V t t
V V t d t
V
V t d t
o
o
o
e
t
e e o
e e
t
e e
t
+
+
+
(
=
(
(

= = = +
(
=
(
(

(
=
(
(

}
}
}
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( )
( )
0
0
180
30
0 0
0
0
3
cos
2
3
cos180 cos 30
2
cos180 1, we get
3
1 cos 30
2
m
dc
m
dc
m
dc
V
V t
V
V
V
V
o
e
t
o
t
o
t
+
(
=
(
(

(
= + +

=
(
= + +

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Three Phase Semiconverters
3 Phase semiconverters are used in
Industrial dc drive applications upto 120kW
power output.
Single quadrant operation is possible.
Power factor decreases as the delay angle
increases.
Power factor is better than that of 3 phase
half wave converter.
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3 Phase
Half Controlled Bridge Converter
(Semi Converter)
with Highly Inductive Load &
Continuous Ripple free Load
Current
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Wave forms of 3 Phase
Semiconverter for
o > 60
0
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0 0
1
3 phase semiconverter output ripple frequency of
output voltage is 3
The delay angle can be varied from 0 to
During the period
30 210
7
, thyristor T is forward biased
6 6
S
f
t
t
o t
e
t t
e
s <
s <
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1
1 1
If thyristor is triggered at ,
6
& conduct together and the line to line voltage
appears across the load.
7
At , becomes negative & FWD conducts.
6
The load current contin
ac
ac m
T t
T D
v
t v D
t
e o
t
e
| |
= +
|
\ .
=
1 1
ues to flow through FWD ;
and are turned off.
m
D
T D
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1
2
1 2
If FWD is not used the would continue to
conduct until the thyristor is triggered at
5
, and Free wheeling action would
6
be accomplished through & .
If the delay angle , e
3
m
D T
T
t
T D
t
e o
t
o
| |
= +
|
\ .
s ach thyristor conducts
2
for and the FWD does not conduct.
3
m
D
t
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( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
We deifine three line neutral voltages
sin ; Max. Phase Voltage
2
sin sin 120
3
2
sin sin 120
3
sin 240
RN an m m
YN bn m m
BN cn m m
m
v v V t V
v v V t V t
v v V t V t
V t
V
e
t
e e
t
e e
e
= = =
| |
= = =
|
\ .
| |
= = + = +
|
\ .
=
is the peak phase voltage of a wye-connected source.
m
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( )
( )
( )
( )
3 sin
6
5
3 sin
6
3 sin
2
3 sin
6
RB ac an cn m
YR ba bn an m
BY cb cn bn m
RY ab an bn m
v v v v V t
v v v v V t
v v v v V t
v v v v V t
t
e
t
e
t
e
t
e
| |
= = =
|
\ .
| |
= = =
|
\ .
| |
= = = +
|
\ .
| |
= = = +
|
\ .
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Wave forms of 3 Phase
Semiconverter for
o s 60
0
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To derive an
Expression for the
of 3 Phase Semiconverter
for o > t / 3
and Discontinuous Output Voltage
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( )
( )
7
6
6
7
6
6
For and discontinuous output voltage:
3
the Average output voltage is found from
3
.
2
3
3 sin
2 6
dc ac
dc m
V v d t
V V t d t
t
t
o
t
t
o
t
o
e
t
t
e e
t
+
+
>
(
(
=
(

(
| |
(
=
|
(
\ .

}
}
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( )
( )
( )
max
3 3
1 cos
2
3
1 cos
2
3 Max. value of line-to-line supply voltage
The maximum average output voltage that occurs at
a delay angle of 0 is
3 3

m
dc
mL
dc
mL m
m
dm
dc
V
V
V
V
V V
V
V V
o
t
o
t
o
t
= +
= +
= =
=
= =
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( )
( )
( )
1
7
2
6
2
6
The normalized average output voltage is
0.5 1 cos
The rms output voltage is found from
3
.
2
dc
n
dm
ac
O rms
V
V
V
V v d t
t
t
o
o
e
t
+
= = +
(
(
=
(

}
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Three Phase Dual Converters
For four quadrant operation in many industrial
variable speed dc drives , 3 phase dual
converters are used.
Used for applications up to 2 mega watt output
power level.
Dual converter consists of two 3 phase full
converters which are connected in parallel & in
opposite directions across a common load.
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Outputs of Converters 1 & 2
During the interval (t/6 + o
1
) to (t/2 + o
1
),
the line to line voltage v
ab
appears across
the output of converter 1 and v
bc
appears
across the output of converter 2
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( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
sin ;
Max. Phase Voltage
2
sin sin 120
3
2
sin sin 120
3
sin 240
RN an m
m
YN bn m m
BN cn m m
m
v v V t
V
v v V t V t
v v V t V t
V t
e
t
e e
t
e e
e
= =
=
| |
= = =
|
\ .
| |
= = + = +
|
\ .
=
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( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
sin ;
Max. Phase Voltage
2
sin sin 120
3
2
sin sin 120
3
sin 240
RN an m
m
YN bn m m
BN cn m m
m
v v V t
V
v v V t V t
v v V t V t
V t
e
t
e e
t
e e
e
= =
=
| |
= = =
|
\ .
| |
= = + = +
|
\ .
=
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To obtain an Expression for the Circulating
Current
If v
O1
and v
O2
are the output voltages of
converters 1 and 2 respectively, the
instantaneous voltage across the current
limiting inductor during the interval
(t/6 + o
1
) s et s (t/2 + o
1
) is given by
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1 2
3 sin sin
6 2
3 cos
6
The circulating current can be calculated by
using the equation
r O O ab bc
r m
r m
v v v v v
v V t t
v V t
t t
e e
t
e
= + =
(
| | | |
= +
| |
(
\ . \ .

| |
=
|
\ .
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( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
1
1
6
6
1
max
1
.
1
3 cos .
6
3
sin sin
6
3
t
r r
r
t
r m
r
m
r
r
m
r
r
i t v d t
L
i t V t d t
L
V
i t t
L
V
i
L
e
t
o
e
t
o
e
e
t
e e
e
t
e o
e
e
+
+
=
| |
=
|
\ .
(
| |
=
|
(
\ .

=
}
}
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Four Quadrant Operation
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There are two different modes of
operation.
Circulating current free
(non circulating) mode of operation
Circulating current mode of operation
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Non Circulating
Current Mode Of Operation
In this mode of operation only one converter is
switched on at a time
When the converter 1 is switched on,
For o
1
< 90
0
the converter 1 operates in the
Rectification mode
V
dc
is positive, I
dc
is positive and hence the
average load power P
dc
is positive.
Power flows from ac source to the load
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When the converter 1 is on,
For o
1
> 90
0
the converter 1
operates in the Inversion mode
V
dc
is negative, I
dc
is positive and the
dc
is negative.
Power flows from load circuit to ac
source.
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For o
2
< 90
0
the converter 2 operates in
the Rectification mode
V
dc
is negative, I
dc
is negative and the
dc
is positive.
The output load voltage & load current
reverse when converter 2 is on.
Power flows from ac source to the load
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For o
2
> 90
0
the converter 2 operates in the
Inversion mode
V
dc
is positive, I
dc
is negative and the average
load power P
dc
is negative.
Power flows from load to the ac source.
Energy is supplied from the load circuit to the ac
supply.
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Both the converters are switched on at the same
time.
One converter operates in the rectification mode
while the other operates in the inversion mode.
Trigger angles o
1
& o
2
are adjusted such that
(o
1
+ o
2
) = 180
0
Circulating Current
Mode Of Operation
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When o
1
< 90
0
, converter 1 operates
as a controlled rectifier. o
2
is made
greater than 90
0
and converter 2
operates as an Inverter.
V
dc
is positive & I
dc
is positive and
P
dc
is positive.
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When o
2
< 90
0
, converter 2 operates
as a controlled rectifier. o
1
is made
greater than 90
0
and converter 1
operates as an Inverter.
V
dc
is negative & I
dc
is negative and
P
dc
is positive.
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UNIT III

DC Choppers
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Introduction
Chopper is a static device.
A variable dc voltage is obtained from a
constant dc voltage source.
Also known as dc-to-dc converter.
Widely used for motor control.
Also used in regenerative braking.
Thyristor converter offers greater
efficiency, faster response, lower
maintenance, smaller size and smooth
control.

