title: Selected Works in Applied Mechanics and Mathematics

author: Reissner, Eric.

publisher: Jones & Bartlett Publishers, Inc.
isbn10 | asin: 0867209682
print isbn13: 9780867209686
ebook isbn13: 9780585363530
language: English
subject Mechanics, Applied--Mathematics.
publication date: 1996
lcc: TA350.R45 1996eb
ddc: 624.1/7
subject: Mechanics, Applied--Mathematics.
Pageiii
Selected Works in Applied Mechanics and Mathematics
Eric Reissner
Pageiv
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Pagev
CREDITS
The following publishers graciously gave permission to reprint the articles listed.
AIAA: J. Aeron. Sc. 4, 1937, p. 539; 8 1941, p. 8; 16 1949, p. 516; 18, 1951, p. 579
ASME: Proc. 5th Intern. Congr. Appl. Mech. 1938, p. 134, p. 542; Proc. 1st Nat'l Congr. Appl. Mech. 1952, p. 584; Journal of Applied Mech. 12,
1945, p. 155; 40, 1973, p. 75; 41, 1974, p. 343; 47, 1980, p. 189, p. 375, p. 189; 59, 1992, p. 211
Birkhauser: J. Applied Mathematics and Physics 17, 1966, p. 298; 23, 1972, p. 58; 30, 1979, p. 96; 32, 1981, p. 105; 33, 1982, p. 389; 34,
1983, p. 114; 35, p. 194
Elsevier Science, Ltd.: Computer Methods in Appl. Mechs. & Eng. 85, 1991, p. 200; Pergamon Press, Inc.: Journal of Mechs. and Phys. of Solids 6,
1957, p. 246; Int. J. of Solids Struct., 1, 1965, p. 450; 11, p. 82; 13, p. 366; Int. J. Non-Linear Mechs. 17, 1982; Int. J. of Solid Struct. 21, 1983; p.
121, p. 392; 1995, p. 216.
Interscience: Commun. Pure & Applied Math., 7, 1959, p. 264.
Macmillan Publishing Co.: Prog. Appl. Mech.; Prager Anniv. Vol. , 1963, p. 275.
MIT Press: Journal of Math and Physics 23, 1944, p. 147; 25, 1946, p. 32; 27, 1948, p. 435; 29, 1950, p. 437; 37, 1958, p. 264; Studies Appl.
Math. 49, 1970, p. 176; 52, 1973, p. 66.
Oxford University Press: Qu. J. Mech. & Appl. Math., 21, 1968, p. 300
Prentice Hall: Thin-Shell Structures: Theory, Experiment, and Design, Fung/Sechler eds., 1974, p. 353.
The Quarterly of Applied Mathematics: Qu. Appl. Math. 4, 1946, p. 21; 10, 1953, p. 173; 20, 1962, p. 43.
Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics: J. Soc. Indust. Appl. Math. 4, 1956, p. 237; 13, 1965, p. 281.
Springer Verlag: Math Anal. 111, 1935, p. 131; Ingenieur Archiv. 7, 1936, p. 491; 40, 1971, p. 321; Mechanics of Generalized Continua, IUTAM
Symp. 1967, p. 453; Acta Mechanica 56, 1985, p. 463; Proc. Intern. Conf. Comp. Mech. 1986, p. 397; 1987, p. 407; Computational Mathematics
1, 1986; 5 1989, p. 478.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Communications on Pure and Applied Mathematics, Vol. 7, 1959, p. 264.
Pagevii
CONTENTS
Preface xi
A Biographical Sketch xiii
Beams 1
ber Die Berechnung Von Plattenbalken 3
Least Work Solutions of Shear Lag Problems 8
Analysis of Shear Lag in Box Beams by the Principle of MinimumPotential Energy 21
Note on the Shear Stresses in a Bent Cantilever Beamof Rectangular Cross Section 32
On Finite Pure Bending of Cylindrical Tubes 35
Finite Pure Bending of Circular Cylindrical Tubes 43
Considerations on the Centres of Shear and of Twist in the Theory of Beams 54
On One-Dimensional Finite-Strain BeamTheory: The Plane Problem 58
On One-Dimensional Large-Displacement Finite-Strain BeamTheory 66
Upper and Lower Bounds for Deflections of Laminated Cantilever Beams Including the
Effect of Transverse Shear Deformation
75
Improved Upper and Lower Bounds for Deflections of Orthotropic Cantilever Beams 82
Note on a Problemof BeamBuckling 93
On Lateral Buckling of End-Loaded Cantilever Beams 96
On Finite Deformations of Space-Curved Beams 105
On Axial and Lateral Buckling of End-Loaded Anisotropic Cantilever Beams 114
A Variational Analysis of Small Finite Deformations of Pretwisted Elastic Beams 121
Plates 129
ber Die Biegung Der Kreisplatte Mit Exzentrischer Einzellast 131
On Tension Field Theory 134
On the Calculation of Three-Dimensional Corrections for the Two-Dimensional Theory of
Plane Stress
143
On the Theory of Bending of Elastic Plates 147
Pageviii
The Effect of Transverse-Shear Deformation on the Bending of Elastic Plates 155
Pure Bending and Twisting of Thin Skewed Plates 173
On Postbuckling Behavior and Imperfection Sensitivity of Thin Elastic Plates on a Non-
Linear Elastic Foundation
176
On the Analysis of First- and Second-Order Shear Deformation Effects for Isotropic Elastic
Plates
189
A Tenth-Order Theory of Stretching of Transversely Isotropic Sheets 194
On Asymptotic Expansions for the Sixth-Order Linear Theory Problemof Transverse
Bending of Orthotropic Elastic Plates
200
On Finite Twisting and Bending of Nonhomogeneous Anisotropic Elastic Plates 211
A Note on the Shear Center Problemfor Shear-Deformable Plates 216
Shells 221
On the Theory of Thin Elastic Shells 225
A Note on Membrane and Bending Stresses in Spherical Shells 237
On Stresses and Deformations of Ellipsoidal Shells Subject to Internal Pressure 246
On the Foundations of the Theory of Thin Elastic Shells 253
The Edge Effect in Symmetric Bending of Shallow Shells of Revolution 264
On the Equations for Finite Symmetrical Deflections of Thin Shells of Revolution 275
Rotating Shallow Elastic Shells of Revolution 281
A Note on Stress Strain Relations of the Linear Theory of Shells 298
Small Strain Large Deformation Shell Theory 304
Finite Inextensional Pure Bending and Twisting of Thin Shells of Revolution 308
On Consistent First Approximations in the General Linear Theory of Thin Elastic Shells 321
On Pure Bending and Stretching of Orthotropic Laminated Cylindrical Shells 343
Linear and Nonlinear Theory of Shells 353
On Small Bending and Stretching of Sandwich-Type Shells 366
On the Transverse Twisting of Shallow Spherical Ring Caps 375
On the Effect of a Small Circular Hole on States of UniformMembrane Shear in Spherical
Shells
385
A Note on the Linear Theory of Shallow Shear-Deformable Shells 389
A Note on Two-Dimensional Finite-Deformation Theories of Shells 392
Some Problems of Shearing and Twisting of Shallow Spherical Shells 397
On a Certain Mixed Variational Theoremand on Laminated Elastic Shell Theory 407
On Finite Axi-Symmetrical Deformations of Thin Elastic Shells of Revolution 416
Pageix
Variational Principles 433
Note on the Method of Complementary Energy 435
On a Variational Theoremin Elasticity 437
On a Variational Theoremfor Finite Elastic Deformations 443
A Note on Variational Principles in Elasticity 450
A Note on Gnther's Analysis of Couple Stress 453
On a Certain Mixed Variational Theoremand a Proposed Application 457
On a Variational Principle for Elastic Displacements and Pressure 460
On Mixed Variational Formulations in Finite Elasticity 463
Some Aspects of the Variational Principles Problemin Elasticity 470
On the Formulation of Variational Theorems Involving Volume Constraints 478
Vibrations 489
Stationre, Axialsymmetrische, Durch Eine Schttelnde Masse Erregte Schwingungen Eines
Homogenen Elastischen Halbraumes
491
Forced Torsional Oscillations of an Elastic Half-Space I 511
Complementary Energy Procedure for Flutter Calculations 516
Reihenentwicklung Eines Integrals Aus Der Theorie Der Elastischen Schwingungen 518
On Axi-Symmetrical Vibrations of Shallow Spherical Shells 523
Aerodynamics 537
A Contribution to the Theory of Turbulence 539
Note on the Statistical Theory of Turbulence 542
On Compressibility Corrections for Subsonic Flow over Bodies of Revolution 547
Note on the Theory of Lifting Surfaces 551
Boundary Value Problems in Aerodynamics of Lifting Surfaces in Non-UniformMotion 558
Note on the Relation of Lifting-Line Theory to Lifting-Surface Theory 579
A Problemof the Theory of Oscillating Airfoils 584
Bibliography 589
Pagexi
PREFACE
It is a pleasure and an honor to write this brief preface to introduce our teacher, Professor Eric Reissner, some of whose works compose this volume. We hope to
shed some light on not only Eric Reissner, as a contributor to the fields of applied mathematics and mechanics, but also on himas a generous and caring individual.
As a biographical sketch written by himfollows this preface we will limit ourselves to some thoughts of ours having to do with his influence on us, with the recognition
which his work has received and with a brief personal assessment of what we believe to be the principal contributions of a man who is both Professor Emeritus of
Applied Mathematics of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Professor Emeritus of Applied Mechanics of the University of California.
All four of us were privileged to be taught the Theory of Elasticity and Theories of Plates and Shells by Professor Reissner at M.I.T. His lectures were always clear,
incisive, and thorough, exposing both the subtlety of solid mechanics and the subtlety of his thinking. He demanded much of his students because he demanded so
much fromhimself. Yet, for us, on the other side of this keen professional was a generous and caring friend, colleague and mentor.
Fromthe recognition which Eric Reissner has received in appreciation of his work we would like to mention the following:
He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1950, and received the Clemens Herschel Award of the Boston Society of Civil
Engineers in 1955. He was a GuggenheimFellow during 1962. He received the von Karman Medal of the American Society of Civil Engineers in 1964, "for
noteworthy contributions to the theory of elasticity and theory of plates and shells, and for outstanding papers on those subjects." Also in 1964, he received an
Honorary Dr. Ing. degree fromthe University of Hannover, Germany, "in appreciation of his pathbreaking works in the field of elastomechanics."
Later, in 1973, he received the Timoshenko Medal fromthe American Society of Mechanical Engineers, "for distinguished research and exceptional teaching in solid
mechanics, especially in the theory of elastic plates." On the occasion of Reissner's receiving this award, Professor J. P. DenHartog, a former student of Timoshenko,
and a friend and colleague of Reissner at M.I.T. for more than thirty years, congratulated himfor having "surpassed the master in the value of his life's contributions."
Professor Reissner was elected a Member of the U.S. National Academy of Engineering in 1976. He became a Corresponding Member of the International
Academy of Astronautics in 1979, and a full Member in 1984. A symposiumin his honor was held on the occasion of his 65th birthday at the University of California
at San Diego, and a volume of "Mechanics Today" (Pergamon Press) appeared in 1980, containing the papers presented at this symposiumby his former students,
colleagues and friends, fromall over the world.
Pagexii
After his retirement in 1978 he received the Structures, Structural Dynamics, and Materials Award fromAIAA, in 1984, "in recognition of fundamental contributions
to the aerospace community as a teacher and researcher in applied mathematics and mechanics of aircraft structures, and for the establishment of the Reissner
variational principle," and a certificate of achievement fromthe Pressure Vessels and Piping Division of ASME, in 1987, "in testimony of his contributions to the
Division membership by his pioneering work in the theory of plates and shells." This was followed by the receipt of the ASME Medal in 1988, "for eminently
distinguished contributions to the practice of engineering through his research on plates and shells, structures, theory of elasticity, turbulence, aerodynamics, wing
theory and mathematics and for his stewardship of numerous doctoral candidates," and by an Honorary Membership in ASME in 1991 "for his profound and lasting
mark on international applied mechanics through over half a century of teaching and research and for wise counsel at the highest levels of ASME." In 1992, Eric
Reissner became the seventh Honorary Member in the 70 year history of the German Gesellschaft fr Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik ''in recognition of his
exceptional accomplishments in Applied Mathematics and Mechanics."
It would be presumptuous of us to embark on a thorough assessment of Professor Reissner's work in this preface. His awards, and the citations thereof, indicate the
specific seminal contributions that the community of mechanicians appreciates himfor. We can only cite, fromour perspectives, what we think are the contributions
over a span of sixty years that will secure his place in the history of 20th century applied mathematics and mechanics: (i) the two-field variational theoreminvolving
independent stress and displacement variations for linear as well as for finite elasticity; (ii) shear deformation plate theory, with resolution of the classical boundary
condition paradox of Kirchhoff; (iii) his contributions to the subject of the center of shear; (iv) his 1949 seminal contribution to the nonlinear theory of shells; (v) his
insights concerning the asymptotics of edge-zone and interior solution contributions for plate and shell boundary value problems; (vi) his 1965 contribution to
variational theorems in elasticity, with rotations as additional independent variables. Apart fromthese contributions in the mechanics of solids his creative spirit
touched on other topics as well. They included (i) statistical theory of turbulence; (ii) steady and unsteady aerodynamic lifting-surface theory; and (iii) analysis of finite
span effects for wing divergence and flutter speed computations.
This volume presents selected original research papers of Professor Eric Reissner in the various areas mentioned above. May it serve as a milestone and a beacon for
future generations.
SATYA N. ATLURI, GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, ATLANTA
THOMAS J. LARDNER, UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS, AMHERST
JAMES G. SIMMONDS, UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA, CHARLOTTESVILLE
FREDERIC Y-M. WAN, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, IRVINE
Pagexiii
A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
I was born January 5, 1913 in Aachen, Germany, the son of Hans Reissner, then Professor of Applied Mechanics and Founder of the Aerodynamics Institute at the
Aachen Technische Hochschule. That same year my father followed a call fromhis alma mater which meant that I grew up in Berlinduring the period 19131936.
My secondary school years were scholastically without distinction as I preferred to work on improving athletic skills. I was a member of field hockey teams, ran in
the Potsdam-Berlin relay races, and for a while was the best shot putter among the 15 year olds in the Berlin area. Mathematics had always been my easiest
academic subject. I became truly interested in it upon exposure to the elements of the calculus. The new concepts fascinated me and I remember supplementary
studies fromone of my father's old textbooks, authored by Serret and translated by Scheffers.
After graduation, in 1931, with average grades, except in mathematics, physics and physical education, I matriculated at the Technische Hochschule Berlin. I first
majored in Applied Physics, as this seemed the safest subject fromthe point of view of future employment prospects. However, I soon found out that I was not
particularly disposed towards doing some of the things which went with becoming an applied physicist. On the other hand, I had no trouble at all with mathematics
and mechanics courses, and so I moved fromApplied Physics to Applied Mathematics at the end of the second year.
In trying to combine ideas coming fromdifferent sources and courses I solved two problems which became published papers in 1934 and 1935 [1, 2]. My most
influential professors were Georg Hamel and my father who taught me Theoretical and Applied Mechanics. Aside fromthis I have good memories of learning about
complex variables fromErnst Jacobsthal, about differential equations fromRichard Fuchs and about theoretical physics fromRichard Becker. A one-semester leave
in 1934, to attend the Zrich Institute of Technology, provided a valuable opportunity to take courses fromEnst Meissner, Wolfgang Pauli and Georg Polya.
Graduating with honors in the Fall of 1935 I spent the following six months expanding my Dipl. Ing. Thesis into a Dr. Ing. Dissertation, on the subject of forced
vibrations of a mass supported over a finite contact area by an elastic halfspace, expanding on some classical work by Lamb on the corresponding mass-less point
load problem[5, 78].
At that time the political developments in Germany became more and more unpromising. Several inquiries about opportunities abroad resulted in a one-year
Mathematics scholarship at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and a one-year student visa allowing travel to the U.S.A. Before the year was over M.I.T.
decided that it could use me as a research assistant in Aeronautics. This meant a permanent residence permit through the offices of the U.S. consulate in Niagara
Falls. The aeronautics appointment lasted from1937 to 1939. It included an opportunity for a Ph.D. in mathematics with an analysis of the aeronautical
Pagexiv
structures problemof tension field theory [15]. A subsequent instructorship in Mathematics was followed by promotions to Assistant Professor in 1942, Associate
Professor in 1946, and Professor in 1949.
As I think back to my more than thirty years at M.I.T. I must begin by recalling the importance of friendships with my colleagues H. B. Phillips (who brought me into
the Department which he headed), Ted Martin, George Thomas and C. C. Lin. All of themcontributed significantly to my development. In a temporal way, I have
special memories of the period 1945 to 1960. It was during this period that those of my papers which are still often referred to were written. This period also
included summer appointments with the Structures and the Dynamics Divisions of the Langley Field Laboratory of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
(1948, 1951), with Ramo-Wooldridge in Los Angeles (1954, 1955) to help solve problems in the design of the Atlas missile, and with Lockheed in Palo Alto (1956,
1957) who were then concerned with the development of the Polaris. A highlight was a two months Symposiumon Structures and Elasticity at the University of
Michigan in 1949. My assignment was to present the Theory of Elasticity, together with S. Timoshenko giving lectures on the Theory of Thin Plates, and R. V.
Southwell on Advanced Airplane Structures. Also in 1949 I was asked to be Consulting Mathematics Editor for the Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, then a
very small new organization. The fact that the ensuing series of books included a Calculus text by George Thomas and a text on Advanced Calculus by Wilfred
Kaplan meant that this assignment, which lasted until 1960, resulted in significant economic benefits.
As the years went by I became more and more conscious of the fact that my research and teaching interests belonged to the Engineering Sciences rather than to
Mathematics. This being the case, I accepted in 1970 an appointment as Professor of Applied Mechanics to participate in the growth of this field at the new San
Diego campus of the University of California. There I joined in the efforts of Y. C. Fung, J. W. Miles, W. Nachbar, S. S. Penner and other younger, capable and
friendly colleagues. It turned out to be a truly uplifting and refreshing experience.
In conclusion, I would like to express thanks to my friends and one-time students Satya Atluri, Fred Wan, TomLardner and JimSimmonds. Their help in bringing the
project of this Volume to fruition has been important. Besides, our personal contacts over the years and our joint studies fromtime to time have helped me to stay
involved in the adventure of seeking new insights in the field of applied mechanics to this day. And, as far as keeping me involved personally and professionally is
concerned, I feel an obligation to acknowledge my long-ago students Bob Clark at Case Western, Millard Johnson at the University of Wisconsin, JimKnowles at
Cal Tech, Sud Nair at Illinois Tech, W. T. Tsai at Long Beach State and the late Hubertus Weinitschke of the University of Erlangen-Nrnberg.
A word about the contents of this Volume. In selecting papers for inclusion I was guided by the wish to consider the significance of the work at the time it was done,
relative inaccessibility except in this place, in some instances a preference for co-authored efforts, and finally a preference for brief articles, in order to be able to
include as many of themas possible.
Finally, and foremost, I must express a sense of deep gratitude and affection to my wife Johanna. Her support and influence during our many years of harmonious
togethernesswhich included the raising of our son John, and our daughter Evahave been of inestimable value.
E.R.
Pagexv
Page1
BEAMS
While still in high school and having just learned the geometrical significance of first and second derivatives of a function, I asked my father what significance there
might be to derivatives of higher order than two. Naturally, he mentioned that the fourth derivative of the deflection curve of a beamwould be proportional to the
intensity of the load distribution responsible for this deflection. I learned a good deal more about this subject during my first year at the university as a student in my
father's mechanics course.
As luck would have it, a student summer job involved the inadequacy of elementary beamtheory for T-beams with very wide flanges. I read an analysis of this
problemby von Karman who considered the behavior of the flanges as a problemof the theory of plane stress. However, instead of determining the constants of
integration in a Fourier series solution by means of transition conditions between flange and web, von Karman pursued a more elaborate route by way of minimizing
the strain energy of the flange-web combination. Finding out that it was simpler to solve the problemwithout use of the minimumenergy condition resulted in my first
published paper [1].
As a graduate student assistant three years later, I was asked to work on the related problemof shear lag in box beams. I recognized that it was a good enough
approximation for the shear lag problemto replace the elementary uniformcrosswise distribution of axial normal stress by a parabolic distribution and to look for an
approximate Rayleigh-Ritz type solution with the help of a minimumenergy condition. I first used the principle of least work [24] and later the principle of minimum
potential energy [43].
After this I never lost my interest in beamproblems of a non-standard nature. An unexpected result for the Saint Venant distribution of shear stress in plate-like
rectangular cross-section beams [44,48] was followed by a shell-theoretical analysis of von Karman's problemof bending of curved tubes [60, 74, 223] and by an
analogous analysis of Brazier's non-linear effect of cross section flattening for the bending of straight tubes [83, 132, 138].
This in turn was followed by a consideration of the center of twist problemfor the torsion of cantilevers [93], by a consideration of torsional vibrations of pre-twisted
beams [108], and by a solution of the torsion problemof circumferentially non-homogeneous tubes, which included as special cases the classical results for both open
and closed cross section tubes [122, 173].
An interest by my doctoral student W. T. Tsai led me to the problemof how non-symmetrical beams should be loaded in order to have bending without twisting
[187, 188]. While I had known of the text book solution for thin-walled open cross section beams, and also of attempts to deal with the problemin the context of
Saint Venant's flexure analysis by such people as G. I. Taylor and E. Trefftz, I had felt
Page2
uncomfortable with the premise of these approaches, which involved either displacement specifications for an (in my mind) arbitrarily chosen point in the supported
cross section, or an energy specification without appeal to the formof the support condition. I came to the conclusion that for a rational definition of a center of
shear it was necessary to begin with a suitable systemof mixed loading boundary conditions for a three-dimensional formulation of the problem. Subsequent to this it
was then possible to utilize the Saint Venant flexure assumptions in a Rayleigh-Ritz sense for an approximate determination of the coordinates of this center.
I returned to the problemonce more fifteen years later by way of deducing beam-theoretical results as consequences of approximately analyzing elastic plates of
variable thickness [263, 272, 280]. This included, in particular, the derivation of beamequations accounting for anti-clastic curvature effects in addition to warping
stiffness effects in the sense of Vlasov, with this permitting in particular a quantitative appraisal of the influence of Poisson's ratio on the location of the center of shear.
At about the same time I became interested, as a consequence of studying finite rotation shell theory, in a consideration of the one-dimensional space-curved beam
problem[190, 191, 225]. My approach here, the same as for the shell problem, was the reverse of what was usually done. Instead of beginning with the geometry of
finite deformations I began with what was for me the easier problemof stating equilibriumequations for the deformed structure. After that I used the principle of
virtual work in an inverse fashion to establish a systemof virtual strain displacement relations. While the step fromvirtual to actual relations is elementary in the linear
theory, in finite-deformation theory this step required a judicious non-linear differential equations integration scheme. I arrived at a systemof beamequations which
represented a generalization of Kirchhoff's rod theory, the generalization consisting in allowance for force-deformational effects, in addition to the classical moment-
deformational effects.
An occasion to apply these equations was the appearance of a paper on lateral buckling in which the first Kirchhoff-rod-theory based solution of this problem, in a
1904 paper by H. Reissner, was used once more, with a critical comment on the neglect of one of two pre-buckling deformation terms in the 1904 paper. I re-
examined the problem[214], hoping to find fault with this comment but came to the conclusion that the criticismwas in fact justified, although the effect of the
neglected termwas quite small compared to the effect which had not been neglected. In the course of this study, I then also used the force-deformational terms in my
equations for a determination of the transverse shear effect on the value of the classical Michell-Prandtl buckling load.
A continuation of my concern with the problemof lateral buckling, led on to a note, jointly with my son John Reissner, on the consequences of constitutive coupling of
torsion and bending [237], and later on to results through use of the equations of three-dimensional finite-deformation elasticity concerning refined one-dimensional
lateral buckling equations incorporating warping stiffness in addition to bending and twisting stiffness [240, 259, 265].
Page3
ber Die Berechnung Von Plattenbalken
[Der Stahlbau 7, 286288, 1934]
Einleitung
Die bliche Biegungstheorie der Trger mit gerader Mittellinie geht von der Voraussetzung aus, da ein in einer Haupttrgheitsebene der Querschnitte wirkendes
Biegungsmoment quer zu dieser Ebene konstante Spannungsverteilung erzeugt. Imallgemeinen fhrt diese Annahme auch zu keinen unzulssigen Widersprchen mit
den Ergebnissen der Elastizittstheorie. Es ist jedoch seit langembekannt, da die erwhnte Annahme bei Plattenbalken und Kastentrgern einigermaen breitem
Gurt auch nherungsweise nicht mehr zutrifft. Man hat in diesen Fllen den Begriff der "mittragenden Breite" eingefhrt, worunter man diejenige Gurtbreite versteht,
mit der bei der Annahme konstanter Spannung nach der Breite hin sich dieselbe maximale Biegungsspannung ergeben wrde, wie diejenige des Plattenbalkens mit
nach der Seite abklingenden Spannungen.
Eine rationelle Methode zur Berechnung der mittragenden Breite bei durchlaufenden T- Trgern hat zuerst Prof. v. Krmn angegeben1). Vorausgesetzt wird
dabeiwas auch hier geschehen sollda die Plattenstrke klein ist imVergleich zur Trgerhhe, und da die Biegungssteifigkeit der Gurtplatte senkrecht zu ihrer Ebene
zu vernachlssigen ist gegen die des Steges2). Es wird also angenommen, da in der Platte ein ebener Spannungszustand herrscht. Dieser Spannungszustand ist
offenbar abhngig von der Belastung und von den Abmessungen des Systems. Den Zusammenhang zwischen Steg und Platte bercksichtigt v. Krmn mit Hilfe des
Prinzips vomMinimumder Formnderungsarbeit. Zahlenbeispiele nach dieser Methode fr verschiedene Lastverteilungen rechnete Dr. Metzner3). Es ergab sich aus
diesen Rechnungen, da die tragende Breite lngs der Trgerachse durchaus nicht immer konstant, sondern von der Momentenverteilung abhngig ist.
Erweiterungen der Theorie auf Kastentrger, auch auf Flle nicht durchlaufender Trger finden sich in zwei Arbeiten von Prof. G. Schnadel 4).
Imfolgenden soll zunchst eine Methode angegeben werden, mit der ebenfalls der elastische Zusammenhang zwischen Steg und Gurt bercksichtigt, die Aufgabe
aber auf ein reines Randwertproblemder Spannungsfunktion der Gurtplatte zurckgefhrt wird. Auf diesemWege knnen die formelmigen Ergebnisse der
bisherigen
1Th. v. Krmn, DiemittragendeBreite. A. FpplFestschrift 1924. S. a. S. Timoshenko, Theory of Elasticity, S. 156. McGraw-Hill Book Comp. Inc. New York und London 1934.
2In einer spteren Mitteilungwird gezeigt werden, da es mglich ist, dieAufgabein gewissen Fllen auch ohnedieseeinschrnkendeVoraussetzungstrengzu lsen.
3W. Metzner, DiemittragendeBreite. Lufo IV, 1929.
4G. Schnadel, DieSpannungsverteilungin Flanschen dnnwandiger Kastentrger. J ahrb. d. Schiffbautechn. Ges. 1926.DiemittragendeBreitein Kastentrgern. Werft, Reederei & Hafen 1928.
Page4
Arbeiten mit sehr wenig Rechenaufwand erhalten werden. Weiter ergibt sich die prinzipielle Mglichkeit, diejenigen Nherungsverfahren zur Lsung von
Randwertaufgaben anzuwenden, welche die Angabe smtlicher Randbedingungen durch die Randwerte der gesuchten Funktion und ihrer Ableitungen erfordern
(Ritzsches Verfahren, Methode der Differenzenrechnung usw.).
In einemzweiten Abschnitt wird eine genauere Theorie aufgestellt, die insbesondere fr Trger mit einer gegenber der Spannweite nicht mehr kleinen Steghhe von
Bedeutung sein kann. Ferner wird gezeigt, wie man auch aus ihr durch Grenzbergang zu kleinen Steghhen die alten Ergebnisse erhalten kann.
I
Einfache Theorie. Steg Als Balken
Hier ist die folgende Aufgabe zu lsen: Gegeben nach Bild 1 ein Steg, in demder Charakter der Spannungsverteilung nach der blichen Nherungstheorie, und eine
Gurtplatte, in der ein ebener Spannungszustand vorausgesetzt werden soll. Die Bercksichtigung des elastischen Zusammenhangs erfolgt in der Weise, da man an
der Anschlustelle StegGurt die Dehnung in der Platte derjenigen Dehnung gleichsetzt, die dort herrschen wrde, wenn man einen Plattenbalken vor sich htte von
der Gurtbreite 2 und der Breite nach konstanter Spannung.
Bild 1.
Nun lassen sich bekanntlich die Spannungen o
x
, o
y
, t eines ebenen Spannungszustandes folgendermaen als Ableitungen einer Spannungsfunktion F schreiben:
wobei F der folgenden Differentialgleichung gengen mu:
Den Zusammenhang zwischen den Dehnungen und den Spannungen gibt das verallgemeinerte Hookesche Gesetz, wenn man die Verschiebungen in der x- bzw. y-
Richtung mit u bzw. v, die Winkelnderung mit bezeichnet, folgendermaen:
wobei E den Dehnungsmodul, G den Schubmodul und m das Querkontraktionsver-
Page5
hltnis bedeutet. Zwischen E und G besteht berdies die Gleichung
Das Koordinationssystemmge nach der in Bild 1 angegebenen Weise gewhlt werden.
Die Randbedingungen fr die Anschlustelle StegGurt knnen ein fr allemal angegeben werden. Aus Symmetriegrnden folgt, da die Verschiebung quer zur
Stegachse verschwinden mu.
