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Imperial Japanese Navy
(IJN)

(Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kaigun)


Ensign of Imperial Japanese Navy
Active 18691945
Country Empire of Japan
Allegiance Empire of Japan
Branch Combined Fleet
Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
Imperial Japanese Navy Land
Forces
Type Navy
Engagements Taiwan Expedition of 1874
First Sino-Japanese War
Russo-Japanese War
World War I
Second Sino-Japanese War
World War II
Commanders
Notable
commanders
Isoroku Yamamoto
T!g! Heihachir!
Itoh Sukeyuki
Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu
and many others
Imperial Japanese Navy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) (Ky"jitai:
Shinjitai:
Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kaigun or Nippon
Kaigun, literally "Navy of the Greater Japanese Empire")
was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1869 until 1945,
when it was dissolved following Japan's defeat and
surrender in World War II. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense
Force (JMSDF) was formed after the dissolution of the
IJN.
[1]
The Japanese Navy was the third largest navy in the world
by 1920, behind the Royal Navy and the United States
Navy.
[2]
It was supported by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air
Service for aircraft and airstrike operation from the eet. It
was the primary opponent of the Western Allies in the
Pacic War.
The origins of the Imperial Japanese Navy go back to early
interactions with nations on the Asian continent, beginning
in the early medieval period and reaching a peak of activity
during the 16th and 17th centuries at a time of cultural
exchange with European powers during the Age of
Discovery. After two centuries of stagnation during the
country's ensuing seclusion policy under the shoguns of the
Edo period, Japan's navy was comparatively backward when
the country was forced open to trade by American
intervention in 1854. This eventually led to the Meiji
Restoration. Accompanying the re-ascendance of the
Emperor came a period of frantic modernization and
industrialization. The navy's history of successes, sometimes
against much more powerful foes as in the Sino-Japanese
war and the Russo-Japanese War, ended in almost complete
annihilation during the concluding days of World War II,
largely by the United States Navy (USN).
Contents
1 Origins
1.1 Western studies and end of Seclusion
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Naval battle of Dan-no-ura in 1185.
Replica of the Japanese-built 1613
galleon San Juan Bautista, in
Ishinomaki, Japan.
1.2 Development of Shogunal and Domain naval forces
2 Creation of the Imperial Japanese Navy (1869)
2.1 British support
2.2 First interventions abroad (Taiwan 1874, Korea 1875
76)
2.3 Further modernization (1870s)
2.4 Inuence of the French "Jeune cole" (1880s)
2.5 British shipbuilding
3 Sino-Japanese War (18941895)
4 Suppression of the Boxer rebellion (1900)
5 Russo-Japanese War (19041905)
6 Towards an autonomous national navy
7 World War I
8 Interwar years
9 World War II
9.1 Battleships
9.2 Aircraft carriers
9.3 Naval aviation
9.4 Submarines
9.5 Special Attack Units
9.6 Imperial Japanese Navy Land Forces
10 Bases and facilities
11 Self-Defense Forces
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References
15 Further reading
16 External links
Origins
Main article: Naval history of Japan
Japan has a long history of naval interaction with the Asian continent, involving transportation of troops
between Korea and Japan, starting at least with the beginning of the Kofun period in the 3rd century.
[3]
Following the attempts at Mongol invasions of Japan by Kubilai Khan in 1274 and 1281, Japanese wak!
became very active in plundering the coast of China.
[4]
Japan undertook major naval building efforts in the 16th century, during the Warring States period, when feudal
rulers vying for supremacy built vast coastal navies of several hundred ships. Around that time Japan may have
developed one of the rst ironclad warships when Oda Nobunaga, a Japanese daimyo, had six iron-covered
Oatakebune made in 1576.
[5]
In 1588 Toyotomi Hideyoshi issued a ban on Wak! piracy; the pirates then
became vassals of Hideyoshi, and comprised the naval force used in the Japanese invasion of Korea (1592-
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A 1634 Japanese Red seal ship,
combining eastern and western naval
technologies
Sh!hei Maru (1854) was built from
Dutch technical drawings.
1598).
[4]
Japan built her rst large ocean-going warships in the beginning of the 17th century, following contacts with the
Western nations during the Nanban trade period. In 1613, the Daimyo of Sendai, in agreement with the
Tokugawa Bakufu, built Date Maru, a 500 ton galleon-type ship that transported the Japanese embassy of
Hasekura Tsunenaga to the Americas, which then continued to
Europe.
[6]
From 1604 the Bakufu also commissioned about 350 Red seal
ships, usually armed and incorporating some Western technologies,
mainly for Southeast Asian trade.
[7][8]
Western studies and end of Seclusion
For more than 200 years,
beginning in the 1640s, the
policy of seclusion ("sakoku")
forbade contacts with the outside
world and prohibited the
construction of ocean-going
ships on pain of death.
[9]
Contacts were maintained,
however, with the Dutch through
the port of Nagasaki, the Chinese also through Nagasaki and the
Ryukyus and Korea through intermediaries with Tsushima. The study of
Western sciences, called "rangaku" through the Dutch enclave of Dejima
in Nagasaki led to the transfer of knowledge related to the Western technological and scientic revolution which
allowed Japan to remain aware of naval sciences, such as cartography, optics and mechanical sciences,
seclusion however, led to loss of any naval and maritime traditions the nation possessed.
[10]
Apart from Dutch trade ships no other Western vessels were allowed to enter Japan, a notable exception was
during the Napoleonic wars, when neutral ships ew the Dutch ag. However frictions with foreign ships
started from the beginning of the 19th century. The Nagasaki incident involving the HMS Phaeton in 1808 and
other subsequent incidents in the following decades led to the Shogunate to enact an edict to repel foreign
vessels. Western ships which were increasing their presence around Japan due to whaling and the trade with
China began to challenge the seclusion policy.
The Morrison Incident in 1837 and news of China's defeat during the Opium War, however, led to the
Shogunate to repeal the law to execute foreigners and instead to adopt the Order for the Provision of Firewood
and Water. The shogunate also began to strengthened the nation's coastal defenses. Many Japanese realized that
traditional ways would not be sufcient to repel further intrusions and western knowledge was utilized through
the Dutch at Dejima to reinforce Japan's capability to repel the foreigners; eld guns, mortars and rearms were
obtained and coastal defenses reinforced. Numerous attempts to open Japan ended in failure in part to Japanese
resistance, this was until the early 1850s.
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Kanrin Maru, Japan's rst screw-
driven steam warship, 1857
Japan's rst domestically built
steam warship, launched on 02
July 1863 and completed in May
1866 Chiyoda.
[17]
During 1853 and 1854, American warships under the command of Commodore Matthew Perry entered Edo Bay
and made demonstrations of force requesting trade negotiations. After two hundred years of seclusion the 1854
Convention of Kanagawa led to the opening of Japan to international trade and interaction. This was soon
followed by the 1858 Treaty of Amity and Commerce and treaties with other powers.
Development of Shogunal and Domain naval forces
As soon as Japan opened up to foreign inuences, the Tokugawa
shogunate recognized the vulnerability of the country from the sea and
initiated an active policy of assimilation and adoption of Western naval
technologies.
[11]
In 1855, with Dutch assistance, the Shogunate acquired
its rst steam warship, Kank! Maru which began to be used for training,
and a Naval Training Center was established at Nagasaki.
[11]
Samurai
such as the future Admiral Takeaki Enomoto were sent to study in the
Netherlands for several years.
[11]
In 1859, the Naval Training Center
was transferred to Tsukiji in Tokyo. In 1857, the rst screw-driven steam
warship Kanrin Maru was acquired by the Shogunate and used for the
Japanese Embassy to the United States (1860). In 1865, the French naval engineer Lonce Verny was hired to
build Japan's rst modern naval arsenals, at Yokosuka and Nagasaki.
[12]
In 18671868, a British Naval mission
headed by Captain Tracey
[13]
was sent to Japan to assist the development of the Navy and organize the naval
school of Tsukiji.
[14]
The Shogunate also allowed and then ordered various domains to purchase warships and develope naval
eets,
[15]
Satsuma especially, had petitioned the Shogunate to build modern naval vessels.
[11]
A naval center
had been set up in Kagoshima, students were sent abroad for training and a number of ships were acquired.
[11]
Satsuma was joined by the domains of Choshu, Hizen,Tosa and Kaga in acquiring ships.
[15]
By the mid 1860s the Shogunate had a eet of eight warships and thirty-six auxiliaries.
[15]
While Satsuma
which had the largest domain eet had nine steam ships,
[16]
Choshu had ve ships plus numerous auxiliary
craft, Kaga had ten ships and Chikuzen eight.
[16]
By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1867, the Tokugawa navy was the
largest in Eastern Asia, organized around eight Western-style steam
warships and the agship Kaiy! Maru.
which were used against pro-imperial forces during the Boshin War, under
the command of Admiral Enomoto.
[11]
The conict culminated with the
Naval Battle of Hakodate in 1869, Japan's rst large-scale modern naval
battle, and ended with the defeat of the last Tokugawa forces and the
restoration of Imperial rule.
[18][19]
The revolutionary French-built ironclad
Kotetsu, originally ordered by the Tokugawa shogunate, was received by
the Imperial side and was used decisively towards the end of the
conict.
[20][21][22]
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The French-built K!tetsu (ex-CSS
Stonewall), Japan's rst modern
ironclad, 1869
Kanji for
"Imperial
Japanese Navy"
The British-built Ry"j! was the
agship of the Imperial Japanese
Navy until 1881.
Creation of the Imperial Japanese Navy (1869)
From 1868, the Meiji government continued with reforms to centralize and modernize
Japan.
[23]
On 17 January 1868, the Ministry of Military Affairs (}, also known as the
Army-Navy Ministry) was established, with Iwakura Tomomi, Shimazu Tadayoshi and
Prince Komatsu-no-miya Akihito as the First Secretaries.
[24]
On 26 March 1868, the rst naval review in Japan
was held in Osaka Bay, with six ships from the
private domainal navies of Saga, Ch!sh", Satsuma,
Kurume, Kumamoto and Hiroshima participating.
The total tonnage of these ships was 2,252 tons,
which was far smaller than the tonnage of the single
foreign vessel (from the French Navy) that also
participated. The following year, in July 1869, the
Imperial Japanese Navy was formally established,