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Choppers are of Two
Types

Step-down choppers.
Step-up choppers.
In step down chopper output
voltage is less than input voltage.
In step up chopper output
voltage is more than input
voltage.

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Principle Of
Step-down Chopper

Chopper

i
0

+

V
R
V
0

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A step-down chopper with resistive load.
The thyristor in the circuit acts as a switch.
When thyristor is ON, supply voltage
appears across the load
When thyristor is OFF, the voltage across
the load will be zero.

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v
0

V

V
dc

i
0

V/R

t
ON

t
OFF

T
t

I
dc

t

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V
dc

I
dc
t
ON
= Average value of output or load voltage.
= Average value of output or load current.
= Time interval for which SCR conducts.

t
OFF

= Time interval for which SCR is OFF.

T = t
ON

+ t
OFF

= Period of switching or chopping period.

f =
1
=

T

Freq. of chopper switching or chopping freq.

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=


V = V
|
t
ON
|

dc
|

\
t
ON

+ t
OFF .

V
dc

|

= V

t
ON
|

T
|

= V .d

\ .

but

|
t
ON
|

t
|
d

= duty cycle

\ .

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o
T

Average Output Current

I
dc
=
V
dc

R
I =
V

|
t
ON
|
=
V
d

dc
R

T
|
R

\ .
RMS value of output voltage

V
O
=
1
t
ON

}

0

v
2
dt

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T

But during t
ON
,

v
o
= V

Therefore RMS output voltage

V
O
=

V =

1
t
ON

}
V

0

V
2

t

2
dt

=

t
ON
.V

O
T
ON
T

V
O
=

d .V

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Output power

But
P
O
=

I
O
=
V
O
I
O

V
O
R
Output power

V
2

P
O
=

P
O
=
O
R
dV
2

R

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Effective input resistance of chopper

R
i
=

R
i
=
V
I
dc
R
d
The output voltage can be varied by
varying the duty cycle.

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Methods Of Control

The output dc voltage can be varied by the
following methods.
Pulse width modulation control or
constant frequency operation.
Variable frequency control.

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Pulse Width Modulation

t
ON
is varied keeping chopping frequency
f & chopping period T constant.
Output voltage is varied by varying the ON
time t
ON

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V
0

V

t
ON
t
OFF

t
T
V
0

V

t
ON
t
t
OFF

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Variable Frequency Control

Chopping frequency f is varied keeping
either t
ON
or t
OFF
constant.
To obtain full output voltage range,
frequency has to be varied over a wide
range.
This method produces harmonics in the
output and for large t
OFF
load current may
become discontinuous

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v
0

V

t
ON

v
0

t
OFF

t
T

V

t
ON

T
t
OFF

t

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Step-down Chopper
With R-L Load

Chopper

V

i
0

+
R

FWD
L
V
0

E

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When chopper is ON, supply is connected
across load.
Current flows from supply to load.
When chopper is OFF, load current
continues to flow in the same direction
through FWD due to energy stored in
inductor L.

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Load current can be continuous or
discontinuous depending on the values of
L and duty cycle d
For a continuous current operation, load
current varies between two limits I
max
and
I
min
When current becomes equal to I
max
the
chopper is turned-off and it is turned-on
when current reduces to I
min.

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v
0

V

t
ON

t
OFF

T

Output
voltage

t
i
0

I
max

I
min

i
0

Output
current

Continuous
current

t Output
current

Discontinuous
current
t

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Expressions For
Load Current
i
O
For Continuous Current
Operation When
Chopper Is ON (0 t t
ON
)

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i
0

+
R

V
L
V
0

E
-
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V = i
O
R + L
di
O
+ E

dt

Taking Laplace Transform
V

E

= RI
O

(
S
)
+

L
S.I
O

(
S
)

i
O
(
0

)
(
+

S

S

At t

= 0, initial current
i
O
(
0
)
=

I
min

I
(
S
)
=

V E
+
I
min

O
|
R
|

LS

S +
|

\
L
.

S +
R
L

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Taking Inverse Laplace Transform

V E
|
R
|
t (

|
R
|
t

L
|
L
|

i
O
(
t
)
=

1 e

(
+ I
min
e

\ . \ .
R
(
This expression is valid for 0 t t

ON
,

i.e., during the period chopper is ON.
At the instant the chopper is turned off,
load current is i
O
(
t
ON
)
=

I
max

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When Chopper is OFF

i
0

R

L

E

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When Chopper is OFF
(
0 t t
OFF
)

0 = Ri
O

+ L
di
O
+ E

dt

Talking Laplace transform

E

0 = RI
O

(
S
)
+

L
SI
O

(
S
)

i
O
(
0

)
(
+

Redefining time origin we have at t

S
= 0,

initial current i
O
(
0
)
=

I
max

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S

I
(
S
)
=

I
max

E

O
R
|
R
|

S +
LS +
|

L
\
L
.
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform

i
O
(
t
)
=

I
max
e

R
t

L
E
1

R
t
(

e
L
(

R

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The expression is valid for 0 t t
OFF
,

i.e., during the period chopper is OFF

At the instant the chopper is turned ON or at
the end of the off period, the load current is
i
O
(
t
OFF
)
=

I
min

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O

To Find I
max
&

I
min

From equation

V E
|
R
|
t (

|
R
|
t

L
|
L
|

i
(
t
)
=

1 e

(
+ I
min
e

\ . \ .
R
(
At t = t
ON

= dT , i
O
(
t
)
=

I
max

I
max

=
V E

1

dRT

e
L

(

(
+ I
min
e

dRT
L
R

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From equation

R
t
E

R
t
(

i
O
(
t
)
=

I
max
e
L
1 e
L
(

R

At t = t
OFF

= T t
ON
,

i
O
(
t
)
=

I
min

t = t
OFF

=
(
1 d
)
T

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(

I
min

= I
max
e

(1 d ) RT

L
E

1
e
R
(1 d ) RT

L
(

(

Substituting for I
min

in equation

I
max

=
V E

1 e

dRT
L
(

(
+ I
min
e

dRT
L

we get,
R

dRT
(

I
max

V
1 e
L
(
E
=
R
RT

R

(

1 e
L
(

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(

Substituting for I
max

in equation

I
min

we get,

= I
max
e

(
1 d
)
RT

L

dRT
(

E

1
R
(
1 d
)
RT

e
L
(

(
V

e
L
1
(
E

I
min

=
R

RT

e
L

(

R

1
(
(
I
max

I
min
)
is known as the steady state ripple.

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Therefore peak-to-peak ripple current

I
=
I
max

I
min

Average output voltage

V
dc

= d .V

Average output current

I
dc
(
approx
)
=

I
max
+ I
min

2

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t
|

Assuming load current varies linearly

from I
min

to I
max

instantaneous

load current is given by

i
O
=

I
min
(
I
)
.t

+

dT

for

0 t

t
ON

(
dT
)

i
O
=

I
min

+
|
I
max
I
min
|

dT

\ .

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0
2

I

0
2
0
+
|

RMS value of load current

I
O( RMS )
=

I =

1
dT

dT
}

1
dT

i
2
dt

I

+
(
I
max
I
min
)
t (
dt

O( RMS )

dT
}
min
dT
(
0

1
dT

|
I I
|

2I
(
I I
)
t
(

I
O( RMS )
=

dT
}

2

min

\
max min
dT
.

t
2
+
min max min
dT
(
dt
(

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0
T

RMS value of output current
1

I
O
(
RMS
)

(
I

=

I
min
+

I
)
2

3

+ I
min

(
I
max

(
2

I
min
)(

2 max min

RMS chopper current

I
CH
=

I =

1
dT

}

0

1
dT

i
2
dt

I

2

+
|
I
max
I
min
|
t
(
dt

CH
T

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}

min
dT
| (
0

\ .