Zur zweiten Bedingung werde die Aussage ber die Dehnung lngs der Trgerachse gemacht. Es ist unter den gemachten Voraussetzungen:
wobei M(x) das Biegungsmoment und W(x) das Widerstandsmoment des Trgers mit der vollmittragenden Breite 2 ist. Andererseits ist durch die folgende
Gleichung definiert.
welche ausdrckt, da der Inhalt der nach der Seite abklingenden Gurt-spannungsflche einer ideellen rechteckigen Spannungsflche gleichgesetzt wird. Das
Widerstandsmoment wird, wie man leicht ausrechnet,
oder, wenn man nach auflst,
Aus (8a) und aus der Definitionsgleichung (7) der tragenden Breite bekommt man das zugeordnete Widerstandsmoment
Wenn man (9) in die Randbedingung (6) einsetzt, erhlt man schlielich als Randbedingung aus (6)
und unter Bercksichtigung der Beziehungen (3) und (1)
Page6
Fr die tragende Breite ergibt sich aus (7) unter Bercksichtigung von (8) die folgende Gleichung:
Durchfhrung Fr Einen Besonderen Fall
Nimmt man als Spannungsfunktion F die M. Lvysche Lsung der biharmonischen Differentialgleichung
mit v =nt/l, so lt sich durch sie einmal, wie v. Krmn gezeigt hat, der Spannungszustand in der Gurtplatte eines durchlaufenden Trgers von der Sttzweite 2l,
der ein ebenfalls periodisches Moment von der Form
aufzunehmen hat, darstellen Man mu dann fr den durchlaufenden Trger mit berall positiver Belastung an den Sttzpunkten, d.h. fr x =0 und x =2l aus
Symmetriegrnden fordern
Aus der Formder Spannungsfunktion ergibt sich damit, da ebenda
Man kann aber auch, wie G. Schnadel zuerst bemerkt hat, den Spannungszustand in der Platte eines gelenkig gesttzten Trgers von der Spannweite l darstellen,
denn (10) erfllt die Bedingung
fr x =1/2l und x =3/2l in jedemGliede der Spannungsfunktion fr sich. Man erhltals zweite Randbedingung an denselben Stellen
d.h. die Lsung ist streng, wenn durch Versteifungen an den freien Rndern fr die Erfllung der Gl. (18) gesorgt wird, was in der Praxis oft der Fall ist (Man kann
sich diesen gelenkig gesttzten Trger auch als Teil eines durchlaufenden Trgers vorstellen mit periodischer, abwechselnd positiver und negativer Belastung.
Beschrnken wir uns hier fr die weitere Durchfhrung auf den Fall des unendlich breiten Gurtes, so werden wegen des Verschwindens der Spannungen fr y =
Drckt man die Bedingung v(x, 0) =0 mit Hilfe von (3) durch die Ableitungen der Spannungsfunktion aus, so erhlt man folgenden Zusammenhang zwischen A
n
und
B
n
Page7
Damit nimmt die Spannungsfunktion die folgende Gestalt an
Die vierte Randbedingung, Gl. (11), des stetigen berganges vomGurt auf den Steg ist die folgende:
also:
damit erhalten wir aus Gl. (12) die folgende Bestimmungsgleichung fr
welche also erlaubt, den Plattenbalken nach der elementaren Theorie mit o
x
unabhngig von y zu berechnen, wenn die sich daraus ergebende ideelle Gurtbreite
eingefhrt wird.
Fr M(x) =M cos vx, eine Momentenverteilung, wie sie sich sehr angenhert fr den gelenkig gesttzten Trger unter gleichmiger Volllast ergibt, wird z.B., mit m
=10/3
Formel (24) findet sich bereits in der Arbeit von Herrn v. Krmn, der mit ihrer Hilfe feststellt, da fr eine einfach harmonische Momentenverteilung =const. wird
(was man brigens bei der gewhlten Spannungsfunktion unmittelbar aus (6) und (7) ersehen kann, so da dieses Resultat unabhngig von der Randbedingung (11)
ist), und da die tragende Breite durch die spteren harmonischen Glieder nicht unerheblich vermindert werden kann. Es ist mglich, aus Gl. (22) die folgende
schrfere und wie es scheint bis jetzt unbekannt gewesene Folgerung zu ziehen, da es Momentenverteilungen gibt, fr die imgefhrlichen Querschnitt die tragende
Breite beliebig klein wird. Hinreichend dafr ist die gengende Kleinheit von
d.h. bei Spitzen in der Momentenflche ist die Materialausnutzung besonders schlecht.
Page8
Least Work Solutions of Shear Lag Problems
[J. Aeron. Sciences 8, 284291, 1941]
Introduction
It is a well known fact that the distribution of bending stresses in thin-walled box-beams cannot be obtained fromthe customary theory of bending of beams when the
lateral extension of such structures is of the order of magnitude of their spanwise extension. The elementary beamtheory assumes a uniformdistribution of spanwise
normal stress at any transverse section and consequently fully efficient chord members, but the shear deformation of these members leads to a distribution of normal
stress which, at a given beamsection, has its maximumin general at the side webs, decreasing toward the middle of the chord. Neglecting this effect amounts to an
overestimation of the strength of the beam. It has been found that the dimensions of box-beam-like airplane-wing structures are often such that this shear-lag effect is
appreciable. It may happen that the stress in the middle of the sheet amounts to only 60 per cent of the edge stress. To determine the magnitude of the effect,
theoretical and experimental investigations of the problemhave been carried out, giving the desired information for some important cases and showing furthermore
which mathematical problemis to be solved in any given case (see the references at the end of this paper). The main difficulty consists in the fact that the stress
problemis two-dimensional and attempts to solve its fundamental equations, with a variety of assumptions concerning the elastic properties of the cover sheets, have
been successful for certain arrangements only.
It seems, therefore, desirable to find a way to reduce the shear-lag problemto a one-dimensional problem, in the sense that anequation be established for a quantity
indicating the amount of shear lag at every cross-section of the beam. Such an equation will have to contain parameters depending on the dimensions of the structure
and the distribution of the load. It need not be an exact result of the theory of elasticity so long as it is certain that the analysis retains the essential characteristics of the
problemand gives numerical results in close agreement with the exact results.
The purpose of this paper is to derive such an equation for the class of box-beams symmetrical about span-wise vertical and horizontal planes through the neutral axis
of the beam. There is, however, no inherent difficulty in generalizing the results to include unsymmetrical beams as well, although the corresponding derivations will be
less simple than the ones presented here.
Also given are applications of the fundamental equation to the actual solution of a series of shear-lag problems.
The starting point for the method developed here was the fact that in all symmetrical cases investigated so far the shape of the curve representing the
Page9
distribution of normal stress across the beamseemed to be very nearly parabolic. If one makes the assumption that these curves should be true parabolas,
distinguished fromeach other only through the values of their vertex curvature, all that remains to be done is to establish an equation for the spanwise variation of this
vertex curvature. The most convenient way to do this appears to the author to be the application of a minimumenergy principle. A distribution of stress in the
horizontal (or nearly horizontal) cover sheets is assumed, at every cross-section parabolic in the spanwise normal stress and, moreover, satisfying the equilibrium
conditions for every element of the sheet. The linear side-web normal stresses are determined in such a way that cover sheet and side-web normal stresses coincide
along the flanges. Furthermore, the condition is imposed that the resultant moment of the spanwise normal stresses at every section about a transverse horizontal axis
equals the external bending moment at that section. When these conditions are satisfied there remains only one unknown quantity, the vertex curvature of the normal
stress parabola, and this quantity may be determined by minimizing the internal work of the structure. This minimumcondition is shown to reduce to an ordinary
second order differential equation, with constant coefficients for beams of constant cross-section, and with variable coefficients for tapered beams.
Formulation of the Problem
A cantilever box-beamis considered, with rectangular doubly symmetrical cross-section, acted upon by a given distribution of bending moments (Figure 1).
Fig. 1.
The assumption of parabolic spanwise normal stress in the coversheets is expressed by writing,
For the normal stress in the side webs one has
Continuity of the stresses demands
Page10
The condition of moment equilibriumis expressed by the equation
Introducing o
s
, fromEqs. (2) and (3) into Eq. (4), there follows a relation involving sheet stresses only,
Eq. (5) serves to express s
0
in terms of the vertex curvature 2s/w2 of the normal stress parabola, giving
It shall be assumed that the parameter m has the same value all along the span.
Thus one may write Eq. (1)
The least work condition will serve to determine the quantity s. To apply this condition, it is first necessary to find the remaining sheet stress components, t and o
y
,
which must be in equilibriumwith o
x
as given by Eq. (7). Then it is necessary to establish the expression for the internal work W of the entire beamand finally the
stresses have to be introduced into W and W be made a minimum.
The Distribution of Stress in the Sheets and the Internal Energy of the Bent Beam
The sheet stresses have to fulfill the following equilibriumconditions of generalized plane stress,
It is well known that Eqs. (8) and (9) may be satisfied in terms of stress functions in the following manner,
or
Eq. (11) is preferable when the transverse normal stress, o
y
, need not be considered, and it can be shown that this is generally permissible in the shear-lag problem.
FromEqs. (7) and (8) one obtains by integration for the shear stress
Page11
In this formula an arbitrary function of integration has been eliminated by the condition that t must be antisymmetric about the axis y =0.
With Eq. (11) for t there follows fromEq. (9) for o
y
,
*
In Eq. (13) an arbitrary function of x has been determined by the condition that o
y
(x, w) =0.
Eqs. (7), (11) and (12) are satisfied by taking as stress function
where
are the sheet stress and the sheet stress resultant of the elementary beamtheory.
To obtain an expression for the internal work in terms of the stresses, it is necessary to agree on the elastic properties of the sheet material. It shall be assumed that
the cover sheets are of non-isotropic material. In this way it is possible to account in a convenient way for the influence of closely spaced transverse and longitudinal
stiffeners and it also shows that neglecting the work of the transverse normal stresses o
y
corresponds exactly to a limiting case of the orthotropic stress-strain
relations.
Writing the stress-strain relations in the form
where v
x
and v
y
are Poisson ratios, the virtual work per unit of sheet area, t(o
x
oc
x
+o
y
oc
y
+to), gives for the elastic energy of the two sheets
For the existence of W
s
it is necessary that the following relation is satisfied between the elastic constants,
Adding to the energy stored in the sheets, as given by Eq. (18), the energy of the two side webs,
which with Eqs. (2) and (3) becomes
*This equation for o
y
may beused to estimatequantitatively themagnitudeof thetransversenormal stresses, associated with theparabolic distribution of thespanwisestresses determined
subsequently.
Page12
there is given in
the total energy of the box-beam, provided the conditions of support at the root section and the stiffening of the tip section are such that the edge stresses at these
sections are prevented fromdoing work during a virtual displacement. Such conditions at the root section require vanishing spanwise and transverse displacements,
or, instead of the second condition, vanishing shear (which is the condition the available exact solutions fulfill).* At the tip section these conditions require vanishing
spanwise normal stress and vanishing transverse displacement (as in the case of the available exact solution) or instead of the displacement condition, the condition of
vanishing shear. It is, however plausible that with the exception of the condition mentioned above* the possible contribution to the total work due to flexibility of tip
and root ribs is relatively small and may therefore be disregarded.
The expression for the internal work will be further simplified by neglecting the work of the transverse normal stresses o
y
compared with the work of o
x
and t. It
seems plausible that this omission is in general of no great influence in the final result** (see also references 6, 7, 21).
FromEqs. (18) and (19) it follows that neglecting o
y
amounts to putting
in the stress-strain relations. This is exact for the case of a sheet rigid in transverse direction. In this connection it is noted that the presence of rather narrowly spaced
transverse stiffeners would in any event tend to give the sheet an effective E
y
which is greater than E
x
.
The Least Work Condition
Neglecting o
y
in Eq. (18) and writing E
x
=E the total work W is
and with o
x
and t fromEq. (11)
According to the rules of the calculus of variations the condition for a minimumof W is that the variation oW, vanishes. Now
*For thosecases wherethespanwisedisplacement of thesheet at theroot section is not completely restrained, duefor instanceto thepresenceof aretractablelandinggear, it will benecessary to
add atermto thetotal work expression, to account for thebendingenergy of thetransversestiffener.
**It would bepossibleto find thesolution without this simplifyingassumption, by means of afourth order equation instead of thesecond order equation derived in what follows, and thus to determine
quantitatively its effect.
Page13
and since o(dH) =d(oH) there follows, by integration by parts,
The second and the last integral in Eq. (25) may be combined to
Observing that fromthe equilibriumcondition Eq. (5), which on account of Eq. (11) can be written in the form,
there follows
it is seen that the integral Eq. (26) vanishes.
The condition of least work is thus reduced to
FromEq. (14) follows
and
Since at the tip o
x
(0, y) =0 it follows further that
and with that
Page14
Introducing Eqs. (30) and (31) into Eq. (29) one has
The integration with respect to y may be carried out, and since os(x) is arbitrary the integrand of the first termand the second termhas to vanish separately, resulting,
together with Eq. (32), in the following differential equation and boundary conditions for s(x):
With the solution of Eq. (36), subject to the boundary conditions Eq. (37), there is given the solution of the shear-lag problem for symmetrical box-beams
under symmetrical (bending) loads. It is evident that the solution for antisymmetrical (torsional) loads for the same beammay be obtained in a completely analogous
way. Some added considerations seemnecessary to generalize the solution to the case of unsymmetrical beams. The nature of the analysis is, however, such that the
possibility of this generalization is apparent.
Of interest is the value of an effective sheet width w
eff
. which, with the help of Eq. (7), is expressed in the form
In what follows o
x
and w
eff
. will be calculated for some typical beams of constant cross-section, for different loading conditions. These calculations permit one to
draw some useful general conclusions, as will also be shown.
It should be noted that the integration of Eqs. (36) and (37) in closed formis also possible for tapered beams of the sort thatw =w
0
(x +x
0
), t =t
0
(x +x
0
)n, that is
for beams with a law of sheet-thickness and beam-width variation such that if the beamwere continued to the left of x =0, w and t would simultaneously become
zero with exception of the case n =0 where the sheet thickness is constant. The integration is possible by assuming the solutions of the homogeneous equation (36) in
the forms(x) =(x +x
0
)r.
A further noteworthy result consists in the fact, that when the sheet stress resultant S(x) =to
b
is constant, then s(x) =0 satisfies Eqs. (36) and (37) and there is no
shear lag. The explanation of this follows fromthe equilibriumcondition Eq. (8) which shows that for (cto
x
/cx) =0 the sheet shear stress t vanishes and consequently
no shear deformation occurs. Therefore, one can say that, in principle, it is possible to design box-beams of the type considered, with fully efficient chord members.
Page15
Solution of the Shear-Lag Equation for Beams of Constant Width and Sheet Thickness
Assuming w and t constant,* Eqs. (36) and (37) become
where 2 and k are defined by
The solution of the systemof Eqs. (39) and (40) is found, by the method of variation of parameters, in the form
where =x/l.
This formula is valid for distributed as well as for concentrated loads if it is understood that a concentrated load has to be considered as limiting case of a distributed
load, the limiting process to be carried out after the integrals have been evaluated.
The function s(x) and with that according to Eqs. (7), (12) and (13) the stress pattern in the coversheets will here be determined explicitly for the following typical
loading conditions:
1. A concentrated load P at the tip section
2. A uniformly distributed load p
0
3. A concentrated load P at a distance l
1
fromthe tip.
One obtains
*Thesolutions thus derived will beapplicablealso to thecaseof piecewiseconstant thickness t, if alongthesections wheret is discontinuous thereis continuity of to
x
and tt, which accordingto
Eqs. (7) and (12) means continuity of ts(x) and tds/dx.
Page16
To represent the results of these formulas graphically it is convenient to write Eq. (7) for the spanwise stress in the form
Numerical Examples
Eqs. (43) to (49) shall be evaluated, assuming the following dimensions
FromEqs. (6), (38) and (41) results
With these values of the parameters the stresses in the middle of the sheet and at the edges of the sheet have been calculated and are represented in Figures 2 to 4,
together with the corresponding curves for the stress without shear lag.
The graphs show that shear lag is most pronounced near the built-in end (the most highly stressed section) of the beam. It is further noteworthy that in the case of
concentrated load application at midspan there occurs an appreciable sheet stress at the point of load application, which alongthe flanges is of opposite direction to
Fig. 2.
Page17
Fig. 3.
the corresponding stress at the root section (see also reference 14). The elementary theory does not account for this stress.
The most important characteristics of these graphs are, however, that the shear lag at the built-in end is almost the same for the uniformly distributed load and for the
concentrated load at midspan, while for the beamwith tip load there is considerably less shear lag. This suggests that the effective sheet width depends, for beams of
constant cross-section, on the distance of the center of gravity of the load curve fromthe built-in end rather than on the span length of the beam.
A formula expressing this fact will now be derived. According to Eq. (38) w
eff
. is, for beams with constant coversheet thickness t, given by
with, if it is furthermore assumed that the width w is constant, s(x) fromEq. (42). At the built-in end of the beam, w
eff
. depends on s(l), which may be transformed
into
For values of k in the practical range one may with good approximation neglect the termsinh kq under the intergral and put tanh k =1.
Thus
Page18
Fig. 4.
Writing
it is seen that in the dimensionless ratio
the quantity L represents the distance of the center of gravity of the d2o
b
/dx2-curve fromthe built-in end of the beam. For beams of constant cross-section this is
identical with the distance of the center of gravity of the load curve fromthe built-in end.
Introducing Eqs. (54) and (41) into Eq. (50) there follows
*Instead of as indicated in Figure5, equation should read: m =(I
s
+3I
w
)/I.
Page19
Fig. 5.*
and in an analogous way
Eqs. (55) and (56) are general formulas for the amount of shear lag in beams of constant width and cover sheet thickness, with or without taper in height. They
indicate in which way shear lag depends on the ratio of tension and shear modulus, on the relative magnitude of coversheet and side web stiffness and on the ratio of
sheet width 2w and the distance L of the center of gravity of the o
b
''-curve fromthe root section of the beam.
Figure 5 gives (w
eff.
/w) root as a function of w/L when E/G =8/3 and for various values of the stiffness parameter m.
It may be added that solutions of the numerically discussed problems could also have been obtained by an exact method (references 7, 22), although only in the form
of not very rapidly converging infinite trigonometric series. Corresponding exact solutions can also be obtained for beams withisotropic coversheets (see references
1, 11, 13, 19, 21). These same exact methods are, however, not suitable for the treatment of tapered beams, while the present method, as shown, remains usable.
Also, the general expressions, Eqs. (55) and (56), are mainly due to the fact that the present approximate solution has a considerably simpler formthan obtainable
exact solutions.
References
1Chwalla, E., Die Formeln zur Berechnung der ''vollmitragenden Breite" dnner Gurt und Rippenplatten, Der Stahlbau, 9, 7378, 1936.
2Cox, H. L., Smith, H. E., and Conway, C. G., Diffusion of Concentrated Loads into Monocoque Structures, R. and M. No. 1780, 1937.
Page20
3Cox, H. L., Diffusion of Concentrated Loads into Monocoque Structures, III; General Considerations with Particular Reference to Bending Load
Distributions, R. and M. No. 1860, 1938.
4Cox, H. L., Stress Analysis of Thin Metal Construction, Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society, 44, 231282, 1940.
5Duncan, W. J., Diffusion of Load in Certain Sheet-Stringer Combinations, R. and M. No. 1825, 1938.
6Ebner, H., and Koeller, H., ber den Kraftverlauf in lngs und querversteiften Scheiben, Luftfahrtforschung, 15, 527542, 1938.
7Younger, John E., Metal Wing Construction, Part II, A.C.T.R. Series No. 3288, Material Division, U.S. Army Air Corps, 1930.
8Kuhn, P., Stress Analysis of Beams with Shear Deformation of the Flanges, N.A.C.A. Technical Report No. 608, 1937.
9Kuhn, P., Approximate Stress Analysis of Multi-Stringer Beams with Shear Deformation of the Flanges, N.A.C.A. Technical Report No. 636, 1938.
10Lovett, B. B., and Rodee, W. F., Transfer of Stress from Main Beams to Intermediate Stiffeners in Metal Sheet Covered Box Beams , Journal of the
Aeronautical Sciences, 3, 426, 1936.
11Metzner, W., Die mittragende Breite, Luftfahrtforschung, 4, 120, 1929.
12Reissner, H., ber die Berechnung der mittragenden Breite, Z. Ang. Math. Mech., 14, 312313, 1934.
13Reissner, E., ber die Berechnung von Plattenbalken, Der Stahlbau, 7, 282284, 1934.
14Reissner, E., Beitrag zum Problem der Spannungsverteilung in Gurtplatten, Z. Ang. Math. Mech., 15, 359364, 1935.
15Reissner, E., On the Problem of Stress Distribution in Wide-Flanged Box-Beams , Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, 5, 295299, 1938.
16Reissner, E., The Influence of Taper on the Efficiency of Wide-Flanged Box-Beams, Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, 7, 353357, 1940.
17Schade, H., Application of Orthotropic Plate Theory to Ship Bottom Structure, Proceedings, 5th International Congress, Applied Mechanics, pp. 144149,
1938.
18Schapitz, E., Feller, H., and Koeller, H., Experimentelle und rechnerische Untersuchung eines auf Biegung belasteten Schalenflgelmodells,
Luftfahrtforschung, 15, 563576, 1938.
19Schnadel, G., Die Spannungsverteilung in den Flanschen dnnwandiger Kastentrger, Jahrb. d. Schiffbaut, Ges. 27, 207291, 1926.
20Sibert, H., Effect of Shear Lag upon Wing Strength, Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences, 6, 418, 1939.
21von Krmn, Th., Die mittragende Breite, August-Foeppl Festschrift, Berlin, pp. 114127, 1924.
22Winny, H. F., The Distribution of Stress in Monocoque Wings, R. and M. No. 1756, 1937.
Page21
Analysis of Shear Lag in Box Beams by the Principle of Minimum Potential Energy
[Qu. Appl. Math. 4, 268278, 1946]
1
Introduction
Let us consider a thin-walled box beamof web height 2h and cover sheet width 2w which is bent in such a way that one of the cover sheets is in tension while the
opposite cover sheet is in compression (Figure 1). In elementary beamtheory the assumption is made that the normal stress in the cover sheets does not vary in the
direction across the sheet. Because of the shear deformability of the cover sheets this assumption of elementary beamtheory is often seriously in error for wide
beams. In aeronautical engineering this effect is known under the name of shear lag.
Fig. 1.
Sketch of spanwiseelement of boxbeamwith doubly symmetric cross section.
Page22
In recent papers, 1,2 shear lag in box beams has been analyzed by an application of the theoremof least work which is the basic minimumprinciple for the stresses.
The present paper contains an application to the problemof shear lag of the theoremof minimumpotential energy, which is the basic minimumprinciple for the
strains.3 It is shown that application of the theoremof minimumpotential energy to the present problemleads to simpler and more general results than the application
of the theoremof least work. While the least-work method furnishes the stresses in box beams with no cut-outs, application of the minimum-potential-energy method
furnishes, in a simpler manner, the stresses in beams without or with cut-outs. It also furnishes beamdeflections, and is equally convenient for beams supported in
statically determinate or in statically indeterminate manner.
Application, in the manner described below, of the minimum-potential-energy principle to the problemof bending of thin-walled box beams leads to a differential
equation for the beamdeflection which is a generalization of the relation z" =M/EI; this differential equation contains an additional termproportional to the fourth
derivative of z which takes into account the shear deformability of the cover sheets. As the order of the differential equation in this theory is higher than the order of
the differential equation of elementary beamtheory, boundary conditions appear in addition to those of elementary beamtheory. These additional boundary
conditions are different for beams with cut-outs and for beams without cut-outs.
The manner of application of the results obtained in the present paper is shown by solving explicitly the following four examples.
1. Simply supported beam. Load distributed according to a cosine law.
2. Cantilever beamwith uniformload distribution. Cover sheets fixed at the support.
3. Cantilever beamwith uniformload distribution. Cover sheets not fixed at the support.
4. Beamwith both ends built in. Uniformload distribution.
For the sake of simplicity, it is assumed in what follows that the cross sections of the beams are rectangular and doubly symmetrical. It also is assumed that there is no
spanwise variation of cross-sectional properties.
The author believes that the way in which the principle of minimumpotential energy is here applied to the problemof shear lagwill prove useful in other problems of
structural mechanics. As an example of such future application, the theory for combined torsion and bending of beams with open or closed cross sections is
mentioned.
2
Formulation and Solution of Problem
In the following, we analyze a box beamof doubly symmetrical rectangular cross section, composed of cover sheets, sidewebs and flanges. A given distribution of
loads is applied to the sidewebs, acting normal to the plane of the cover sheets (Figure 1). To this load distribution there corresponds a distribution of bending
moments M(x). The spanwise coordinate being x,
1E. Reissner, Least work solutions of shear lag problems, J ournal of theAeronautical Sciences, 8, 284291 (1941).
2F. B. Hildebrand and E. Reissner, Least work analysis of the problem of shear lag in box beams, N.A.C.A. Technical NoteNo. 893 (1943).
3For aformulation of thesetheorems seefor instanceI. S. Sokolnikoff and R. D. Specht, Mathematical theory of elasticity, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, 1946, pp. 275287.
Page23
let y be the coordinate in the plane of the cover sheets perpendicular to the x direction, and z(x) the deflection of the neutral axis of the beam.
The potential energy of the bent beammay be considered as composed of three parts. The first part is the potential energy of the load system. This may be written in
the form
the integral being extended over the entire length of the beam.4 The second part is the strain energy of sidewebs and flanges. This may be written in the form
the quantity I
w
denoting the principal moment of inertia of the two sidewebs and flanges.
The third part is the strain energy of the two cover sheets. If it is assumed that the normal strains in the chordwise direction in the sheets may be neglected, as
discussed in the reference given in Footnote 1, then the strain energy of the two sheets is given by the integral
where the quantity t denotes the cover sheet thickness, and where E and G are the effective moduli of elasticity and rigidity. Spanwise normal strain c
x
and shear
strain are then expressed in terms of the spanwise sheet displacement u as follows
The theoremof minimumpotential energy states that the total potential energy
becomes a minimumfor the correct displacement functions u and z, if only such displacement functions are compared which satisfy all conditions of support and
continuity imposed on the displacements.
Direct application of this condition by means of the calculus of variations leads to a partial differential equation for u and to a complete systemof boundary conditions.
In what follows, an ordinary differential equation for the beamdeflection z and boundary conditions for it are obtained instead. This is done by making a suitable
approximation for the sheet displacements u and by applying the rules of the calculus of variations to the resultant approximate expression for the potential energy
function.
A reasonable assumption for the spanwise sheet displacements is
4Equation (1) implies that thebeamis supported in such amanner that theend forces and moments can do no work. This restriction shortens thedevelopments slightly.
Page24
The second termon the right of Eq. (6) represents the correction due to shear lag. Instead of the vanishing chordwise variation of the sheet displacements of
elementary beamtheory, we now assume a parabolic variation. The relative magnitude of the function U is a measure for the magnitude of the shear lag effect. The
formof the correction is such that continuity of the displacements along the flanges, that is along y =w, is preserved.
Denoting differentiation with respect to x by primes, we obtain the following expressions for the strains in the sheets fromEqs. (6) and (4):
On the basis of Eqs. (7) and (8) the following expression for the strain energy of the sheets is obtained:
In Eq. (9) the integration with respect to y is carried out. Setting
we have
Substituting Eqs. (11), (2) and (1) into Eq. (5), we obtain the following expression for the potential energy of the system
Differential equations and boundary conditions for z and U are obtained by making
Thus, with x
1
and x
2
denoting the ends of the interval of integration,
As oz" and oU are arbitrary in the interior of the interval (x
1
, x
2
) the terms multiplying themmust vanish. This gives the following two differential equations
Page25
The integrated portion of Eq. (14) defines the boundary and transition conditions for the function U. At a section where the sheet is fixed, oU =0 and
At a section where the sheet is not fixed and consequently oU is arbitrary,
Transitions conditions for adjacent bays with different stiffness are:
The above boundary and transition conditions are in addition to those imposed on z and M in elementary beamtheory, as may be verified by repeated integration by
parts of the termcontaining oz" in the integral of Eq. (14).
3
The Modified Beam Equation and Its Boundary Conditions
By eliminating the quantity U fromEqs. (15) to (19), we obtain a systemof relations containing the beamdeflection z only.
The differential equation for z is derived by differentiating Eq. (16) and substituting U' fromEq. (15). There follows
When the shear deformability of the sheets is neglected, that is when it is assumed that G =, Eq. (20) reduces to the well known result of elementary beamtheory.
Equation (20) may be written in the alternate form
With the help of Eqs. (15) and (16), the boundary condition (17), which holds when the sheet is attached to the support, is transformed into
Similarly, the boundary condition (18), which holds when the sheet is not attached to the support, becomes
The continuity conditions (19) may be transformed in an analogous manner.
The values of the sheet stresses may be obtained fromEqs. (9) and (10). FromEq. (9) it follows that the flange stress is given by
For the application of the results it may be noted that the differential equation (21) can first be solved for the value of z" which, according to (24), gives directly the
Page26
approximate value of the flange stress o]. The magnitude of the deflection z can then be found fromthe value of z" as in elementary beamtheory.
For the evaluation of the solution we define the following two parameters
With (25) and (26) the differential equation (21) becomes
The boundary condition at an end section where the sheet is attached to the support becomes
and the boundary condition at an end section where the sheet is not attached to the support becomes
4
Examples of Applications
(Figure 2)
1
Simply Supported Beam. Load Distributed According to a Cosine Law
Designating the span length of the beamby l and assuming the origin of the coordinate systemat the center of the beam, we consider the moment distribution
A particular solution of Eq. (27) is
As Eq. (31) satisfies the boundary condition (29) and the conditon of vanishing deflection at the ends of the beam, it is the complete expression for the deflection
function. When 1/k =0, Eq. (31) reduces to the expression for z in the case where shear lag is not taken into account. The factor
expresses the effect of shear lag on deflection and flange stresses.