two months after the last combat of the Boshin
War.
[25]
In July 1869, the private domanial navies were abolished, and their 11 ships were added to
the seven surviving vessels of the defunct Tokugawa bakufu navy to form the core of the
new Imperial Japanese Navy. In 1870, the new government drafted an ambitious plan to
create a navy with 200 ships organized into ten eets. It was abandoned within a year due
to lack of resources.
[26]
In February 1872, the Ministry of Military Affairs was replaced by
a separate Army Ministry () and Navy Ministry (). In October 1873, Katsu Kaishu became Navy
Minister.
[27]
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Naval gunnery trainees on the Ry"j!,
around their English instructor,
Lieutenant Horse (), in
early 1871.
The landing of the Japanese marines
from the Un'y! at Ganghwa Island,
Korea, in the 1875 Ganghwa Island
incident.
British support
During the 1870s and 1880s, the Imperial Japanese Navy remained an
essentially coastal defense force, although the Meiji government
continued to modernize it. Jho Sho Maru (soon renamed Ry"j! Maru)
commissioned by Thomas Glover was launched at Aberdeen, Scotland
on 27 March 1869. In 1870, an Imperial decree determined that Britain's
Royal Navy should be the model for development, instead of the
Netherlands.
[28][29]
From September 1870, the English Lieutenant Horse, a former gunnery
instructor for the Saga ef during the Bakumatsu period, was put in
charge of gunnery practice on board the Ry"j!.
[30]
In 1871, the ministry
resolved to send 16 trainees abroad for training in naval sciences (14 to
Great Britain, two to the United States), among which was Heihachir!
T!g!.
[28]
A 34-member British naval mission visited Japan in 1873 for
two years, headed by Commander Archibald Douglas.
[28]
Later,
Commander L.P. Willan was hired in 1879 to train naval cadets.
[29]
First interventions abroad (Taiwan 1874, Korea 187576)
During 1873, a plan to invade the Korean peninsula (the Seikanron
proposal made by Saigo Takamori) was narrowly abandoned by decision
of the central government in Tokyo.
[31]
In 1874, the Taiwan expedition
was the rst foray abroad of the new Imperial Japanese Navy and the
Imperial Japanese Army after the Mudan Incident of 1871 .
[31]
Various interventions in the Korean peninsula continued in 18751876,
starting with the Ganghwa Island incident () provoked by
the Japanese gunboat Un'y!, leading to the dispatch of a large force of
the Imperial Japanese Navy. As a result, the JapanKorea Treaty of 1876
was signed, marking the ofcial opening of Korea to foreign trade, and
Japan's rst example of Western-style interventionism and adoption of
"unequal treaties" tactics.
[32]
Soon, however domestic rebellions, the Saga Rebellion (1874) and
especially the Satsuma Rebellion (1877), forced the government to focus on land warfare.
[26]
Naval policy,
expressed by the slogan Shusei Kokub! (Jp:, lit. "Static Defense"), focused on coastal defenses,
[26]
and a standing army (established with the assistance of the second French Military Mission to Japan), and a
coastal navy, leading to a military organization under the Rikushu Kaij" (Jp:, Army rst, Navy
second) principle.
[26]
In 1878, the Japanese cruiser Seiki sailed to Europe with an entirely Japanese crew.
[13]
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Armoured corvette Kong!.
The French-built Matsushima,
agship of the Imperial Japanese
Navy at the Battle of the Yalu River
(1894)
Further modernization (1870s)
Ships such as the Fus!, Kong! and Hiei were built in British shipyards specically for the Imperial Japanese
Navy.
[33][34]
Private construction companies such as Ishikawajima and Kawasaki also emerged around this
time.
In 1883, two large warships were ordered from British shipyards. The
Naniwa and Takachiho were 3,650 ton ships. They were capable of
speeds up to 18 kn (33 km/h; 21 mph) and were armed with 54 to 76 mm
(2 to 3 in) deck armor and two 260 mm (10 in) Krupp guns. The naval
architect Sas! Sach" designed these on the line of the Elswick class of
protected cruisers but with superior specications.
[35]
An arms race was
taking place with China however, who equipped herself with two
7,335 ton German-built battleships (Ting Yan and Chen-Yan). Unable
to confront the Chinese eet with only two modern cruisers, Japan resorted to French assistance to build a large,
modern eet which could prevail in the upcoming conict.
[35]
Inuence of the French "Jeune cole" (1880s)
During the 1880s, France took the lead in inuence, due to its "Jeune
cole" ("young school") doctrine, favoring small, fast warships,
especially cruisers and torpedo boats, against bigger units.
[35]
The
choice of France may also have been inuenced by the Minister of the
Japanese Navy (q[), who happened to be Enomoto Takeaki at that
time (Navy Minister 18801885), a former ally of the French during the
Boshin War. Also, Japan was uneasy with being dependent on Great
Britain, at a time when Great Britain was very close to China.
[36]
The Meiji government issued its First Naval Expansion bill in 1882,
requiring the construction of 48 warships, of which 22 were to be
torpedo boats.
[35]
The naval successes of the French Navy against China
in the Sino-French War of 188385 seemed to validate the potential of
torpedo boats, an approach which was also attractive to the limited
resources of Japan.
[35]
In 1885, the new Navy slogan became Kaikoku
Nippon (Jp:]|, lit. "Maritime Japan").
[37]
In 1885, the leading French Navy engineer Emile Bertin was hired for
four years to reinforce the Japanese Navy and to direct the construction
of the arsenals of Kure and Sasebo.
[35]
He developed the Sanseikan class
of cruisers; three units featuring a single powerful main gun, the 320 mm
(13 in) Canet gun.
[35]
Altogether, Bertin supervised the building of more than 20 units. They helped establish
the rst true modern naval force of Japan. It allowed Japan to achieve mastery in the building of large units,
since some of the ships were imported, and some others were built domestically at the arsenal of Yokosuka:
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The 320 mm (13 in) Canet gun aboard
Matsushima.
The torpedo boat Kotaka (1887)
3 cruisers: the 4,700 ton Matsushima and Itsukushima, built in
France, and the Hashidate, built at Yokosuka.
[36]
3 coastal warships of 4,278 tons.
2 small cruisers: the Chiyoda, a small cruiser of 2,439 tons built in
Britain, and the Yaeyama, 1,800 tons, built at Yokosuka.
1 frigate, the 1,600 ton Takao, built at Yokosuka.
[38]
1 destroyer: the 726 ton Chishima, built in France.
16 torpedo boats of 54 tons each, built in France by the Companie
du Creusot in 1888, and assembled in Japan.
[36]
This period also allowed Japan "to embrace the revolutionary new
technologies embodied in torpedoes, torpedo-boats and mines, of which
the French at the time were probably the world's best exponents".
[39]
Japan acquired its rst torpedoes in 1884, and established a "Torpedo Training Center" at Yokosuka in 1886.
[35]
These ships, ordered during the scal years 1885 and 1886, were the last major orders placed with France. The
unexplained sinking of Unebi en route from France to Japan in December 1886, created embarrassment
however.
[36][40]
British shipbuilding
Japan turned again to Britain, with the order of a revolutionary torpedo
boat, Kotaka (considered the rst effective design of a destroyer),
[35]
in
1887 and with the purchase of Yoshino, built at the Armstrong works in
Elswick, Newcastle upon Tyne, the fastest cruiser in the world at the
time of her launch in 1892.
[35]
In 1889, she ordered the Clyde-built
Chiyoda, which dened the type for armored cruisers.
[41]
Between 1882 and 1918, ending with the visit of the French Military Mission to Japan, the Imperial Japanese
Navy stopped relying on foreign instructors altogether. In 1886, she manufactured her own prismatic powder,
and in 1892 one of her ofcers invented a powerful explosive, the Shimose powder.
[13]
Sino-Japanese War (18941895)
Main article: First Sino-Japanese War
Japan continued the modernization of its navy, especially as China was also building a powerful modern eet
with foreign, especially German, assistance, and the pressure was building between the two countries to take
control of Korea. The Sino-Japanese war was ofcially declared on 1 August 1894, though some naval ghting
had already taken place.
[42][43]
The Japanese Navy devastated Qing's Beiyang Fleet off the mouth of the Yalu River at the Battle of Yalu River
on 17 September 1894, in which the Chinese eet lost eight out of 12 warships. Although Japan turned out
victorious, the two large German-made battleships of the Chinese Navy remained almost impervious to
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Video footage of a naval battle during
the rst Sino-Japanese war
[44]
Japanese marines serving under
British commander Edward Seymour
during the Boxer Rebellion.
Japanese guns, highlighting the need for bigger capital ships in the Japanese Navy (Ting Yuan was nally sunk
by torpedoes, and Chen Yuan was captured with little damage).
[42]
The next step of the Imperial Japanese
Navy's expansion would thus involve a combination of heavily armed
large warships, with smaller and innovative offensive units permitting
aggressive tactics.
[45]
As a result of the conict, under the Treaty of Shimonoseki (April 17,
1895), Taiwan and the Pescadores Islands were transferred to Japan.
[46]
The Imperial Japanese Navy took possession of the island and quelled
opposition movements between March to October 1895, and the islands
continued to be a Japanese colony until 1945. Japan also obtained the
Liaodong Peninsula, although she was forced by Russia to return it to
China, only to see Russia take possession of it soon after.
[46]
Suppression of the Boxer rebellion (1900)
Main article: Boxer rebellion
The Imperial Japanese Navy further intervened in China in 1900, by
participating together with Western Powers to the suppression of the
Chinese Boxer Rebellion. The Navy supplied the largest number of
warships (18 out of a total of 50), and delivered the largest contingent of
troops among the intervening nations (20,840 Imperial Japanese Army
and Navy soldiers, out of a total of 54,000).
[47][48]
The conict allowed Japan to enter combat together with Western
nations, and to acquire rst hand understanding of their ghting
methods.
Russo-Japanese War (19041905)
Following the Sino-Japanese War, and the humiliation of the forced return of the Liaotung peninsula to China
under Russian pressure (the "Triple Intervention"), Japan began to build up its military strength in preparation
for further confrontations.
[49]
Japan promulgated a 215 million 10-year naval build-up program,
[50]
under the
slogan "Perseverance and determination" ([__, Gashinsh!tan), in which it commissioned 109 warships,
for a total of 200,000 tons, and increased its Navy personnel from 15,100 to 40,800.
[51]
The new eet consisted
of:
[52]
6 battleships (all British-built)
8 armored cruisers (4 British-, 2 Italian-, 1 German-built Yakumo, and 1 French-built Azuma)
9 cruisers (5 Japanese, 2 British and 2 U.S.-built)
24 destroyers (16 British- and 8 Japanese-built)
63 torpedo boats (26 German-, 10 British-, 17 French-, and 10 Japanese-built)