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1
2
2

I = d I
2

(
I
max
I
min
)

+ + I
(
I
(

I
)

CH
min

I
CH
=
3

d I
O
(
RMS
)

min max min
(

(

Effective input resistance is

V
R
i
=
I
S

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Where

I
S
=

I
S
=

Average source current

dI
dc

R
i

=
V

dI
dc

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A

Principle Of Step-up Chopper

I L
D
+
+

V

Chopper
L
C
O
V
O

D

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Step-up chopper is used to obtain a load
voltage higher than the input voltage V.
The values of L and C are chosen
depending upon the requirement of output
voltage and current.
When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is
connected across the supply.
The inductor current I rises and the
inductor stores energy during the ON time
of the chopper, t
ON
.

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When the chopper is off, the inductor
current I is forced to flow through the diode
D and load for a period, t
OFF
.
The current tends to decrease resulting in
reversing the polarity of induced EMF in L.
Therefore voltage across load is given by
dI

V
O
= V

+ L i.e.,

dt

V
O
> V

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A large capacitor C connected across the
load, will provide a continuous output
voltage .
Diode D prevents any current flow from
capacitor to the source.
Step up choppers are used for
regenerative braking of dc motors.

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Expression For Output Voltage
Assume the average inductor current to be
I during ON and OFF time of Chopper.

When Chopper is ON
Voltage across inductor L = V

Therefore energy stored in inductor

= V .I .t
ON

Where t
ON

= ON period of chopper.

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When Chopper is OFF

(energy is supplied by inductor to load)
Voltage across L = V
O
V

Energy supplied by inductor L =
(
V
O

V
)
It
OFF

where t
OFF

= OFF period of Chopper.

Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor
L = energy supplied by inductor L

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VIt
ON

=
(
V
O

V
)
It
OFF

V
O
=
V
[
t
ON
+ t
OFF
]

t
OFF

V = V
|
T
|

O
|

Where
\
T t
ON .

T = Chopping period or period
of switching.

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T = t
ON

+ t
OFF

| |

V
O
= V

1

\

1
|
|

t
ON
|

T .
|
1
|

V
O

= V

1 d
|

\ .

Where d =
t
ON
=

T

duty cyle

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For variation of duty cycle ' d ' in the

range of 0 < d < 1 the output voltage V
O

will vary in the range V < V
O
<

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Performance Parameters
The thyristor requires a certain minimum time to
turn ON and turn OFF.
Duty cycle d can be varied only between a min.
& max. value, limiting the min. and max. value
of the output voltage.
Ripple in the load current depends inversely on
the chopping frequency, f.
To reduce the load ripple current, frequency
should be as high as possible.

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Problem

A Chopper circuit is operating on TRC at a
frequency of 2 kHz on a 460 V supply. If
the load voltage is 350 volts, calculate the
conduction period of the thyristor in each
cycle.

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V = 460 V, V
dc
= 350 V, f = 2 kHz

Chopping period T =
1

f

T =
1

2 10
3

= 0.5

m sec

Output voltage

V =
|

t
ON
|
V

dc
T
|

\ .

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Conduction period of thyristor

t
ON

t
ON
=
T V
dc

V

0.5 10
3

=

460

350

t
ON

= 0.38 msec

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Problem

Input to the step up chopper is 200 V. The
output required is 600 V. If the conducting
time of thyristor is 200 sec. Compute
Chopping frequency,
If the pulse width is halved for constant
frequency of operation, find the new
output voltage.

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V = 200 V , t
ON

= 200 s, V
dc

= 600V

V = V
|
T
|

dc
|

\
T t
ON .
|
T
|

600 =

200

T

200 10
6
|

\ .
Solving for T
T = 300 s

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Chopping frequency

f =
1

T

f =
1

300 10
6

= 3.33KHz

Pulse width is halved
200 10
6

t
ON

= = 100s

2

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Frequency is constant
f = 3.33KHz
T =
1

f

= 300 s

Output voltage =

|
T
|

V
|

\
T t
ON .

|
300 10
6
|

= 200
|

= 300 Volts

\
(
300 100
)
10
6
.

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Problem

A dc chopper has a resistive load of 20
and input voltage V
S
= 220V. When
chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 1.5 volts
and chopping frequency is 10 kHz. If the
duty cycle is 80%, determine the average
output voltage and the chopper on time.

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V
S
=

220V , R =
20 ,
f = 10 kHz

d =
t
ON

T

= 0.80
V
ch
= Voltage drop across chopper = 1.5 volts

V =
|

t
ON
|
(
V V
)

dc
T
|

S ch

V
dc
\ .
= 0.80
(
220

1.5
)

= 174.8 Volts

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Chopper ON time, t
ON

= dT

Chopping period, T =
1

f
T =
1

10 10
3

= 0.110
3

secs

= 100 secs
Chopper ON time,
t
ON

t
ON
= dT
= 0.80 0.110
3

t
ON
= 0.08 10
3
= 80 secs

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Problem

In a dc chopper, the average load current
is 30 Amps, chopping frequency is 250
Hz, supply voltage is 110 volts. Calculate
the ON and OFF periods of the chopper if
the load resistance is 2 ohms.

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I
dc

= 30 Amps, f = 250 Hz, V = 110 V , R =
2

Chopping period, T =
1

f
=
1

250

= 4 10
3

= 4 msecs

I
dc

I
dc
=
V
dc

R
=
dV
R

& V
dc

= dV

d =
I
dc
R
V
=
30 2

110

= 0.545

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Chopper ON period,
t
ON
= dT = 0.545 4 10
3
= 2.18 msecs

Chopper OFF period,
t
OFF

= T t
ON

t
OFF
= 4 10
3
2.18 10
3

t
OFF
= 1.82 10
3
= 1.82 msec

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A dc chopper in figure has a resistive load
of R = 10 and input voltage of V = 200
V. When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is
2 V and the chopping frequency is 1 kHz. If
the duty cycle is 60%, determine
Effective input resistance of chopper
Chopper efficiency.

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i

Chopper
0

+

V
R
v
0

V = 200 V , R =
10 ,
Chopper voltage drop V
ch

= 2V

d = 0.60, f = 1 kHz.

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V
dc
= d
(
V V
ch
)

V
dc
= 0.60
[
200 2
]
= 118.8 Volts


V
O
=

d
(
V V
ch
)

V
O
=

0.6
(
200 2
)
= 153.37 Volts

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v
ch
i
O

Effective input resistance of chopper is

R
i
=
V
=

I
S

V
I
dc

I
dc
=
V
dc

R
=
118.8

10

= 11.88 Amps
R =
V

=
V

=
200

= 16.83

I
S
I
dc
11.88

Output power is

P =
1

dT
2

}
0

dt =

1
dT

}

(
V V
)
2

dt

T
0
R T
0
R

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ch
dT
O

P
O
=
d
(
V V
)
2

R
0.6
[
200 2
]
2

P
O
= =
10

2352.24 watts
Input power,
1
dT

P
i
=
T

}
Vi
O
dt

0
P =
1

}
V
(
V V
ch
)
dt

T
0
R

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P
O
=
dV
(
V V
ch
)

R
0.6 200
[
200 2
]

P
O
= =
10

2376 watts

Chopper efficiency,
=
P
O
100

P
i

=
2
3
5
2
.24

2376
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100

=
99%

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Problem
A chopper is supplying an inductive load with a
free-wheeling diode. The load inductance is 5 H
and resistance is 10 .. The input voltage to the
chopper is 200 volts and the chopper is operating
at a frequency of 1000 Hz. If the ON/OFF time
ratio is 2:3. Calculate
Maximum and minimum values of load current
in one cycle of chopper operation.
Average load current

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L = 5 H , R =
10 ,
f = 1000 Hz,