2
Cantilever Beamwith UniformLoad Distribution. Cover Sheets Fixed at Support
Assuming that, contrary to what is indicated in Figure 2, the free end of the beamhas the coordinate x =0 and the fixed end of the beamthe coordinate x =l, we
may
Page27
Fig. 2.
Diagrammatic sketches of beams analyzed as
examples of application of thetheory.
write the moment distribution in the form
The differential equation (27) then becomes
Page28
Solving for z", we find
Satisfying the boundary condition (29) when x =0 and (28) when x =l, we obtain
According to Eq. (24), the flange stress at the fixed end of the beambecomes
We take for a numerical example
so that according to Eqs. (25) and (26)
and we find
By application of the least work method1,2 a factor 1.186 is obtained instead of the factor 1.190 in Eq. (40).
The deflection of the beamis obtained fromEq. (36) by integrating twice and making z(l) =z'(l) =0. In the present case, the correction due to shear lag for the
maximumdeflection is about ten percent.
3
Cantilever Beamwith UniformLoad Distribution. Cover Sheets Not Fixed at Support
Moment distribution and differential equation are given by Eqs. (33) and (34). The constants of integration in (36) are determined by satisfying Eq. (29) for x =0 and
for x =l. There follows
Taking again I
s
/I =.5, we should have, for the flange stress at the supported end, a value twice as large as the stress according to elementary beamtheory for a beam
with sheet attached to the support. In the present solution the factor 2 is replaced by n =1.714. This indicates that with the assumed parabolic chordwise variation of
sheet displacement the condition that at the support of the beamthe sheet is free of stress is only approximately satisfied. The same difficulty arises in methods which
incorporate the ability of the sheet to carry normal stresses as effective width
Page29
contributions to the strength of stiffners.5 This difficulty is not serious when the main purpose of such ''cut-out" calculations is the determination of the distance over
which the cut-out is effective and its effect on the over all beamstiffness.6
The localization of the effect of the cut-out may be seen by writing (41) in the form
This equation indicates that the influence of the cut-out is small as soon as the distance l x satisfies the inequality
Thus, the wider the sheet and the smaller the value of the shear modulus G, the farther away does the effect of the cut-out extend in the spanwise direction.
The magnitude of the beamdeflection is obtained from(41) in the form
which determines the constants of integration such that z(l) =z'(l) =0. For the deflection at the free end of the beam, we have
For a beamwith dimensions as in (38) and (39), Eq. (45) becomes
This indicates that for a beamwith dimensions as given shear lag due to lack of sheet restraint at the supported end of the beamis responsible for a thirty percent
increase of the maximumbeamdeflection as compared with the result of elementary beamtheory for a beamfully restrained at the supported end. This increase of
deflection of thirty percent compares with one of hundred percent which is obtained if the contribution of the cover sheets is neglected.
4
Beamwith Both Ends Built-In. UniformLoad Distribution
The distribution of bending moments may be written as
5P. Kuhn and P. Chiarito, Shear lag in box beamsmethods of analysis and experimental investigations, N.A.C.A. Technical Report No. 739 (1943).
6Exact solutions of problems of this kind havebeen obtained by F. B. Hildebrand, The exact solution of shear-lag problems in flat panels and box beams assumed rigid in the transverse direction,
N.A.C.A., Technical NoteNo. 894 (1943).
Page30
The value of M
0
is determined by the load intensity, the value of M
1
in this statically indeterminate problemhas to be determined fromthe displacement boundary
conditions. The boundary conditions are
For these boundary conditions the moment distribution is not affected by shear lag, provided the moment distribution is symmetrical about the mid-span section of the
beam. Indeed, the differential equation (27) may be integrated to give
the limits of integration being so chosen that Eq. (51) satisfies the conditions of zero slope and zero vertical shear at the mid-span section. In view of (49) and (50),
Eq. (51) implies
regardless of whether or not shear lag is taken into account. A considerably less simple proof of the same fact by means of the least work method has been given in
the reference quoted in Footnote 2. For the moment distribution of Eq. (47) there follows, from(52),
and hence
With this value of M and the requirement that z" be an even function of x, Eq. (27) is solved in the form
The constant C
2
is determined fromEq. (50). There follows,
Taking a beamfive times as long as wide, that is l/2w =5, and assuming the remaining parameters as in (38) and (39), we obtain the following expressions for the
flange stresses at the built-in section and at the center section of the beam
Page31
These results agree to within a fraction of a percent with the corresponding results obtained by the least work method.2 It is worthy of note that, for this beamwith
both ends built-in, shear lag is considerably larger than for a cantilever beamwith the same load, same width and half the spanof the beamwith both ends built-in. If
both beams had the same span, the discrepancy would be even larger.
The deflection z of the beamis obtained from(56) and (48) in the form
Corresponding to the stresses of Eqs. (57) and (58) we find for the deflection at mid-span
Shear lag in this beamis thus responsible for an almost fifteen percent increase in deflection. This percentage increase of deflection, while appreciable, is considerably
smaller than the percentage increase of maximumflange stress.
Page32
Note on the Shear Stresses in a Bent Cantilever Beam of Rectangular Cross Section*
[J. Math. & Phys. 25, 241243, 1946]
In this note we wish to report on some calculations which we have made concerning the distribution of shear stresses, accordingto the St. Venant theory, in bent
cantilevers of rectangular cross section.1 Referring to Figure 1, our main result is the fact that for sufficiently wide beams (b/a >>1) the component of stress t
yz
(a, q)
not only is of the same order of magnitude as the stress t
xz
(0, b) for which values have previously been calculated,1 but exceeds t
xz
(0, b) in magnitude.2
We list first the exact expressions for t
xz
(x, y) and t
yz
(x, y) in a formconvenient for our purposes and deduce fromthemsimplified expressions for t
xz
(0, b) and
t
yz
(a, y) which ensure accuracy for all decimals computed, when b/a > 4. On the basis of these formulas we calculate for a number of values of b/a in the range (2,
) (i) values of t
xz
(0, b), (ii) values of the coordinate y =q for which t
yz
(a, y) is greatest, (iii) values of t
yz
(a, q). The numerical results obtained are collected in
Table I.
Exact expressions for the shear stresses may be written in the following form, with 4ab =A,
*With G. B. Thomas.
1For an exposition of this theory seeS Timoshenko's book on Theory of Elasticity (pp. 285288, 292298, McGraw Hill, 1934).
2Weareindebted to Prof. S. Timoshenko and to Prof. H. Reissner for theinformation that this fact appears not to havebeen noted previously.
Page33
Fig. 1.
Diagramshowingdimensions of cantilever beamand natureof shear stress
distribution.
FromEqs. (1) and (2) are derived the following approximate expressions which are exact within the accuracy of our calculations when b/a > 4:
Substituting in Eq. (3) the series sums
this equation becomes
To obtain the maximumof t
yz
(a, y) we set (ct
yz
(a, y)/cy)
y=
q =0. According to Eq. (4) the maximumcondition becomes
Page34
Carrying out the summation in (6) we have
or
Equation (8a) may also be written in a formwhich gives directly the distance of the maximumlocation fromthe edge in units of the thickness 2a,
Introducing Eq. (a) in Eq. (4) we obtain
Equation (9) is less simple in appearance than Eq. (5) but is readily evaluated as the remaining series converges rapidly.
From(9) and (5) we obtain the following limit relation
which shows that for wide beams (plates) the component of shear parallel to the face of the plate reaches a value which is almost 35 percent higher than the value
reached by the component of transverse shear. The way in which this limit state is approached is apparent fromthe values given in Table I which has been computed
on the basis of Eqs. (5), (8b), and (9). In the calculations the value of v has been taken as .25.
TableI
0 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
2 1.39(4) 0.31(6) 0.22(7) 0.31(4)
4 1.988 0.968 0.487 0.522
6 2.582 1.695 0.656 0.649
8 3.176 2.452 0.772 0.739
10 3.770 3.226 0.856 0.810
15 5.255 5.202 0.990 0.939
20 6.740 7.209 1.070 1.030
25 8.225 9.233 1.123 1.102
50 15.650 19.466 1.244 1.322
1.347
Page35
On Finite Pure Bending of Cylindrical Tubes
[sterreichisches Ing. Arch. 15, 165172, 1961]
Introduction
We are concerned in what follows with a rather general and simple formulation of the problemof finite pure bending of thin-walled cylindrical tubes of arbitrary cross
section. Our analysis contains as special cases Brazier's analysis of the flattening instability of circular cross section tubes1 and our own refinement of Brazier's theory,
which in turn is a special case of results for toroidal tubes with circular cross section.2
The physical basis of the present work is similar to that of our earlier work. Certain simplifications arise through the consideration of initially straight tubes instead of
toroidal tubes. Further simplifications are due to an appropriate use of the variational theoremfor displacements in elasticity.
Formulation of the Problem
We consider a cylindrical tube with cross section before deformation specified by middle surface equations x =x(s), y =y(s), where s represents circumferential
arclength, and by a wall thickness function h =h(s).
The originally cylindrical tube is deformed through the application of end moments M
x
and M
y
. These moments M
x
and M
y
result in a curving of the axial fibers of the
tube, with curvature radii R
x
and R
y
. As long as elementary beamtheory applies, the radii R
x
, R
y
and the moments M
x
and M
y
are related by equations of the form
In these formulas E =E(s) is the modulus of elasticity for axial stress, and the origin of the x, y-systemof coordinates is chosen such that
Associated with the uniformcurving of axial fibers is a deformation of the cross section of the tube which changes x into x + u and y into y + v and which is
neglected in elementary beamtheory. It is of the essence in what follows that this cross sectional deformation may be assumed to take place without meridional
extension of the middle surface of the tube (Figure 1).
1L. G. Brazier, Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 116, 104114, 1927.
2E. Reissner, Proc. 3rd U.S. Nat. Congr. Appl. Mech. 5169, 1958, and J . Appl. Mech. 26, 386392, 1959.
Page36
Fig. 1.
Element of tubecross section beforeand after
deformation.
The linear displacements u and v define an angular displacement | which in turn defines a circumferential bending strain k, given by
The components u, v and | are connected through two relations which may be read fromFigure 1, and which are
In addition to the circumferential bending strain k we have an axial direct strain c, which through a stress strain relation of the formo =Ec, enters into the formulas
for moment components M
x
and M
y
. These moment components are defined with reference to the deformed cross section, as follows:
In order to express c in terms of R
x
, R
y
, u, v we make use of the fact that pure bending of the tube takes place in such a way that plane sections perpendicular to the
axis of the undeformed tube are deformed into plane sections perpendicular to the curved axis of the deformed tube. This means that c is given by the formula
Introduction of (7) into Eqs. (6) leads to expressions for M
x
and M
y
which are the extensions of (1) and (2) and which are
Page37
In order that the cross sections of the tube are free of resultant forces, we must further have
which generalizes Eqs. (3) consistent with the step from(1) and (2) to (8) and (9).
In order to evaluate the basic formulas (8) and (9) it appears necessary to determine the functions u and v in their dependence on the geometry of the cross section
and on the values of R
x
and R
y
. It will be seen in what follows that a somewhat simpler procedure is possible in which c and | are determined rather than u and v.
Derivation of Differential Equations
We base our derivation on the requirement that, for given values of R
x
and R
y
, the strain energy of the bent tube be a minimum. We take as expression for strain
energy, per unit of axial tube length
where c and k are given by (7) and (4), where C =Eh and where D is a circumferential bending stiffness function which for isotropic homogeneous tube materials is
given by D =Eh3/12(1 v2).
The quantity H
s
is to be made a minimumsubject to the constraint Eqs. (5). Considering the formof c and k in (7) and (4) we may evaluate the minimumcondition
without explicit use of the displacement components u and v by writing as constraint condition
Introducing k from(4) and introducing the constraint condition (12) by means of a Lagrange multiplier F the condition of minimumstrain energy assumes the following
form
The variational Eq. (13) is equivalent to two differential equations of the form
which must hold, together with the constraint Eq. (12). Boundary conditions for the system(12), (14) and (15) are the conditions of periodicity in s for c, F, | and
d|/ds. In view of one of these periodicity conditions we have so that the condition of no resultant force over the tube cross section is automatically
satisfied.
Equations (8) and (9) for M
x
and M
y
may now be written, through the use of (6) and appropriate integration by parts, in the alternate form
Page38
We may finally reduce the two first-order Eqs. (12) and (14) to the second order differential equation
and thereby reduce the problemto the two simultaneous second order Eqs. (15) and (17) for | and F.
We note that these two equations may be written in the form
and
Equations (15') and (17') may be used as the starting point of an expansion procedure which will now be discussed.
Expansion in Powers of 1/R
x
and 1/R
y
A formal expansion procedure for (15') and (17') which is suggested by the appearance of these equations upon writing cos | =1 1/2|2 . . ., sin | =| 1/6 |3
. . . consists in setting
where F
n
and |
n
are homogeneous of degree n in the quantities 1/R
x
and 1/R
y
. In particular
Introduction of (18) to (20) into (15') and (17'), written as
Page39
leads to the following systemof successive differential equations
Solution of (21) to (23), and of the corresponding subsequent systems, is carried out by direct integration. We find from(21) and fromthe periodicity condition in
view of the fact that cos =dx/ds and sin =dy/ds,
and
From(22) follows
with corresponding expressions for d|
11
/ds and d|
02
/ds. It is apparent that, in general, further integrations must be carried out numerically.
Corresponding expansions for applied moments, as defined by (16) are of the form
and
With (19), (20) and (25) it is found that M
x
may be written as
Page40
where the X
jk
and Y
jk
are suitable constants. An analogous expression may be deduced for M
y
.
The following observations may be made:
1. Equation (29), when specialized to the case of the homogeneous constant-wall thickness, circular-cross-section tube, and without any of the terms represented by
dots or the terms with 1/R
y
, reduces to the formula of Brazier for the moment M
x
in terms of the curvature 1/R
x
.
2. As long as the calculations of M
x
and M
y
do not go beyond third-degree terms in R-1 they may equally well be considered to be based on a linear systemof
differential equations, of the form
Associated with this linear systemare non-linear expressions for M
x
and M
y
of the form
3. Higher degree terms than those displayed in (29) may have an effect of the order of ten percent or more in the range of practical interest of the theory. The fact that
this may be so becomes apparent even without explicit calculations upon introduction of appropriate non-dimensional variables and parameters.
Equations for the Circular-Cross Section Tube
We designate the radius of the circular cross section by b and write the coordinates of the middle surface of the tube in terms of a polar angle , as follows:
Therewith,
and Eqs. (15) to (17) become
Page41
If we limit ourselves in what follows to the case that D and C are independent of then, because of symmetry, we may further limit ourselves to the consideration of
the case 1/R
y
=0 and M
y
=0. Writing R
x
=R we have then
and
If we further set
and indicate differentiation with respect to by primes, then the system(39), (40) assumes the form
and Eq. (41) becomes
where EI =tCb3 is the bending stiffness factor of the tube according to elementary theory. Equation (45) may be written in the alternate form
in which a dimensionless applied moment m appears as a function of the dimensionless curvature parameter o.
Equation (45') may be simplified by introducing (44) and by integrating by parts. In this way there follows the relation
Equations (43) and (44) may be solved by expansion in powers of o2. We set
and expand both cos | and sin | in powers of o2. In this way we obtain a systemof
Page42
successive differential equations of which we list the first seven equations, as follows:
The solutions of (48) to (52) must be periodic of period 2t in . We list below the formof these solutions for Eqs. (48) to (50).
In terms of these expansions we have for the dimensionless moment m,
Introduction of (53) to (55) results in the following explicit formula for m,
Equation (57) is in agreement with our previous result for this problemand reduces, upon omission of all terms except the first two, to Brazier's result.
In order to delineate the range of values of o which is of practical interest, we determine the value of o for which flattening instability occurs. This value of o is
obtained by solving the equation dm/do =0. From(57) follows for this value according to Brazier while if o5 is retained in (57) we obtain
. Corresponding values of m are m
B
=1.086 and m
C
=0.998. These numerical data indicate that the exact value of m for which
dm/do =0 may differ fromBrazier's value by an appreciable amount. They also indicate that it will be of interest to obtain numerically more accurate solutions of
(43) and (44) than given here, for values of o2 in the range fromtwo to three.
Page43
Finite Pure Bending of Circular Cylindrical Tubes*
[Qu. Appl. Math. 20, 305319, 1962]
Introduction
The present paper is concerned with the determination of stresses, deformations and stiffness of originally straight circular tubes in pure bending. The non-linear
problemof determining the stiffness of such a tube as a function of the applied moment and the determination of a critical moment for which flattening instability occurs
has originally been discussed by Brazier [1].
An alternate more precise formulation of the problemof flattening instability of circular cross-section tubes is contained in a recent paper by one of the present
authors [2], as a special case of results for pure bending of general cylindrical tubes. In this same paper approximate solutions of the non-linear differential equations
of the problemwere obtained as expansions in powers of a dimensionless parameter o. It was found that the first terms of these expansions give the results of linear
theory and that consideration of two terms gave the results of Brazier [1]. It was further found that consideration of three terms lead to results which differed from
Brazier's to the order of ten per cent. Since the calculation of additional terms in the o-series becomes progressively more complicated, an alternate determination of
the results is of interest. The present paper presents such an alternate determination, involving the iterative solution of a systemof two simultaneous non-linear integral
equations. In addition to this, the previous three-termo-series are extended by the calculation of fourth terms. Our calculations lead to the note-worthy conclusion
that Brazier's results for flattening instability are quite close to the results of precise calculations based on the equations given in [2], in the sense that consideration of
three and even four terms in the o-series lead to results which are further fromthe correct results (in the critical o-range) than the results based on only two terms in
the o-series.
In addition to these conclusions for the problemof the flattening instability, we obtain in what follows quantitative results for the non-linear behavior of stresses and
deformations in the tube. We find, in particular, that when the applied bending moment is of the order of the critical moment, the order of magnitude of the secondary
circumferential wall bending stressesassociated with the flattening of the cross-sectionis the same as the order of magnitude of the primary longitudinal direct fiber
stresses in the tube.
Basic Equations
It has been shown previously [2] that the problemof pure bending of a tube with cross-section before deformation given by x =b sin , y =b cos for
*With H. J . Weinitschke.
Page44
0s, s 2t is associated with two simultaneous non-linear differential equations for a stress function variable F and an angular displacement variable | of the
following form
In these equations R is the radius of curvature of the originally straight axis of the tube, D =E
b
h3/12 is the circumferential wall bending stiffness factor and 1/A =E
s
h
is the axial stretching stiffness factor of the tube.1
Fig. 1.
Notation.
Equations (1) are to be solved in the interval 0 ss 1/2t subject to the following boundary conditions,
To be determined are in particular the applied moment M given by
axial fiber stress o] and the circumferential bending stress o
b
given by
1In our earlier paper [2] it had been assumed that D =E
b
h3/12(1 v2) which is theappropriatecircumferential stiffness factor for small cylindrical bending. Consideringthat in therangeof practical
interest wewill havecylindrical bendingwith relatively largedeflections astiffness factor D without theterm(1 v2) seems moreappropriate.
Page45
and cross sectional flattening and bulging displacements given by
Equations (1) to (3) are made non-dimensional by setting
Indicating differentiation with respect to by primes, we now have the differential equations
with boundary conditions
The dimensionless moment m becomes, after an integration by parts
and dimensionless stresses may be obtained in the form
Two alternative dimensionless stress quantities may be defined as follows. One definition makes use of the maximumfiber stress which would exist in the
tube bent to a radius R if there were no flattening effect. Introduction of into Eqs. (4) and (6) leads to the formulas
As flattening makes the tube more flexible than it would otherwise be, we expect that the ratio of will decrease as o increases.
A second non-dimensionalization makes use of the maximumfiber stress , where I =tb3h, which would exist in the tube subject to an applied moment M
if there were no flattening effect. Introduction of into Eqs. (4) and (6) leads to the formulas
In these equations we consider o a function of m which is defined by means of Eq. (9). Whether or not will increase or decrease with increasing m will
depend on the shape of the curve for as function of and cannot be predicted without numerical calculations. Numerical calculations are also needed for a
comparison of the magnitude of the secondary bending stresses o
b
with the magnitude of the primary direct fiber stress o], in their dependence on o or m.
Page46
Expansion in Powers of o
The boundary value problem(7) and (8) may be solved, as in [2], by expansions
Expanding sin | and cos | in terms of o2 we obtain a systemof successive linear differential equations, of which we list the first seven as follows:
We require that the boundary conditions (8) be satisfied identically in o.
The functions ]
0
, ]
2
, ]
4
, |
2
, |
4
have been calculated in [2] and are listed here for completeness sake. The functions ]
6
and |
6
as well as formulas for stresses and
displacements have not been obtained before. We find
Insertion of Eq. (12a) into Eq. (9) gives an expression for the moment function m of the form,
Substitution of (17a), (17c), (18b) and (20) and subsequent integration gives the relation
The partial sumobtained by omitting the last listed termin Eq. (22) agrees with the result given in [2]. Retaining only the first two terms on the right side of Eq. (22)
gives the result of Brazier. A quantitative discussion of the dimensionless moment curvature relation (22) is given further on in conjunction with a discussion of the
corresponding relation obtained fromthe numerical solution of the integral equation.
Page47
For the calculation of stresses in accordance with Eqs. (9a, b), (10) and (11) we need the following expressions for the derivatives ]' and |':
which follow fromEqs. (12) and (17) to (20).
Expressions for the flattening and bulging displacements follow fromEqs. (5), (12) and (17) to (20) in the form
We note that while for sufficiently small o we have , it is found that for increasing o the flattening displacement u increases more rapidly than the bulging
displacement v.
4
Integral Equation Formulation and Numerical Solution
The differential equations (7) with boundary conditions (8) may be reduced to the following systemof integral equations
where x =/1/2 t, , and G], G| are Green's functions given by
(in what follows the bars on , will not be written, for simplicity's sake.) Numerical solutions of adequate accuracy of these integral equations may be obtained by a
combination of iteration and numerical integration.
Values of the dimensionless moment m and of the displacements u and v are calculated by introducing the solutions ](x), |(x) into the integrals in Eqs. (3) and (5).
Dimensionless stresses in accordance with Eqs. (9a, b), (10) and (11) are obtained by calculating d|/dx and df/dx in terms of the integrals which follow, rather than
by numerical differentiation of the discrete values of ] and | obtained fromthe solution
Page48
of Eqs. (27) and (28). We find, in dimensionless form
where
In order to describe the iteration scheme to be used, we write Eqs. (27) and (28) in the form
where the integral operator K
1
depends on | only and where K
2
is linear in ]. The most straightforward iteration of (39) is expressed by ]
n+1
=K
1
[|
n
], |
n+1
=
o2K
2
[]
n
, |
n
]. Using the iteration ]
n+1
for the calculation of |
n+1
, a more rapidly converging iteration scheme for (39) is
The two equations (40) can be written as one equation as follows
Numerical calculation shows convergence of (41) for values of o2 up to about 5. For larger o2, examples of both oscillations and steady increase in magnitude of
successive iterates were obtained, that is, the iteration scheme diverges.
In order to obtain solutions for larger values of o2, the iteration scheme is modified by introduction of two ''relaxation parameters" and as follows2
Clearly, if the sequences ]
n
, |
n
converge, they converge to a solution of (39). The relaxation parameters and are allowed to depend on o2. With this scheme
and with appropriate choice of , , the speed of convergence was considerably increased as compared with the iteration (40), and convergence was induced for
values of o2 for which (40) diverges. In this way solutions up to were obtained; the range
2A similar iteration schemeusingonerelaxation parameter was employed by Keller and Reiss in solvingasystemof non-linear differenceequations [3].
Page49
could probably be extended to still larger o2 by proper choice of , , although solutions beyond a critical value (see Section 5) are physically less interesting.
Table 1 shows some numerical results. The special case = =1 is identical with the iteration (40). A proof for the convergence of the modified scheme (42) for
values of o2 >1.8 has yet to be obtained.
Table1. Number of iterations for 0.1% accuracy of solutions of (39)
o2 = =1 =1, =3/4 =3/4, =1 =3/4, =3/4 =.65, =.60
2.6 6 8 9
6.0 34 10 18
9.0 oscill. 32 20 16
13.0 div. div. 32 27
20.0 div. div. oscill. 33
Some numerical solutions of Eqs. (39) have previously been calculated by G. L. Brown [4], who used Simpson's rule for numerical integration combined with an
iteration equivalent to (40). He found, using interval lengths Ax =1/5, 1/9 and 1/16 that the latter was not small enough to draw conclusions on the accuracy of the
results obtained.
5
Discussion of Results
The integral equations (39) have been solved for values of o2 up to 25. These solutions are in the following referred to as "numerical solutions." A comparison of the
o-expansion with the numerical solutions shows that the o-expansion solutions are accurate almost up to the critical value o
c
, defined by dm/do =0 (see Figures
24). For larger values of o, they become quite inaccurate. As a check on the numerical solutions, Eqs. (7) were approximated by a finite difference system
which was solved for |
i
, ]
i
i =2, . . ., N, the values ]
0
, ]
1
, |
0
, |
1
being given fromthe solution of the integral equations. If the solutions of Eqs. (43) differed by
more than one unit in the third figure fromthe solutions of Eqs. (39), the latter solutions were recalculated with a smaller spacing h, and the check via Eqs. (43) was
repeated for that spacing.
The moment curvature relation is shown in Figure 2. What is of particular interest is the value o
c
, for which flattening instability occurs. For this value of the
dimensionless curvature, the moment m attains its maximumvalue m
c
. The numerical values for o
c
, and m
c
when retaining 2, 3, or 4 terms in Eqs. (22), and the
corresponding values o
c
, m
c
fromthe numerical solution are given below. The numbers of the last column of Table 2 were obtained by interpolation froma large
scale plot of the dimensionless moment-curvature relation near the critical point (o
c
, m
c
).
Figure 3 shows the maximumvalues of the dimensionless direct stress o]b/E
s
h and bending stress o
b
b/E
b
h as defined by Eqs. (9a, b). The maximumbending stress
Page50
Fig. 2.
Dimensionless moment curvaturerelation.
Fig. 3.
Dimensionless maximumdirect and bendingstresses.
occurs at the neutral plane, that is o
b,m
=o
b
(0). The bending stress o
b
(1/2t) at the farthest distance fromthe neutral plane is slightly less in absolute value than o
b
(0)
and is also displayed in Figure 3.
For small o bending stresses are negligible with respect to direct fiber stresses. For values of o approaching o
c
, the bending stresses become of the same order of
Page51
Table2. Critical curvatures and moments
2 terms 3 terms 4 terms numerical solution
o
c 1.513 1.422 1.468 1.526
m
c 1.086 0.998 1.034 1.063
Fig. 4.
Dimensionless maximumflatteningand bulgingdisplacements.
magnitude as the direct stresses. It is interesting to note that the maximumdirect stress is not attained at but for the somewhat larger value .
Values of the dimensionless maximumflattening and bulging displacements of the cross section are displayed in Figure 4. For small values of o, the two displacements
are nearly identical. As in the o-expansions (Eqs. (25) and (26)), flattening increases faster with increasing o than bulging, the rate of increase being strongest near
o
c
, for both flattening and bulging.
Next we compare our results with those of elementary linear beamtheory. In Figure 5 the ratios and with =E
s
/E
b
, according to Eqs. (11)3 are
plotted against the dimensionless moment m/m
c
. In Figure 6, the stress ratios and are plotted against o. We conclude fromthese graphs that for
a given moment, the direct stress produced according to the nonlinear theory is
3Thecalculations werecarried out on theIBM-709s at Western DataProcessingCenter, Univ. of Calif., Los Angeles, and at Computation Center, M.I.T., Cambridge.
Page52
Fig. 5.
Stress ratios as functions of dimensionless
moment m/m
c
.
Fig. 6.
Stress ratios as functions of dimensionless
curvatureo.
slightly larger than the value given by the linear theory which neglects the flattening of the cross section. On the other hand, for a given curvature of the central axis of
the tube, the nonlinear theory stress is less than that given by the elementary beamtheory.
Finally, we consider briefly the stress distribution over the cross-section of the tube and its deviation fromthe elementary (linear) stress distribution. As is seen from
Page53
Fig. 7.
Dimensionless direct stress vs. dimensionless distanced/b fromneutral axis for
several values of o.
Fig. 7, this deviation is quite small for values of oso
c
. For larger values the distribution becomes more markedly nonlinear, in fact, for o >2.5 the maximumfiber
stress is no longer attained in the outermost fiber.
References
1. L. G. Brazier, "On the flexure of thin cylindrical shells and other thin sections," Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 116, 104114 (1927).
2. E. Reissner, "On finite pure bending of cylindrical tubes," sterr. Ing. Arch., 15, 165172 (1961).
3. H. B. Keller and E. L. Reiss, "Iterative solutions for the nonlinear bending of circular plates," Comm. Pure Appl. Math., 11, 273292 (1958).
4. G. L. Brown, "On the numerical solution of two simultaneous non-linear differential equations arising in elasticity," M. S. Thesis, Mass. Inst. of Technology, June
1960.
5. L. Collatz, "Numerische Behandlung von Differentialgleichungen" 2. Auflage, Springer 1955.
Page54
Considerations on the Centres of Shear and of Twist in the Theory of Beams*
[Muskelisvili 80th Anniversary Volume, pp. 403408, Moscow 1972]
1
Introduction
The considerations which follow resulted fromendeavours to understand, appreciate and reconcile different statements in the literature on the subject of the centre of
shear and of the centre of twist, and on the conditions under which these centres would or would not coincide. The outcome of our considerations was an approach
which to us seemed quite different fromwhat had been done previously, and rather more appropriate to the question, as we hope to make evident in what follows.