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Mikasa, among the most powerful
battleships of her time, in 1905.
Holland 1-class submarine, the rst
Japanese navy submarine, purchased
during the Russo Japanese War.
One of these battleships, Mikasa, among the most powerful warships
aoat when completed,
[53]
was ordered from the Vickers shipyard in the
United Kingdom at the end of 1898, for delivery to Japan in 1902.
Commercial shipbuilding in Japan was exhibited by construction of the
twin screw steamer Aki-Maru, built for Nippon Yusen Kaisha by the
Mitsubishi Dockyard & Engine Works, Nagasaki. The Imperial Japanese
cruiser Chitose was built at the Union Iron Works in San Francisco,
California.
These dispositions culminated with the Russo-Japanese War. At the
Battle of Tsushima, Admiral Togo (ag in Mikasa) led the Japanese
Combined Fleet into the decisive engagement of the war.
[54]
The Russian eet was almost completely
annihilated: out of 38 Russian ships, 21 were sunk, seven captured, six disarmed, 4,545 Russian servicemen
died and 6,106 were taken prisoner. On the other hand, the Japanese only lost 116 men and three torpedo
boats.
[55]
These victories broke Russian strength in East Asia, and triggered waves of mutinies in the Russian
Navy at Sevastopol, Vladivostok and Kronstadt, peaking in June with the Potemkin uprising, thereby
contributing to the Russian Revolution of 1905.
During the Russo-Japanese war, Japan also made frantic efforts to
develop and construct a eet of submarines. Submarines had only
recently become operational military engines, and were considered to be
special weapons of considerable potential. Naval losses for the Japanese
Navy during the war amounted to two battleships, four cruisers, one
armored cruiser, seven destroyers, and at least 10 torpedo boats; the
majority of them were lost due to hitting Russian mines.
The Imperial Japanese Navy acquired its rst submarines in 1905 from
Electric Boat Company, barely four years after the U.S. Navy had
commissioned its own rst submarine, USS Holland. The ships were
Holland designs and were developed under the supervision of Electric
Boat's representative, Arthur L. Busch. These ve submarines (known as Holland Type VII's) were shipped in
kit form to Japan (October 1904) and then assembled at the Yokosuka, Kanagawa Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, to
become hulls No.1 through 5, and became operational at the end of 1905.
[56]
Towards an autonomous national navy
Japan continued in its efforts to build up a strong national naval industry. Following a strategy of "copy,
improve, innovate",
[57]
foreign ships of various designs were usually analysed in depth, their specications
often improved on, and then were purchased in pairs so as to organize comparative testing and improvements.
Over the years, the importation of whole classes of ships was progressively substituted by local assembly, and
then complete local production, starting with the smallest ships, such as torpedo boats and cruisers in the 1880s,
to nish with whole battleships in the early 20th century. The last major purchase was in 1913 when the
battlecruiser Kong! was purchased from the Vickers shipyard. By 1918, there was no aspect of shipbuilding
technology where Japanese capabilities fell signicantly below world standards.
[58]
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Satsuma, the rst ship in the world to
be designed and laid down as an "all-
big-gun" battleship
The Japanese seaplane carrier
Wakamiya conducted the world's rst
sea-launched air raids in September
1914.
The period immediately after Tsushima also saw the IJN, under the
inuence of the navalist theoretician Sat! Tetsutar!, adopt an explicit
policy of building for a potential future conict against the United States
Navy. Sat! called for a battleeet at least 70% as strong as that of the
USA. In 1907, the ofcial policy of the Navy became an 'eight-eight
eet' of eight modern battleships and eight battlecruisers. However,
nancial constraints prevented this ideal ever becoming a reality.
[59]
By 1920, the Imperial Japanese Navy was the world's third largest navy
and a leader in naval development:
Following its 1897 invention by Marconi, the Japanese Navy was
the rst navy to employ wireless telegraphy in combat, at the 1905
Battle of Tsushima.
[60]
In 1905, it began building the battleship Satsuma, at the time the largest warship in the world by
displacement, and the rst ship to be designed, ordered and laid down as an "all-big-gun" battleship,
about one year prior to the launching of HMS Dreadnought. However, due to a lack of material, she was
completed with a mixed battery of ries, launched on 15 November 1906, and completed on 25 March
1910.
[61][62]
Between 1903
[61]
and 1910, Japan began to build battleships domestically. The 1906 battleship Satsuma
was built in Japan with about 80% material imported from Great Britain, with the following battleship
class in 1909,
[63]
the Kawachi, being built with only 20% imported parts.
World War I
Main articles: Japan during World War I and Asian and Pacic theatre of World War I
Japan entered World War I on the side of the Allies, against Imperial Germany and Austria-Hungary, as a
consequence of the 1902 Anglo-Japanese Alliance.
In the Siege of Tsingtao, the Japanese Navy helped seize the German
naval base of Tsingtao. During the siege, beginning on 5 September
1914, Wakamiya conducted the world's rst successful sea-launched air
strikes. On 6 September 1914, in the very rst air-sea battle in history, a
Farman aircraft launched by Wakamiya attacked the Austro-Hungarian
cruiser Kaiserin Elisabeth and the German gunboat Jaguar off
Tsingtao.
[64][65]
from Kiaochow Bay.
[66]
Four Maurice Farman
seaplanes bombarded German land targets (communication centers and
command centers) and damaged a German minelayer in the Tsingtao
peninsula from September to 6 November 1914 when the Germans
surrendered.
[67]
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H!sh!, The world's rst purpose built
aircraft carrier, completed (1922)
Concurrently, a battle group was sent to the central Pacic in August and September to pursue the German East
Asiatic squadron, which then moved into the Southern Atlantic, where it encountered British naval forces and
was destroyed at the Battle of the Falkland Islands. Japan seized former German possessions in Micronesia (the
Mariana Islands, excluding Guam); the Caroline Islands; and the Marshall Islands), which remained Japanese
colonies until the end of World War II, under the League of Nations' South Pacic Mandate.
[68]
Hard pressed in Europe, where she had only a narrow margin of superiority against Germany, Britain had
requested, but was denied, the loan of Japan's four newest Kong!-class battlecruisers (Kong!, Hiei, Haruna, and
Kirishima), the rst ships in the world to be equipped with 356 mm (14 in) guns, and the most formidable
battlecruisers in the world at the time.
[69]
Following a further request to contribute to the conict, and the advent of unrestricted submarine warfare by
Germany, the Imperial Navy in March 1917 sent a special force of destroyers to the Mediterranean. This force,
consisting of one armoured cruiser, Akashi, as otilla leader, and eight of the Navy's newest destroyers (Ume,
Kusunoki, Kaede, Katsura, Kashiwa, Matsu, Sugi, and Sakaki), under Admiral Sat! K!z!, was based in Malta
and efciently protected allied shipping between Marseille, Taranto, and ports in Egypt until the end of the War.
In June, Akashi was replaced by Izumo, and four more destroyers were added (Kashi, Hinoki, Momo, and
Yanagi). They were later joined by the cruiser Nisshin. By the end of the war, the Japanese had escorted 788
allied transports. One destroyer, Sakaki, was torpedoed by an Austrian submarine with the loss of 59 ofcers
and men.
[70]
In 1918, ships such as Azuma were assigned to convoy escort in the Indian Ocean between Singapore and the
Suez Canal as part of Japans contribution to the war effort under the Anglo-Japanese alliance.
After the conict, the Japanese Navy received seven German submarines as spoils of war, which were brought
to Japan and analysed, contributing greatly to the development of the Japanese submarine industry.
[71]
Interwar years
In the years before World War II, the IJN began to structure itself specically to ght the United States. A long
stretch of militaristic expansion and the start of the Second Sino-Japanese war in 1937 had exacerbated tensions
with the United States, which was seen as a rival of Japan.
The Imperial Japanese Navy was faced, before and during World War II,
with considerable challenges, probably more so than any other navy in
the world.
[72]
Japan, like Britain, was almost entirely dependent on
foreign resources to supply its economy. To achieve Japans expansionist
policies, IJN had to secure and protect distant sources of raw material
(especially Southeast Asian oil and raw materials), controlled by foreign
countries (Britain, France, and the Netherlands). To achieve this goal,
she had to build large warships capable of long range assault.
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This was in conict with Japan's doctrine of "decisive battle" (, Kantai kessen, which did not require
long range),
[73]
in which IJN would allow the U.S. to sail across the Pacic, using submarines to weaken it,
then engage the U.S. Navy in a "decisive battle area", near Japan, after inicting such attrition.
[74]
This is in
keeping with the theory of Alfred T. Mahan, to which every major navy subscribed before World War II, in
which wars would be decided by engagements between opposing surface eets
[75]
(as they had been for over
300 years). Following the dictates of Sat! (who doubtless was inuenced by Mahan),
[76]
it was the basis for
Japan's demand for a 70% ratio (10:10:7) at the Washington Naval Conference, which would give Japan
superiority in the "decisive battle area", and the U.S.' insistence on a 60% ratio, which meant parity.
[77]
Japan,
unlike other navies, clung to it even after it had been demonstrated to be obsolete.