V = 200 V , t
ON

: t
OFF

= 2 : 3

Chopping period,
T =
1

f

=
1

1000

= 1 msecs

t
ON
=
2

t
OFF
3

t
ON
2

= t
OFF

3

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T = t
ON

+ t
OFF

2

T =
5

3

T =

t
OFF
t
OFF

3

3

+ t
OFF

t
OFF
= T
5

T =
3

5

110
3

= 0.6 msec

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t
ON

= T t
OFF

t
ON
=

Duty cycle,

t

(
1 0.6
)
10
3

0.4 10
3

= 0.4 msec
ON

d = =

T

110
3

= 0.4

Maximum value of load current is given by

dRT
(

I
max

V
1 e
L
(
E
=
R
RT

R

(

1 e
L
(

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(
10

Since there is no voltage source in
the load circuit, E = 0

dRT
(

I
max

V
1 e
L
(

=
R
RT

(

1 e
L
(

0.410110
3

200

1 e
5
(

I
max
=

1 e

10110
3
(

5
(

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3
3

1

e
0.810
(

I
max

= 20
(

1 e
210
(
I
max

= 8.0047A

Minimum value of load current with E = 0
is given by

dRT
(

V

e
L
1
(

I
min

=
R

RT

e
L

(

1
(

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10

0.410110
3
(

200

e
5
1
(

I
min
=

10110
3

e
5
1
(
= 7.995 A

(
Average load current

I
dc

I
dc
=
I
max
+ I
min

2
=
8.0047 + 7.995

2

8 A

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Problem

A chopper feeding on RL load is shown in figure,
with V = 200 V, R = 5 , L = 5 mH, f = 1
kHz, d = 0.5 and E = 0 V. Calculate
Maximum and minimum values of load
current.
Average value of load current.
RMS load current.
Effective input resistance as seen by source.
RMS chopper current.

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V = 200 V, R =
5
, L = 5 mH,

f = 1kHz, d = 0.5, E = 0
Chopping period is
T =
1

f

=
1

110
3

= 110
3

secs
Chopper

i
0

+
R

FWD
L
v
0

E

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(

Maximum value of load current is given by

dRT
(

I
max

V
1 e
L
(
E
=
R
RT

R

(

1 e
L
(

0.55110
3

I
max

=
200

5

1 e

510
3

5110
3

(
(
0

1 e

510
3
(

1 e
0.5
(

I
max
= 40

1 e
1

(
= 24.9 A

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Minimum value of load current is given by

dRT
(

V

e
L
1
(
E

I
min

=
R

RT

e
L

(

R

1
(

I
min

=
200

5

0.55110
3

e
510
3

5110
3

(

1
(

(
0

e
510
3

1
(

e
0.5

1(

I
min
= 40

e
1
1

(
= 15.1 A

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Average value of load current is

I
dc
=
I
1
+ I
2

2
for linear variation of currents

I
dc

=
24.9 + 15.1
=

2

20 A
RMS load current is given by
1

I
O
(
RMS
)

(
I

=

I
min
+
I
)
2

3

+ I
min

(
I
max

(
2

I
min
)(

2 max min

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I
O
(
RMS
)

15.1
2

(
24.9 15.1
)
2

+

3

+15.1
(
24.9
1
(
2

15.1
)(
(

I
O
(
RMS
)

=
228.01 +

96.04
3
1
+147.98
(
2

(

= 20.2 A

RMS chopper current is given by

I
ch
=

d I
O
(
RMS
)
=

0.5 20.2 = 14.28 A

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Effective input resistance is

V
R
i
=
I
S

I
S
= Average source current

I
S
=

I
S
=
dI
dc

0.5 20

= 10 A

Therefore effective input resistance is

R
i
=
V
=

I
S

200
10

= 20

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Classification Of Choppers

Choppers are classified as
Class A Chopper
Class B Chopper
Class C Chopper
Class D Chopper
Class E Chopper

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0
V V

Class A Chopper

i
0
v
0

+

Chopper
L
O
v

A
FWD
D

i
0

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When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is
connected across the load.
When chopper is OFF, v
O
= 0 and the load
current continues to flow in the same
direction through the FWD.
The average values of output voltage and
current are always positive.
Class A Chopper is a first quadrant
chopper .

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Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper
in which power always flows form source
to load.
It is used to control the speed of dc motor.
The output current equations obtained in
step down chopper with R-L load can be
used to study the performance of Class A
Chopper.

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i
g
Thyristor
gate pulse

t
i
0

Output current

CH ON

v
0

FWD Conducts

t

Output voltage

t
ON

T
t

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i

Class B Chopper

D

0
v
0

+

R

V
L
v
0

Chopper

E
i
0

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When chopper is ON, E drives a current
through L and R in a direction opposite to
that shown in figure.
During the ON period of the chopper, the
inductance L stores energy.
When Chopper is OFF, diode D conducts,
and part of the energy stored in inductor L
is returned to the supply.

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Average output voltage is positive.
Average output current is negative.
Therefore Class B Chopper operates in
second quadrant.
In this chopper, power flows from load to
source.
Class B Chopper is used for regenerative
braking of dc motor.
Class B Chopper is a step-up chopper.

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i
g
Thyristor
gate pulse

i
0 t
OFF
t
t
ON

T

I
max

I
min
D

t
Output current
conducts
Chopper
conducts
v
0

Output voltage

t

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Expression for Output Current
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During the interval diode 'D' conducts
voltage equation is given by
V =
Ldi
O
+

dt

Ri
O
+ E

For the initial condition i.e.,
i
O
(
t
)
=

I
min
at t = 0

The solution of the above equation is obtained
along similar lines as in step-down chopper
with R-L load

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i
O

(
t
)
=
V

E
|

1 e

R
t

L
|

|
+ I
min
e

R
t

L

0 < t

< t
OFF

R
\ .

At t = t
OFF

i
(
O
)
(
t
)
=

I
max

I
max

=
V E

|

1 e

R
t

L
OFF

|

|
+ I
min
e

R
t

L
OFF

R
\ .

During the interval chopper is ON voltage
equation is given by
0 =
Ldi
O
+

dt

Ri
O
+ E

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t t
ON ON

Redefining the time origin, at t = 0 i
O
(
t
)
=

I
max

The solution for the stated initial condition is

i
O
(
t
)
=

I
max
e

R
t

L
E
|

1

R
t
|

e
L
|

0 < t

< t
ON

R
\ .

At t = t
ON

i
O
(
t
)
=

I
min

R
E
|
R
|

I = I e e
L
min max

1
L
|
R
\ .
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Class C Chopper

CH
1

V

CH
2

D
1

i
0

D
2

Chopper

v
0

+

R

L v
0

E
i
0

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Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A
and Class B Choppers.
For first quadrant operation, CH
1
is ON or D
2

conducts.
For second quadrant operation, CH
2
is ON or D
1

conducts.
When CH
1
is ON, the load current is positive.
The output voltage is equal to V & the load
receives power from the source.
When CH
1
is turned OFF, energy stored in
inductance L forces current to flow through the
diode D
2
and the output voltage is zero.

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Current continues to flow in positive direction.
When CH
2
is triggered, the voltage E forces
current to flow in opposite direction through L
and CH
2
.
The output voltage is zero.
On turning OFF CH
2
, the energy stored in the
inductance drives current through diode D
1
and
the supply
Output voltage is V, the input current becomes
negative and power flows from load to source.

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Average output voltage is positive
Average output current can take both
positive and negative values.
Choppers CH
1
& CH
2
should not be turned
ON simultaneously as it would result in
short circuiting the supply.
Class C Chopper can be used both for dc
motor control and regenerative braking of
dc motor.
Class C Chopper can be used as a step-up
or step-down chopper.
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i
g1

i
g2

i
0

Gate pulse
of CH
1

t
Gate pulse
of CH
2

t

Output current

t

D
1
CH
1
D
2
CH
2
D
1
CH
1
D
2
CH
2

ON ON ON ON
V
0

Output voltage

t

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Class D Chopper

CH
1

V

v
0

D
2

R
i
0
L
E

+
v
0

i
0

D
1
CH
2

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Class D is a two quadrant chopper.
When both CH
1
and CH
2
are triggered
simultaneously, the output voltage v
O
= V
and output current flows through the load.
When CH
1
and CH
2
are turned OFF, the
load current continues to flow in the same
direction through load, D
1
and D
2
, due to
the energy stored in the inductor L.
Output voltage v
O
= - V .