Specifically, our first object is to show that coincidence of the centres of twist and of shear may be taken to be no more thana natural consequence of a reasonable
formulation of the problems of torsion and of flexure in the theory of beams.
Our second object is to show that an explicit, approximate determination of the location of these centres may be based on the Saint-Venant solutions of the problems
of torsion and flexure (which by themselves are known to leave these centres arbitrary), in conjunction with a direct-methods-of-the-calculus-of-variations-type use
of the principle of minimumcomplementary energy.
2
A Formulation of the Problems of Torsion and Flexure
We consider a linear elastic prismatical body, with boundaries defined, in an (x, y, z) co-ordinate system, by means of a cylindrical surface f(x, y) =0 and two
parallel planes z =0 and z =L.
We designate displacements by u
x
, u
y
, u
z
and stresses by o
x
, o
y
, o
z
, t
xy
, t
xz
, t
yz
and we assume that the usual three-dimensional homogeneous equations of linear
elasticity hold. We further assume that the cylindrical boundary portion of the body is free of tractions and that the plane boundary portion z =0 is fixed.
In regard to the plane boundary portion z =L we assume the absence of normal tractions while at the same time its tangential displacement components correspond
to a plane rigid body translation and rotation, i.e., we stipulate
where U, V, and O are given constants.
It is evident that we may, in conjunction with the above set of prescribed boundary conditions, consider a set of overall tractions consisting of transverse
*With W. T. Tsai.
Page55
forces P and Q and of a torque T defined by
In view of the linearity of the problem, P, Q and T will come out to be linear combinations of U, V and O and it may be concluded that, inversely, U, V and O are
related to P, Q and T in the form
It may further be concluded that Eqs. (3) retain their formfor such generalizations of the stated problemas are obtained uponreplacing the given conditions of end
fixity at z =0 by homogeneous linear relations of the formg
i
(u
x
, u
y
, u
z
, o
z
, t
xz
, t
yz
) =0 for i =1, 2, 3, and by replacing the condition o
z
=0 for z =L by any
homogeneous linear relation g(u
z
, o
z
) =0 for z =L.
3
The Centre of Twist and the Centre of Shear
The possibility of defining points in the cross-sections of a prismatical beamwhich may be designated as centre of twist and as centre of shear, respectively,
depends on the rationality of the concept of the cross-sections of the beamrigidly translating and rotating in their own planes, at least approximately. We propose
here to sharpen these definitions by confining themto cross-sections which are prescribed to translate and rotate rigidly in their own planes, i.e., to the end cross-
section of the prismatical beamfor which the boundary conditions (1) and its mentioned generalizations are stipulated*.
Definition of Centre of Twist
With end cross-section displacements prescribed in the formu
x
=U yO, u
y
=V +xO we define the co-ordinates x
T
, y
T
of the centre of twist at those values of x
and y for which u
x
=u
y
=0, while at the same time P =Q =0, i.e.,
Introduction of Eq. (3) into Eq. (4) expresses y
T
and x
T
in terms of influence coefficients, as follows:
*Given that theend cross-section translates and rotates rigidly, interior cross-sections may or may not also translateand rotaterigidly, exactly or approximately. To theextent that they do, by
virtueof geometrical and material properties of thebeam, onemay ask for thedependenceof thelocation of thecentres of twist and of shear on distancefromtheend section of thebeam, as has
been donesometimeearlier, in 1955, by thefirst-named author, in regard to thecentreof twist.
Page56
Definition of Centre of Shear
We define co-ordinates x
s
, y
s
of the centre of shear as the co-ordinates of the point of intersection of the lines of action of the end forces P and Q for the case that
(1) there is no rotation of the end section, and (2) the total torque about the point x =y =0 (and any other point in the cross-section) is due to the forces P and Q.
Setting in accordance with the above definition, in Eqs. (3)
we obtain fromthe third equation in (3) the relation
Since (7) must hold for arbitrary ratios P/Q we have as expressions for y
s
and x
s
Conditions for Coincidence of Centre of Twist and Centre of Shear
Inspection of Eqs. (8), (5) and (3) reveals that a sufficient condition for the coincidence of the centre of twist and the centre of shear is that the influence coefficient
matrix C in Eqs. (3) be symmetric.
Since this matrix will be symmetric provided a strain energy function exists for the beamproblem, coincidence of the two centres is established in the foregoing for
most cases of practical interest.
Conversely, we may expect that the centre of twist and the centre of shear, as defined in the present account, will in general not coincide with each other for beams
with material and/or support condition properties of such nature that a strain energy function does not exist for them.
4
The Principle of Minimum Complementary Energy for the Problems of Torsion and Flexure
We know that among all states of stress and displacement which satisfy the differential equations of equilibriumand the given surface traction conditions for f(x, y) =
0 and z =L, the state which also satisfies the stress-displacement differential equations and the given displacement boundary conditions for z =0 and z =L is
determined by a variational equation oH =0 where
Here W is the complementary energy density of the material of the beam, and Eq. (9) may be appropriately generalized for more general boundary conditions for z =
0 and z =L, of the kind noted in the paragraph following Eqs. (3).
In accordance with our earlier discussion it is our object to use the equation oH =0, on the basis of suitable approximative assumptions for the state of stress, in
order to obtain approximate values of the integrals , in terms of the parameters U, V and O in (9).
Page57
To utilize (9) in a practical sense it suggests itself that we limit ourselves to cases for which part of the approximate assumptions for the state of stress consists in
stipulating, as in Saint-Venant's theory of torsion and flexure, that
We further assume that the material of the beamis homogeneous and transversely isotropic so that, with (10),
where E and G are independent of x, y, z.
Page58
On One-Dimensional Finite-Strain Beam Theory:
The Plane Problem
[J. Appl. Math & Phys. (ZAMP) 23, 795804, 1972]
Introduction
The following is concerned with a consistent one-dimensional treatment of the class of beamproblems dealing with the plane deformation of originally plane beams.
Our principal result is a systemof non-linear strain displacement relations which is consistent with exact one-dimensional equilibriumequations for forces and
moments via what is considered to be an appropriate version of the principle of virtual work.
Having a consistent systemof equilibriumand strain displacement equations it is further necessary to stipulate, or rather to establish by means of an appropriate set of
physical experiments, an associated systemof constitutive equations. We discuss the nature of this aspect of the problem, including a solution of its linearized version,
but without arriving at the solution of the general problem.
The principal novelty of the present results is thought to be a rational incorporation of transverse shear deformation into one-dimensional finite-strain beamtheory. A
case may be made that the theory, with this effect incorporated, is of a more harmonious formthan the corresponding classical theory, where account is taken of finite
bending and stretching, while at the same time it is postulatedfollowing Euler and Bernoullithat the transverse shearing strain is absent, with the corresponding force
being a reactive force.
As an application of the general work a solution is given of the problemof circular ring buckling, including consideration of the effects of axial normal strain and of
transverse shearing strain on the value of the classical Bresse-Maurice Lvy buckling load.
Kinematics of Beam Element
We consider an element ds of a one-dimensional beamwith equations x =x(s) and y =y(s) before deformation. We designate the tangent angle to the beamcurve
by
0
and write cos
0
=x'(s) and sin
0
=y'(s), where primes indicate differentiation with respect to s. We note that
0
is also the angle between the normal to the
beamcurve and the y-axis.
Due to deformation the points x =x(s) and y =y(s) of the undeformed beamcurve are changed to x(s) +u(s) and y(s) +v(s). We now assume that transverse
elements which were originally normal to the beamcurve do not necessarily remain so but end up enclosing an angle 1/2t_ with this curve. At the same time we
designate the angle enclosed by such an element and the y-axis by . We then have a geometrical situation as shown in Figure 1. We note in particular, in addition to
the angle _, the relative change of length e of the beamcurve element ds, and the
Page59
Fig. 1.
change of the angle
0
into an angle , and we read fromthe deformed beamelement, as relations between _, , e, u and v,
Dynamics of Beam Element
We now consider the deformed beamelement, with normal and shear forces N and Q and with a bending moment M, in accordance with Figure 2. Together with this
we assume force load intensities p
x
and p
y
and a moment load intensity m, per unit of undeformed beamcurve length, also in accordance with Figure 2.
Fig. 2.
Page60
We then read fromFigure 2 as component equations of force equilibriumin the directions of x and y,
At the same time we obtain as equation of moment equilibrium
We note, for future use, the possibility of deducing from(2a, b) the relations
where n =p
x
cos +p
y
sin and q =p
y
cos p
x
sin are components of load intensity in the directions of N and Q, respectively.
Constitutive Equations
We postulate that the material of the beamis elastic and that we have the existence of axial and transverse force strains c and and of a bending strain k, in such a
way that constitutive equations for beamelements may be written in the form
We are ignorant, at this point, not only in regard to the formof the functions ] in (4), but also in regard to definitions for the components of strain c, and k which
enter into the constitutive equations (4).*
Defining Equations for Strain
In order to obtain equations for strain we consider a virtual work equation of the form
and we stipulate, as Principle of Virtual Work, that equation (5) be equivalent to the dynamic equations (2) and (3) in the interior of the interval (s
1
, s
2
), given that oc,
o and ok are appropriate expressions for virtual strains.
Since we know the formof the dynamic equations but do not at this point know expressions for virtual strains we use equation (5), in conjunction with (2) and (3), to
deduce expressions for virtual strains.
Introduction of (2) and (3) into equation (5) gives a relation of the form
*However, weexpect that c~e, ~_ and k~''
0
, for sufficiently small strain.
Page61
and in this we may now consider N, Q and M as arbitrary differentiable functions of s.
In order to utilize (6) we integrate by parts, thereby eliminating all derivatives of N, Q and M as well as the boundary terms on the right. In this way we obtain
The arbitrariness of N, Q and M means that (7) implies the virtual strain displacement relations
It remains to take the step fromvirtual strain displacement relations to actual strain displacement relations.
One of these actual strain displacement relations follows directly fromequation (9) in the form
A correspondingly simple derivation of expressions for c and is clearly not possible through direct use of (8a, b). Remarkably, we may obtain c and by using (8a,
b) in conjunction with the geometrical relations (1). To do this we observe that equations (1) imply the following relations between virtual quantities
We now use (11a, b) in order to eliminate ou' and ov' in (8a, b). In this way we obtain
The formof (12a, b) is such that we can now go fromvirtual strains to actual strains. The results are
Having (13a, b) we can further express c and in terms of u, v and . Introduction of (13a, b) into (1a, b) gives first
and then, by inversion
Page62
We finally note the possibility of rewriting the moment equilibriumequation (3) somewhat more simply with the help of the strain components c and as in (13), in the
form
Observations on the Problem of Experimentally Derived Constitutive Equations
In order to see the nature of the problemof experimentally establishing the nature of the functions ] in equations (4) we consider the problemof an originally straight
beam, with x =s, y =0 and
0
=0, fixed at the end x =0 and subject to given displacements u(a) =u
a
, v(a) =v
a
and (a) =
a
at the other end. We assume
absent distributed loads and have then fromequations (2a, b)
where X
a
and Y
a
are two constants of integration the mechanical significance of which is evident.
To proceed further we consider the moment equation (3*) as a differential equation for , by writing
and by considering the constitutive equations involving N and Q partially inverted in the form
so that M = f
M
(c,,k) =f
k
(N,Q,') =g(,').
The resultant second-order equation for must be solved subject to the boundary conditions (0) =0 and (a) =
a
, with which =(x; X
a
, Y
a
,
a
).
Having we find u and v from(14a, b). The boundary conditions for u and v are satisfied upon setting
We now measure X
a
, Y
a
and M
a
as functions of u
a
, v
a
,
a
, and of a, giving a set of three relations , etc. The remaining task then is to deduce
fromthe formof these three experimentally determined functions , and the formof the desired three functions ]
N
, ]
Q
, ]
M
in equations (4).
The Linear Case
We consider a range of stresses and strains within which
with a view towards determining the elements , . . ., of the three by three matrix [C].
Fromequations (17) follow the linearized relations
Page63
and the moment equation (3*), again with boundary conditions (0) =0 and (a) =
a
, is reduced to
Equations (19) for the translational edge displacements become
In order to solve the problemas stated in (20) to (23) we partially invert (20) in the form
and write (22) in the form , with solution
We then have further, from(24),
and, upon making use of (23a, b),
We now stipulate knowledge of a matrix [B], as a result of experiment, such that
Having (26) to (28) we may then successively determine the elements of the matrix [C*] in terms of the elements of [B]. To see this we write
and have then fromthe relation
a
=BNN
a
+BQQ
a
+BMM
a
that
fromwhich , and follow in succession in terms of elements of [B].
We next introduce (26') into (27a, b) and compare the resultant relations with corresponding relations in (28). In this way we obtain the remaining six elements ,
etc. of the matrix [C*] in terms of the elements of [B].
Finally, having [C*] we find the elements of [C] by returning from(24) to (20).
Buckling of Circular Rings
As an application of the foregoing we consider the classical problemof in-plane buckling of a circular ring of radius R, subject to a uniformnormal pressure p. We
wish to obtain a buckling-load formula which
Page64
incorporates the effects of (1) the symmetrical deformation of the ring prior to the onset of buckling, (2) axial strain associated with the buckling mode, (3) transverse
shearing strain associated with the buckling mode. We will be concerned, in particular, with the question of appropriate constitutive equations.
Inspection of Figure 2 indicates that for uniformnormal pressure p, per unit of deformed beamcurve, we have as expressions for the load intensity components q and
n in the force equilibriumequations (2*a, b)
together with an absent moment load intensity m in equation (3*).
We further have, with k as in equation (10) and with Rd
0
=ds, that ' =R1 +k. Therewith the equilibriumequations (2*a, b) and (3*) may be written in the form
In complementing (31) by constitutive equations we have no difficulty in deciding that suitable relations involving k and c are of the form
In stipulating a relation involving we find it necessary to concern ourselves with the question whether would be determined by the force Q tangential to the
deformed cross section or by a force Q
*
normal to the deformed centerline. Evidently, we have Q
*
given in terms of Q and N by the relation Q
*
=Q cos _ N sin _
or, approximately, by Q
*
=QN. If we stipulate that =BQ
*
we arrive at a relation for in terms of Q and N, of the form =BQ/(1 +BN).* If we use Qinstead of
Q
*
at the outset we have instead that =BQ. We may subsume both relations to one of the form
and consider in the end the two limiting cases =0 and =1.
Having equations (31) and (32) we now consider the stability of the state
for which, evidently, in view of (31b) and (32b)
We now write
and linearize (31) and (32) in terms of Q, M, , k, N
1
and c
1
so as to have.
*This, together with (32b), is effectively equivalent to constitutiveequations of theformQ =(/B) +(c/C) and N =(c/C) +(2/2C).
Page65
Equation (32a) remains as is and equations (32b) and (32c) become*
We now use (32a), (34) and (37) to write (36a, b, c) as a systemof equations for N
1
, Q and k, as follows
It is evident that (38b), differentiated once, my be written with the help of (38a) and (38c) as one second-order differential equation for Q.
Appropriate solutions, for a complete ring, will be of the formQ =cos ns/R where n =2, 3, . . . Fromthis follows as the equation for possible values of P,
Equation (39) may be written as a cubic equation for PR2/D, involving axial-strain and transverse shear-strain parameters kc =CD/R2 and k =BD/R2. We will here
limit ourselves to a discussion of the case kc =0, with k k, for which the cubic equation reduces to a quadratic of the form
The smallest positive value of P follows fromthis for n =2. We consider in particular the cases =1 and =0.
When =1 we have from(40), in agreement with a recent result by Smith and Simitses**
When =0 the solution is
*Wenotethepossibility that C and B, as well as D in equation (32a), may beconsidered to depend on c
P
.
**J . Eng. Mech. Div., ASCE 95, EM 3, 559569 (1969).
Page66
On One-Dimensional Large-Displacement Finite-Strain Beam Theory
[Studies Appl. Math. 52, 8795, 1973]
Introduction
In what follows we consider once more the classical problemof large displacements of thin curved beams. As regards the literature on this problemprior to about
1930 we may refer to the Historical Introduction and to Chapters 18 and 19 of the 4th Edition of Love's Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. Subsequently, further
attempts at improving the theory have been made by various investigators, but as far as could be ascertained none have dealt with the problemin the manner
described in what follows.
Briefly stated, we consider a large-deformation theory of space-curved lines, with the cross sections of the lines acted upon by forces and moments. We take as
basic the differential equations of force and moment equilibriumfor elements of the deformed curve. We then stipulate a formof the principle of virtual work, and use
this principle so as to obtain a systemof strain displacement relations, involving force strains and moment strains in association with the assumed cross-sectional
forces and moments. Having a one-dimensional description of stress states and strain states we complete the formulation of the problemby postulating a systemof
one-dimensional constitutive equations which, in the end, must incorporate the consequences of suitably designed experiments or of the one-dimensional
consequences of a theory of beams treated as a three-dimensional problem.
The advantages of the present development, in comparison with work by others, seemto this writer to consist in the explicit consideration of axial and transverse
force strains in place of the usual early introduction of inextensibility and of the Euler-Bernoulli hypothesis. We have previously considered linear beamtheory [2], as
well as the nonlinear theory of plane deformations of plane beams [5] in this manner. The present step to the general nonlinear theory suggested itself in the course of
related work on thin shells [4], which in turn was suggested by work of Simmonds and Danielson [6] and by earlier work on the nonlinear symmetrical problemof the
shell of revolution [3]. It is to be emphasized that the present theory, as far as it goes, is strictly along classical lines without consideration, for example, of Vlasov's
concept of bi-moments. It remains to be seen in what way the present approach may be generalized so as to apply to more general non-classical one-dimensional
nonlinear beamtheories.
Geometry and Statics of Beam Elements
We consider a space curve with equation r =r(s) before deformation. We take the parameter s to be the length of arc, measured froma given point on the curve, and
have then a tangent unit vector
Page67
t =r'(s), where the prime here and in what follows indicates differentiation with respect to s. Having t we introduce two mutually perpendicular unit normal vectors n
1
and n
2
, such that t n
1
=n
2
, n
1
n
2
=t and n
2
t =n
1
, with generalized Frenet formulas
where
1
,
2
and
t
are given functions of s.
Due to deformation the curve r =r(s) changes into a curve R =r(s) +u(s), with tangent vector R'(s) where |R'(s)| =1 +c, with c= 0, in general.
Having the curve R =R(s) we now stipulate the existence of external forces and moments p ds and mds acting on the element |dR|. We further stipulate the existence
of internal forces and moments P(s) and M(s) acting over ''cross sections" of the curve. Consideration of the changes of P and M in going froms to s +ds, as well as
of the principle of action and reaction then gives as equations of force and moment equilibriumof the elements of the deformed beamthe two vector relations
Equations (2) are of course equivalent to six scalar component equations. In order to obtain such component equations, we introducefollowing Simmonds and
Danielson's idea in treating thin-shell theory [6]a triad of as yet unspecified mutually perpendicular unit vectors T, N
1
and N
2
in terms of which
and
with corresponding decompositions for p and m.
In reducing (2) to scalar formthrough introduction of (3a, b) we make use of differentiation formulas for T, N
1
and N
2
of the form
with r
1
, r
2
and r
t
depending on how the triad (T, N
i
) is defined.
The Equation of Virtual Work and Virtual Strain Displacement Relations
We introduce in association with the external forces and moments p ds and mds, virtual translational and rotational displacements oR =ou and o. At the same
time we introduce in association with the internal forces and moments P and M virtual force and moment strains ootook. With this we write as equation of
virtual work for any segment (s
1
, s
2
) of the beam
and we designate as principle of virtual work the statement that with o and ok suitably given in terms of arbitrary ou, o and their derivatives, Eq. (5) is equivalent
to the two vector equilibriumEqs. in (2).
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For present purposes Eq. (5) is used, not to deduce (2) on the basis of given o and ok, but rather to deduce o and ok, on the basis of knowing the formof (2). To
do this we introduce p and mfrom(2) in terms of P and M and write (5) in the form
where now P and M may be considered as arbitrary quantities. Integration by parts to eliminate P' and M', and use of the relation R' P o =R' o P, then
results in two relations, which may be designated as virtual strain displacement relations. These are
where R' =t +u'.
In order to translate (7) into a systemof scalar relations we now define scalar components of virtual strain by means of the following two expressions
These, in conjunction with (3a, b) imply as expressions for virtual strains,
and it remains to use Eqs. (7) for the determination of o
t
, o
i
, ok
t
and ok
i
, in such a way that fromthese the determination of
t
,
i
, k
t
and k
t
becomes possible.
Derivation of Implicit Strain Displacement Relations
The crucial step in what follows is the tentative assumption of an implicit representation of the force strains
t
, and
i
, in terms of the triad (T, N
i
), as follows
Fromthis follows as relation for (ou)' =(oR)' =o(R'),
Introduction of (10), (11) and (9a) into the first Eq. in (7) gives after some cancellations,
Equation (12) is satisfied, identically in
t
and
i
, by further setting
Equations (13) in turn are solved for o by considering the cross products T oT and N
i
oN
i
in conjunction with the canonical expansion formulas for vectorial
Page69
triple products. In this way we obtain
Having Eq. (14), we now determine (o)' in order to determine ok fromthe second Eq. in (7). The nature of the calculations which are required is as follows
The introduction of (17) and (18) into (15), with corresponding expressions for the terms (N
1
oN
1
)' and (N
2
oN
2
)', gives after a remarkable series of
cancellations the simple relation
A comparison of (19) and (9b) gives further
Inasmuch as k
t
and k
i
should vanish for the case of no deformation, that is for the case that r
t
=
t
and r
i
=
i
, we deduce from(20) as implicit expressions for the
components of moment strain,
Intrinsic Equations of Beam Theory
Having Eqs. (21) together with (2), (3a, b), (4) and (10) it is now easy to state an intrinsic formof the beamproblem, that is a complete systemof differential
equations without reference to displacement variables, as soon as it is agreed to stipulate a systemof six constitutive equations of the form
Besides these six scalar equations, we have another set of six scalar equations upon introducing the component representations (3a, b) and (10), in conjunction with
the differentiation formulas (4), into the vectorial equilibriumEqs. (2).
These six additional scalar equations are
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with r
i
, and r
t
in terms of k
i
and k
t
as in (21), and
The formof Eqs. (23) and (24) is as expected, except for the appearance of the nonlinear P-terms in (24).
Derivation of Explicit Strain Displacement Relations
Considering that all components of strain depend on the choice of the orthogonal triad (T, N
i
) we must, in order to obtain an explicit set of strain displacement
relations, connect this triad with the triad (t, n
i
), through a suitable set of angular displacement parameters.
Geometrically speaking, the step from(t, n
i
) to (T, N
i
) involves an angle of rotation u, about an axis defined by a unit vector . The associated transformation
formula, for any vector A in terms of the corresponding vector a is, in accordance with Hamel [1], the Rodriguez formula*
Having (25) for T and N
i
in terms of t and n
i
, respectively, we find components of force strain
t
and
i
on the basis of Eq. (10) in the form
in their dependence on u and on the components of u and .
In order to obtain corresponding expressions for k
t
and k
i
, we need the coefficients r
t
and r
i
in the differentiation formulas (4). In order to obtain these we now
consider the problemof differentiating T and N
i
as given by Eq. (25). It will be sufficient to describe the details for the case of the vector T.
Straightforward differentiation of the formula for T which follows from(25) gives
In the first line on the right we may introduce t' fromEqs. (1) and make use of the fact that (25) also gives the N
i
in terms of the n
i
. Furthermore we take account of
the fact that T' must be perpendicular to T. In this way we see that (27) is equivalent to a formula
*Wenotethat this formulaplays an important rolein Simmonds' and Danielson's treatment of shell theory [6], and also in Tameroglu's treatment of small-strain EulerBernoulli typecurved beam
theory [7].
Page71
where
It is now necessary to determine O. We do this, essentially in the manner in which Hamel [1] determines the "angular velocity" of A, by considering two special
choices of t, namely t = and t perpendicular to .
When t = we also have T = and furthermore t =1, t' =0, and t =0. Equation (29) becomes then
To proceed from(30) we use the unit-vector identity (' ) ='. In this way (30) may be written as
Equation (31) shows that O must be of the form
with | a scalar function of u and u' which remains to be determined.
To find | we now consider the case that t and T are perpendicular to . When this is the case Eq. (25) implies as relation between t and T
We introduce (33) as well as (32) into Eq. (29) and obtain as equation for the determination of |
We transformthis equation with the help of appropriate expansion formulas for triple and quadruple vector products on the left, and obtain after a number of
cancellations the remarkably simple relation
Introduction of (35) into (32) gives
It would now be possible to introduce Eq. (36) as it stands into Eq. (28) and then proceed with the determination of r
t
and r
i
. A considerably more convenient result
follows upon first transforming Eq. (36) through the introduction of a modified (non-unit) axis-of-rotation vector , given by
Insertion of (37), together with ' =]' +]'u', into Eq. (36) gives
We now determine ](u) so as to make the termwith u' in (38) disappear. This gives
Page72
and therewith, after some further transformations
where =
1
n
2

2
n
1
+
t
t, with
1
,
2
,
t
being three independent angular displacement parameters, and c an arbitrary constant. It is convenient, in order to establish
direct contact with known results of linear theory to set
We now introduce Eqs. (40) and (41) into Eq. (25) for T and Eq. (28) for T' and obtain after some further simple transformations
and
with analogous formulas for N
i
and .
Having Eq. (42) for T and the corresponding equations for N
1
and N
2
we could now, upon writing u =u
i
n
i
+u
t
t obtain expressions for the components of force
strain
t
and
i
in terms of u
i
,u
t
,
i
and
t
in accordance with (26). Inasmuch as all that we need, for the satisfaction displacement boundary conditions, are
expressions for T and the N
i
as well as an expression for u we limit ourselves here to writing as expression for u, on the basis of (10)
with T and the N
i
taken fromEq. (42).*
In order to evaluate (42) and (44) we need of course to determine the angular displacement vector and for this purpose we now deduce expressions for the
moment strains k
t
, k
1
, k
2
in terms of the components of the angular displacement vector .
Combining the first of Eqs. (4) with Eq. (43) and the second relation in (21) we have
Combination of the second equation in (4) with the expression for which corresponds to (43) and with the first relation in (10) gives further
A simple direct calculation shows that (45a, b) may be written, alternately, in the
*For cases for which theeffect of forcestrains on thedeformation of thebeamis negligibleEq. (44) reduces to thesimpleform .
Page73
form
Equation (46) suggests expressing k
i
and k
t
, in terms of the corresponding expressions of linear theory. Setting
we will have,
which, except for notation and sign conventions, agrees with the expressions for moment strains of linear theory in [2].
Introduction of (47) into (46) gives as expressions for the components of moment strain of the present nonlinear theory
Moment Strain for In-Plane Deformation of Plane Beams
For this case we may set 1/
2
=1/
t
=0 and
2
=
t
=0. Therewith and and therewith, according to (49a)
In order to express k
1
in terms of the angle of rotation u, as in the independent treatment of the plane problem[5], we consider that for this case the unit rotation
vector equals the unit vector e
2
. Furthermore, =
1
n
2
=
1
e
2
and therefore, in accordance with Eqs. (40) and (41),
and then
which is in agreement with the result in [5].
References
1. G. Hamel, Theoretische Mechanik, 103107, Springer-Verlag, 1949.
2. E. Reissner, Variational considerations for elastic beams and shells, J. Eng. Mechanics Division, Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Eng., EMI, 2357, 1962.
3. E. Reissner, On finite symmetrical deformations of thin shells of revolution, J. Appl. Mech. 36, 267270, 1969.
Page74
4. E. Reissner, Linear and non-linear theory of shells, Thin Shell Structures, pp. 2944, edited by Y. C. Fung and E. E. Sechler, Prentice-Hall, 1974.
5. E. Reissner, On one-dimensional finite strain beamtheory: The plane problem, J. Appl. Math. and Phys. (ZAMP) 23, 795804, 1972.
6. J. G. Simmonds and D. A. Danielson, Non-linear shell theory with finite rotation and stress function vectors, J. Appl. Mech. 39, 10851090, 1972.
7. S. Tameroglu, Finite theory of thin elastic rods, Techn. and Scientific Res. Council of Turkey, Appl. Math. Division, Rpt. No. 4, July 1969.
Page75
Upper and Lower Bounds for Deflections of Laminated Cantilever Beams Including the Effect of Transverse Shear
Deformation
[J. Appl. Mech. 40, 988991, 1973]
1
Introduction
The considerations which follow were originally motivated by the semi-elementary treatment of plane-stress solutions of the problemof the isotropic, homogeneous
elastic cantilever beamof narrow rectangular cross section, fixed at one end and acted upon by a transverse force at the other end, as in [1]. Of specific interest here
is the tip deflection formula
where the termhaving the numerical factor k accounts for the influence of transverse shearing strains on the deflection of the beam.
In deriving a formula of the foregoing type by semi-elementary means, that is, by use of simple polynomial solutions of Airy's differential equation as in [1], it is
necessary to make certain assumptions concerning the approximate formulation of the conditions of end fixity of the cantilever, with the value of k depending on the
assumptions which are made.
In what follows we propose to remove this ambiguity by the use of upper and lower-bound results for the ratio V/P, obtained through suitable application of the
principles of minimumpotential and complementary energy of the theory of elasticity.
Having once formulated a procedure for deriving such bounds for homogeneous beams it is readily evident that the same procedure is applicable for non-
homogeneous, laminated beams. The results which follow are therefore stated for this more general class of problems.