It was also in conict with her past experience. Japan's numerical and industrial inferiority led her to seek
technical superiority (fewer, but faster, more powerful ships), qualitative superiority (better training), and
aggressive tactics (daring and speedy attacks overwhelming the enemy, a recipe for success in her previous
conicts). She failed to take account of the fact her opponents in the Pacic War did not face the political and
geographical constraints of her previous wars, nor did she allow for losses in ships and crews.
[78]
Between the wars, Japan took the lead in many areas of warship development:
In 1921, it launched the H!sh!, the rst purpose-designed aircraft carrier in the world to be completed,
[79]
and subsequently developed a eet of aircraft carriers second to none.
In keeping with its doctrine, the Imperial Navy was the rst to mount 356 mm (14 in) guns (in Kong!),
406 mm (16 in) guns (in Nagato), and then completed the only battleships ever to mount 460 mm (18 in)
guns (in the Yamato class).
[80]
In 1928, she launched the innovative Fubuki-class destroyer, introducing enclosed dual 127 mm (5 in)
turrets capable of anti-aircraft re. The new destroyer design was soon emulated by other navies. The
Fubukis also featured the rst torpedo tubes enclosed in splinterproof turrets.
[81]
Japan developed the 610 mm (24 in) oxygen fuelled Type 93 torpedo, generally recognized as the best
torpedo in the world, to the end of World War II.
[82]
By 1921, Japan's naval expenditure reached nearly 32% of the national budget. In 1941, the Imperial Japanese
Navy possessed 10 battleships, 10 aircraft carriers, 38 cruisers (heavy and light), 112 destroyers, 65 submarines,
and various auxiliary ships.
[83]
Japan at times continued to solicit foreign expertise in areas in which the IJN was inexperienced, such as naval
aviation. In 1918, Japan invited the French Military Mission to Japan (1918-1919), composed of 50 members
and equipped with several of the newest types of airplanes to establish the fundamentals of Japanese naval
aviation (the planes were several Salmson 2A2, Nieuport, Spad XIII, two Breguet XIV, as well as Caquot
dirigibles). In 1921, Japan hosted for a year and a half the Sempill Mission, a group of British instructors who
were able to train and advise the Imperial Japanese Navy on several new aircraft such as the Gloster
Sparrowhawk, and on various techniques such as torpedo bombing and ight control.
[84]
During the pre-war years, two schools of thought battled over whether the navy should be organized around
powerful battleships, ultimately able to defeat American ones in Japanese waters, or around aircraft carriers.
Neither really prevailed, and both lines of ships were developed, with the result neither solution displayed
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Captain Sempill showing a
Sparrowhawk to Admiral T!g!
Heihachir!, 1921.
T!g! Heihachir! with members of the
French Military Mission to Japan
(1918-1919) in Gifu Prefecture.
Imperial Japanese Navy vs US Navy shipbuilding
(19371945, in Standard Tons Displacement)
[86]
IJN USN
1937 45,000 75,000
1938 40,000 80,000
1939 35,000 70,000
1940 50,000 50,000
1941 180,000 130,000
1942-45 550,000 3,200,000
overwhelming strength over the
American adversary. A consistent
weakness of Japanese warship
development was the tendency to
incorporate too much armament,
and too much engine power, in
comparison to ship size (a side-
effect of the Washington Treaty),
leading to shortcomings in
stability, protection and structural
strength.
[85]
World War II
Main article: Imperial Japanese Navy of World War II
The IJN of World
War II was
administered by
the Ministry of the
Navy of Japan and controlled by the Chief of the Imperial
Japanese Navy General Staff at Imperial General
Headquarters. In order to combat the numerically superior
American navy, the IJN devoted large amounts of
resources to creating a force superior in quality,
[87]
the
objective being of "making up for quantity by means of
quality".
[88]
Consequently, at the beginning of World War
II, Japan probably had the most sophisticated Navy in the
world.
[89]
Betting on the agile success of aggressive
tactics (stemming from Mahanian doctrine and the lure of "decisive battle"), Japan did not invest signicantly
on defensive organization: she needed to protect her long shipping lines against enemy submarines, which she
never managed to do, particularly under-investing in the vital role of antisubmarine warfare (both escort ships
and escort carriers), and in the specialized training and organization to support it.
[90]
IJN enjoyed spectacular success during the rst part of the hostilities and completely drove out the Royal Navy
from the East Asia, but American forces ultimately managed to gain the upper hand through technological
upgrades to its air and naval forces and a vastly greater industrial output.
[91]
Japan's reluctance to use their
submarine eet for commerce raiding and failure to secure their communications also hastened her defeat.
During the last phase of the war, the Imperial Japanese Navy resorted to a series of desperate measures,
including a variety of Special Attack Units (popularly called kamikaze).
[92]
Battleships
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Yamato, the heaviest battleship in
history, in 1941.
The Sh!kaku shortly after completion
in August 1941.
Japan continued to attribute considerable prestige to battleships and
endeavoured to build the largest and most powerful ships of the period.
Yamato, the heaviest and most heavily armed battleship in history, was
launched in 1941.
[93]
The second half of World War II saw the last battleship duels. In the
Battle of Guadalcanal on 15 November 1942, the U.S. battleships
USS South Dakota and Washington fought and destroyed the Japanese
battleship Kirishima, but only after South Dakota had sustained heavy
damage. In the Battle of Leyte Gulf on 25 October 1944 six battleships,
led by Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf of the U.S. 7th Fleet, red upon
and claimed credit for sinking Vice Admiral Shoji Nishimura's
battleships Yamashiro and Fus! during the Battle of Surigao Strait; in fact, both battleships were fatally crippled
by destroyer attacks before being brought under re by Oldendorf's battleships, and probably only Yamashiro
was the target of their re.
Nevertheless, the Battle off Samar on 25 October 1944 during the Battle of Leyte Gulf showed battleships could
still be useful. Only the indecision of Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita and the ght by American destroyers and
destroyer escorts saved the American escort carriers of "Taffy 3" from destruction by the gunre of Yamato,
Kong!, Haruna, and Nagato and their cruiser escort. Miraculously for the Americans, only one escort carrier,
two destroyers, and one destroyer escort were lost in this action.
Ultimately, the maturity of air power spelled doom for the battleship. Battleships in the Pacic ended up
primarily performing shore bombardment and anti-aircraft defense for the carriers. Yamato and Musashi were
sunk by air attacks long before coming in gun range of the American eet.
[94]
As a result of the changing
technology, plans for even larger battleships, such as the Japanese Super Yamato-class battleships, were
cancelled.
Aircraft carriers
In the 1920s, the Kaga (originally laid down as a battleship) and a
similar ship, the Akagi (originally laid down as a battlecruiser) were
converted to aircraft carriers to satisfy the terms of the Washington
Naval Treaty.
[95]
From 1935-1938, Akagi and Kaga received extensive
rebuilds to improve their aircraft handling capacity.
[95]
Japan put particular emphasis on aircraft carriers. The Imperial Japanese
Navy started the Pacic War with 10 aircraft carriers,
[96]
the largest and
most modern carrier eet in the world at that time. There were seven American aircraft carriers at the beginning
of hostilities, only three operating in the Pacic; and eight British aircraft carriers, of which a single one
operated in the Indian Ocean. The IJN's two Sh!kaku-class carriers were superior to any carrier in the world,
until the wartime appearance of the American Essex class.
[97]
A large number of these Japanese carriers were of
small size, however, in accordance with the limitations placed upon the Navy by the London and Washington
Naval Conferences.
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Planes from the Japanese aircraft
carrier Sh!kaku preparing the attack
on Pearl Harbor.
Following the Battle of Midway, in which four Japanese eet carriers were sunk, the IJN suddenly found itself
short of eet carriers (as well as trained aircrews), resulting in an ambitious set of projects to convert
commercial and military vessels into escort carriers, such as the Hiy!. Another conversion project, Shinano, was
based on an incomplete Yamato-class super battleship and became the largest-displacement carrier of World War
II. The IJN also attempted to build a number of eet carriers, though most of these projects were not completed
by the end of the war. One exception being the Taih!, which was the only Japanese carrier with an armored
ight deck and rst to incorporate a closed hurricane bow. All three mid-war designs were sunk in 1944, with
Shinano and Taih! being sunk by U.S. submarines, and Hiy! by air attacks.
Naval aviation
Main article: Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
Japan began the war with a highly competent naval air force designed
around some of the best airplanes in the world: the A6M Zero was
considered the best carrier aircraft of the beginning of the war, the
Mitsubishi G3M bomber was remarkable for its range and speed, and the
Kawanishi H8K was the world's best ying boat.
[98]
The Japanese pilot
corps at the beginning of the war were of high caliber as compared to
their contemporaries around the world due to intense training and
frontline experience in the Sino-Japanese War.
[99]
The Navy also had a
competent tactical bombing force based around the Mitsubishi G3M and