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Average load voltage is positive if chopper
ON time is more than the OFF time
Average output voltage becomes negative
if t
ON
< t
OFF
.
Hence the direction of load current is
always positive but load voltage can be
positive or negative.

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i
g1

i
g2

i
0

Gate pulse
of CH
1

Gate pulse
of CH
2

t
Output current

CH
1
,CH
2
D1,D2 Conducting
ON
v
0

V

Output voltage

Average v
0
t

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Avera ge v
0

i
g1

i
g2

i
0

Gate pulse
of CH
1

t
Gate pulse
of CH
2

t
Output current

CH
1

CH
2

v
0

V

D
1
, D
2

t

Output voltage

t

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D D

Class E Chopper

CH
1

V

D
1

i
0
R
L
CH
3
D
3

E

+
CH
2

2

CH
4

4

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Four Quadrant Operation

v
0

CH
2

- D
4

Conducts
CH
1

- CH
4
ON

D
1
- D
4

Conducts
CH
4

- D
2

Conducts

i
0

CH
3

- CH
2
ON

D
2
-

D
3
Conducts

CH
2

- D
4

Conducts CH
4

- D
2

Conducts

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Class E is a four quadrant chopper
When CH
1
and CH
4
are triggered, output
current i
O
flows in positive direction
through CH
1
and CH
4
, and with output
voltage v
O
= V.
This gives the first quadrant operation.
When both CH
1
and CH
4
are OFF, the
energy stored in the inductor L drives i
O
through D
2
and D
3
in the same direction,
but output voltage v
O
= -V.

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Therefore the chopper operates in the
fourth quadrant.
When CH
2
and CH
3
are triggered, the load
current i
O
flows in opposite direction &
output voltage v
O
= -V.
Since both i
O
and v
O
are negative, the
chopper operates in third quadrant.

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When both CH
2
and CH
3
are OFF, the
load current i
O
continues to flow in the
same direction D
1
and D
4
and the output
voltage v
O
= V.
Therefore the chopper operates in second
quadrant as v
O
is positive but i
O
is
negative.

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Problem
For the first quadrant chopper shown in figure,
express the following variables as functions of V,
R and duty cycle d in case load is resistive.
Average output voltage and current
Output current at the instant of commutation
Average and RMS free wheeling diode current.
RMS and average thyristor currents.

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Chopper

V

FWD
i
0

+

L
O
v
0

A

D

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Average output voltage, V

=
|
t
ON
|
V

= dV

dc
T
|

\ .

Average output current, I

=
V
dc
=
dV

dc
R R
The thyristor is commutated at the instant t = t
ON

output current at the instant of commutation is
V
R
since V is the output voltage at that instant.

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0
T

Free wheeling diode (FWD) will never
conduct in a resistive load.

Average & RMS free wheeling diode

currents are zero.

V
O
(
RMS
)
=

1
t
ON

}

0

v
2
dt

But v
O
= V

during t
ON

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T

V
O
(
RMS
)
=

1
t
ON

}

0

V
2
dt

V
O
(
RMS
)
=

V
2
|
t
ON
|

T
|

\ .
V
O
(
RMS
)
= dV

Where duty cycle, d =
t
ON

T

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RMS value of thyristor current
= RMS value of load current
V
O( RMS )

=

R
=
dV
R
Average value of thyristor current
= Average value of load current
=
dV
R

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Simple DC-DC Converter Topologies

Buck Converter or

Step Down Converter

Boost Converter or

Step Up converter

Buck-Boost
Converter
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SMPS benefits

Very wide input voltage range.
For example: most personal computer power supplies are
SMPSs - accepting AC input 90V to 250V.
Lower Quiescent Current than linear regulators
Less heat than an equivalent linear regulator.
Much Lower Green House Gas emissions
Overall Smaller geometry components are used
Lighter Weight
Lower running cost - Lower total cost of ownership (TCO).
Battery operated devices - longer lifetime.

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SMPS disadvantages

Significant Output Ripple
May need a post filter to decrease ripple
May need a secondary linear low drop out
regulator to ensure damaging voltage transients
keep away from voltage sensitive elements -
electronics.
An SMPS May add too much cost.
How much is too much?

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UNIT-IV

INVERTERS
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Single-Phase Inverters

Half-Bridge Inverter

One of the simplest types of inverter. Produces a square wave output.

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(contd)
Full Bridge (H-bridge) Inverter

Two half-bridge inverters combined.
Allows for four quadrant operation.

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(contd)

Quadrant 1: Positive step-down converter
(forward motoring)
Q1-On; Q2 - Chopping; D3,Q1 freewheeling

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(contd)

Quadrant 2: Positive step-up converter
(forward regeneration)
Q4 - Chopping; D2,D1 freewheeling

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(contd)

Quadrant 3: Negative step-down converter
(reverse motoring)
Q3-On; Q4 - Chopping; D1,Q3 freewheeling

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(contd)
Quadrant 4: Negative step-up converter
(reverse regeneration)
Q2 - Chopping; D3,D4 freewheeling

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(contd)

Phase-Shift Voltage Control - the output of
the H-bridge inverter can be controlled by
phase shifting the control of the
component half-bridges. See waveforms
on next slide.

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(contd)

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(contd)

The waveform of the output voltage v
ab
is a quasi-
square wave of pulse width . The Fourier series of v
ab
is given by:

v =
4V
d

|
n

sin
|
(
cos
(
nt
)

ab

|
(

n=1,3,5...
n

\
2
.

The value of the fundamental, a
1
=

4V
d
sin
(

/ 2
)

The harmonic components as a function of phase
angle are shown in the next slide.

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(contd)


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Three-Phase Bridge
Inverters

Three-phase bridge inverters are widely
used for ac motor drives. Two modes of
operation - square wave and six-step. The
topology is basically three half-bridge
inverters, each phase-shifted by 2/3,
driving each of the phase windings.

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(contd)

Three-Phase Bridge Inverters

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(contd)


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(contd)

The three square-wave phase voltages can
be expressed in terms of the dc supply
voltage, V
d
, by Fourier series as:

v
a 0
=
2V
d

n =1,3,5...

(1)
n +1
cos(nt )

v
b 0
=
2V
d

n=1,3,5...

(1)
n +1
cos(nt
2
)

3

v
c 0
=
2V
d

n =1,3,5...

(1)
n +1
cos(nt +
2
)

3

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(contd)

The line voltages can then be expressed as:

v = v v =
2 3V
d

cos(t +

/ 6) cos(nt + 6)
ab a 0 b 0

n=1,3,5...

v = v v =
2 3V
d

cos(t

/ 2) cos(nt 2)
bc b 0 c 0

n =1,3,5...

v = v v =
2 3V
d

cos(t

+ 5

/ 6) cos(nt

5 6)
ca c 0 a 0

n =1,3,5...

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(contd)

The line voltages are six-step waveforms and
have characteristic harmonics of 6n1,
where n is an integer. This type of inverter is
referred to as a six-step inverter.

The three-phase fundamental and harmonics
are balanced with a mutual phase shift of
2/3.

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(contd)

If the three-phase load neutral n is isolated from the the
center tap of the dc voltage supply (as is normally the
case in an ac machine) the equivalent circuit is shown
below.

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(contd)

In this case the isolated neutral-phase
voltages are also six-step waveforms with
the fundamental component phase-shifted
by /6 from that of the respective line
voltage. Also, in this case, the triplen
harmonics are suppressed.

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(contd)

For a linear and balanced 3 load, the line currents
are also balanced. The individual line current
components can be obtained from the Fourier series
of the line voltage. The total current can be obtained
by addition of the individual currents. A typical line
current wave with inductive load is shown below.