2
Formulation of Problem
We consider states of plane stress in a rectangular region with boundaries x =0, x =a, and y =c, this region representing a beamof unit width. We assume that
the boundary portion x =0 is loaded by a force P in the negative y-direction, that the boundary portion x =a is fixed, and that the boundary portions y =c are
traction-free.
Writing as differential equations for stress and strain the usual relations
and
Page76
the associated systemof boundary conditions is here taken in the following form:
At the same time the force P is given by the integral
In the semi-elementary formulation of this problem, referred to previously, the displacement boundary condition for x =0 is replaced by a stress boundary condition
t(0,y) =(3P/4c)(1 y2/c2), in order to conformwith the type of solution which is used. With this type of solution it is also not possible to satisfy the displacement
conditions (4) as they stand. Instead, all remaining arbitrariness in the semi-elementary solution is removed by postulating and satisfying a systemof conditions of the
form
*
The formulation of the boundary-value problemis completed by the statement of stress-strain relations which for a linear isotropic homogeneous mediumare of the
form
where E =2(1 +v)G, with E, v, and G being constants [1].
In what follows we consider the problemsubject to a systemof relations of the form:
where B is a given function of o
x
, o
y
, t (and of x and y), and we obtain explicit results for the case that (9) reduces to
where E, v, E
y
, and G are given even functions of the coordinate y.
For the formulation of the solution procedure which is to be used, we require a statement of the relations inverse to (9) as well, in the form
*Alternately, consideration is given to thepossibility of using, instead of (cu/cy)
a,0
=0, acondition (cv/cx)
a,0
=0, although, strictly speaking, acondition of this kind would not appear to be
prescribable"fromtheoutside." Wenote, as apossiblealternatecondition which would beprescribable, therelation
Page77
with a corresponding inverse statement of (10).
3
Upper and Lower Bounds for the Work Done by the Force P
Certain transformations of a functional I which enters into the statement of both the principle of minimumpotential energy and the principle of minimum
complementary energy lead to the conclusion that, with conditions as stated in Eqs. (1)(6), (9), and (9'), we have as inequalities for the work quantity PV,
In this where and are differentiable functions which satisfy the displacement boundary conditions (4) and (5b), and
where , , and are differentiable functions which satisfy the equilibriumdifferential Eqs. (1) and the stress boundary conditions (3) and (5a), with .
The equal signs in these inequalities apply whenever , , and , , , respectively, are the actual solution functions of the boundary-value problemstated in (1)
(5), together with (9) and (9').*
4
Application of Formula for Bounds
In order to apply the systemof inequalities we first express the force P as a function of the given displacement (which it must be considering Eq. (6), and the fact that
the termV in (5b) is the only nonhomogeneity in the equations of the boundary-value problem). We will not consider the general case, and assume instead that the
constitutive equations are the linear Eqs. (10). This will make P a linear function of V, and we write
with a view toward obtaining upper and lower bounds for the flexibility coefficient C, with the help of the system(11), written now in the form
where, consistent with (10),
*Equation (1) may beobtained in thesameway as arelated, moregeneral Eq. in [2]. A direct specialization of someinterest of theresult in [2] is possiblefor thecasethat thestress boundary
condition (5a) is replaced by adisplacement condition u(0, y) =yO whereO is agiven constant. [Wenotethat thesigns in front of thelast integrals in Eqs. (3.5) and (7.3), and in front of the
second integral in (6.3) in [2] should bereversed]. Inequalities of asimilar naturehavebeen stated earlier by others, in particular by C. Weber, but as far as weknow not for theproblemwhich is
hereunder consideration.
Page78
and
with , , and given in terms of and as in (2).
Lower-Bound Calculation
We now choose, guided by the results of the semi-elementary theory, as expressions for and
where is an arbitrary constant. We have then
so that all three displacement boundary conditions are satisfied by the differentiable functions and .
Introduction of (16) and (17) into (2) gives as approximations for strains to be used in ,
and therewith
where
We now determine fromthe condition , in the form
Introduction of (22) into (20) gives as the smallest value of which is compatible with the assumed state of displacement
Page79
Introduction of (23) into (13) gives
as the desired lower-bound formula for C.
Upper-Bound Calculation
We now choose, again guided by the results of the semi-elementary theory, and in accordance with Eqs. (1), (3) and (5a),
with a constant parameter which remains to be determined.
Introduction of (25) into Eq. (14) gives
We now determine fromthe condition in the form
and, with this, obtain as the largest value of which is compatible with the assumed state of stress,
Introduction of (28) into Eq. (13) gives as the desired upper bound for C
In comparing the inequalities (24) and (29) with the approximate formula stated in the Introduction it is found that both inequalities provide appropriate generaliz-
Page80
ations of the factor Pa3/3EI in the semi-elementary result, provided we agree to omit the effect of Poisson's ratio in the definition of E*.
We are interested, particularly, in the terms with G in Eqs. (24) and (29), which are a measure of the relative importance of the effect of transverse shear
deformation, and list explicit results for two special cases:
Homogeneous Beams
We assume that E and G are independent of y and have then
These values may be compared with the result of the semielementary calculation based on the substitute boundary conditions (7), which gives a factor 3/2 in place of
the numerical factors on the right of (30a) and (30b).
We note in particular, in view of certain important consequences of this observation, which however will not be discussed in this paper, that the shear correction
terms (30) become of relative order of magnitude unity for the case that G is so small relative to E as to make G/E of the same order of magnitude as the ratio c2/a2.
Sandwich-Type Beam
The simplest way to appraise the effect of transverse shear deformation is to consider a beamconsisting of a uniformshear-resisting core layer with negligible
resistance to longitudinal normal stress, and two face layers sufficiently thin to assume negligibility of their bending stiffness [3]. Mathematically, this means that we
consider a beamwith the moduli E and G given as functions of the thickness coordinate y by the relations
where t <<c.
Introduction of (31) into the bound formulas (29) and (24) leads to identical expressions for C, that is to the exact solution for this case, with the right-hand side of
(30a, b) now being of the form3ctE
f
/a2G
c
.
*Elementary considerations overcomethis difficulty by concludingfromthesmallness of o
y
relativeto o
x
that c
y
~ yc
x
, and by usingthis relation to replace in (15) by thesimpler expression
, beforecarryingout calculations. Thedifficulty with this approach is that now theassociated displacement statewill not satisfy theboundary condition , and
consequently, whilearational approximateresult is obtained, it can no longer betaken to supply alower bound for C. Wemay improvethebound (24) for v= 0, within thepresent context, by
adding, for example, atermof theformVy2](x) in Eq. (16) for , with ](0) =](a) =0, and by then determining and ](x) fromthevariational equation .
Page81
5
Concluding Remarks
We note the possibility of analogous bound determinations without the assumption that the elastic moduli are even functions of the thickness coordinate y or
independent of the spanwise coordinate x. It is also possible to consider other conditions of loading and support, as for example, given by the case of a beamwhich
is clamped at both ends, symmetric about midspan, and carrying a concentrated load at midspan.
References
1. Timoshenko, S., and Goodier, J. N., Theory of Elasticity, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1970, pp. 4146.
2. Reissner, E., ''On Some Variational Theorems in Elasticity," Problems in Continuum Mechanics (Muskelisvili Anniversary Volume ), Soc. Industrial and
Applied Math., Philadelphia, 1961, pp. 270281.
3. Reissner, E., "Small Bending and Stretching of Sandwich-Type Shells," NACA TN No. 1832, Mar. 1949; also NACA Report 975, 1950.
Page82
Improved Upper and Lower Bounds for Deflections of Orthotropic Cantilever Beams*
[Int. J. Solids Structures, 11, 9611971, 1975]
Introduction
In what follows we extend our earlier work on upper and lower bounds for the deflection of end-loaded laminated cantilever beams of narrow rectangular cross
section through use of the principles of minimumpotential and maximumcomplementary energy [1,2].
Specifically, we propose to improve the bounds
for the flexibility coefficient C of an orthotropic homogeneous beam, where C
0
=a3/2Ec3 is the value of C in accordance with elementary theory and where
and
with
effectively, when , in such a way that the value of the factor 6/5 in C
U1
as well as the occurrence of the negative, linear, c/a-termin C
L3
are
established as quantitatively significant aspects of the behavior of the actual values of C/C
0
.
Going beyond this we will show that while the term(6E/5G)(c2/a2) originates fromwhat may be designated as the interior solution contribution of the boundary value
problemof the end-loaded cantilever, we have that the terms linear in c/a which occur in C
L3
/C
0
, as well as the corresponding terms in the quantities C
L4
/C
0
and
C
U2
/C
0
which are obtained in what follows, are in fact boundary layer solution contributions of our boundary value problem. Insofar as these boundary layer solution
contributions are concerned we mention in particular our detailed analysis of the structure of the layer, with the number and the magnitudes of distinct
*With S. Nair.
Page83
characteristic lengths which are found being well-defined functions of certain moduli ratios of the material of the beam.
In regard to the upper and lower bound formulas used in this work, we have previously noted that "inequalities of a similar nature have been stated earlier by others,
in particular by C. Weber, but as far as we know not for the problemwhich is here under consideration." A review of the literature undertaken by us since has
established that the above statement should be amplified by referring to a specific publication by Weber [3], which considers in particular an isotropic homogeneous
beamon two simple supports with a concentrated load at midspan, in such a way that the formulation for one-half of this beamis effectively equivalent to the
formulation of our cantilever beamproblem. When interpreted in this manner the work of Weber includes a formula C
L2
s C s C
U1
, where C
U1
/C
0
=1 +12(1 +
v)c2/5a2 and C
L2
/C
0
=1 v2 +2(1 +v)c2/a2, consistent with the formulas for laminated orthotropic beams given in [1].
Formulation
We restate our plane stress problems once more in the formof differential equations
for the domain c s y s c, 0 s x s a, together with boundary conditions of the form
In this we assume that E
m
=(EE
y
)1/2 and that E, E
y
, v and G are given constants, with v2 <1 as condition for strain energy positive definiteness.
Evidently the uniformend deflection V will be associated with an end force P given by
in the form
and our objective is the determination of upper and lower bounds for C, as a function of the given parameters E, E
y
, v, G, c and a.
In order to obtain these bounds we make use of the fact that the work quantity PV is bounded in terms of potential and complementary energy approximation I
d
and
I
s
,
Page84
where
and
In this o
x
, o
y
and t must satisfy the equilibriumdifferential equations together with the prescribed stress boundary conditions, and u and v must be differentiable
functions which satisfy the displacement boundary conditions of the given problem. Our procedure fromhere on is then to minimize I
d
and maximize I
s
with reference
to certain systems of functions o
x
, o
y
, t, u and v, and to discuss the bound relations
where
which follow from(8) upon eliminating P through use of equation (7).
Upper Bound Calculation
We consider an equilibriumstress systemof the form
where =x/a and q =y/c are dimensionless coordinates, =c/a, primes indicate differentiation with respect to , and the constant A as well as the function F()
are arbitrary except for the condition F(0) =0.
We introduce equations (1315) into (9) and performthe indicated integrations with respect to q. In this way we obtain an expression for I
s
of the form
where
Page85
Maximization of I
s
with respect to A, for fixed F, gives as expression for A,
and therewith
Introduction of (19) into equation (12) gives
where it remains to choose the function F(), with the simplest choice, F() =0, evidently leading to the previously obtained bound C
U1
/C
0
=1 +(6E/5G)2.
In what follows we will obtain a value I
min
by determining the function F() fromthe variational equation oI =0, together with the constraint condition F(0) =0.
Application of the standard rules of the calculus of variations now leads to the Euler differential equation
and to the Euler boundary conditions
Appropriate integrations by parts in the expression for I, in conjunction with equations (21) and (22), now permit a simplification of the expression for I
min
, as
follows:
It remains to solve the differential equation for F, subject to the associated four boundary conditions, and to introduce the value of I
min
into equation (20) for C
U
/C
0
.
In this way we obtain an expression for C
U2
/C
0
, which can be written in the form
where =\(E/G), , and
Page86
with K
1
and K
2
being the two roots with positive real parts of the characteristic equation
that is,
when [2v +\(90/11)]1/2o <, and
when <[2v +\(90/11)]1/2o.
Lower Bound Calculation
We assume as expressions for displacements
where
We introduce (29) into equation (10) and carry out all q-integrations. This gives
We now set oI
d
=0 and obtain the Euler differential equations
as well as the Euler boundary conditions
Page87
Integration by parts in (31), with the use of equations (30) and (32) to (36), gives as expression for I
d,min
,
With this there follows fromequation (12) as expression for the new lower bound,
In order to evaluate (38), we must solve the system(32) to (35) subject to the boundary condition (30) and (36). The result can be written in the form
where
with k
1
, k
2
being the two roots with positive real parts of the characteristic equation
that is
when [28(1 v2)/3]1/4o <, and
when <[28(1 v2)/3]1/4o.
Asymptotic Bound Formulas
Consideration of the expressions (27), (28), (42), and (43) for the roots K
i
and k
i
of the characteristic equations (26) and (41) indicates the existence of the following
order of magnitude relations,
Furthermore, the hyperbolic tangent functions in (25) and (40) can be effectively replaced by unity for sufficiently large real parts of their arguments, say when
Page88
and the bound formulas (24) and (39) then can be written in the form
where,
We note that with o and both proportional to we have that C
i
as well as c
i
are independent of so that C
U2
/C
0
as well as C
L4
/C
0
come out to be third-degree
polynomials in .
Replacement of the hyperbolic tangent functions by unity is readily seen to be equivalent to the assumption that the functions F, f
i
and g
i
describe a boundary layer
phenomenon in the region adjacent to =1. The formof equations (44) and (45) gives as conditions for the existence of a boundary layer the relations
In view of the defining relations for and o, these conditions may be written in the alternate form
We next use equation (44) to obtain information concerning the width of the boundary layers which are associated with the solution of the given problem. It is
apparent that there exist either one or two boundary layers, in accordance with the following pattern
Page89
As (E/G)\(E
y
/E) approaches unity fromabove the two layers of width b
1
and b
2
coalesce into the one layer of width b.
Asymptotic Formulas for Isotropic Beams
Setting E
y
=E and E =2(1 +v)G, we will have o =, and =\2(1 +v) and, in accordance with equation (54a), the asymptotic formulas (46) to (53) now apply
as long as .
We will refrain fromrewriting equation (46) to (53) for this special case and instead refer to Figure 1 which shows the values of C
U2
/C
0
and C
L4
/C
0
for v =1/3 in
the range 0 s <1/2 together with the previously obtained less accurate bounds. The curves in the inset show the behavior of the bounds in the neighborhood of =
0. We see that the effect of the "dominant" linear terms in , which make C/C
0
<1 in a small neighborhood of =0 is in fact of no practical significance whatsoever
for the case of the isotropic beam.
Fig. 1.
Dimensionless flexibilities
C
U1
/C
0
, C
U2
/C
0
, C
L3
/C
0
and
C
L4
/C
0
as functions of =c/a
for isotropic beams with v =1/3.
We supplement the results shown in Figure 1 by a short table which gives numerical values in the range 0 ss 1.0, and which shows the smallness of the error
associated with the approximation C ~ 1/2(C
U2
+C
L4
), up to values of the depth-span ratio for which it is no longer appropriate to use the word "beam."
Results for Orthotropic Beams
Figure 2 shows values of the bounds as a function of for several values of the auxiliary parameter =o2/2, on the basis of the exact bound expressions (24) and
(39), as well as on the basis of the asymptotic expressions (46) and (47). We see that the exact and the asymptotic values coincide effectively in the entire range of
-values shown, for small values of . As the values of increase,
Page90
Table1. Upper and lower bounds for influence
coefficients for isotropic beams with v =1/3.
C
L4
/C
0
C
U2
/C
0
0.0 1.0000 1.0000
0.1 1.0261 1.0290
0.2 1.1142 1.1208
0.3 1.2633 1.2749
0.4 1.4729 1.4908
0.5 1.7423 1.7680
0.6 2.0709 2.1061
0.7 2.4579 2.5046
0.8 2.9027 2.9630
0.9 3.4046 3.4809
1.0 3.9629 4.0577
the range of validity of the asymptotic formula extends over a smaller and smaller -range. Specifically, if we write o/ =\ and note that according to (54a) we
must now have we find that we must also have , or , as condition for the validity of the asymptotic formula. For =100 this means that the
asymptotic results should deviate fromthe exact bound results as soon as , a conclusion which is in fact substantiated by the dots in Figure 2.
Fig. 2.
Dimensionless flexibilities C
U2
/C
0
and
C
L4
/C
0
as functions of =\(E/G)c/a
for orthotropic beams with v =1/2 and
=G/\(EE
y
) =0, 1.5, 100, together
with values of C
L3
/C
0
and C
L2
/C
0
for =100.
Page91
Our calculations also show that the effect of the prevented end-section transverse normal strain, which is insignificant for isotropic beams, can be quite significant for
beams with strong orthotropy.
We supplement our discussion with an explicit statement of the exact bound results (24) and (39), in comparison with results of exact solutions of the given
boundary value problem, for the limiting cases E
y
=0 and E
y
=.
We deduced in [2] that when E
y
=0, then
We now find fromequation (24) and (39),
Numerical calculations for v =1/2 show that now C
L4
is closer to C than is C
U2
. As shown in Table 2, we have that when 0 ss 0.5 C
L4
agrees with C to within
1/100 of one percent. We also note that C
U2
as well as C
L4
are discontinuous at =0, just as C comes out to be, but that the magnitude of the discontinuity of C
U2
does not agree with that of C, whereas there is agreement for C
L4
and, incidentally, also for C
L3
, as may be readily deduced fromthe formula on page 82 which
leads to the result C
L3
/C =1 v2 +2 +O(4) for the limiting case E
y
=0.
Table2. Comparison of bounds with theexact flexibility coefficient when
E
y
=0 and v =1/2.
C/C
0
C
L4
/C
0
C
U2
/C
0
0.0 0.7500 0.7500 0.8657
0.1 0.7619 0.7619 0.8782
0.2 0.7979 0.7979 0.9152
0.3 0.8578 0.8578 0.9770
0.4 0.9414 0.9414 1.0633
0.5 1.0486 1.0486 1.1738
0.6 1.1792 1.1791 1.3085
0.7 1.3329 1.3328 1.4669
0.8 1.5096 1.5092 1.6488
0.9 1.7089 1.7082 1.8540
1.0 1.9306 1.9294 2.0821
Page92
When E
y
= the bound formulas (24) and (39) reduce to the following form
The exact solution for this case can be obtained by extending results in [4]. We find
with k
n
as the sequence of positive roots of the transcendental equation tan k
n
=k
n
.
A comparison of the bound results (58a) with the exact result (58b) shows that the bounds obtained here are in agreement with the exact formula insofar as terms up
to the order 2 are concerned. For small , the remaining terms in equations (58a, b, c) are of the order 3. Numerical results obtained using (58) when v =1/2 are
given in Table 3. In view of the closeness of these bounds a calculation of the exact expression (58b) which involves summationof an infinite series, is not undertaken.
Table3. Upper and lower bounds for flexibility
coefficients for orthotropic beams when E
y
= and v =
1/2.
C
L4
/C
0
C
U2
/C
0
0.0 1.0000 1.0000
0.1 1.01196 1.01197
0.2 1.0476 1.0478
0.3 1.1069 1.1073
0.4 1.1895 1.1903
0.5 1.2951 1.2967
References
1. E. Reissner, Upper and lower bounds for deflections of laminated cantilever beams including the effect of transverse shear deformation. J. Appl. Mech. 40, 988
(1973).
2. S. Nair and E. Reissner, An improved lower bound for deflections of laminated cantilever beams including the effects of transverse shear deformation. J. Appl.
Math. Phys. (ZAMP) 25, 89 (1974).
3. C. Weber, Veranschaulichung und Anwendung der Minimalstze der Elastizittstheorie. Z. ang. Math. Mech. 18, 375 (1938).
4. F. B. Hildebrand, On the stress distribution in cantilever beams. J. Math. & Phys. 22, 188 (1943).
Page93
Note on a Problem of Beam Buckling*
[J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP), 26, 839841, 1975]
Introduction
In what follows we wish to record briefly some results for the static buckling loads of a non-uniformbeamloaded at midspan by a concentrated force P (i) parallel to
the axis of the undeflected beam, (ii) tangential to the axis of the deflected beam. Our interest in this problememanated froma wish to construct a beamproblem
which contained as special limiting cases the case where the two types of forces gave identical buckling loads and the case where no tangential static buckling load
existed while at the same time a lowered buckling load for the 'parallel' load case would occur.
Our problemconcerns a built-in beamof span 2a, with stiffness D
1
in the interval (a,0) and stiffness D
2
in the interval (0,a). It is assumed that the force P =P
B
causing buckling is applied at midspan, in the direction of negative x, and that the support at x =+a has axial freedom, so that the entire force P is taken by the beam
segment a s x <0, with the segment 0 <x s a supplying a variable degree of lateral constraint. Evidently, the limiting case D
2
= corresponds to the ordinary
buckling case of a beamof stiffness D
1
, with ends x =a and x =0 clamped, and with the distinction between parallel and tangential force ceasing to exist. On the
other hand, the limiting case D
2
=0 becomes the problemof the end-loaded cantilever of length a, with the buckling load for the parallel force being one-sixteenth
that for the case D
2
=, while no such (static) buckling load exists for the tangential force. In view of these results for the two limiting cases we expected P
B
to come
out as a decreasing function of the parameter D
1
/D
2
for the case of the parallel load, and an increasing function of D
1
/D
2
for the case of the tangential load. Our
calculations confirmthis expectation for the former but not for the latter case.
Statement of the Problem
We have the differential equations
with boundary conditions
and with transition conditions
*With G. E. Lee.
Page94
together with
for the case of the parallel force, and
for the case of the tangential force.
Derivation of Stability Equations
We take
where 2 =P/D
1
, to satisfy (1) and (2). Introduction of (5a) and (5b) into the transition conditions (3) and (4a) or (4b) gives four simultaneous linear homogeneous
equations for the four constants c
i
. The conditions of a non-vanishing determinant of these systems for a non-trivial solution can be reduced to the following forms.
For the parallel force case, with =a, and =D
1
/D
2
,
For the tangential force case,
When =0 both equations reduce to the formcos +1/2 sin 1 =0, with the smallest non-zero root =
B
=2t. When = equation (6a) becomes cos =
0, with
B
=t/2, and equation (6b) reduces to the impossibility 0 =1.
Discussion of Numerical Results
A numerical determination of , where P
0
=4t2D
1
/a2, as a function of =D
1
/D
2
results in the static stability curves as shown (Figure 1). As expected,
the values of P
B
/P
0
for the parallel-force case decrease monotonously with fromthe value unity when =0 to the value 1/16 when =. On the other hand, the
values of P
B
/P
0
for the tangential-force case are in the range smaller than the corresponding values for the parallel-force case, contrary to what we had
expected. Beginning at about =1, the values of P
B
/P
0
for the tangential-force change their decreasing trend to an increasing trend, in such a way that when ~ 1.5
the values of P
B
for both cases coincide. As is increased further the stability curve for the tangential-force case approaches a point with vertical tangent, for ~ 2.16
and P
B
/P
0
=0.62. A further increase in results in a doubling back of the P
B
/P
0
-curve. We conclude fromthis that the beamis unable to buckle statically due to the
effect of a tangential force when , long before the known result of the non-existence of a static buckling load for the case = is reached.
Page95
Fig. 1
Page96
On Lateral Buckling of End-Loaded Cantilever Beams
[J. Appl. Math. & Phys. 30, 3140, 1979]
Introduction
The history of the problemof lateral buckling of transversely loaded beams begins with two fundamental papers, written independently and nearly simultaneously, by
A. G. M. Michell [1] and L. Prandtl [2]. Michell as well as Prandtl used appropriate geometrical ad hoc considerations to arrive at a correct physical understanding
of the problemand at a buckling load formula which is correct, except for the analysis of certain secondary effects which are of small numerical significance in almost
all practical circumstances.
Five years after the publication of Michell's and Prandtl's work it was observed by H. Reissner [3] that the equations of the problemof lateral buckling could be
deduced in a straightforward manner, without ad hoc considerations, by an appropriate specialization of Kirchhoff's general theory of space-curved beams, with the
analysis of the (two) secondary effects, being automatically included in the analysis of the problem. Beyond making the above important advance in the analysis of the
lateral buckling problem, H. Reissner went on to reduce the problemof the end-loaded cantilever beamto a boundary value problemfor a third-order linear
differential equation, and to a buckling load equation of the formc
1
P +c
2
P2 +. . . =1. In arriving at the above result H. Reissner neglects one of the two secondary
effects and indicates that he intends to give the numerical consequences of his formula in a different place.
Ten years after the publication of H. Reissner's note, in 1914, his assistant M. K. Grober reconsiders the problem[4] ''based on some calculations which Mr.
Reissner turned over to me for further development." The principal result of Grober's work is the derivation of a third-order differential equation with full inclusion of
secondary effects, and with a buckling formula given by the vanishing of a second-order determinant, with each of the four terms in the determinant a power series in
the buckling load. Grober concludes his analysis with the statement that he will "as soon as possible evaluate some numerical cases and compare the results with
experiment." Grober was killed in action in World War I, very soon after completion of this paper, and thus was prevented fromcarrying out his intentions.
Thereafter the number of publications on the problemof lateral buckling increases steadily. Fromamong this literature two contributions should be mentioned
specifically. One of these is a paper by K. Federhofer [5], in 1931, which includes the numerical evaluation of H. Reissner's buckling equation for the case of a
narrow rectangular cross-section beam(with the secondary effect amounting to 7.8 percent for a width-depth ratio of 1:5). The other is a recent paper by D. H.
Hodges and D. A. Peters [7] which undertakes to re-examine the problemonce again ab
Page97
initio on the basis of H. Reissner's approach. In the process of doing this the authors rederive Grober's general third-order differential equation, unaware of this earlier
contribution to the subject. However, in addition, the authors reconsider the problemof systematically determining first-order approximations for secondary effects.
They find, in what must be considered a significant advance in the field of this problem, that a systematic first-order analysis of both second-order effects comes out
to be actually simpler than the analysis in which one of the two effects is neglected, with the basic third-order differential equation of the problemnow having an
explicit first integral, leaving the problemin the formof a boundary value problemfor a second-order differential equation, just as for the case of the problemwithout
consideration of any secondary effects.
The main purposes of the present paper are the following. 1. We wish to reconsider the problemon the basis of Kirchhoff's equations of equilibriumfor finitely
deforming rods in such a way that full advantage is taken of the fact that the boundary conditions of the problemallow a complete solution of the equations of an
intrinsic formof the theory, that is of a formulation of the theory without any regard to the formof strain displacement relations. 2. We wish to show that a suitable
non-dimensionalization of the equations of the theory indicates the evident possibility of a straightforward perturbation expansion, in such a way that the results of
the theory without secondary effects appear as the leading terms in the expansion, with both secondary effects appearing systematically in second and still higher-
order terms. 3. We use the equations of a recently developed extension of Kirchhoff's equations, which takes account of axial extension and transverse shear
deformation effects [6], for the purpose of determining the effect of transverse shear deformation on the lateral buckling load of the cantilever beam.
Formulation of Problem
We write Kirchhoff's Equations for Finite Deformations of Originally Straight Beams in the Form
In these equations primes indicate differentiation with respect to an axial coordinate x, P
t
, P
1
and P
2
are forces acting over the cross-section of the beam, tangent and
normal to the center line, with P
1
and P
2
being in the directions of the principal axes y
1
and y
2
of the cross-section, and with p
t
, p
1
and p
2
being the corresponding
surface force intensities. Furthermore, M
t
, M
1
and M
2
are cross-sectional twisting and bending moments, with m
t
, m
1
and m
2
being surface moment intensities
corresponding thereto, and with k
t
, k
1
and k
2
being twisting and bending strains which are here taken to be related to the twisting and bending moments by
constitutive equations
Page98
of the form
In what follows we restrict attention to the problemof a cantilever beamwhich is free of distributed surface loads, so that p
t
=p
1
=p
2
=0 and m
t
=m
1
=m
2
=0,
and which is acted upon by a force and by a moment at the unsupported end of the beam. Of the various possible loading conditions which may be subsumed under
the above description we will be concerned specifically with the problemof a transverse end force P oriented in a direction which coincides with the principal
direction y
1
of the cross-section of the undeformed beam. It is evident that the problemas described is of such nature that one possible state, the unbuckled state,
involves no more than the two forces P
1
, P
t
, the moment M
1
and the bending strain k
1
, with P
2
=0, M
2
=M
t
=0 and k
t
=k
2
=0, and with the associated buckling
problembeing the problemof determining the smallest value of P which allows the existence of alternate, buckled, states with some or all of the quantities P
2
, M
2
,
M
t
, k
2
, k
t
non-vanishing.
Boundary conditions for the systemof differential equations (1) to (3) which correspond to the prescribed loading condition may be formulated as follows.
We evidently have at the loaded end, x =0, the conditions
Since we do not know the orientation of the loaded end of the beam, we cannot say anything about the values of P
1
, P
2
and P
t
for x =0. However, the condition
that the direction of P remains the same, no matter what the orientation of the loaded end cross-section might be, in conjunction with the condition that the supported
end of the beam, x =L, is assumed to be built-in, means that we know the values of P
1
, P
2
and P
t
for x =L, as follows
We note that the number of boundary conditions corresponds to the number of first-order differential equations for P
1
, P
2
, P
t
, M
1
, M
2
and M
t
, which is obtained
upon eliminating k
1
, k
2
and k
t
fromEqs. (1) and (2) by means of Eq. (3). We further note specifically that the above formulation of the problems holds, without any
reference to relations which exist between the strain components k and whatever description we might choose for translational and rotational displacement
components of the elements of the beam. In other words, our problemhas been stated entirely within the framework of the intrinsic equations of one-dimensional
beamtheory.