G4M bombers, which astonished the world by being the rst planes to
sink enemy capital ships underway, claiming battleship Prince of Wales
and the battlecruiser Repulse.
As the war progressed, the Allies found weaknesses in Japanese naval aviation. Though most Japanese aircraft
were characterized by great operating ranges, they had very little in the way of defensive armament and
armor.
[100]
As a result, the more numerous, heavily armed and armored American aircraft were able to develop
techniques that nullied the advantages of the Japanese aircraft. Although there were delays in engine
development,
[101]
several new competitive designs were developed during the war, but industrial weaknesses,
lack of raw materials and disorganization due to Allied bombing raids hampered their mass-production.
Furthermore, the IJN did not have an efcient process for rapid training of aviators, as two years of training
were usually considered necessary for a carrier yer. Therefore, they were not able to effectively replace
seasoned pilots lost through combat attrition following their initial successes in the Pacic campaign.
[100]
The
inexperience of IJN pilots who were trained in the later part of the war was especially evident during the Battle
of the Philippine Sea, when their aircraft were shot down in droves by the American naval pilots in what the
Americans later called the "Great Marianas Turkey Shoot". Following the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the Japanese
Navy increasingly opted towards deploying aircraft in the kamikaze role.
Towards the end of the conict, several competitive plane designs were developed, such as the 1943 Shiden, but
such planes were produced too late and in insufcient numbers (415 units for the Shiden) to affect the outcome
of the war.
[102]
Radical new plane designs were also developed, such as the canard design Shinden, and
especially jet-powered aircraft such as the Nakajima Kikka and the rocket-propelled Mitsubishi J8M. These jet
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Japan's rst jet-powered aircraft, the
Imperial Japanese Navy's Nakajima
J9Y Kikka (1945).
An Imperial Japanese Navy's I-400-
class submarine, the largest submarine
type of World War II.
Sinking of merchant shipping,
during World War II.
[107]
Submarines
(number)
Ships sunk
(number)
Tonnage sunk
(tons)
Germany 1,000 2,000 14.5 million
United States 1,079 4.65 million
Britain 493 1.5 million
Japan 184 170 1 million
designs were partially based on technology received from Nazi Germany, usually in the form of a few drawings
only, Kikka being based on the Messerschmitt Me 262 and the J8M on the Messerschmitt Me 163), so Japanese
manufacturers had to play a key role in the nal engineering.
[103]
These developments also happened too late in
the conict to have any inuence on the outcome. The Kikka only ew twice before the end of the war.
[91]
Submarines
Main article: Imperial Japanese Navy submarines
Japan had by far the most varied eet of submarines of World War II,
including manned torpedoes (Kaiten), midget submarines (Ko-hyoteki,
Kairyu), medium-range submarines, purpose-built supply submarines
(many for use by the Army), long-range eet submarines (many of
which carried an aircraft), submarines with the highest submerged
speeds of the conict (Senkou I-201), and submarines that could carry
multiple bombers (World War II's largest submarine, the Sentoku I-400).
These submarines were also equipped with the most advanced torpedo
of the conict, the Type 95 torpedo, a 533 mm (21 in) version of the
famous 610 mm (24 in) Type 93.
[104]
A plane from one such long-range eet submarine, I-25, conducted the
only aerial bombing attack on the continental United States when
Warrant Flying Ofcer Nobuo Fujita attempted to start massive forest
res in the Pacic Northwest outside the town of Brookings, Oregon on
September 9, 1942.
[105]
Other submarines undertook trans-oceanic
missions to German-occupied Europe, such as I-30, I-8, I-34, I-29 and I-
52, in one case ying a Japanese seaplane over France in a propaganda
coup.
[106]
In May 1942, Type A midget submarines were used in the attack on Sydney Harbour and the Battle
of Madagascar.
Overall however, Japanese submarines were relatively
unsuccessful.
[107]
They were often used in offensive roles against
warships (per Mahanian doctrine), which were fast,
maneuverable and well-defended compared to merchant ships. In
1942, Japanese submarines managed to sink two eet carriers
(Yorktown and Wasp), one cruiser, and a few destroyers and other
warships, and damage several others (aircraft carrier
Saratoga).
[107]
They were not able to sustain these results
afterwards, as Allied eets were reinforced and started using
better anti-submarine tactics. By the end of the war, submarines were instead often used to transport supplies to
island garrisons. During the war, Japan managed to sink about 1 million tons of merchant shipping (170 ships)
with her 184 submarines, compared to 1.5 million tons for Britain (493 ships), 4.65 million tons for the US
(1079 ships)
[108]
and 14.5 million tons for Germany (2,000 ships) with her 1,000 U-Boats.
[107]
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A kamikaze Zero, about to hit the
USS Missouri 11 April 1945.
Early models were not very maneuverable under water, could not dive very deep, and lacked radar. Later in the
war, units tted with radar were in some instances sunk due to the ability of US radar sets to detect their
emissions. For example, USS Batsh sank three such in the span of four days. After the end of the conict,
several of Japan's most innovative and advanced submarines were sent to Hawaii for inspection in "Operation
Road's End" (I-400, I-401, I-201 and I-203) before being scuttled by the U.S. Navy in 1946 when the Soviets
demanded access to the submarines as well.
[105]
Special Attack Units
Main article: Japanese Special Attack Units
At the end of World War II, numerous Special Attack Units (Japanese:
||, tokubetsu k!geki tai, also abbreviated to ||, tokk!tai)
were developed for suicide missions, in a desperate move to compensate
for the annihilation of the main eet.
[92]
These units included Kamikaze
("Divine Wind") bombers,
[92]
Shinyo ("Sea Quake") suicide boats,
[109]
Kairyu ("Sea Dragon") suicide midget submarines,
[110]
Kaiten ("Turn of
Heaven") suicide torpedoes,
[109]
and Fukuryu ("Crouching Dragon")
suicide scuba divers who would swim under boats and use explosives
mounted on bamboo poles to destroy both the boat and themselves.
[109]
Kamikaze planes were particularly effective during the defense of
Okinawa, in which about 2,000 planes were sent to sink 34 warships and damage around 364.
[111]
A considerable number of Special Attack Units were built and stored in coastal hideouts for the desperate
defense of the Home islands, with the potential to destroy or damage thousands of enemy warships.
[109]
Imperial Japanese Navy Land Forces
Imperial Japanese Navy Land Forces of World War II originated with the Special Naval Landing Forces, and
eventually consisted of the following:
Special Naval Landing Force or Rikusentai or kaigun rikusentai or Tokubetsu Rikusentai: the Japanese
Marines
The Base Force or Tokubetsu Konkyochitai provided services, primarily security, to naval facilities
Defence units or Bobitai or Boei-han: detachments of 200 to 400 men.
Guard forces or Keibitai: detachments of 200500 men who provide security to Imperial Japanese Navy
facilities
Pioneers or Setsueitai built naval facilities, including airstrips, on remote islands.
Naval Civil Engineering and Construction Units, or Kaigun Kenchiku Shisetsu Butai
The Naval Communications Units or Tsushintai of 6001,000 men to provide basic naval
communications and also handled encryption and decryption.
The Tokkeitai Navy military police units were part of the naval intelligence armed branch, with military
police regular functions in naval installations and occupied territories; they also worked with the Imperial
Japanese Army's Kempeitai military police, the Keishicho civil police and Tokko secret units in security
and intelligence services.
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Japanese Sailors beside the Japan
Maritime Self-Defense Force
(JMSDF) training vessel JDS
Kashima, in Pearl Harbor, May 4,
2004.
Bases and facilities
Main article: Imperial Japanese Navy bases and facilities
Self-Defense Forces
Main article: Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force
Following Japan's surrender to the Allies at the conclusion of World War
II and Japan's subsequent occupation, Japan's entire imperial military
was dissolved in the new 1947 constitution which states, "The Japanese
people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the
threat or use of force as a means of settling international disputes."
Japan's current navy falls under the umbrella of the Japan Self-Defense
Forces (JSDF) as the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF).
See also
Ministry of the Military (Ritsury!)
Kaientai
Tomogashima
Combined Fleet
Carrier Striking Task Force
Naval history of Japan
Imperial Japanese Navy Aviation Bureau
Japanese Special Naval Landing Forces
Imperial Japanese Navy Land Forces
Imperial Japanese Navy Armor Units
Tokkeitai - Navy Military Police
Imperial Japanese Navy fuel
List of Japanese Navy ships and war vessels in World War II
"Strike South" Doctrine
Fleet Faction Navy political group
Treaty Faction Navy political group
May 15 Incident coup d'tat with Navy support
Imperial Way Faction
Japanese nationalism
Imperial Rescript to Soldiers and Sailors
Imperial Japanese Naval Academy
Admiral of the Fleet (Japan)
Marshal (Japan)
Notes
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Page 20 of 25 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy
1. ^ Library of Congress Country Studies, Japan> National Security> Self-Defense Forces> Early Development
(http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/jptoc.html)
2. ^ Evans, Kaigun
3. ^ Early Samurai: 200-1500 AD by Anthony J. Bryant, Angus McBride p.7 (http://books.google.com/books?
id=FxTNBAAJaqEC&pg=PA7)
4. ^
a