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(contd)

The inverter can operate in the usual inverting or
motoring mode. If the phase current wave, i
a
, is
assumed to be perfectly filtered and lags the phase
voltage by /3 the voltage and current waveforms are
as shown below:

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The inverter can also operate in rectification or regeneration
mode in which power is pushed back to the dc side from the ac
side. The waveforms corresponding to this mode of operation
with phase angle = 2/3 are shown below:

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(contd)

The phase-shift voltage control principle
described earlier for the single-phase
inverter can be extended to control the
output voltage of a three-phase inverter.
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(contd)

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(contd)

The three waveforms v
a0
,v
b0
, and v
c0
are of
amplitude 0.5V
d
and are mutually phase-
shifted by 2/3.

The three waveforms v
e0
,v
f0
, and v
g0
are of
similar but phase shifted by .

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s p

(contd)

The transformers secondary phase voltages,
v
A0
, v
B0
, and v
c0
may be expressed as follows:

v
A0

v
B 0
= mv
ad

= mv
be

= m(v
a 0

= m(v
b 0

v
d 0
)

v
e 0
)

v
C 0

= mv
cf

= m(v
c 0

v
f 0
)

where m is the transformer turns ratio
(= N /N ). Note that each of these waves is a

function of angle.
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(contd)

The output line voltages are given by:
v
AB
v
BC
= v
A0

= v
B 0

v
B 0

v
C 0

v
CA

= v
C 0

v
A0

While the component voltage waves v
a0
, v
d0
, v
A0
etc. all

contain triplen harmonics, they are eliminated from the
line voltages because they are co-phasal. Thus the line
voltages are six-step waveforms with order of harmonics
= 6n1 at a phase angle .

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(contd)
The Fourier series for v
A0
and v
B0
are given
by:
4mV
d

|
n
|
(

v
A0
=
sin
|
(
cos
(
nt
)

n=1,3,5...
n
\
2
.

4mV
d

|
n
|
(

v
B 0
=
sin
|
(
cos
(
nt

2

/ 3
)

n=1,3,5...
n
\
2
.

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(contd)

The Fourier series for v
AB
is given by:

v
AB

= v
A0

=
v
B 0

4mV
d
sin
|
n

|
(
cos
(
nt
)
cos n
|
t
2
|
(

|
(
|
(

n=1,5,7,11...
n

\
2
.

\
3
.

Note that the triplen harmonics are removed
in v
AB
although they are present in v
A0
and
v
B0
.

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PWM Technique

While the 3 6-step inverter offers simple
control and low switching loss, lower order
harmonics are relatively high leading to high
distortion of the current wave (unless
significant filtering is performed).

PWM inverter offers better harmonic control
of the output than 6-step inverter.

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PWM Principle

The dc input to the inverter is chopped by
switching devices in the inverter. The
amplitude and harmonic content of the ac
waveform is controlled by the duty cycle of
the switches. The fundamental voltage v
1

has max. amplitude = 4V
d
/ for a square

wave output but by creating notches, the
amplitude of v
1
is reduced (see next slide).

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PWM Principle (contd)

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PWM Techniques

Various PWM techniques, include:

Sinusoidal PWM (most common)
Selected Harmonic Elimination (SHE)
PWM
Space-Vector PWM
Instantaneous current control PWM
Hysteresis band current control PWM
Sigma-delta modulation

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Sinusoidal PWM

The most common PWM approach is
sinusoidal PWM. In this method a
triangular wave is compared to a
sinusoidal wave of the desired
frequency and the relative levels of the
two waves is used to control the
switching of devices in each phase leg
of the inverter.

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Sinusoidal PWM
(contd)

Single-Phase (Half-Bridge) Inverter
Implementation

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a0 T + - a0 d

Sinusoidal PWM (contd)

when v > v T on; T off; v = V

v
a0
< v
T
T
-
on; T
+
off; v
a0
= -V
d

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Sinusoidal PWM
(contd)

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c

Sinusoidal PWM (contd)

Definition of terms:
Triangle waveform switching freq. = f
c
(also calle
carrier freq.)
Control signal freq. = f (also called modulation
freq.)

Amplitude modulation ratio, m = V
p

V
T

Frequency modulation ratio,
m
f
(P)=
w
f
ww.
/
Vid
f
yarthiplus.com
Peak amplitude
of control signal

Peak amplitude
of triangle wave
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Multiple Pulse-Width Modulation

In multiple-pulse modulation, all pulses are
the same width
Vary the pulse width according to the
amplitude of a sine wave evaluated at the
center of the same pulse

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Generate the gating signal

2 Reference Signals, v
r
, -v
r

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Comparing the carrier and reference signals

Generate g
1
signal by comparison with v
r

Generate g
4
signal by comparison with -v
r

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Comparing the carrier and reference signals

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Potential problem if Q
1
and Q
4
try

to turn ON

at the same time!

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If we prevent the problem

Output voltage is low when g
1
and g
4
are
both high

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This composite signal is difficult to generate

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Generate the same gate pulses with one

sine wave

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Alternate scheme

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= V
m
V
2

rms output voltage

Depends on the modulation index, M

p
o S

p

V

S
m =1

Where
m
is the width of the mth pulse

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Fourier coefficients of the output voltage

B =
2 p
4V

sin
n

sin n
(

+
3
)

sin n
(
+

+

)

S m
m m
(

m =1
n 4

4
m
4
n m
n = 1, 3, 5, ..

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Harmonic Profile

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Compare with multiple-pulse case for p=5

Distortion Factor is considerably less

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Series-Resonant Inverter

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Operation

T
1
fired, resonant pulse of current
flows through the load. The current
falls to zero at t = t
1m
and T
1
is self
commutated.

T
2
fired, reverse resonant current
flows through the load and T
2
is also
self-commutated.

The series resonant circuit must be
underdamped,

R
2
< (4L/C)

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Operation in Mode 1 Fire T
1

L
di
1

+ Ri

+
1

i dt + v

(0) = V

dt
1

i
1
(0) = 0
C
}
1 C S

v
C
(0)

= V
C

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1

i (t ) =

R
t

A e
2 L

sin t

1 1 r

1
|
1

r
=

LC
R
2
|
2

|

4L
2

\ .

di
1

dt

t =0
=
V
s
+ V
c
= A

r
L

i
1
(t ) =
V
s
+ V
c

r
L

e
t

sin
r
t

=
R

2L

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m

To find the time when the current is
maximum, set the first derivative = 0
di
1
= 0

dt
| V
s
+ V
c
|
(
e
t

sin

t +

e
t

cos

t
)
= 0

| r r r

\
r
L
.

.....
r
=

tan

r
t
m
tan
1
r
t
m

=
r
t
m

t =
1
tan
1
r
2

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C

}

To find the capacitor voltage, integrate the
current

v (t ) =
1

1
C
t
}
i
1

0

t

(t )dt

V
c

v (t ) =
1

| V
s
+ V
c
|
(
e
t

sin

t
)
dt V

C
1

...