Derivation of Buckling Differential Equations
We begin by considering the unbuckled state, with overbars designating forces, moments and strains of this state.
We have then, fromEqs. (1)
and fromEqs. (2) and (3),
Page99
with boundary conditions
We obtain equations governing the onset of buckling, upon setting
and upon linearizing Eqs. (1) and (3) in terms of AP
t
, AP
1
, AM
1
Ak
1
and P
2
, M
2
, M
t
, k
2
and k
t
. Of the six equations obtained in this way only three are needed,
those following fromEqs. (1a), (2a) and (2c) in the form
The associated boundary conditions are
Note that the singly underlined terms in (10) describe the effect of initial deformations on the process of buckling while the doubly underlined termdescribes the effect
of finite deformation in the analysis of the initial state. For practical applications both effects in the analysis of the given problemare generally negligible. In the
work of H. Reissner [3] the effect of the is taken into account and the effect of the is explicitly neglected. In the work of Hodges and Peters [7], it is
observed that both effects are of the same order of magnitude in terms of appropriate dimensionless parameters but that, numerically, the effect of the is only
about one-fifth the effect of the .
Non-Dimensionalization and Perturbation Expansion for Equations of Unbuckled State
We set in Eqs. (6) to (8)
and we indicate differentiation with respect to by dots. With this the differential equations (6) and (7) may be written in the form
and the boundary conditions (8) become
We now consider
as a small parameter and expand the solution of (13) and (14) in powers of q
1
. The result of the simple calculation, to the degree needed in what follows, comes out
to be
Page100
where
and
For what follows it is important to note that the small parameter q
1
may also be written in the form
or, with
as
where, as is known fromprevious work, the value of o for which buckling occurs is of the order of magnitude unity.
Non-Dimensionalization of Equations for On-Set of Buckling
We begin by rewriting Eqs. (10), in conjunction with Eqs. (3), in the form
We next introduce into these the contents of Eq. (12), and furthermore write
with the choice of the factor PL2/D
2
in the expression for M
t
being of particular importance. With this Eqs. (22) become
with the boundary conditions for this systemfollowing fromEqs. (4) and (5) as
and with the coefficient functions p, q and m following from(16) to (20) as
Page101
We specifically note fromthe appearance of Eqs. (24) that, as apparently first observed by Hodges and Peters [7], there are altogether three terms which determine
the effect of the small parameters q
2
and q
t
, on the smallest possible non-vanishing value of o. We further note that it appears likely that the third-order eigenvalue
problem(24) and (25), with coefficient functions given in accordance with (13) and (14) without any assumptions concerning the smallness of q
2
and q
t
, would offer
no particular difficulties in regard to a direct numerical solution. However, we will limit ourselves here to seeing in which way a direct solution, without use of such
computational facilities, becomes possible upon explicit utilization of the assumptions q
t
<<1 and q
2
<<1.
Perturbation Expansion for the Solution of the Characteristic Value Problem
It is clear from(24) to (26) that the functions g, ]
t
and ]
2
may be expanded in powers of the parameters q
t
and q
2
. We limit ourselves here to a determination of the
zeroth and first degree terms in these expansions.
As long as we restrict attention to first degree terms, Eqs. (24) may be written in the simplified form
again with the boundary conditions (25).
The third-order problem(27) and (25) may be reduced to a second-order problem, through recognition of the existence of a first integral of the system, as follows.
We multiply (27a) by a factor and add the resulting relation to Eq. (27c). In this way there follows first
Having the factor q
t
in front of the bracket in (28), we may now utilize Eqs. (27) without q
2
and q
t
, in order to transformthe contents of the bracket in (28)
advantageously. Using (27b) we obtain . Therewith, and with the first two conditions in (25) we deduce from(28)
the first-integral relation
Having (29) we obtain a differential equation for g alone by first combining (27a, b) and (29) in the form
and by setting in this ]
2
=g and in the terms multiplied by q
t
. The resulting differential equation for g comes out to be
with the two associated boundary conditions being, in accordance with (25) and (27), the conditions .
Page102
In order to solve the problemas stated, including first-order effects in q
2
and q
t
, we use ordinary perturbation expansions of the form
It is evident, without any calculations, that c
2
=1. In order to obtain the values of and c
t
, we deduce from(31) the differential equations
where h() =1/2(1 32), with boundary conditions .
The well-known appropriate solution of the zeroth-order equation is , where o
0
~ 4.0126. Solution of the first-order equation in (33) by the
method of variation of parameters and satisfaction of the boundary conditions for g
t
, then gives as the value of c
t
,
and therewith o~o
0
(1 +0.5q
2
+0.64q
t
) where, it should be noted, the correct numerical value of the coefficient of q
t
has first been obtained by Hodges and Peters
[7], with the corresponding value of c
t
, which follows upon omission of the doubly underlined terms in (27) and (28) being 1.64.*
Effects of Transverse Shear Deformation on Lateral Buckling Load
A determination of the effect of transverse shear may be based on an extension of Kirchhoff's equations for beams, in which the effect of transverse shear
deformations
1
and
2
and of a longitudinal extensional strain
t
is taken in account of by replacing the three Kirchhoff moment equilibriumequations (2) by equations
of the form[6],
in conjunction with additional constitutive equations involving the quantities and P. For what follows we take these additional constitutive equations in the form
With the above the equations corresponding to Eqs. (6) to (8) for the unbuckled state remain as before except that Eq. (7a) is replaced by
*In order to seethenumerical significanceof theimprovement in [7], wenotethat for ahomogeneous narrow rectangular cross section, with Poisson's ratio v =1/3 wehave, when q
t
=0.1, that o~
1.097o
0
, whereas thecorrespondingresult without consideration of thedoubly underlined terms comes out to beo~ 1.115o
0
.
Page103
At the same time Eq. (10a) for the buckled state remains as before while Eqs. (10b, c) are replaced by
We now non-dimensionalize, as in Eqs. (12) and (23), and introduce two transverse shear deformation parameters
1
and
2
of the form
We then have that Eqs. (13a, b) remain unchanged while Eq. (13c) is replaced by
Of the three non-dimensionalized buckling equations (24) we have that one of them, (24a), remains unchanged while the remainingtwo are replaced by
In considering the problemof solving the system(13) and (24), subject to the boundary conditions (14) and (25) we note the possibility that the transverse shear
parameters
t
may, for sandwich-type beams, be quantities of order of magnitude unity. In what follows we will limit ourselves to a solutionof the problemfor the
case that both
1
and
2
, as well as q
t
, and q
2
, are small compared to unity. We may then neglect products of these parameters and evaluate the effect of non-
vanishing
i
as one which is additive to the effects of q
t
and q
2
. With this we have that Eqs. (24a) and (24b*, c*) may be simplified to
We now obtain, as before, a first integral relation, g +]
2
=0, and we use this relation to transformthe second equation in (38) to a second-order differential
equation for g, of the form
again with the boundary conditions .
We again expand the solution of this, in the formg =g
0
+
2
g +. . . and , and then obtain in the same way as in going from(31) to (34)
and therewith a reduction of the value of the buckling load parameter due to the effect of transverse shear deformability, in accordance with the relation o~o
0
(1
2.785
2
). Given a beamwith homogeneous narrow rectangular cross section of thickness 2c the value of
2
comes out to be (2E/5G)(c2/L2). For a narrow
rectangular sandwich cross section, with shear resistant core of thickness 2c enclosed
Page104
between two face sheets of thickness t, the parameter
2
is given by the expression (E]/G
c
)(ct/L2), with the evident possibility of a significant
2
-effect for sufficiently
large values of E]/G
c
.
References
[1] A. G. M. Michell, Elastic Stability of Long Beams under Transverse Forces, Phil. Mag. (5th Series) 48, 298309 (1899).
[2] L. Prandtl, Kipperscheinungen, Dissertation der Universitt Mnchen, 75 pages (1900).
[3] H. Reissner, ber die Stabilitt der Biegung, Sitz.-Ber. der Berliner Math. Gesellschaft 3, 5356 (1904).
[4] M. K. Grober, Ein Beispiel fur * die Kirchhoff'schen Stabgleichungen, Phys. Z. 15, 889892 (1914).
[5] K. Federhofer, Berechnung der Kipplasten gerader Stbe, Sitz.-Ber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 140, 237270 (1931).
[6] E. Reissner, On One-Dimensional Large-Displacement Finite-Strain Beam Theory, Studies in Appl. Math. 52, 8795 (1973).
[7] D. H. Hodges and D. A. Peters, On the Lateral Buckling of Uniform Slender Cantilever Beams, Intern. J. Solids and Structures 11, 12691280 (1975).
Page105
On Finite Deformations of Space-Curved Beams
[J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 32, 734744, 1981]
Introduction
We are concerned in what follows with the manner of derivation and with an application of large-displacement finite-strain theory of space-curved beams, as
previously considered in [5].
In regard to the manner of derivation we have two objects. One of these is of an expository nature, with a clarification of the way in which our descriptions of the
state of strain and of the state of stress are shown to be consistent without the necessity of a "tentative assumption of an implicit representation of force strains." The
other is an approach to the problemof relations for components of moment strain in terms of components of rotational displacement, without use of Rodriguez'
formula, in a way which involves a symmetric treatment of the two components of bending strain without a participation in this of the one component of twisting strain.
As an example of application of the general theory we consider the problemof helical deformations of a helical rod for the case of a simply symmetric cross section
with unequal principal bending stiffnesses and with non-coincident centroid and shear center locations, in generalization of ananalysis in Love's Treatise [3].
Vectorial One-Dimensional Equilibrium Equations and Virtual Strain Displacement Relations
We have as equations of equilibriumfor a cross sectional force P and a cross sectional moment M the two vectorial relations
with primes indicating differentiation with respect to arc length s along the undeformed "center" line of the rod, and with R =R(s) being the radius vector to points of
the deformed center line.
We obtain vectorial virtual strain displacement relations for a force strain vector and a moment strain vector k in terms of virtual translational and rotational
displacement components oR and ou, as in [5], through use of the virtual work equation
in conjunction with the equilibriumEqs. (1), in the form
Page106
In this we have that (oR)' =o(R'), but we cannot write o(u') in place of (ou)', inasmuch as we do not have the existence of a function u in association with the
stipulated ou.
Derivation of Scalar Strain Displacement Relations and Equilibrium Equations
Given the radius vectors r(s) and R(s) to the undeformed and the deformed center lines, respectively, we introduce in association with these two radius vectors two
triads of mutually perpendicular unit vectors (t, n
1
, n
2
) and (T, N
1
, N
2
). In this t is tangent and n
1
, n
2
are perpendicular to the curve r(s) but no such stipulation is
made relative to the triad (T, N
1
, N
2
) and the curve R(s), with the determination of R and T, N
1
, N
2
being part of the problemof the rod, in a manner which will
become apparent.
In order to derive fromthe vectorial virtual strain displacement relations (3) actual scalar strain displacement relations we now take o and ok in the form
and R' in the form
with the choice of a
t
, a
i
left open. In addition to this we define virtual triad vectors oT, oN
i
in terms of the virtual rotational displacement ou in the form
with (6) implying the supplementary relation
Introduction of (4a), (5) and (6) into (3a) leaves, after appropriate cancellations,
and therewith,
In order to reduce Eq. (3b) in a corresponding manner we first deduce from(7) the relation
To proceed further we make use of Frenet-type differentiation formulas
Introduction of (4b), (10) and (11), with
into Eq. (3b) leaves, after some cancellations, three scalar relations of the form
Page107
Having Eqs. (9a, b), in conjunction with the relations t =r'(s), and
we conclude, on the basis of the fact that a
t
=1 and a
i
=0 when R =r, and k
t
=k
i
=0 when T =t and N
i
=n
i
, that we will have, as expressions for the coefficients
a
t
and a
i
in (5) and for the coefficients 1/r
t
and 1/r
i
in (11),
and
At the same time we have fromEqs. (1a, b) in conjunction with the representations
and the corresponding representations for p and m, as scalar equations of equilibrium
with these differing fromthe corresponding equations of Kirchhoff [2] by way of the presence of the force-deformational terms P.
Strain Components in Terms of Rotational Displacement Measures
In order to take account of the duality properties of the two unit normal vectors n
i
which sets these apart fromthe one unit tangent vector t we proceed as follows to
introduce three scalar rotational displacement parameters
1
,
2
and
t
.
We first introduce two mutually perpendicular unit vectors , symmetrically in terms of
1
and
2
, by writing
in conjunction with the defining relations
We next take the triad vector T in the form , by writing
Page108
We thereafter introduce the third rotational displacement parameter
t
by writing as expressions for N
1
and N
2
Having Eqs. (19) and (20) we may obtain expressions for r
1
, r
2
and r
t
, for arbitrarily large
i
and
t
, by comparing the expressions for T' and N'
i
which follow from
(19) and (20) with the corresponding expressions in (11), in conjunction with Eqs. (13). We are limiting ourselves in this account for simplicity's sake to the case of
small finite
i
and
t
by stating the appropriate results including all first and second degree terms but neglecting third and higher degree terms in
1
,
2
and
t
and
the derivatives of these quantities.
With this we have then as expressions for T, N
1
and N
2
and
and fromthis follows, upon again omitting all third and higher degree terms
As regards the components of force strain
t
and
i
we obtain, on the basis of Eqs. (5), (14a), (19') and (20') and with R' =t +u', the vectorial relation
for the determination of components of translational displacement in terms of force strains and rotational displacement measures. Alternately, we may obtain force
strains in terms of translational and rotational displacement measures in the form
with the formof the final formulas depending on the nature of the component representation for u.
Helical Deformations of a Helical Rod
We now consider a slightly generalized version of the classical problemof a helical rod, acted upon by forces P the line of action of which coincides with the axis of
helix, and by moments M turning about this axis, with this condition of loading sometimes being designated as a ''wrench", with the axis of the wrenchcoinciding with
the axis of the helix. We observe that for this
Page109
systemof loading we have as explicit solution of the equilibriumEqs. (1a, b) the expressions
where it remains to determine the shape of the deformed rod, in terms of the geometrical parameters describing the undeformed rod, and in terms of the loads P and
M.
With r and u being polar coordinates in the plane perpendicular to the axis of the helix and with a and b indicating radius and rise of the center line curve, we have as
vector equation of the center line of the undeformed rod
and fromthis we deduce as expression for the tangent unit vector t, with the help of the relation ds =(a2 +b2)1/2 du =c du, and with a =c cos , b =c sin ,
As regards the normal unit vectors n
1
and n
2
we first introduce a special set and of unit vectors by writing
with t, , evidently being mutually perpendicular, and by then writing in terms of an angle ,
with the directions of n
1
and n
2
coinciding with the principal axes in the plane of the cross section of the rod.
Given Eqs. (26) and (28) as defining relations for the triad t, n
1
, n
2
it is then readily established that the coefficients in the differentiation formulas (13) are
Given Eq. (25) for the undeformed center line we now write the corresponding relation for the deformed center line as
with u being given in terms of u in the formu =ku. We then have fromthis
and it now remains to define unit vectors T, N
1
, N
2
associated with the radius vector R as given by (30).
We will in what follows restrict attention to cases for which T is tangent to the R-curve by writing
Page110
where cos u =kA/C and sin u =kB/C, with C =k(A2 +B2)1/2, and therewith
so that, in accordance with (5) and (14a),
Having T as in (32) we now define vectors and N
i
, consistent with (27) and (28), in the form
and
With T as in (32) and N
i
as in (36) we obtain as expressions for the coefficients in the differentiation formulas (11),
and therewith, in accordance with Eqs. (14b), as expression for bending strains k
i
and twisting strain k
t
Formulation of Stress Strain Relations
We assume that the cross section of the rod in its deformed state will be symmetric with respect to an axis parallel to N
1
and we will designate cross sectional
coordinates in the directions of N
1
and N
2
by x
1
and x
2
. We further assume that the origin of the x
1
, x
2
-systemdefines the center line of the rod which is taken to be
the line of shear centers of the cross sections, with the centroids of the cross sections being on the x
1
-axis, at a distance x
c
fromthe shear center. Limiting attention to
the case of linear stress strain relations we may then immediately write two of the stress strain relations in the form
Two additional one-dimensional stress strain relations follow fromthe integral relations
in conjunction with the defining relations
Page111
where , in the form
The four Eqs. in (39) in conjunction with the four defining relations in (34) and (38) will become a systemof four simultaneous equations for the determination of the
four quantities u, +, k, C in terms of the given geometrical quantities , , c and the given loads P and M, upon expressing M
t
, M
2
, M
1
and P
t
in terms of P and M
through use of the defining relations which follow from(15), in conjunction with (24), (32) and (36), in the form
With A =k1 C cos u, in accordance with the defining relations in the text which follow Eq. (32), we then have altogether as equations for the determination of u, +,
k and C,
Among the various special cases of the system(43) we mention the following.
Rod with Doubly Symmetric Cross Section
Setting x
c
=0 in Eqs. (43a, b) we may use Eq. (43a) in order to reduce (43b, c, d) to a systemof three equations for u, + and k, upon setting in these equations C
=c +S1 P sin u. In general, this latter relation will be effectively equivalent to C =c, as implied by the original Kirchhoff formof the theory. Strictly speaking, we will
have C =c upon stipulating S =, with P then being reactive. Aside fromthe fact that it is possible to imagine cases for which this would not be justified (as for
example for a rod with helical spring cross sections) it should be noted that, on the basis of Eqs. (41), the stipulation S = should by rights be associated with a
stipulation D
1
=, that is with a stipulation of complete circumferential fiber inextensibility. This difficulty, however, may be by-passed by considering the problem
with C =c and D
1
< as the first step of a perturbation expansion in powers of P/S.
Page112
Rod with Kinetically Symmetric Cross Section
By kinetic symmetry we mean, in accordance with Love [3] that, in addition to x
c
=0, we have D
2
=D
1
D
b
. We obtain the results stated in [3], and there credited
to Kelvin and Tait [1], within the present context by recognizing that when D
2
=D
1
then part of the solution of the system(43) is given by the relation
With this Eqs. (43b) and (43c) are both equivalent to the one relation
with (45) and (43d) now being two equations for the determination of u and k, in terms of M and P, [with C =(P/S) c sin u]. We will limit ourselves here to using
(45) and (43d) for the derivation of the set of relations
which may readily be recognized to be equivalent to Eqs. (40) on page 415 in [3], upon setting C =c.
Finite Pure Bending of a Circular Ring
We obtain equations for this problemupon setting =u =0, c =a and P =0 in the system(43). We then have (43d) satisfied automatically and Eqs. (43a, b, c)
assume the form
Equations (47b, c) imply as implicit relation for k in terms of M, for given values of a, , D
2
and D
1
,
with + given in terms of k and M in the form
Bending and Twisting of a Partially Rigid Rod
Given a rod with narrow cross section, such that D
2
<<D
1
, we may consider the problemof bending and twisting approximately, by considering Eqs. (43) subject
to the assumptions D
1
= and S =. We
Page113
now have, from(43a, b), as constraint conditions
with k, u and + to be determined, in terms of M and P, by means of Eqs. (49a) and (43c, d). We note that the special case =0 of this problemis the one-
dimensional analogue of a problemof inextensional bending in two-dimensional shell theory which has been considered in [4].
References
[1] Kelvin and Tait, Treatise on natural philosophy, Part II, 1895-Edition, pp. 136145.
[2] G. Kirchhoff, ber das Gleichgewicht und die Bewegung eines unendlich dnnen elastischen Stabes, J. reine u. angew. Math. 56, 285313 (1859).
[3] A. E. H. Love, A treatise on the mathematical theory of elasticity, 4th Ed., pp. 413417, Cambridge, 1934.
[4] E. Reissner, Finite inextensional pure bending and twisting of thin shells of revolution, Quart. J. Mech. & Appl. Math. 21, 293306 (1968).
[5] E. Reissner, On one-dimensional large-displacement finite-strain beam theory, Studies Appl. Math. 52, 8795 (1973).
Page114
On Axial and Lateral Buckling of End-Loaded Anisotropic Cantilever Beams*
[J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 34, 450457, 1983]
Introduction
In what follows we consider, in extension of the classical Euler and Michell-Prandtl calculations, the problems of axial and lateral buckling of end loaded cantilever
beams for the case of material anisotropy. By material anisotropy we here mean that bending strains as well as twisting strains depend on both bending moments and
twisting moments acting over the cross section of the beam. We assume that this dependence is linear but it will be evident that more general cases could also be
considered. We further assume that the cross sections of the beamhave an axis of symmetry in such a way that an elementary unbuckled state of the beamprevails
for loads smaller than the critical loads which are to be determined.
Buckling Differential Equations and Loading Conditions
With the notation for forces and moments as indicated in Figure 1 and with quantities pertaining to the unbuckled state indicated by overbars we have as equilibrium
differential equations for the process of buckling, in accordance with [2]
In this primes indicate differentiation with respect to the axial coordinate x, is the internal axial force prior to the onset of buckling, with being the center line
curvature associated with the bending moment , and with the force strains and which are associated with the forces and being considered negligible.
Fig. 1.
*With J . E. Reissner.
Page115
For present purposes it is appropriate to consider the effect of also negligible and to stipulate that , and for the case of an axial compressive force F,
a transverse force Q and a bending moment M acting at the end x =0 of the beamare given by
Equations (1a, b, c) are complemented by two constitutive equations which are here taken in the form
With (2a, b, c) and (3a, b) and with equations (1a, b, c) become a third order systemof differential equations for the quantities P
2
, M
2
, M
t
with the remaining task being the stipulation of boundary conditions for this homogeneous system, and the derivation of relations for the determination of the critical
values of F, Q and M in their dependence on the parameters D
b
, D
t
, D
bt
and L.
Buckling Due to Applied End Bending Moment
The assumption F =Q =0 in conjunction with the stipulation that P
2
(0) =0 makes P
2
(x) =0 and leaves as equations for M
t
and M
2
,
As regards the boundary conditions for this systemwe assume that in the process of buckling the load moment vector of magnitudeM remains perpendicular to the
axis of symmetry of the undeflected cross section x =0, as well as perpendicular to the deflected cross section x =0 itself. In view of an additional, geometrical,
stipulation that the end x =L of the beamis built-in we then have as two boundary conditions of an intrinsic formulation of this buckling problemthe two conditions
For the solution of this problemwe use equation (5a) to eliminate M
2
in (5b) and (6b) so as to have as a second-order boundary value problemfor M
t
,
Page116
with (7) and (8a, b) reducing to the well known classical formof this problemwhen 1/D
bt
=0.
The formof the system(7) and (8a, b) suggests the introduction of the two parameters
In terms of these we obtain as an equation for the critical values of o
M
(|)
with o
M
(0) =t/2 and with numerical values for o
M
(|)/o
M
(0) as in Table I.
TableI
| 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.95 1.0
o
M
(|)/o
M
(0) 1 0.941 0.891 0.845 0.770 0.709 0.659 0.647 0.637
o
M
(|)/o
M
(0) 1 1.069 1.151 1.252 1.540 2.092 3.930 5.758
Buckling Due to Applied End Force
We now set M =0 in (4a, b, c) and stipulate as three boundary conditions for this third order system
with equation (12c) being a consequence of the stipulation that the plane defined by the force components F and Q does not change in the process of buckling and
that the end x =L of the beamis again built-in.
An inspection of the boundary value problem(4a, b, c) and (12a, b, c) now reveals the existence of a first-integral
The special case Q =0 of this is of course trivially evident on the basis of (4b) and (12a). The special case F =0 has previously been derived in this manner in [2].
We now use (13) in conjunction with (4a) in order to express M
t
and M
2
in terms of P
2
, in the form
The introduction of (14a, b) into (5b) gives as a second order equation for P
2
Page117
with the boundary conditions for (15) following from(12a), (12c) and (14a) in the form
Non-Dimensionalization
We introduce two dimensionless buckling load parameters
and with | as in (9b), a dimensionless independent variable
Indicating differentiation with respect to by dots and writing P
2
(x) =]() the boundary value problemin (15) and (16a, b) then becomes
where
and where, in view of (18) and (16b),
Given a determination of the function A(o) in accordance with (19a, b, c) we then have from(20a, b) as a parametric representation of a systemof (o
F
, o
Q
) critical
value curves
Equations (19a) to (21) may be seen to imply, in particular, the special case relation
upon observing that as o approaches + the product approaches t/2. The corresponding relation for the case of no axial force F follows directly from(21)
and (20a) in the form
Numerical Results
The smallest positive values of A, in the range 10 sos 10, for which ](A) =0, were calculated through use of twenty five termpartial sums of a power series solution
] =1 +C
2
2 +C
4
4 +. . . . The results of these calculations are listed in Table II, together with the asymptotic expression which
Page118
TableII
o A(o) A(o) o A(o) A(o)
0.0 2.0065 2.0065 1.4 2.721 1.240 1.328
0.1 2.072 1.933 1.6 2.787 1.176 1.242
0.2 2.139 1.864 1.8 2.849 1.120 1.171
0.3 2.204 1.795 2 2.907 1.071 1.111
0.4 2.266 1.729 3 3.162 0.892 0.907
0.5 2.324 1.665 4 3.381 0.777 0.785
0.6 2.379 1.605 5 3.577 0.698 0.702
0.7 2.431 1.548 1.877 6 3.758 0.638 0.641
0.8 2.479 1.494 1.756 7 3.927 0.592 0.594
0.9 2.525 1.444 1.656 8 4.09 0.554 0.555
1.0 2.568 1.397 1.571 9 4.24 0.523 0.524
1.2 2.648 1.313 1.434 10 4.38 0.496 0.497
TableIII
| 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 0.95 1.0
o
Q
(|)/o
Q
(0) 1 0.936 0.881 0.833 0.753 0.690 0.637 0.626 0.615
o
Q
(|)/o
Q
(0) 1 1.076 1.167 1.279 1.612 2.287 4.893 8.029
holds for sufficiently large positive values of o, with the asymptotic value differing fromthe exact value by less than one percent when 4 <o.
Given the numerical values of A(o) in Table II we obtain the effect of the parameter | for the Michell-Prandtl problemof lateral buckling due to a transverse force Q,
in accordance with equation (23), as listed in Table III, where o
Q
(0) =4.013.
It is apparent that these results are qualitatively similar to the corresponding results in Table I for the problemof lateral buckling due to an applied end moment.
Finally, the results in Table II, in conjunction with equation (21), lead to a systemof (o
Q
, o
F
) curves for various values of | in the range (0.9, 0.9) as shown in
Figures 2a, b. We note that the result for | =0 has previously been obtained by Lensing [1]. As regards the qualitative aspects of these results we limit ourselves to
observing the physically unanticipated effect of an increase of the axial buckling load in the range | <0 under the influence of a moderate simultaneous transverse
load, with this bringing to mind the possibility of an unanticipated case of imperfection sensitivity.
A remarkable property of a mathematical nature may be seen in the appearance of an envelope to the family of (o
Q
, o
F
)-curves when 0 <| and o
F
<0. The nearly
straight line behavior of the curves for sufficiently large positive values of | is consistent with the fact that in the asymptotic range equation (21) implies
the relation o
F
=(t2/4) |o
Q
.
Addendum
Analogous results are possible for systems of (o
Q
, o
M
) and (o
F
, o
M
) curves, and also for a systemof (o
Q
, o
F
, o
M
) surfaces.
Page119
Fig. 2a.
Fig. 2b.
Page120
References
[1] J. Lensing, Die verallgemeinerte linearisierte Theorie dritter Ordnung des geraden [elastischen Balkens, Dissertation Braunschweig, 100 pp., 1976.
[2] E. Reissner, On lateral buckling of end-loaded cantilever beams, J. Appl. Math. Phys. (ZAMP) 30, 3140, 1979.
Page121
A Variational Analysis of Small Finite Deformations of Pretwisted Elastic Beams
[Int. J. Solids Struct. 21, 773779, 1983]
Introduction
The analysis which follows attempts a synthesis of results for stretching, bending, twisting, and warping of prismatical beams as obtained in [3, 5], and of results by
Krenk [2] and Hodges [1] for the linear and nonlinear theory of pretwisted beams.
While there are similarities in our approach and in the approaches in [1, 2], insofar as use of the principle of minimumpotential energy is concerned, and insofar as
use of the St. Venant torsional warping function for the introduction of the warping stiffness effect into the ensuing one-dimensional theory is concerned, there are also
differences, as will be apparent froma comparison of the respective publications.
The present study limits itself to the discussion of two specific examples of application. The first of these is the problemof finite stretching and twisting of beams with
doubly symmetric cross-section, including consideration of the effect of end section warping restraint. The second is the problemof cantilever torsion and flexure
within the range of applicability of linear theory, with a view towards establishing the influence of pretwist on twist and shear center locations.
Energy Functionals and Displacement Modes
We begin as in [3] with the stipulation that an adequate three-dimensional strain energy expression for a beamwith originally straight z-axis and cartesian cross
sectional coordinates x, y is of the form
In this, we assume that the restriction to problems of small finite deformations for sufficiently slender beams implies the appropriateness of the use of the abbreviated
Green strain formulas
In order to be able to use the variational equation for displacements which is associated with eqns (1) and (2) for the derivation of an approximate one-dimensional
beamtheory we assume as before as approximations for the cartesian displacement components , ,
Page122
with u, v, u, w, o, |, being seven functions of z only, and with | being a suitably assumed function of x, y, and z.
In our earlier analysis of prismatical beams, | was taken to be the St. Venant warping function for torsion, with differential equation
and boundary condition (|
,x
y) dx (|
,y
+x) dy =0. Here we modify our definition of | by first introducing rotated cross-sectional coordinates , q, involving an
angle of pretwist e(z), through the relations
and by then stipulating that | be the warping function for the rotated cross-section, with differential equation
and boundary condition
with G =G(, q) a given non-negative function and with (5a, b) implying the integral relations
and
We note, for subsequent use, that the determination of |, as in (5a, b), allows us to set, without loss of generality,
with a Young modulus function E =E(, q).