b
The nature and origins of Japanese imperialism by Donald Calman p.29ff [1] (http://books.google.com/books?
id=6XSV0WDBC68C&pg=PA29)
5. ^ THE FIRST IRONCLADS In Japanese: [2] (http://s-mizoe.hp.infoseek.co.jp/m160.html). Also in English: [3]
(http://www.samurai-archives.com/mth.html): "Iron clad ships, however, were not new to Japan and Hideyoshi; Oda
Nobunaga, in fact, had many iron clad ships in his eet." (referring to the anteriority of Japanese ironclads (1578) to the
Korean Turtle ships (1592)). In Western sources, Japanese ironclads are described in CR Boxer "The Christian Century
in Japan 15491650", p122, quoting the account of the Italian Jesuit Organtino visiting Japan in 1578. Nobunaga's
ironclad eet is also described in "A History of Japan, 13341615", Georges Samson, p309 ISBN 0-8047-0525-9.
Admiral Yi Sun-sin invented Korea's "ironclad Turtle ships", rst documented in 1592. Incidentally, Korea's iron plates
only covered the roof (to prevent intrusion), and not the sides of their ships. The rst Western ironclads date to 1859 with
the French Gloire ("Steam, Steel and Shellre").
6. ^ Japan encyclopedia by Louis Frdric p.293 (http://books.google.com/books?id=p2QnPijAEmEC&pg=PA293)
7. ^ Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III by Donald F. Lach, Edwin J. Van Kley p.29 [4]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=PjVKjJ-WgOYC&pg=PA29)
8. ^ The military revolution: military innovation and the rise of the West, 1500-1800 by Geoffrey Parker p.110 [5]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=cIFiNRH3oWsC&pg=PA110)
9. ^ A history of Japan by R. H. P. Mason, J. G. Caiger p.205 (http://books.google.com/books?
id=RZ5w7Qy0W8EC&pg=PA205)
10. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 4.
11. ^
a