C
0 \
| r C

r
L
.

v (t )

= (V

+ V )e
t
( sin

t +

cos

t ) / + V

C
1
s C r r r r s

0 t t
1m
( )

r
The current i
1
becomes = 0 @ t=t
1m

v (t
1

) = V

1
=
(
V + V

)
e
r
+ V

C
1
m C s C s

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Operation in Mode 2 T
1
, T
2
Both OFF

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t
2m

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C

Operation in Mode 3 Fire T
2

L
di
3

dt

+ Ri
3
+
1

C

}
i
3
dt

+ v (0) = 0

3
i
3
(0) = 0

v
C
(0)

= V
C

= V
C

3 2 1

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C
C C
C
3

i
3
(t ) =
V

1
r
L

e
t

sin
r
t

v (t ) =
1

3
C

t
}
i
3
dt V
1

0
V e
t
(

sin

t +

cos t )

v (t ) =

3
C
1
r r r

0 t
r
t (

)

m
r

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C 1 C
C
C
3
S

v (t

3

) = V = V

3

= V e

1

r
C
m
C C C

r

v (t ) = V
1 m 1

.
.
1

= (V
S

+ V
C
)e

+ V
S

V
C
= V
S

e
z
1
e
z

V = V
1

e
z
1
V
C
+ V
S
= V

1

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V V
V

Space Vector Modulation

Space Vector Diagram

Active vectors: to

1 6

SE C T O R III
r
V
3

O P O
j

SE C T O R
II
r
V
2

r
V
ref

P P O

SE C T O R I
(stationary, not rotating)
r
V
4

O P P

P P P

O O O

r
V
1

P O O

Zero vector:
0
r
V
0

SE C T O R IV SE C T O R V I

Six sectors: I to VI

O O P
r
V
5

SE C T O R V

r
P O P

V
6

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Space Vectors

Three-phase voltages
v
AO
(t ) + v
BO
(t ) + v
CO
(t ) = 0

(1)

Two-phase voltages
cos 0

cos
2
cos
4
(

v
AO
(t )
(

(t )
(
2

3 3
(
(

v (t )
(
=
3

2 4

(
v
BO
(t )
(

(2)

sin 0

sin

3
sin
(

3

v
CO

(t )

Space vector representation
V (t ) = v

(t ) + j v

(t )

(3)

(2) (3)
r

V (t ) =
2
[ v

3
AO

(t ) e
j 0

+ v
BO

(t ) e
j 2 / 3

+ v
CO
(t) e
j 4 / 3
]

(4)

where e
jx
= cos x + j sin x

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d
= V
= V


Space Vectors (Example)

Switching state [POO] S
1
, S
6
and S
2
ON

v
AO

(t) =
2

V
d
,
3

v
BO
(t ) =
1
V

3

and

v
CO
(t ) =
1
V

3
d

(5)

(5) (4)
r
V
3

O P O
j r
V
2

P P O
r
2
V e
j 0

1
3
d

(6)

SE C T O R III
SE C T O R
II

r

V
ref

SE C T O R I

r

Similarly,
r
V
4

O P P

P P P

O O O
V
1

P O O

r
2

V
k d

3
j ( k 1)

e
3

(7)
r
V
0

SE C T O R V
k = 1, 2, ..., 6.

O O P
r
V
5

r
P O P

V
6

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Space Vector

Switching State
(Three Phases)

On-state Switch

Vector
Definition

Zero
Vector
r
V
0
[PPP] S
1
, S
3
, S
5
r
V
0
= 0

[OOO] S , S , S

Active
Vector
r
V
1

[POO]

S
1
, S
6
, S
2

r
2
j0

V
1
= V
d
e
3
r
V
2

[PPO]

S
1
, S
3
, S
2

r
2
j

V
2
= V
d
e
3

3
r
V
3

[OPO]

S
4
, S
3
, S
2

r
2
j
2

V
3
= V
d
e
3

3
r
V
4

[OPP]

S
4
, S
3
, S
5

r
2
j
3

V
4
= V
d
e
3

3
r
V
5

[OOP]

S
4
, S
6
, S
5

r
2
j
4

V
5
= V
d
e
3

3
r
V
6

[POP]

S
1
, S
6
, S
5

r
2
j
5

V
6
= V
d
e
3

3


Active and Zero Vectors

P

S
1
S
3
S
5

A

V
d
B
C
4 6 2

S
4
S
6
S
2

N

Active Vector: 6
Zero Vector: 1

Redundant switching
states: [PPP] and [OOO]

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r
}


Reference Vector V
ref

Definition
r
j

r
V
3

O P O
j

SE C T O R

r
V
2

P P O
V
ref

= V
ref
e

SE C T O R III

II
r

V
ref

SE C T O R I
Rotating in space at r
V
1

= 2 f

(8)
V
4

O P P

P P P

O O O
r

P O O
Angular displacement

t

V
0

(t ) = dt
0
(9)

O O P
r
V
5

SE C T O R V

r
P O P

V
6

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V
2

T

Relationship Between V
ref
and V
AB

V
ref
is approximated by two active
r

and a zero vectors

V
ref
rotates one revolution,

T
r
r

V
AB
completes one cycle

b
V
2

T
s
V
ref

Length of V
ref
corresponds to

r

V
1

T
a

r

magnitude of V
AB
V
1
s
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V
3

Dwell Time Calculation
r

V
2
Volt-Second Balancing

V
ref
T
s

= V
1
T
a

+ V
2
T
b

+ V
0
T
0

T
r
r

T
s

= T
a

+ T
b

+ T
0

(10)
b
V
2

T
s
V
ref

T
a
, T
b
and T
0
dwell times for

T
s
sampling period

Space vectors
V
1
, V
2

and

0

r
V
1

T
a

r

V
1

T
s
r

V
ref

= V
ref

e
j
,

r
2

V
1
= V
d

r

,
V =

2
j

V
d
e

and

V
0
= 0

(11)

(11) (10)

3
2
3

2 1

Re :

V
ref

(cos ) T
s
=

V
d
T
a

3
+ V
d
T
b

3
(
Im :

V
ref

(sin ) T
s
=
1
V T

3
d b

(12)
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Dwell Times

Solve (12)

3 T V

T
a
=

s ref
sin (

)

V
d
3

3 T V

T
b
=

s ref
sin

V
d

0 <

/ 3
(13)
T
0
= T
s

T
a

T
b

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r

V
ref
Location

= 0

0 < <
6

=
6

< <
6 3
=

3

Dwell Times

T
a
> 0
T = 0

T
a
> T
b

T
a
= T
b

T
a
< T
b

T
a
= 0
T > 0

V


V
ref
Location versus Dwell Times

r
V
2

T
r
r
SE C T O R I
b
2

T
s
V
re f

Q

r
V
1

T
a
r

V
1

T
s

b b

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V
=


Modulation Index

a
T
s
m
a
sin (

)

3
T
T = T m

sin

(15)

b s a

T
0
=

T
s
T
b

T
c

m =
3 V
ref

(16)
a
d

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Modulation Range

V
ref,max

SE C T O R III
r
V
3

O P O

j

SE C T O R
II
r
V
2

P P O

r

SE C T O R I

V
ref , max
=
2
V

3
d

3
=

2
V
d

3

(17)

r
V
4

O P P

P P P
r
V
0

O O O
V
ref

r
V
1

P O O

(17) (16)

SE C T O R IV S E C T O R V I
SE C T O R V

m
a,max
= 1

O O P
r
V
5

r
P O P

V
6

Modulation range: 0 m
a
1
(18)

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Switching Sequence Design

Basic Requirement:

Minimize the number of switchings per
sampling period T
s

Implementation:
Transition from one switching state to
the next involves only two switches in
the same inverter leg.

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Seven-segment Switching Sequence

r r
V
0
V
1

r r
V
2
V
0
r r r
V
2
V
1
V
0

Selected vectors:
V
0
, V
1
and V
2

Dwell times:
T
s
= T
0
+ T
a
+ T
b

v
AN

0
v
BN

0

v
CN

OOO POO PPO PPP PPO POO OOO

V
d

V
d

V
d

0

T
0

T
a

T
b

T
0

T
b

T
a

T
0

4

2 2 2 2 2 4

T
s

Total number of switchings: 6

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Undesirable Switching Sequence

Vectors V
1
and V
2
swapped

r r
V
0
V
2

r r r
V
1
V
0
V
1

r r
V
2
V
0

v
AN

0
v
BN

0

v
CN

0
OOO
PPO POO PPP
V
d
V
d

V
d

POO PPO OOO
T
0
T
b
T
a

4 2 2
T
0
T
a

2 2
T
b
T
0

2 4

T
s

Total number of switchings: 10

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Switching Sequence Summary (7segments)

Sector

Switching Sequence

I
r
V
0

r
V
1

r
V
2

r
V
0

r
V
2

r
V
1

r
V
0

OOO POO PPO PPP PPO POO OOO

II
r
V
0

r
V
3

r
V
2

r
V
0

r
V
2

r
V
3

r
V
0

OOO OPO PPO PPP PPO OPO OOO

III
r
V
0

r
V
3

r
V
4

r
V
0

r
V
4

r
V
3

r
V
0

OOO OPO OPP PPP OPP OPO OOO

IV
r
V
0

r
V
5

r
V
4

r
V
0

r
V
4

r
V
5

r
V
0

OOO OOP OPP PPP OPP OOP OOO

V
r
V
0

r
V
5

r
V
6

r
V
0

r
V
6

r
V
5

r
V
0

OOO OOP POP PPP POP OOP OOO

VI
r
V
0

r
V
1

r
V
6

r
V
0

r
V
6

r
V
1

r
V
0

OOO POO POP PPP POP POO OOO

Note: The switching sequences for the odd and ever sectors are different.