Having the above definition of |, it follows that the effect of pretwist will manifest itself in the one-dimensional theory which is to be established by way of modifying
the approximate normal strain expression of prismatical beamanalysis, through the appearance of one additional term, involving a factor |
,z
, as follows:
At the same time, we have as before [5], except for negligible terms xuu' and yuu',
In writing (6a, b) we take account of eqn (4) by observing that
Page123
and
with an associated area element change of dx dy into d dq in the defining relation (1).
In order to proceed further, we now stipulate as expression for the potential energy of external distributed or concentrated loads, consistent with the displacement
approximations in eqn (1),
and we assume, for the sake of definiteness, a specific strain energy density function U of the form
With eqns (1) to (10), the general results which are to be obtained now follow as a consequence of the variational equation
with arbitrary ow, ou, ov, oo, o|, ou, and o for all values of z, excepting the effect of prescribed displacement boundary conditions.
Derivation of One-Dimensional Differential Equations and Boundary Conditions
We write on the basis of eqns (1) and (2)
and, on the basis of eqns (6a, b, c),
where
An introduction of eqns (13a, b), in conjunction with appropriate defining relations for one-dimensional cross-sectional stress measures, into eqn (12) reduces this
relation to the one-dimensional form
Page124
Equation (15) in conjunction with eqns (9), (11) and (14a, b, c) leads to a systemof seven one-dimensional differential equations of equilibrium
and to a systemof one-dimensional stress boundary conditions
or alternately, displacement boundary conditions
Given the form(12) and (13), in conjunction with eqn (15), we have as defining relations for the one-dimensional stress measures in eqns (16) to (22)
Equations (24) and (25) together with eqns (5e), (6a, b, c), and (14a, b, c) imply, as a systemof one-dimensional constitutive relations, the two matrix equations
and
Page125
with the elements of the constitutive matrices in (26) and (27) being given by
and
with x and y as in eqn (4), and with the ensuing relations
and
We note that the systemof differential equations involving (14a, b, c), (16) to (19), (26), and (27) reduces to our earlier results for prismatical beams [4, 5] upon
stipulating that e =0, identically, whereupon
H
=0 in (14b) and e'H =0 in eqn (19), with this entailing a reduction of the 6 6 systemin eqn (26) to a 5 5
system, by way of a deletion of the last row and the last column in the coefficient matrix in eqn (26).
We further note that we may, as for the case e' =0[4], obtain a somewhat simpler theory by stipulating that transverse shear deformability is negligible, insofar as the
effect of the stress measures Q
x
and Q
y
is concerned, by stipulating in eqn (27) that A
G
= and
with Q
x
and Q
y
then being reactive, and with the remainder of the system(27) reducing to
As also done in [1, 2], when e'= 0, we do not make the further assumption here of neglecting transverse shear deformability in relation to the magnitude of S.
Instead, we retain the distinction between k
T
and
S
as in eqn (35).
Stretching, Twisting and Warping of Doubly Symmetric Cross-Section Beams
We consider a uniformpretwisted beamof length 2L with a doubly symmetric cross-
Page126
section, acted upon by forces F
z
and moments M
z
at the ends z =L, with M
x
, M
y
, F
x
, and F
y
stipulated to vanish. Because of the assumed double symmetry we
have then that M
x
, M
y
, Q
x
, Q
y
, o, |, u, and v vanish throughout, with the equilibriumequations (16)(19) reducing to the three relations
In these F, T, N, R, S , and H follow fromeqns (26) and (27), with
in the form
An inspection of eqn (36) in conjunction with eqns (38)(41) indicates that the first two relations in eqn (36) are in effect two nonlinear equations for the determination
of w' and u' in terms of F
z
, M
z
, and . The introduction of this result into the third relation in eqn (36), with R, S, and H, as in eqns (41) and (40), then leaves a
second-order differential equation for the determination of . As regards the solution of this differential equation, the following two cases will be of particular interest,
It is evident that for case (i) it will be necessary to determine as solution of a nonlinear second-order boundary value problem, explicitly or by numerical
procedures.
As regards case (ii), one finds the simpler result that both the differential equation and the boundary conditions are satisfied upon setting ' =0 throughout, with the
three relations in eqn (36) then becoming three simultaneous ordinary equations for w', u', and , of the form
Upon setting e' =0, this systemreduces to the corresponding result in [4]. Upon linearization, the consequences of eqns (43)(45) are consistent with the
developments in [2]. For the nonlinear case with e'= 0, we can use eqn (45) so as to express in terms of w' and u', with eqns (43) and (44) then becoming a
systemof two simultaneous nonlinear equations for the determinations of w' and u' in terms of F
z
and M
z
.
Torsion and Flexure of a Pretwisted Cantilever Beam
In an extension of earlier work [3], we now use the contents of eqns (14), (16) to (23), (26), and (27) for a consideration of the problemof a cantilever, fixed at z =
L and acted upon by forces
Page127
F
x0
, F
y0
, and a torque M
z0
at the end z =0. While it is feasible to obtain results for this problemon the basis of the complete nonlinear systemof equations as stated,
we will here limit ourselves to the consideration of its linearized version. Further-more, we assume for simplicity's sake that transverse shear deformability is negligible
and that the origin of the x-, y-axis systemcoincides with the centroid of the cross section.
Given the above stipulations, we immediately obtain fromeqns (16) to (22) the same as for the problemof the beamwithout pretwist
with the equilibriumdifferential equation (19), and one of the stress boundary conditions in eqn (22) remaining in the form
With eqn (46) and with the assumed choice of axes and eqns (14a, b), we then have, as the linearized version of the constitutive system(26),
In view of the assumption of absent transverse shear deformability, the associated system(27), with eqns (35) and (14b, c), reduces to
For the problemas stated, the sixth-order problem(47) to (51) for the five variables w, o, |, u, is associated with the five displacement boundary conditions
in addition to the one stress boundary condition in (47).
With the solution of the above, we can subsequently determine u and v fromu' +o =0, v' +| =0, which follow fromeqns (34) and (14c), in conjunction with the
conditions u(L) =v(L) =0.
The problemas it stands now requires that we solve eqns (49a, b) for o' and |', as linear combinations of F
x0
z, F
y0
z, ', and , with the substitution of these
expressions into eqns (48) and (50), giving H and R as linear combinations of F
x0
z, F
y0
z, ', and . The introduction of these into eqn (47), with I
pG
S =J
G
(D
tG

M
z0
), where D
tG
=I
pG
J
G
in accordance with eqn (51), altogether leaves a second-order differential equation for with the two boundary conditions R(0) =(L) =
0 and with the solution coming out as a linear combination of M
z0
, F
x0
, F
y0
. Having determined , we will then have further, on the basis of eqn (51), an expression
for u' of the form
with the functions ] depending on cross-sectional properties, as well as on the rate of pretwist function e'.
Page128
The Influence of Pre-Twist on Shear and Twist Center Locations
Given eqn (53) we can, as for the problemwithout pretwist [3], determine coordinates x
T
, y
T
of cross-sectional centers of twist, or equivalently, centers of shear x
S
,
y
S
upon setting M
z0
=F
y0
x
T
F
y0
y
T
for u(0) =0, in the form
References
1. D. H. Hodges, Torsion of pretwisted beams due to axial loading, J. Appl. Mech. 47, 393397 (1980).
2. S. Krenk, A linear theory for pretwisted beams, J. Appl. Mech. 50, 137142 (1983).
3. E. Reissner, Further considerations on the problemof torsion and flexure of prismatical beams, Int. J. Solids Structures 19, 385392 (1983).
4. E. Reissner, On a simple variational analysis of small finite deformations of prismatical beams, J. Appl. Math. Phys. (ZAMP) 34, 642648 (1983).
5. E. Reissner, On a variational analysis of finite deformations of prismatical beams and on the effect of warping stiffness onbuckling loads, J. Appl. Math. Phys.
(ZAMP) 35, 247251 (1984).
Page129
PLATES
I learned about bending of plates and about solutions of plate problems in my father's statics of structures course. By way of having taken, at the same time, a
complex variables course I knew that the singular function r2 ln r, for a point load at r =0 could be written in the form|z|2ln|z| where z =x +iy. I also knew about the
conformal map of the unit circle onto itself, with the point z =0 moving to z =a, by way of the mapping function (z a)/(1 az). I used this knowledge to construct the
singularity |z a|2 ln |(z a)/(1 az)| for a point load at z =a, and to synthesize a deflection function Re{|z a|2 ln |(z a)/(1 az)| +(1 |z|2)](z)}, such that this solution satisfied
the condition of vanishing edge deflection. I then wrote the second boundary condition, involving edge slope and edge bending movement, as a differential equation
for ](z) and in this way obtained a closed formsolution which generalized Michell's solution for the clamped-edge plate so as to include, in particular, the solution for
a simply supported plate [2]. To my pleasant surprise this solution became, soon thereafter, a section in Grammel and Biezeno's new Technical Dynamics treatise.
My next involvement with plates came by way of having to correct student solutions for simple cases of Wagner's theory of parallel tension lines, as an idealized
description of post buckling behavior of rectangular plates. I used what I had just then learned about differential geometry to generalize the problemso as to allow for
non-parallel tension lines and applied this generalization to obtain information on the behavior of circular ring plates, with edge shears applied through the intermediary
of elastic edge rings [15].
Upon having to teach a course in elasticity and having to explain the difference between plane stress and plane strain I was led next to a procedure for the
determination of three-dimensional Poisson's ratio corrections for the two-dimensional theory of plane stress [30]. A concluding remark that ''it appears feasible to
extend this analysis to problems of plate bending theory . . ." was followed up two years later, the delay being due in part to requests for work concerning cemented
joints [33], non-uniformmotion aerodynamics [34] and shallow shell theory [41,46].
Taking account of transverse stress effects was actually simpler for the problemof plate bending than it had been for the problemof stretching. In addition, the results
of doing so turned out to be more significant. In particular, taking account of transverse shear deformation meant a step fromthe classical fourth-order theory with its
contracted boundary condition paradox to a sixth-order theory, allowing for a description of boundary layer effects and for a resolution of the paradox [36,38].
Fortuitously, restricting attention to homogeneous isotropic plates meant a formof the sixth-order systemof differential equations which made it possible to derive an
explicit solution for the benchmark problemof stress concentrations due to a small
Page130
circular hole. It was only much later that additional, computational, advantages were found to be associated with the use of this sixth-order theory, as a consequence
of the fact that its strain-displacement relations did not involve the second derivative terms of the fourth-order theory.
The subject of plates stayed with me fromthen on. An analysis of finite deflections of sandwich-type plates [51] was followed by the concept of displacement-based
higher-order theories [57], by considerations of finite deflections of circular plates [64,77], by a simple explicit Kirchhoff-type solution for the problemof twisting due
to corner forces of a rhombic plate [81], by results for combined finite twisting and bending, with complex instability characteristics [105], by an introduction of the
concept of constitutive coupling of bending and stretching for the analysis of laminated anisotropic plates [133], and by someregrettably incorrectconclusions on the
variational derivation of boundary conditions in connection with Goodier's parametric interior expansion procedure, without regard to boundary layer effects [143].
Wishing to understand the essence of Koiter's asymptotic analysis of post-buckling behavior and imperfection sensitivity next led me to consider the problemof finite
deflections of plates on a non-linear elastic foundation [173]. Aside fromsome physically interesting observations I concluded that I could obtain Koiter-type results
by a differential-equation based parametric expansion procedure, with sequential elimination of secular terms.
After this I concerned myself again with various aspects of sixth and higher order theories. A self-consistent entirely two-dimensional formulation of the sixth-order
theory with conjugate stress and strain couples and resultants, became the starting point of two specific observations [204]. The first of these was that the fortunate
property of the isotropic case to be associated with uncoupled differential equations V4w =0 and V2_2_ =0 did not hold for most orthotropic plates. Their
behavior was governed instead by two simultaneous third-order equations for w and _ which could not be decoupled. The second observation was that it was
possible to deduce fromthe equations at the sixth-order theory, a Kirchhoff-type interior solution portion, with modified contracted boundary conditions accounting
for first-order transverse shear effects (which was pursued further in [221]), consistent with Goldenveiser's later result as a consequence of three-dimensional
asymptotics.
Subsequent to this I derived a two-dimensional twelfth-order theory for transversely isotropic layers [236]. Remarkably, this twelfth-order theory involved again a
fourth-order interior solution problem, but now with a boundary layer governed by two second-order shear deformation equations and one fourth-order equation
which accounted for transverse normal stress effects [260].
Finally, I returned once again to the sixth-order theory for orthotropic plates [264,270] in order to deal with the asymptotic expansion problem, this time on the basis
of three simultaneous equations for w and for the two shear stress resultants Q
x
and Q
y
, with all three of these variables now having interior and boundary layer
portions, in contrast to the isotropic case for which there was no boundary layer portion for w. One of my aims in this analysis was to contribute to the understanding
of the importance of distinguishing "soft" and "hard" support, in the spirit of the questions then raised and dealt with in nearly simultaneous papers of Babuska and
Bathe.
Page131
ber Die Biegung Der Kreisplatte Mit Exzentrischer Einzellast
[Math. Annalen 111, 777780, 1935]
Das Problem, die Biegungsflchen einer dnnen elastischen Kreisplatte zu bestimmen, die lngs des Randes gesttzt und in einemPunkte innerhalb des Randes durch
eine Einzelkraft P beansprucht ist (Greensche Funktionen), lautet in mathematischer Formulierung bekanntlich1) folgendermaen:
Es ist eine Lsung der Gleichung
zu bestimmen, die folgenden Bedingungen gengt:
Dabei sind v,
0
, 0 s a <1 und N Konstanten, z =x +iy =rei
0
und , eine Lsung von (1), die fr r s 1 keine Singularitten aufweist.
Diese Aufgabe ist in geschlossener Formbisher nur fr den Fall v =, und zwar von J. H. Michell2) durch Inversion des zentralsymmetrischen Ansatzes gelst
worden, whrend fr v=, wo das Verfahren nicht zumZiele fhrt, A. Fppl 3) vermittels Reihenentwicklungen nach einer klassischen Methode von Clebsch4) eine
Lsung gegeben hat.
Die vorliegende Note enthlt eine Lsung der von Fppl behandelten Aufgabe in geschlossener Form.
1A. E. H. Love, Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 4. ed. 1927; S. 489491.
2J . H. Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc. 1902; S. 223.DieAnnahmev = bedeutet, da diePlattestarr eingespannt ist. BeimProblemder gelenkiggesttzten Platteist v dieQuerkontraktionszahl (0
svs 0,5). Wenn man der Zahl v >0 eineandereBedeutungzulegt, kann man (3) auch als Randbedingungfr eineelastisch eingespanntePlatteansehen.Es sei noch dieBedeutungder Konstanten in (4)
angegeben:
0
ist der Plattenradius, N dieBiegungssteifigkeit der Platte, a
0
der Belastungsradius [das Koordinatensystemist so gewhlt, da (P) =0] und w
0
dieBiegungsflchein wahrer Gre.
3A. Fppl, Ber. d. Kgl. Bayr. Ak. d. Wiss. 1912; S. 155.
4A. Clebsch, Theorieder Elastizitt fester Krper. Leipzig1862.
Page132
Umdiese zu finden, wird ausgegangen von der bekannten Tatsache, da sich jede Lsung von (1) in der Form
mit
darstellen lst. Also ist auch
eine Lsung von (1). Man erkennt, da sie die Bedingungen (2) und (4) bereits imAnsatz erfllt, wenn ](z) eine fr r s 1 regulr analytische Funktion ist. Die
Bedingung (3) dient dazu, diese Funktion zu bestimmen.
Es ist zweckmig, die Bedingung (3) etwas umzuformn. Wegen (2) ist
Damit wird
Beachtet man, da
so erhlt man mit (5) aus (3) die folgende Gleichung zur Bestimmung von ](z)
(3a) ist in bekannter Weise als eine Differentialgleichung fr ](z) aufzufassen5). Ihr allgemeines Integral ergibt sich mit einer willkrlichen Konstanten c und unter
Weglassung einer bedeutungslosen rein imaginren additiven Konstanten zu
Wegen der vorausgesetzten Regularitt von ](z) ist c =0.
Wenn man (8) in (5) einsetzt, wird die gesuchte Biegungsflche
5Auf diesen direkten Schlu hat mich freundlicherweiseHerr Prof. G. Hamel hingewiesen. Ursprnglich 'war dieLsunggefunden worden durch Ansetzen einer Potenzreihefr ](z), deren
Koeffizienten sich aus (3a) bestimmen, und Identifizierungder Reihemit der Funktion (8).
Page133
Nun lt sich das Integral in (9) in allen den Fllen geschlossen ausintegrieren, in denen v eine rationale Zahl ist, also praktisch immer, und damit hat man in (9) die
gesuchte Lsung der Aufgabe in geschlossener Form.
Fr den Grenzfall v =0 z. B. erhlt man in reeller Schreibweise
Fr v =1/3 ist
Fr die Durchbiegung unter demLastangriffspunkt (Biegungspfeil) ergibt sich daraus
Man kann als einfache Verallgemeinerung des vorstehenden Lsungsgedankens den folgenden Satz aussprechen:
Die Randwertaufgabe der Bipotentialtheorie fr den Kreis l|t sich imFalle gegebener Funktionsrandwerte auf eine Randwertaufgabe der Potentialtheorie fr
den Kreis zurckfhren, deren Art von der zweiten Randbedingung fr die Bipotentialfunktion abhngt.
Dieser Satz kann mit Vorteil noch fr andere technisch wichtige Aufgaben aus der Theorie der durch eine oder mehrere Einzelkrfte und stetige Belastung
beanspruchten Kreisplatte verwendet werden. Es ist beabsichtigt, dies an anderer Stelle auszufhren.
Page134
On Tension Field Theory
[Proc. 5th Intern. Congr. Appl. Mech. pp. 8892, 1938]
1
Introduction
Tension field theory has been developed by H. Wagner1 to describe the state of stress in a certain type of thin-walled structures after buckling has set in. It substitutes
for the non-linear problemof a large-deflection theory of elasticity a simplified linear theory which in a number of practically important cases yields results in good
agreement with experimental data.
The reasoning leading to tension field theory is best explained by means of a definite example. Consider a strip of thin sheet supported perpendicular to the plane of
the sheet and acted upon by uniformshear along the edges in the plane of the sheet.
Up to a certain intensity of the shear load, a uniformplane state of stress is produced in the sheet. If the load is increased beyond that intensity buckling occurs.
However if the distance of opposite edges of the sheet is kept constant the shear load can have an intensity many times that of the buckling load without failure of the
structure as such. What happens is that wrinkles are formed in the sheet, the wave length of which decreases with increasing load, and that the sheet is mainly stressed
in tension in the direction along the wrinkles while the compressive stress perpendicular to the wrinkles which causes the wrinkling becomes small compared with the
tensile stress. Neglecting this compressive stress and also the bending stresses induced by the deformation out of the plane of the sheet against the tensile stress, one
has to study types of plane states of stress for which at each point the only principal stress component which is different fromzero is a tension, while the strain
component perpendicular to the direction of the non-vanishing principal stress component is not uniquely determined by the stress at that point.
In the present paper Wagner's formulation of the problemis modified in such a way, that it appears as a special case of a more general problemin plane stress, in
itself of interest and hitherto not considered. It deals with the theory of elasticity of anisotropic media, the curvilinear anisotropy of which depends on the boundary
conditions of the problem.
In this new formthe tension field is analyzed by straightforward calculus avoiding the lengthy geometrical considerations of Wagner.
As an application of the theory a solution of the following problemis here given: A flat sheet of circular ring form, stiffened along inner and outer edges, is stressed by
twisting one edge with respect to the other, the axis of the applied torque being perpendicular to the plane of the sheet. This is the first solved problemin tension field
theory where non-parallel tension lines occur.
1H. Wagner, Zeitschr. Flugtechnik u. Motorluftschiffahrt 1929.
Page135
2
Formulation of the General Problem
In this paragraph is given the mathematical formulation of the following problem: To determine the state of stress in a material of such curvilinear anisotropy that the
axes of elastic symmetry are always tangent to the lines of principal stress. The anisotropy of such a material thus depends onthe conditions which are prescribed
along its boundaries.
Tension field theory is obtained as a particular case of this problemin which one of the two different moduli of elasticity has the value zero.
Introducing as systemof coordinates , q the orthogonal systemof the lines of principal stress in which the line element has the form
the following systemof equations has to be solved.
1. The equations of equilibriumfor the principal stress components o and oq
2. The stress-strain relations. Calling u and v the displacements in and q-direction, E and Eq the moduli of elasticity and G the modulus of rigidity and assuming no
lateral contractions, these relations are
3. The relation between h
1
and h
2
which expresses the fact that the system(, q) is orthogonal
It seems difficult to solve this systemif not either E =Eq (isotropy) or one of the E's say
The latter case shall here be discussed.
3
Solution of the Equations of Tension Field Theory
Introducing the assumption (5) into Eqs. (3) there follows
and with that fromEqs. (2) ch
1
/cq =0, h
1
=h
1
(). It amounts only to a change of scale along the curves q =const. if one puts
Geometrically the relation (7) means that the lines q =const. are straight (Figure 1).
Page136
Fig. 1.
Furthermore it follows from(2) that
where g is an arbitrary function.
From(4) follows
where ]
1
and ]
2
are arbitrary.
For the calculation of the displacements u and v two cases are conveniently distinguished.
(a) The case that the straight lines q =const. are parallel, and hence also the lines =const. are straight. Then ]
1
(q) =0 and by scaling appropriately one may put
]
2
(q) =1.
The displacements result fromEqs. (3) in the form
Here h and k are two more arbitrary functions.
(b) The case that the lines q =const. are not parallel. In this case a change of scale makes possible to put ]
1
(q) =1 which means that the variable q is identical with
the varying angle o between the lines q =const. and a fixed straight line.
From(3) results then
Page137
In (8), (9) and (10) the four unknown quantities o, h
2
, u and v are expressed in terms of four arbitrary functions g, ]
2
, h and k.
Since these arbitrary functions depend on the variable q whereas the boundary conditions are given in terms of a fixed coordinate system, say a Cartesian system(x,
y), relations must be established between the system(, q) and the system(x, y). For this purpose the following equations must be used
The integration of this systemof equations is effected by a geometrical consideration. Since the lines q =const. are straight, one may write
This introduced into (11) gives for m and n
and from(13)
Hence
where do/dq =]
1
(q)
In (8), (9), (10) and (15) there is given the general solution of the tension field problem in terms of four arbitrary functions which have to be determined by
boundary conditions.
4
The Stresses in a Sheet of Circular Ring Form Wrinkled under the Influence of Shear Stresses Acting along the Edges
(Figure 2) As an application of the preceding general results this problemis solved rigorously. The tension lines start fromthe inner edge, and because of symmetry,
each makes along the inner edge the same angle | with the radius fromthe origin. This angle | cannot be assumed but must be determined by means of the boundary
conditions.
Introducing as independent variables and q the distance along the tension lines froman origin whose position depends on the angle q of this line with the x-axis,
one finds the following relations between the coordinates x, y, the polar
Page138
Fig. 2.
coordinates r, , and the coordinates , q
For the stresses one obtains from(8) the principal stress
and the radial and tangential stresses
Page139
For the displacements in radial and tangential direction u
r
and u results
Equations (18) and (19) are the most general expressions for stresses and displacements compatible with the assumed tension lines. If one is only interested in a
stress distribution independent of the angle variable =q +t/2, that is, independent of q, these expressions are simplified to
and
For the determination of the four constants R
0
=r
0
sin |, g
0
, h
0
and k
0
serve two boundary conditions at the inner edge r =r
0
and two conditions at the outer edge r
=r
1
. It shall be assumed that the shear load is applied by means of two stiffening rings of cross sectional area A
0
and A
1
which have moduli of elasticity E
0
and E
1
.
The two rings are necessary to prevent the sheet fromcollapsing after wrinkling has started.
Assuming that the tangential displacement of the outer edge is zero and of the inner edge equal to and expressing the fact that the radial deformation of the
stiffening rings under the influence of the uniformly distributed radial load has to equal the radial deformation of the sheet along its edges, one has the conditions
Further discussion of the problemis here restricted to the case of rigid stiffening rings, so that in (23) and (25) one puts
Page140
That is, u
r
(r
1
) =0 and u
r
(r
0
) =0. Conditions (22) and (23) lead with (21) to
From(24) and (25) follows
Equations (27), (28) and (29) are three linear homogeneous equations for g
0
, h
0
, k
0
which cannot all be zero. Therefore the determinant of this systemhas to vanish,
that is
Fig. 3.
Page141
Developing and introducing the expressions for h
2
(r) and R
0
from(16) this becomes the following equation to determine the angle |
which angle thus is seen to depend on the ratio r
0
/r
1
.
Since (32) cannot be solved explicitly, | has been determined numerically as function of r
0
/r
1
and the result plotted in Figure 3. It is seen that | varies between 45
and 90; if the diameter of the hole approaches the diameter of the outer edge, the sheet behaves approximately like a straight strip and | equals 45; if the diameter
of the hole is small compared with the diameter of the sheet the tension lines depart under right angles fromthe radius vector. For very small r
0
/r
1
where the numerical
Fig. 4.
Page142
evaluation of (32) is inconvenient the following approximate relation holds
Having obtained |, one also knows g
0
, and with that the stresses in terms of the tangential edge displacement .
Of especial interest is the ratio between radial stress and tangential stress along the edges since the radial stress for prescribed shear determines the dimensions of the
stiffening rings. This ratio is, according to (20),
The values of the ratios (34) are plotted as function of r
0
/r
1
in Figure 4.
Page143
On the Calculation of Three-Dimensional Corrections for the Two Dimensional Theory of Plane Stress (Excerpt)
[Proc. 15th Semi-Annual Eastern Photoelasticity Conf. pp. 2331, 1942]
Formulation of the Problem
In this note a method is developed which permits the approximate solution of the following class of boundary value problems of the theory of elasticity. A body,
bounded by one or more cylindrical surfaces with parallel generators and by two parallel planes perpendicular to the axes of the cylindrical surfaces, is acted upon by
tractions applied to the cylindrical portion of the boundary, the boundary tractions being parallel to the bounding planes and moreover non-varying in the direction of
the axes of the cylinders.
Mathematically the problemconsists in finding solutions of the following systemof nine equations:
for the nine unknowns o
x
, o
y
, o
z
, t
xy
, t
xz
, t
yz
, u, v, w, subject to the following boundary conditions
In these conditions 2h is the distance between the bounding planes, ]
i
(x, y) =0 the equation of the ith cylindrical bounding surface, s the arc length along the
circumference of the cylinders and p
x
and p
y
the x and y-components of the boundary tractions.
The two-dimensional theory of plane stress can be described as a method of approximately solving the systemof Eqs. (1)(4), based on the following
Page144
assumptions:
It is known that these assumptions are in general consistent only with the systemof differential equations (1)(3) when the value of Poisson's ratio, v, is zero.
Otherwise it is necessary to disregard two of the shear stress strain relations, Eqs. (2f) and (2g), since it is impossible to satisfy themfor a state of stress obtained
fromEqs. (1), (2a)(2d) and (4)(6).
The usefulness of the approximate theory lies in the fact that experimental evidence and mechanical intuition indicate that in many cases the results of this approximate
theory are very close to the corresponding exact results. However, the same evidence and intuition indicate also that the results of the approximate theory may be
seriously in error in such regions of the body where appreciable changes in stress occur over distances which are of the same order of magnitude as the thickness 2h
of the body. Such changes occur for instance in the edge zone of holes (cut-outs) when the diameter of the holes is of the order of magnitude of the thickness 2h.
It is for a quantitative analysis of such effects that it is desirable to calculate three-dimensional corrections for the two-dimensional theory of plane stress.
Since it is believed that an exact solution of the three-dimensional problempresents very great analytical difficulties, an approximate method for its solution is here
developed which reduces the three-dimensional problemmathematically to one in two-dimensions while retaining the three-dimensional mechanical characteristics of
the solution.
The method employed here is an appropriate application of the Principle of Least Work.
Method of Solution
The approximate analysis of the three-dimensional effect may be based on replacing the assumptions, Eqs. (6), of two-dimensional stress by the following
assumptions:
while the assumptions, Eqs. (5), of plane stress are replaced by
In Eqs. (7) and (8) the functions S, T, s and t depend on x and y only while the functions g, which are to be determined suitably, depend on z only.
The first set of conditions here imposed on the stresses of Eqs. (7) and (8) is that they have to satisfy the equilibriumconditions (1) and the boundary conditions (3)
and (4).
Fromthe equilibriumconditions (1) follows that g
1
and g
2
depend on g and that t
xz
, t
yz
and s
z
depend on s
x
, s
y
and s
z
in the following way,
Page145
(where dashes denote differentiation with respect to z) and
The boundary conditions (3) are satisfied by prescribing
and the boundary conditions (4) imply the following set of five conditions
In view of the special formof the expressions (7) and (8) it is still not in general possible to satisfy all the stress strainrelations exactly. Since, however, Eqs. (7) and
(8) are more general expressions than Eqs. (5) and (6) imply, it will be possible to satisfy the stress strain relations more nearly than is done in the two-dimensional
theory of plane stress.
The way in which this closer approximation is obtained is the following. Use is made of the basic minimumprinciple for the stresses to determine the functions of Eqs.
(7)(10) by an application of the direct methods of the calculus of variations. The minimumprinciple can be stated in the following form: ''Among all possible states of
stress which satisfy the equilibriumconditions in the interior of the body and the stress boundary conditions on the surface of the body, the correct state of stress
makes the difference of the strain energy and of the work of the unprescribed boundary stresses a minimum." In the case that all boundary conditions are stress
boundary conditions the strain energy itself is a minimumfor the correct state of stress. The more general minimumprinciple permits, however, extension of the
present results to problems in which displacement as well as stress boundary conditions are prescribed.