b

c

d

e

f
Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 5.
12. ^ French policy towards the Bakufu and Meiji Japan 1854-95 by Richard Sims p.246 [6]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=NSCOMbxs2ssC&pg=PA246)
13. ^
a

b

c
Source (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/ijn-rise.htm)
14. ^ Described in "Soie et Lumiere", in a parallel to the French Military Mission to Japan (1867-1868) for the Army.
15. ^
a

b

c
Schencking 2005, p. 15.
16. ^
a

b
Schencking 2005, p. 16.
17. ^ Jentschura p. 113
18. ^ Nan'Yo: The Rise and Fall of the Japanese in Micronesia, 1885-1945 by Mark R. Peattie p.5 [7]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=DHxdSkoo4AMC&pg=PA5)
19. ^ Alternative narratives in modern Japanese history by M. William Steele p.82 [8] (http://books.google.com/books?
id=xs2xFd2bC6EC&pg=PA82)
20. ^ Naval warfare, 1815-1914 Lawrence Sondhaus p.100 (http://books.google.com/books?
id=AefBSRjciQQC&pg=PA100)
21. ^ Gold braid and foreign relations by David Foster Long p.373 (http://books.google.com/books?
id=yv2sdjw4SIYC&pg=PA373)
22. ^ Register of ships of the U.S. Navy, 1775-1990: major combatants by Karl Jack Bauer, Stephen S. Roberts p.47 [9]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=nLgA6pC_-uwC&pg=PA47)
23. ^ Schencking 2005, p. 13.
24. ^ "Rich nation, strong Army Richard J. Samuels p.84 (http://books.google.com/books?id=L8v4ijVw10YC&pg=PA84)
25. ^ Military communications: from ancient times to the 21st century by Christopher H. Sterling p.254 [10]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=RBC2nY1rp5MC&pg=PA254)
26. ^
a

b

c

d
Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 7.
27. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 9.
28. ^
a

b

c
"Togo Heihachiro", II
^
a

b
Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 12.
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29. ^
a

b
Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 12.
30. ^ "Togo Heiachiro", I7
31. ^
a

b
Meiji Japan: Political, Economic and Social History 1868-1912 Peter F. Kornicki p.191 [11]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=gxItA6-7RwIC&pg=PA191)
32. ^ The land of scholars: two thousand years of Korean Confucianism by Jae-un Kang, Jae-eun Kang p.450ff [12]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=XB4UYXNQK1wC&pg=PA450)
33. ^ Schencking 2005, p. 19.
34. ^ Naval warfare, 1815-1914 by Lawrence Sondhaus p.133 (http://books.google.com/books?
id=AefBSRjciQQC&pg=PA133)
35. ^
a

b

c

d

e

f

g

h

i

j
Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 14.
36. ^
a

b

c

d
French policy towards the Bakufu and Meiji Japan 1854-95 by Richard Sims p.250ff [13]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=NSCOMbxs2ssC&pg=PA250)
37. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 19.
38. ^ Rulers, guns, and money: the global arms trade in the age of imperialism by Jonathan A. Grant p.137 [14]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=l03qgaNVU3oC&pg=PA137)
39. ^ Howe, p.281
40. ^ French policy towards the Bakufu and Meiji Japan 1854-95 by Richard Sims p.354 [15]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=NSCOMbxs2ssC&pg=PA354)
41. ^ Chiyoda (II): First Armoured Cruiser of the Imperial Japanese Navy, Kathrin Milanovich, Warship 2006, Conway
Maritime Press, 2006, ISBN 9781844860302
42. ^
a

b
The Cambridge history of China: Late Ch'ing 1800-1911, Part 2 by John King Fairbank, Denis Crispin Twitchett,
Kwang-Ching Liu p.269ff [16] (http://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&pg=PA269)
43. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 41.
44. ^ Video footage of the Sino-Japanese war: Video (external link) (http://www2.open.ed.jp/real/15655/01.mp2).
45. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 48.
46. ^
a

b
The Cambridge history of China: Late Ch'ing 1800-1911, Part 2 by John King Fairbank, Denis Crispin Twitchett,
Kwang-Ching Liu p.107 [17] (http://books.google.com/books?id=pEfWaxPhdnIC&pg=PA107)
47. ^ Ground warfare: an international encyclopedia by Stanley Sandler p.117 [18] (http://books.google.com/books?
id=L_xxOM85bD8C&pg=PA117)
48. ^ The arc of Japan's economic development by Arthur J. Alexander p.44 [19] (http://books.google.com/books?
id=KptffphJHPIC&pg=PT56)
49. ^ Schencking 2005, p. 87.
50. ^ Schencking 2005, p. 85.
51. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 53.
52. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 52.
53. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, pp. 6061.
54. ^ Corbett Maritime Operations in the Russo-Japanese War, 2:333
55. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 116.
56. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 177.
57. ^ Howe, p.284
58. ^ Howe, p.268
59. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, pp. 150-1.
60. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 84.
61. ^
a

b
Jentschura p. 23
62. ^ Jane's Battleships of the 20th Century, p.68
63. ^ Jentschura p. 22
64. ^ Donko, Wilhelm M.: sterreichs Kriegsmarine in Fernost: Alle Fahrten von Schiffen der k.(u.)k. Kriegsmarine nach
Ostasien, Australien und Ozeanien von 1820 bis 1914. epubli, Berlin, 2013 - Page 4, 156-162, 427)
12/6/13, 8:45 PM Imperial Japanese Navy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Page 22 of 25 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy
65. ^ Wakamiya is "credited with conducting the rst successful carrier air raid in history"Source:GlobalSecurity.org
(http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/wakamiya-av.htm) Austrian SMS Radetzky launched sea plane raids
a year earlier
66. ^ "Sabre et pinceau", Christian Polak, p92
67. ^ IJN Wakamiya Aircraft Carrier (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/wakamiya-av.htm)
68. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 168.
69. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 161.
70. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 169.
71. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 212 & 215.
72. ^ Lyon World War II warships p34
73. ^ Peattie & Evans, Kaigun.
74. ^ Miller, Edward S. War Plan Orange. Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute Press, 1991.
75. ^ Mahan, Alfred T. Inuence of Seapower on History, 16601783 (Boston: Little, Brown, n.d.).
76. ^ Peattie and Evans, Kaigun
77. ^ Miller, op. cit. The United States would be able to enforce a 60% ratio thanks to reading signals from the Japanese
government to her negotiators, thanks to having broken the Japanese diplomatic code. Yardly, American Black Chamber.
78. ^ Peattie & Evans, op. cit., and Willmott, H. P.,The Barrier and the Javelin. Annapolis, MD: United States Naval
Institute Press, 1983.
79. ^ "The Imperial Japanese Navy was a pioneer in naval aviation, having commissioned the world's rst built-from-the-
keel-up carrier, the H!sh!." Source (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/ijn.htm).
80. ^ The British had used 18-inch guns during the First World War on the large "light" cruiser HMS Furious, converted to
an aircraft carrier during the 1920s, and also two of the eight monitors of the Lord Clive class, namely Lord Clive and
General Wolfe.
81. ^ Fitzsimons, Bernard, ed. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of 20th Century Weapons and Warfare (London: Phoebus,
1978), Volum3 10, p.1041, "Fubuki".
82. ^ Westwood, Fighting Ships
83. ^ globalsecurity.org (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/japan/ijn-rise.htm)
84. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 181 & 301.
85. ^ Lyon World War II warships p.35
86. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 355 & 367.
87. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 205 & 370.
88. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 357.
89. ^ Howe, p286
90. ^ Parillo, Mark. Japanese Merchant Marine in World War II. Annapolis, MD: United States Naval Institute Press, 1993.
91. ^
a

