Sedimentary Rocks 3 - Principles of Stratigraphy

Stratigraphy
Nicolas Steno 1667 Law of Superposition: in a sequence of layered rocks, any later is older that the layer next above it Principle of Original Horizontality: layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally Principle of Lateral Continuity: sediments initially extend laterally in all directions

Stratigraphy
Stratigraphy is the study of successions of stratified (layered rocks) in time and space. In its classical days, stratigraphy involved simply the study of lithostratigraphy, that is the succession of rock types in stratigraphic sections. Strata were grouped according to lithologic affinity into the following litho- stratigraphic hierarchy: Supergroup Group Formation Member Bed

Stratigraphy
Formations are the basic building block of lithostratigraphy, in effect the unit that can be mapped in the field. They are vaguely defined as any unit that can be recognized according to its lithologic character. Over short distances, lithologic formations can commonly be correlated between stratigraphic sections. Distinctive units that occur over wide distances, such as isochronous volcanic ash beds, provide particularly useful correlations.

Key Terms in Stratigraphy

Diachronous formation: a formation may have the sample lithological properties but formed at different times in different places Subdivisions of Formations: Member - rock unit that have a limited lateral extent and are consistently related to one formation Bed - if the bed has particularly distinctive lithology, fossil content or chemistry it may be given a name within the formation Groups are related formations Lithology - field characteristics of a rock Sedimentary Facies: Lithology or group of lithologies characterizing by a specific set of depositional conditions or environment.

Vertical Changes in Sedimentary Sequences

Contact - boundary between two different lithologic units

Conformable - little to no time between deposition of lower unit and the overlying unit Unconformable - significant break in sedimentation between the two units
Angular unconformity - angle between beds below unconformity and beds above Disconformity - angle of bedding the same between beds above and below disconformity, but erosion occurs making the surface non-flat Paraconformity - angle of bedding the same between beds above and below paraconformity with the paraconformity parallel to bedding Nonconformity - deposition of sediments on nonstratiform rocks (igneous or metamorphic rock)

Stratigraphic correlations

Stratigraphic correlations
Stratigraphic correlations can be based on: physical changes - lithostratigraphy fossil assemblage - biostratigraphy changes in age - chronostratigraphy changes in magnetism - magnetostratigraphy changes in position relative to unconformities allostratigraphy relationships to worldwide unconformities - sequence stratigraphy

Stratigraphic Correlation Problems

Lithologic correlations work well, however, only over relatively short distances. When attempts are made to correlate spatially distant stratigraphic sections, it becomes apparent that lithologic beds are typically diachronous, and lithologic boundaries do not represent constant time lines.

Correlation problems
There are a number of resolutions to the correlation problem; these include: biostratigraphy, which uses fossils to correlate between sections; recognition of isochronous marker horizons such as bentonite (altered volcanic ash) layers. In recent years, however, attention has focused on sequence stratigraphy, which uses the cyclic nature of stratgraphic successions to correlate between sections.

Sequence Stratigraphy
The recognition of cycles, and cycles within cycles is done largely using reflection seismic sections, and is becoming increasingly divorced from direct connection with actual rocks. Individual bands in these images do not correlate to specific rock types, but rather parasequences, thought to represent individual shallowing upward sequences.

Parasequences
The parasequence is the basic unit of sequence stratigraphy. A parasequence is an outcrop scale (meters to 10s of meters) conformable succession of sedimentary rocks that typically represents a single shallowing upward cycle, bounded by marine flooding surfaces. A parasequence thus represents a single episode of sediment progradation (the seaward movement of shoreline), typically lasting 10s to 100s of thousands of years.

Parasequences
Parasequences are terminated by marine flooding events possibly associated with fluctuations in glaciation driven by external Milankovich cycles, or reflect tectonic subsidence. Milankovich cycles: ~100,000 & 400,000 yrs - cycle of orbital eccentricity ~100,000 yrs - cycle of tilt of orbital plane to the ecliptic 41,000 yrs - cycle of tilt of rotation axis 21,000 yrs - chandler wobble of rotation axis

Sequences
Sequences are stratigraphic successions bounded by surfaces of significant sub-aerial erosion, representing a major cycle of sedimentation lasting from ~ 5 to 15 Mys. They reflect sea level changes in response to major tectonic activity such as changes in the volume of oceanic ridges and/or sense of sea floor spreading.

Vertical Changes in Stratigraphy Cross-cutting relationships

Cross-cutting relationships
Any unit that has a boundary that cut across other strata must be younger than the rock it cuts

Included fragments
Clasts in a clastic rock are older than the rock strata in which they are found

ABSOLUTE GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

Absolute Geological Time scale Radioactive Decay Schemes

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

THE BASIC EQUATIONS: - (dN/dt) = N N = number of atoms t = time = decay constant (1)

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

THE BASIC EQUATIONS: The numerical value of is characteristic of the particular radionuclide under consideration; unit of time-1. Decay constant represents probability that atom decays within a stated unit of time.

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

THE BASIC EQUATIONS: Rearranging equation (1) and integrating: - dN/N = dt (2)

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

THE BASIC EQUATIONS: This yields: - ln N = t + C (3)

C = constant of integration

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

THE BASIC EQUATIONS: At t = 0 N = N0 Thus: C = - ln N0 (4)

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

THE BASIC EQUATIONS: Substituting into equation (3): - ln N = t - ln N0 (5)

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

THE BASIC EQUATIONS: Which equals: ln N - ln N0 = - t ln (N / N0) = - t N / N 0 = e - t N = N 0 e t

(6)

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

THE BASIC EQUATIONS: N = N0 e t Gives the number of radioactive parent atoms (N) that remain at any time t of the original number of atoms (N0). Basic equation describing all radioactive decay processes.

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

THE BASIC EQUATIONS: Assuming: The decay of a radioactive parent produces a stable radiogenic daughter. Number of daughter atoms is zero at t = 0.

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

THE BASIC EQUATIONS: The number of daughter atoms (D*) produced by the decay of its parent at any time t is: D* = N0 N (7)

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

THE BASIC EQUATIONS: Provided that: No daughter atoms are added to or lost from the system and Change in number of parent atoms is due only to radioactive decay

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

THE BASIC EQUATIONS: Substituting equation (6) into (7) yields: D* = N0 N0 e t D* = N0 (1 e t ) (8)

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

Equation (8) gives the number of stable radiogenic daughter atoms (D*) at any time t that formed by decay of a radioactive parent with an initial number N0 at t = 0. Condition is no parent or daughter atoms were added to or lost from the system.

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

HALF-LIFE OF A RADIOACTIVE ATOM

Radioactive Decay Half lives

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

HALF-LIFE OF A RADIOACTIVE ATOM: The half-life T1/2 is the time required for one half of a given number of a radionuclide to decay when: t = T1/2 then: N= N0

Radioactive Isotope Systematics

Substituting these values into (6): N0 = N0 e T1/2 ln () = T1/2 ln 2 = T1/2 T1/2 = ln 2 / = 0.693 / (9)