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Simulated Waveforms
S ector
V I
V

v
AB

0
V I
V
IV
III
II II
I I

V
d

2 3

IV
III

v
A O

0

2V
d
/ 3

i
A

0
2 3

f
1
= 60Hz, f
sw
= 900Hz, m
a
= 0.696, T
s
= 1.1ms

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Waveforms and FFT

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Waveforms and FFT (Measured)

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r r r
V
0
V
5
V
4

v
AN

v
BN

v
CN
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r r
V
3
V
2

r r
V
4
V
1

r r
V
5
V
6
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v
v

AB

AO

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r
V
0

OOO
r
V
1

POO
r
V
2

PPO
r
V
1

POO
r
V
0

OOO

V
d

V
d

T

2

T
a
2

T
b

T
a
2

T

2

T
s

V


Five-segment SVM

r
V
0

r
V
2

r
V
1

r
V
2

r
V
0

PPP

PPO

POO

PPO

PPP

V
d

0
v
BN

d
0
v
CN
V

0

0

(a) Sequence A

0
T
0

2
d

T
b
2

T
a

T
s

(b) Sequence B

T
b
2

T
0

2

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Switching Sequence ( 5-segment)

Sector

Switching Sequence (A)

I
r
V
0

r
V
1

r
V
2

r
V
1

r
V
0

v = 0

CN
OOO POO PPO POO OOO

I I
r
V
0

r
V
3

r
V
2

r
V
3

r
V
0

v = 0

CN
OOO OPO PPO OPO OOO

I I I
r
V
0

r
V
3

r
V
4

r
V
3

r
V
0

v = 0

AN
OOO OPO OPP OPO OOO

I V
r
V
0

r
V
5

r
V
4

r
V
5

r
V
0

v = 0

AN
OOO OOP OPP OOP OOO

V
r
V
0

r
V
5

r
V
6

r
V
5

r
V
0

v = 0

BN
OOO OOP POP OOP OOO

VI
r
V
0

r
V
1

r
V
6

r
V
1

r
V
0

v = 0

BN
OOO POO POP POO OOO

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Simulated Waveforms ( 5-segment)

v
g 1

v
g 3

v
g 5

2 / 3

2 4

v
A B

V
d
0

2 4

i
A

0
2 4

f
1
= 60Hz, f
sw
= 600Hz, m
a
= 0.696, T
s
= 1.1ms

No switching for a 120 period per cycle.
Low switching frequency but high harmonic distortion

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UNIT V

AC voltage controller and
cycloconverter
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4.1.1 Single-phase AC voltage controller

VT
1

VT
2

u1 uo
u
1

O
t

R
uo

(operation range of phase
delay angle):
0
O
t
io

O
t
u
VT

O
t

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(

Resistive load, quantitative analysis


U =
1

2U sint)
2
d(t) =U

1
sin2 +

(4-1)

o

1

1
2
RMS value of output current

U
o

I
o
=
R

(4-2)
RMS value of thyristor current
2

I =
1

2U
1
sint

d(t) =
U
1

1
(1

+
sin2
)

(4-3)

T
2

R 2 2
Power factor of the circuit

=
P
=
U
o
I
o
=
U
o
=
1
sin 2 +

S U
1
I
o
U
1
2
(4-4)

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VT
2

G1

t
t

Inductive (Inductor- resistor) load , operation principle

u
1

VT
1
O
t
i
o
u

R
u
1
u
o

L

The phase shift range:

O

u
G2
O

uo

O
t
io

O

u
VT
t

O

t

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t

4.2 Other AC controllers

4.2.1 Integral cycle controlAC power controller

VT
1

i
o

VT
2

uo

2U
1

Conduction
angle
=

2

M

2
N
M

u
o
,i
o u
1

u1 uo
R
O

3

4

M
M M
Line period

Control period
= M *Line period
=2

Circuit topologies are the same as AC voltage controllers.
Only the control method is different.
Load voltage and current are both sinusoidal when thyristors are conducting.

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4.3 Thyristor cycloconverters

4.3.1 Single- phase thyristor-cycloconverter
Circuit configuration and operation principle

P N

Z

O utput A verage
uo
ap=
2

voltage ap= 0 output voltage
ap=

2

t

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N

Single- phase thyristor-cycloconverter
Modes of operation
u o

u
o
,i
o i
o

i
P
i
N

uP
u
o
O

u
P

O
uN
u
N
O
i
P

O
i
N

O
t
1
t
2
t
3
t4
t
5
t
u
o

t

u o
t
t

t

P
Rectifi
cation
Inver

sion

blocking
Rectifi
blocking
cation
Inver

sion

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Typical waveforms

u
o

O
t

i
o

O
t

1 3
4 6

2
5

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o o

Modulation methods for firing delay angle
Calculation method
For the rectifier circuit

u
o
= U
d0

cos

(4-15)
u2 u3 u4 u5 u6 u1

For the cycloconverter

output
t

ap3 ap4

u
o
=U
om
sin
o
t

(4-16)

us2
us3 us4 us5 us6 us1
uo

Equating (4- 15) and (4-16)
t

cos =
U
om
sin

t = sin t

U
d0

therefore
(4-17)

1

Principle of cosine

wave-crossing method

= cos ( sin
o
t)

(4-18)

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90

Output voltage ratio

(Modulation factor)

1.0
0.9
.8

=
Uom

Ud 0

(0

1)
150

120
/( )
=0

60

30

0

=0.1

0.2

0.3
0.8
0.9
1.0
0
0.3
0.2
0.1

3

2
2
2

t
Output voltage phase angle

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The configuration with common input line

4.3.2 Three- phase thyristor-cyclo converter

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The configuration with star-connected output

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Typical waveforms

Output voltage

Input current with
Single-phase output

200t/ms

200 t/ms

Input current with
3-phase output

200t/ms
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Input and output characteristics
The maximum output frequency and the harmonics in the output voltage
are the same as in single-phase circuit. Input power factor is a little
higher than single-phase circuit. Harmonics in the input current is a
little lower thanthe single- phase circuit due to the cancellation of some
harmonics among the 3 phases.
To improve the input power factor:
Use DC bias or 3k order component bias on each of the 3 output
phase voltages
Features and applications
Features:
Direct frequency conversionhigh efficiency
Bidirectional energy flow, easy to realize 4- quadrant operation
Very complicatedtoo many power semiconductor devices
Low output frequency
Low input power factor and bad input current waveform
Applications:
High power low speed AC motor drive

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4.4 Matrix converter

Circuit configuration

input
a b c

S1 S1
1 2

S2 S2
1 2

S3 S3

1 2
u
S
1

3
v
S
2
output

3
w
S3

3

S
ij
a) b)

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Usable input voltage

U1m
Um
1
Um

2
3
U1m

2

a) b) c)
a) Single-phase input
voltage
b) Use 3 phase voltages
to construct output
voltage
c) Use 3 line-line voltages
to construct output
voltage

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Features

Direct frequency conversionhigh efficiency can realize good input and
output waveforms, low harmonics, and nearly unity displacement
factor
Bidirectional energy flow, easy to realize 4- quadrant operation
Output frequency is not limited by input frequency
No need for bulk capacitor (as compared to indirect frequency converter)
Very complicatedtoo many power semiconductor devices
Output voltage magnitude is a little lower as compared to indirect
frequency converter.

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UNIT I

This expression is valid for 0 t t

Average load current

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