b
The origins of Japanese trade supremacy: development and technology in Asia by Christopher Howe p.313ff [20]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=XkCRcv0iXn0C&pg=PA313)
92. ^
a

b

c
The Divine Wind: Japan's Kamikaze Force in World War II Rikihei Inoguchi, Tadashi Nakajima, Roger Pineau
p.150 [21] (http://books.google.com/books?id=5ZUwqtaN3IYC&pg=PA150)
93. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 295 & 370.
94. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, pp. 379-380.
95. ^
a

b
Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 315.
96. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 323.
97. ^ "In many ways the Japanese were in the forefront of carrier design, and in 1941, the two Sh!kakus the culmination
of prewar Japanese design were superior to any carrier in the world then in commission" Evans, Kaigun p323
98. ^ "For speed and maneuverability, for example the Zero was matchless; for range and speed few bombers surpassed the
Mitsubishi G3M, and in the Kawanishi H8K, the Japanese navy had the world's best ying boat" Evans, Kaigun, p312
99. ^ "by 1941, by training and experience, Japan's naval aviators were undoubtedly the best among the world's three carrier
forces" Evans, Kaigun, p325
100. ^
a

b
Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 314.
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101. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 313.
102. ^ The Illustrated Directory of Fighters Mike Spick p.219 (http://books.google.com/books?
id=p40nOZgeh84C&pg=PA219)
103. ^ Japan and Germany in the modern world by Bernd Martin p.280 (http://books.google.com/books?
id=7_jBOpYASMQC&pg=PA280)
104. ^ Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 266.
105. ^
a

b
Cold War submarines: the design and construction of U.S. and Soviet submarines by Norman Polmar, Kenneth J.
Moore p.246-247 [22] (http://books.google.com/books?id=cP4KPxaB8DQC&pg=PA246)
106. ^ Japanese submarines, p70
107. ^
a

b

c

d
Evans & Peattie 1997, p. 497.
108. ^ Tonnage Sunk, Pacic 1941 - 1945 (http://www.valoratsea.com/month1.htm)
109. ^
a

b

c

d
Making sense of suicide missions Diego Gambetta p.7ff (http://books.google.com/books?id=eciSejVv-
YoC&pg=PA7)
110. ^ The Japanese submarine force and World War II Carl Boyd, Akihiko Yoshida p.34 [23]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=UFJdpxXkIBoC&pg=PA34)
111. ^ The Naval Institute historical atlas of the U.S. Navy Craig L. Symonds, William J. Clipson p.186 [24]
(http://books.google.com/books?id=q_HIcc8n3K4C&pg=PA186)
References
Dull, Paul S. (1978) A Battle History of The Imperial Japanese Navy ISBN 0-85059-295-X
Boyd, Carl; Akihiko Yoshida (1995). The Japanese Submarine Force and World War II. Annapolis,
Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1-55750-015-0.
Evans, David C; Peattie, Mark R (1997). Kaigun: strategy, tactics, and technology in the Imperial
Japanese Navy, 18871941. Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-87021-192-7.
Howe, Christopher (1996) The origins of Japanese Trade Supremacy, Development and technology in
Asia from 1540 to the Pacic War, The University of Chicago Press ISBN 0-226-35485-7
Ireland, Bernard (1996) Jane's Battleships of the 20th Century ISBN 0-00-470997-7
Lyon, D.J. (1976) World War II warships, Excalibur Books ISBN 0-85613-220-9
Jentschura, Hansgeorg; Dieter Jung & Peter Mickel (1977). Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy.
Annapolis, Maryland: United States Naval Institute. ISBN 0-87021-893-X.
Schencking, J. Charles (2005). Making Waves: Politics, Propaganda, And The Emergence Of The
Imperial Japanese Navy, 1868-1922. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-4977-9.
Further reading
Boxer, C.R. (1993) "The Christian Century in Japan 15491650", ISBN 1-85754-035-2
D'Albas, Andrieu (1965). Death of a Navy: Japanese Naval Action in World War II. Devin-Adair Pub.
ISBN 0-8159-5302-X.
Delorme, Pierre, Les Grandes Batailles de l'Histoire, Port-Arthur 1904, Socomer Editions (French)
Gardiner, Robert (editor) (2001) Steam, Steel and Shellre, The Steam Warship 18151905, ISBN 0-
7858-1413-2
Hara, Tameichi (1961). Japanese Destroyer Captain. New York & Toronto: Ballantine Books. ISBN 0-
345-27894-1.
Hashimoto, Mochitsura (1954, reprinted 2010). Sunk: The Story of the Japanese Submarine Fleet, 1941-
1945. New York: Henry Holt; reprint: Progressive Press. ISBN 1-61577-581-1.
12/6/13, 8:45 PM Imperial Japanese Navy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Page 24 of 25 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy
Lacroix, Eric; Linton Wells (1997). Japanese Cruisers of the Pacic War. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 0-
87021-311-3.
Nagazumi, Y!ko (_{_) Red Seal Ships (_J), ISBN 4-642-06659-4 (Japanese)
Polak, Christian. (2001). Soie et lumires: L'ge d'or des changes franco-japonais (des origines aux
annes 1950). Tokyo: Chambre de Commerce et d'Industrie Franaise du Japon, Hachette Fujin Gah!sha
(__).
Polak, Christian. (2002). g_: )_|_|_100_j ()|-1950) Kinu to
hikari!: shirarezaru Nichi-Futsu k!ry" 100-nen no rekishi (Edo jidai-1950-nendai). Tokyo: Ashetto Fujin
Gah!sha, 2002. 10-ISBN 4-573-06210-6; 13-ISBN 978-4-573-06210-8; OCLC 50875162
(http://www.worldcat.org/oclc/50875162)
Seki, Eiji. (2006). Mrs. Ferguson's Tea-Set, Japan and the Second World War: The Global Consequences
Following Germany's Sinking of the SS Automedon in 1940. (http://books.google.com/books?
id=u5KgAAAACAAJ&dq=Mrs.+Ferguson%27s+Tea-
set,+Japan,+and+the+Second+World+War&client=refox-a) London: Global Oriental. 10-ISBN 1-
905246-28-5; 13- ISBN 978-1-905246-28-1 (cloth) [reprinted by University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu,
2007 -- previously announced as Sinking of the SS Automedon and the Role of the Japanese Navy: A New
Interpretation (http://www.uhpress.hawaii.edu/cart/shopcore/?
db_name=uhpress&page=shop/ypage&product_id=4475&PHPSESSID=75b7d372eb6f6c4d747ec0a150
c42ead).]
T!g! Shrine and T!g! Association (j__), Togo Heihachiro in images, illustrated Meiji
Navy (][.___|q), (Japanese)
Japanese submarines _, Jinbutsu publishing (__) (Japanese)
External links
Axis History Factbook Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) (http://www.axishistory.com/index.php?id=912)
Nobunaga's ironclad navy (http://www2.memenet.or.jp/kinugawa/ship/2300.htm)
Hiroshi Nishida's IJN site (http://homepage2.nifty.com/nishidah/e/index.htm)
Imperial Japanese Navy Page (http://www.combinedeet.com/)
Imperial Japanese Navy Awards of the Golden Kite in World War 2, a Note (http://www.naval-
history.net/WW2MedalsJap-GoldenKite.htm)
Imperial Japanese Navy in World War 1, 1914-18 including warship losses
(http://www.worldwar1atsea.net/WW1NavyJapanese.htm)
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