On the basis of the equilibriumstate of stress (7) and (8) a "best" approximation will here be obtained by determining the arbitrary functions s
x
, s
y
and t
xy
such that the
strain energy of the body becomes as small as is possible with expressions for the stresses of the formEqs. (7) and (8).
For the function g(z) which determines the shape of the stress curves over the thickness 2h of the body the following assumption is made
This expression for g satisfies the surface conditions (11).
It will be shown that application of the minimumenergy principle leads to a systemof simultaneous partial differential equations for a stress function | fromwhich the
average stresses S
x
, S
y
and T are derived and for the stress corrections s
x
, s
y
and t
xy
. The advantage which this systemof equations possesses compared with the
basic systemof Eqs. (1) and (2) is that the number of independent variables is
Page146
reduced fromthree to two and that it is of a formwhich permits an explicit solution of the boundary value problemfor the cases that the solid is bounded by two
parallel planes (problemof the infinite strip) or by two concentric circular cylinders (problemof the annulus). The latter case includes the problemof a circular hole in
an infinite sheet which seems to be of the greatest practical interest among those which may be analyzed by the method of this paper.
Page147
On the Theory of Bending of Elastic Plates
[J. Math. & Phys. 23, 184191, 1944]
Introduction
In this paper there is established a systemof differential equations of the sixth order for the linear problemof bending of thin plates. The formof these equations is
such that results obtained by their application coincide with the results of the classical theory of thin plates except for narrow edge zones. On the basis of the present
equations it is possible and necessary to satisfy three boundary conditions along the edges of a plate while, as is well known, the classical theory leads to two
boundary conditions only. The history and significance of the problemhas recently been discussed by J. J. Stoker.1
Formulation of the Problem
We consider an elastic body bounded by two parallel planes and by a cylindrical surface perpendicular to the two planes. The distance h between the two parallel
planes is assumed to be small compared with the remaining linear dimensions of the body, which because of this order of magnitude relation may be called a "plate."
A coordinate system(x, y, z) is chosen such that the faces of the plate are the planes z =h/2. The cylindrical boundary of the plate may be given by equations of
the formx =x(s), y =y(s) where s stands for the circumferential arc length. It is assumed that the two faces of the plate are free of shear stress while the normal
traction o
z
is a given function of x and y. The resultant of the surface stresses o
z
is balanced by stresses distributed over the cylindrical boundary of the plate.
We begin by assuming that the bending stresses are distributed linearly over the thickness of the plate,
By means of the differential equations of equilibriumwe obtain as expressions for the transverse shear stresses
The shear stress resultants V are given in terms of the stress couples M and H,
1Mathematical problems connected with the bending and buckling of elastic plates. Bulletin of theAmerican Mathematical Society, 48, pp. 247261 (1942).
Page148
For the remaining normal stress component there results
if it is assumed that the vertical loads p are distributed over both faces of the plate as follows
Comparison of equations (5) and (4) gives
Substituting equations (3) in equation (6) we have
To obtain further relations for the three stress couples it is necessary to make use of the stress strain relations. This can be done in various ways. For the present
purpose it is convenient to do this by means of Castigliano's Theoremof Least Work. For simplicity's sake it may be assumed that there are prescribed along the
cylindrical portion of the boundary either the values of o
n
, and or t
ns
, and or t
zs
(in such a way that equations (1) and (2) remain satisfied) or vanishing of the work of
the stresses o
n
and or t
ns
and or t
zs
. The Theoremof Least Work then states that among all statically correct states of stress the state of stress which also satisfies
the stress strain relations and the displacement boundary conditions is characterized by the condition that the variation of the strain energy vanishes.
Taking isotropic materials the strain energy is given by
Substituting the values of the stresses fromequations (1), (2) and (4) the integration with respect to z may be carried out. With
2Thedifferencebetween this condition and thecondition that thesurfaceloads areapplied to onefaceof theplateonly is not important for thepresent purposes.
Page149
there results
The variation of H according to equation (10) is to be made equal to zero in such a way that the equilibriumequation (7) remains satisfied. Introducing according to
the rules of the calculus of variations a Lagrangian multiplier w(x, y) we than have
Equation (11) is the basic relationship fromwhich every other result will be deduced. It may be remarked that the results of the classical theory of plate bending are
obtained if in equation (11) one neglects the strain energy of the transverse shear and normal stresses. The main point of the present work is recognition of the fact
that application of the variational principle without this neglect leads to a systemof equations for which three conditions can and have to be satisfied along the edges
of the plate. This is due to the fact that retention of the transverse shear stress terms increases the order of the resultant systemof differential equations.
The Differential Equations and Boundary Conditions of the Theory
Carrying out the variations in equation (11),
Page150
Integrating by parts and rearranging,
In equation (13) the line integral is taken along the cylindrical boundary of the plate, s and n referring to the tangential and normal direction, respectively. It is seen that
the variational equation (13) implies three differential equations and three boundary conditions. The first two differential equations may be solved for M
x
and M
y
. If
this is done there follow, with the notation,
as differential equations,
and as boundary conditions
In addition to the differential equations (15) a fourth differential equation is the equilibriumcondition (7).
Before showing that the systemof equations (15) and (7) is indeed of the sixth order, the significance of the three displacement boundary conditions may be
explained. The second parts of equations (16) express the fact that the plate is supported in such a manner that the edge moments and forces can do no work. For
this to be so it is necessary that the linear elements perpendicular to the middle
Page151
surface of the plate do not change direction when the plate is stressed. Because of the effect of shear deformation this is not equivalent to the condition of no change
of slope of the middle surface of the plate. Equation (16a) states what the change of slope of middle surface has to be in order that M
n
may do no work. Equation
(16b) states that when w =0 along the boundary the distribution of edge twisting moments has to be such that .
Transformation of the Differential Equations (7) and (15)
Differentiating equation (15a) twice with respect to x, equation (15b) twice with respect to y and equation (15c) twice with respect to x and y there follows by
addition, because of equation (7),
where
Observing equation (6) we obtain as differential equation for the deflection w,
Clearly, the second termon the right of equation (17) is insignificant unless p changes appreciably within distances of the order of the plate thickness.
As the deflection w satisfies a fourth order equation as in the classical theory the additional two orders must be contained in equations (15). Adding equations (15a)
and (15b) there follows, in view of equation (6),
With the help of equations (18) and (7) one may transformequations (15) into three equations each one of which contains only one of the three quantities M
x
, M
y
and
H. Taking first equation (15a) in the form
and substituting c2H/cxcy fromequation (7)
Taking now M
y
fromequation (18) and rearranging there results
Page152
A corresponding equation (19b) is obtained for M
y
.
The equation involving H only follows fromequation (15c) which may be written
Substituting M
x
+M
y
fromequation (18) there follows
The three equations (19) together with equations (18), (17) and (7) may for the present be considered as the final formof the systemof differential equations
governing the problem.
The "Edge Effect" Equations of Plate Theory
For the analysis of the edge effect under consideration various terms in the differential equations are unessential. Omitting these terms there remains as the relevant
systemof equations
The edge effect terms in these equations are those having h2 as a factor. If they are omitted the customary equations of plate theory remain.
The integration of the above systemof equations is effected by first finding w from(20), by substituting the result in (22) to (24) whence M
x
, M
y
and H are obtained
as combinations of particular solutions and complementary functions, M
x
=M
x,hom
+M
x,part
, and so on. Equations (20) and (7) are two equations connecting the
three complementary functions,
As an illustration consider a plate of the shape of a semi-infinite rectangular strip (0 s y s a, 0 s x). Assume that the edges y =0, a are simply supported and that the
edge x =0 is acted upon by a distribution of bending and twisting moments and of
Page153
vertical shear force in the following manner.
Fromequation (20) there is obtained as a suitable expression for w,
As we assume
we deduce fromequations (22) to (24), except for negligibly small terms,
Fromequation (25) follows
Fromequation (26) follows
whence in view of equation (29)
Thus, there are three constants of integration by means of which the three boundary conditions (27) may be satisfied.
Connection with the Theory of Moderately Thick Plates3
Considering in equations (19) the terms with h2 as small correction terms one might approximate these small terms by substituting in themthe relations between M
x
,
M
y
, H and w which hold if
3SeeA. E. H. Love, The Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Cambridge, 1934, pp. 465487.
Page154
the correction terms are omitted. If this is done there follows
Corresponding formulas may be found in Love's Treatise on page 473 when there is no surface load p. The only difference between Love's formulas and the present
formulas is a factor (1 +v/8) in the small fourth derivative terms.4
The important difference between equations (31) and (19) is that by the simplification of equations (19) to equations (31) the sixth order problemis reduced to a
fourth order problemwith resultant loss of the possibility to satisfy the three boundary conditions of the problem.
It may be remarked that the approach to the theory of moderately thick plates and to more general problems which has been initiated by G. D. Birkhoff5 and which
consists in series developments of the solutions in terms of a thickness parameter does not appear to be suitable for the analysis of the edge effect6 which is the main
concern of the present paper. It may be of considerable interest to determine the inner reason for this difference between the variational approach as employed here
and the approach by way of the thickness-parameter series solutions.
In conclusion it may be stated that it is entirely possible by means of the variational method to obtain more accurate solutions than the one here obtained. One may for
instance use instead of equations (1) more general equations of the form
where now M
x
and
x
and the corresponding quantities occurring in o
y
and t
xy
are to be determined by application of Castigliano's theorem. Instead of the two-term
expressions of equation (32) one can, in principle, also use suitable n-termexpressions. It is probable, however, that the calculations necessary for such extensions of
the present results soon become quite involved.
4Notethat in Lovetheplatethickness is 2h whilehereit is h.
5Circular Plates of Variable Thickness, Phil. Mag. (Ser. 6), 43, pp. 953962 (1922).
6J . N. Goodier, On the problems of the beam and the plate in the theory of elasticity. Trans. Roy. Soc., Canada, 33, Sect. 3 (1938).
Page155
The Effect of Transverse-Shear Deformation on the Bending of Elastic Plates
[J. Appl. Mech. 12, A69A77, 1945]
Introduction
It is well known that the classical theory of bending of thin elastic plates normal to their original plane permits the satisfaction of fewer boundary conditions along the
edges of a plate than can in reality be prescribed. For instance, along a free edge, one has the three conditions of vanishing vertical force and of vanishing bending and
twisting couple. Kirchhoff (1) has shown that the assumptions underlying the classical theory are responsible for a contractionof the three conditions mentioned into
two conditions, which are vanishing bending couple, and vanishing of the sumof vertical force and edgewise rate of change of twisting couple. The meaning of this
reduction in the number of boundary conditions has been explained by Thomson and Tait (2). The history of the problemhas been discussed by Love (3) and
recently again by Stoker (4).
Because of the simplifying assumptions made in the development of the classical theory, it may lead to consequences such as the following.
1. There occur concentrated reactions at the corners of simply supported plates of polygonal shape.
2. Treatment of the St. Venant torsion problemof a rod with narrow rectangular cross section by means of plate theory, while leading to a fairly accurate torque-twist
relation when the width of the plate is larger than, say, 10 times the thickness of the plate, does furnish insufficient information regarding the distribution of stress over
the cross section.
3. Results for the magnitude of the stress concentration at the edge of holes in transversely bent plates become uncertain whenthe diameter of the hole is so small as
to be of the order of magnitude of the plate thickness (5,6).
In the present paper, a theory of bending of plates is developed which, to a considerable extent, is free of the limitations just described. In this theory, three boundary
conditions can and must be satisfied along the edges of a plate. The theory is applied (a) to the torsion problemof the rod with rectangular cross-section where very
good agreement is reached with the results of the exact theory; (b) to the stress-concentration problemof the plate with circular hole. Here considerable deviations
fromthe results of classical plate theory are obtained as soon as the diameter of the hole is less than 3 times the thickness of the plate.
The manner in which the equations of the theory are obtained consists in an application of Castigliano's theoremof least work, combined with the Lagrangian
multiplier method of the calculus of variations. The physical basis of the present
Page156
results forms the device of not discarding the energy of the transverse shear stresses, in contrast to what is done in the different derivations of classical plate theory.
The results here obtained for flat plates may be extended so as to apply to curved shells.
Derivation of Fundamental Equations
As in the standard theory of thin plates, it is assumed that the bending stresses are distributed linearly over the thickness of the plate
In Equations [1] M
x
and M
y
are the bending couples, H
xy
the twisting couple, h the thickness of the plate (which in what follows is assumed to be uniform), x, y are
co-ordinates in the middle plane of the plate, and z the thickness co-ordinate (Figure 1).
Fig. 1.
Orientation of stress resultants and stress couples, and stress
variation over platethickness.
FromEquations [1], there are obtained, by means of the differential equations of equilibrium, expressions for the transverse shear stresses which satisfy the conditions
that the faces of the plate are free fromshear stress
The shear stress resultants V
z
and V
y
depend upon the stress couples:
Substituting Equations [2] in the remaining differential equation of equilibrium, there results for the transverse normal stress the expression
which satisfies the loading conditions
Page157
The shear-stress resultants and the intensity of the vertical loading p are related by the equation
Combination of Equation [3] and Equation [6] results in one equation for the three quantities M
x
, M
y
, H
xy
. To obtain further equations, use has to be made of the
stress-strain relations. In view of the simplifying assumptions made in the writing of expressions for the stresses, this cannot be done in an exact manner. It is done in a
rational manner in what follows by means of Castigliano's theoremof least work. This theoremstates that, among all statically correct states of stress, the state of
stress which also satisfies the stress-strain relations and the displacement boundary conditions is characterized by the condition that the variation of the following
expression vanishes:
In Equation [7] the double integral extends over the cylindrical portion of the surface of the elastic body under consideration, u
n
and u
s
are displacement components
parallel to the plane of the plate in normal and tangential direction, and w is the displacement component normal to the plane of the plate.
Substituting for the stresses fromEquations [1], [2], and [4], and carrying out the integration with respect to z where possible there follows, with
It is consistent with the assumption of linear bending stress distribution to assume that the displacements u
n
and u
s
vary linearly over the thickness of the plate and that
w does not vary over the thickness of the plate
Page158
The line integral in Equation [8] then becomes
where for a plate with built-in edges
For a plate with free edges , and are unprescribed.
The variation of H according to Equation [8] is to be made equal to zero in such a way that the equilibriumEquation [6] remains satisfied. According to the rules of
the calculus of variations, this is accomplished by multiplying Equation [6] by a Lagrange multiplier and by combining Equations [8] and [6] in the following manner
Carrying out the variations
Integrating by parts in the last integral we have further
Substituting this in Equation [11], it is seen that, when oV
n
is arbitrary, then
As the same result can be obtained for any interior curve, it may be concluded that the Lagrange multiplier is to be identified with the plate-deflection function w.
The variations of V
x
and V
y
, according to Equation [3], depend upon the variations of M
x
, M
y
, and H
xy
. Integrating in Equation [11] further by parts there
Page159
follows
Equation [13] is the fundamental relationship of the present theory. Fromit follow the differential equations of the theory which hold in addition to the equilibrium
equations and also the ''natural" boundary conditions of the problem, which under the assumptions made are either stress- or displacement-boundary conditions.
The stress-boundary conditions, which make the variations in the line integral vanish, are
The displacement-boundary conditions are
There are to be prescribed either Equation [14a] or Equation [15a], either Equation [14b] or Equation [15b], and either Equation [14c] or Equation [15c]. The
significance of Equations [14] is evident. The same is true for Equation [15c]. Equations [15a] and [15b] indicate that, due to the effect of shear deformation, normal
and tangential line elements in the middle surface do not remain perpendicular to the linear element which was before deformation perpendicular to the middle
surface.
The double integral in Equation [12] is equivalent to three differential equations. They are, if the first two are solved for M
x
and M
y
Page160
In addition to the three equations just given for the six unknowns M
x
, M
y
, H
xy
, V
x
, V
y
, w, there hold the three equilibriumEquations [3] and [6]. In its present form,
this systemof equations is not readily solved. It will next be shown that it can be transformed in such a manner that the way to its solution is clear.
The first of the equations in its final formis the equilibriumEquation [6]
By means of Equation [I], Equations [16] are changed into
Equations [II] to [IV] will be used to determine M
x
, M
y
, H
xy
when V
x
, V
y
, and w are known. FromEquations [II] to [IV], there is next derived a systemof two
equations for V
x
, V
y
, and w. According to Equations [3], V
x
and V
y
are combinations of derivatives of M
x
, M
y
, and H
xy
. In view of this, there follows fromEquations
[I] to [IV], by differentiation and combination:
In the foregoing equations
Equations [I], [V], and [VI] may be solved simultaneously for V
x
, V
y
, and w. Once this is done the stress couples M
x
, M
y
, and H
xy
are obtained fromEquations [II]
to [IV] without further integrations. The equations of the standard theory of thin plates are obtained by disregarding on the left of Equations [II] to [VI] all but the first
terms. The possibility of satisfying three instead of two boundary conditions in the present theory derives fromthe presence of the AV terms in Equations [V] and
[VI].
Page161
Introduction of Stress Function
Considering now Equations [I] to [VI] when p =0, it is seen that Equation [I] can be satisfied by means of a stress function _
Substituting Equations [17] in Equations [V] and [VI] these may be written in the form
Equations [18] are Cauchy-Riemann equations for the functions DAw and _ (h2/10) A_. Consequently, with two conjugate harmonic functions | and , there is
obtained
From
there follows
where
1
is the general solution of
Thus, the stress function _ is a combination of a harmonic function and of a function defined by Equation [22]. And if the harmonic contribution to _ is taken as the
imaginary part of a complex function ](x+iy) then DAw is the corresponding real part of the same function ].
From
it follows further that w itself is a biharmonic function, the same as in the classical theory of plates without surface loading. Once the solution of the homogeneous
systemof equations is found, it is only necessary to obtain a particular integral to take care of the load function p.
The fact that in this formulation of the problemthe only differential operators which occur are the invariant operators o and o 10/h2 indicates that explicit solutions of
the theory may also be found in terms of plane polar and elliptical co-ordinates.
Before doing this, there will first be discussed, as an example of the scope of the theory, a relatively simple example of a plate problemwith rectangular boundary.
Page162
Torsion of a Rectangular Plate
A rectangular plate of length 2l and width a is considered. The two sides y =a/2 are free of stress while the two sections x =l are assumed to rotate without
distortion and to be free of normal stress. The condition of distortionless rotation means that line elements perpendicular to each other before deformation remain so
after deformation so that along the rotated end sections . With this stipulation, the boundary conditions, Equations [14] and [15], become
To satisfy Equation [24a] let
As it is expected that the stresses will come to be independent of x and odd in y, the solution of Equation [V] is taken in the form
and as V
y
vanishes all along the edges, the solution of Equation [VI] is taken as
FromEquations [II] to [IV] follows then
As yet unsatisfied is the boundary condition, Equation [25b]. Substituting Equation [30] in Equation [25b]
The only nonvanishing stress couples and resultants are then
FromEquations [32] and [33], there are obtained the values of the shear stresses by means of Equations [1] and [2], substituting the value of D and the
Page163
relation E =2(1 +v)G
According to customary thin plate theory, corresponding expressions for the stresses would be
except at the edges y =a/2 where the stresses t
xz
may be assumed to become infinite in such a way as to be equivalent to concentrated forces.
In the present theory, according to Equations [34] and [35], the stress t
xy
is substantially constant over the width of the plate, except near the edges y =a/2 where
it decreases to zero within a distance of the order of magnitude of the plate thickness h. The stress t
xz
has its largest values when y =a/2 and drops down nearly to
zero values a distance away fromthe edges y =a/2 which is again of the order of magnitude of the thickness h.
The results of Equations [34] and [35] may be compared with the results of the St. Venant torsion theory, and the agreement is remarkably close even for plates so
thick that the designation of "plate" is no longer appropriate.
Taking first the case of a square cross section, there follows
In the exact theory, the numerical factors would be equal to each other and have the value 1.35 (ref. 7). It is of some interest to note that the average of the two
values, 1.33, is remarkably close to the exact value. If one did not know the exact value, it would have suggested itself to consider this average as the true
approximation rather than either one of the values in Equation [36].
For a plate twice as wide as thick, there results for the maximumshear stress
which differs by less than 2 per cent fromthe exact value 1.86.
The limiting values of the stresses for very large values of a/h are t
xy
(0, h/2) =2Gu(h/2) and t
xz
(a/2, 0) =1.58Gu(h/2). An expression for the resultant torque is
obtained from
Page164
As
it follows that, as in the exact theory, the stresses t
xy
and t
xz
contribute in equal measure to the value of T. With H
xy
fromEquation [32]
The values of k
1
, according to Equation [40] compare with the exact values of k
1
and the values of k
1
according to customary plate theory as follows:
a/h 1 2
k
1 0.139 0.228 0.333
k
1,ex 0.1406 0.229 0.333
k
1,pl 0.333 0.333 0.333
For values of a/h which are larger than three, k
1
of Equation [40] becomes (1/3)(1 .63h/a) which is a well known approximation formula.
Polar-Co-Ordinate Solutions of Equations of the Theory
Introduction of a stress function, according to Equations [17], and the subsequent integration of the systemof equations in terms of the functions |, , and
1
, as
defined by Equations [19] to [23], inclusive, indicates the way to obtain explicit solutions in polar co-ordinates r, u.
The shear-stress resultants are now expressed in terms of the stress function _ as follows
As before
and
where | +i =](x +iy) and now
For DAw may be written
Page165
The conjugate of this is
Suitable solutions of Equation [22] are
In Equation [44], I
n
and K
n
are the modified Bessel functions (8). The functions I
n
become rapidly large for large values of their arguments, while the functions K
n
become rapidly small for large values of their argument. For small values of the argument, I
n
stays finite and K
n
becomes infinite.
Equation [42] is integrated to
The starred constants depend upon the unstarred constants as follows
For each termin the trigonometric series, Equations [43], [44], and [45], there are six constants of integration, so that three boundary conditions can be satisfied
along both edges of a circular-ring plate.
In order to evaluate the foregoing solutions, it is necessary to obtain expressions for the stress couples M
r
, Mu, and H
r
u, which correspond to Equations [II] to [IV]
for M
x
, M
y
, and H
xy
. This may be done as follows: Observe that, in Equations [II] to [IV], the shear-stress resultants V
x
and V
y
occur in the same manner in which
the displacement components u and v occur in the components of strain c
x
, c
y
,
xy
. This suggests that, in the equations for M
r
, Mu, and H
r
u, the quantities V
r
and Vu
may occur in the same manner in which radial and circumferential displacement components occur in the expressions for c
r
, cu, and
r
u. The correctness of this
statement may be proved by deriving the equations of the theory directly, introducing curvilinear co-ordinates before applying Castigliano's theorem. This calculation
is omitted in the present paper.
Page166
Equations [II] to [IV] then have the following analogues in polar co-ordinates
Substituting the stress function _ fromEquations [41], there may be written, for the case of absent surface loads
The foregoing results permit a number of applications to problems involving circular boundaries. Two of these are made in what follows.
Bending and Twisting of an Infinite Plate with Circular Hole
The solution of these problems by means of classical thin plate theory has been given by Goodier (5). They have been investigated by Bickley (9) as problems of the
theory of moderately thick plates. Experimental results (10) have confirmed the results of thin plate theory for a hole diameter plate thickness ratio of about seven.
Taking first the case of plain bending, the boundary conditions in the present theory are
Instead of Equations [47] and [48], there may be written
The conditions at infinity suggest that the following expressions for w and _ be taken
Page167
FromEquation [52] there follows for the shear-stress resultants with, according to (8)
For the stress couples, there results after some calculations
Substituting Equations [54], [56], and [58] in the boundary conditions, Equations [49], and [50], and with the notation
the following expressions for the constants in Equations [51] to [58] are obtained
Page168
The stress-concentration factor of the problemis obtained fromthe value of the tangential edge stress couple
The value of this function is greatest for u =t/2
For large values of the following asymptotic expressions for K
2
and K
0
may be used (8)
Hence
which is in agreement with the result obtained by means of standard thin plate theory (5,6).
For small values of the function K
2
becomes infinite of a higher order than the function K
0
and consequently
It is noteworthy that in the limit of vanishing hole diameter the value of the stress-concentration factor in bending becomes almost twice as large as in the limit of
vanishing plate thickness, and moreover equal to the value of the stress-concentration factor in plane stress.
For intermediate values of a/h the value of k
B
has been calculated by means of tables for the functions K
2
and K
0
(8). Figure 2 contains a graph of k
B
versus 2a/h. It
is seen that even for holes 3 times as wide as the plate is thick the value of k
B
, according to the present calculations, is still more than 10 per cent greater than the
value obtained by the application of standard plate theory.
That taking into account the shear deformability of the plate leads to higher values of the stress-concentration factor than not taking into account this effect becomes
physically evident when it is recognized that the assumed loading condition of the plate would lead to independent states of plane stress in every layer of the plate for
an ideal orthotropic material offering no resistance to the transverse shear stresses t
rz
, tuz, that is, for a material for which G
rz
=Guz =0. In contrast to this the results
of the customary theory may be thought of as exact results for a material for which G
rz
=Guz =.
Page169
Relatively simple expressions are obtained for the shear-stress resultants V
r
and Vu, by substituting the constants B
2
and D
2
in Equations [54] and [55]
For large values of a/h, for which the first terms of the asymptotic expressions of K
2
and K
0
may be used, this reduces to
Letting r =a + nh and consequently , it follows fromthe asymptotic formulas for V
r
and Vu that, for very thin plates and for a
distance of the order of magnitude of the plate thickness away fromthe edge of the hole, the shear-stress resultants have the values
These expressions coincide with the expressions which according to the standard theory of thin plates hold throughout the plate (5, 6).
Comparison of Equations [71] and [73a] shows that the resultant V
r
increases fromits true edge value zero very rapidly to the edge value of thin plate
theory.
Also noteworthy is the behavior of the function representing Vu. FromEquation [72] it follows
This shows that, in the present theory, the edge value of Vu is of opposite sign fromthe value according to Equation [73b]. Moreover, for thin plates, Vu(a, u),
according to the present theory, is of an entirely different order of magnitude than according to the usual plate theory. For given plate thickness, its value no longer
decreases
Page170
with increasing hole diameter. Substituting
there results for the maximumtransverse edge shear stress
Thus, with transverse-shear deformation taken into account, there are portions of the plate where the transverse shear stress is of the same order of magnitude as the
primary bending stress o
0
, no matter how thin the plate may be.
FromEquation [70] there follows for the variation of edge shear with diameter-thickness ratio
which compares with the constant value 4M
0
/(3 +v)a, according to the standard theory. Figure 2 contains a graph of this function.
Plate Subject to Pure Twist
The results for this case may be obtained fromthe preceding results by superposition of a state of plain positive bending about the y-axis, as given, and a state of plain
negative bending about the x-axis. Hence, for
Fig. 2.
Stress-concentration factors and edgeshear-stress resultant
versus ratio of holediameter to platethickness.
Page171
pure twist, every stress and displacement quantity ]
T
is expressed as follows in terms of the corresponding quantity ]
B
for plain bending about the y-axis:
FromEquation [66] there follows
Values of k
T
as function of the ratio 2a/h are plotted in Fig. 2. Limiting values of k
T
are
which agrees with the result of standard thin plate theory, and
which is the same value which occurs when adjacent layers of the plate can slide freely with respect to each other. It is evident that, for the twisted plate, the effect of
transverse shear deformability is still greater than the same effect for the plate subject to plain bending.
Inspection of Equations [69] and [70] reveals that the transverse-shear-stress resultants for the plate subject to pure twist have exactly twice the magnitude of the
corresponding stress resultants for the plate subject to plain bending. Consequently, the value of the maximumtransverse shear stress is now
where o
0
now represents the undisturbed maximumshear stress parallel to the plane of the plate.
Remarks on Further Stress-Concentration Problems
It is apparent that, by an application of the general results of the present paper, still further stress-concentration problems may be solved, for which there will be
significant deviations fromthe results obtained by means of the classical plate theory. Of these may be mentioned (a) the plate subject to uniformtransverse shear at
infinity and the couples necessary for equilibrium(5, 6); (b) the same problems for a plate with rigid or elastic circular inclusion (6); (c) the same problems for a plate
with circular hole reinforced by an elastic ring; (d) the plate with elliptical hole (5, 6). For this the additional problemarises to calculate the solutions of the equation
in elliptical co-ordinates which take the place of the modified Bessel functions in the solution for the polar co-ordinate system; (e) a circular plate with a small hole at
the center and a linear (hydrostatic) load distribution.
Page172
Remarks on Accuracy of Solutions of Stress-Concentration Problems
It is not possible to make with certainty statements regarding the accuracy of the numerical results obtained. The results are as accurate as it is possible under the
assumed variation of stress over the thickness. For the problemof torsion of a rectangular plate, comparison with the known exact solution indicates a surprisingly
high degree of accuracy of the result here obtained. For the problemof the plate with the circular hole, such a comparison is not possible as the exact solution of the
three-dimensional problemis not known. A way to determine the accuracy of the present solutions would be the following: Instead of the linear bending-stress
distribution take a more general expression for the bending stresses containing third powers of the thickness co-ordinate z. Determine the corresponding transverse
shear and normal stresses and again apply Castigliano's theorem. If the more accurate results thus obtained are in good agreement with the results based upon the
linear bending-stress distribution, those may be assumed to be final froma practical point of view. However, the author would like to state as his belief that the
present results regarding stress-concentration factors and transverse-shear forces are such that a more accurate analysis would indicate changes in values which are
no more than 20 per cent of the difference of the values obtained here and the values obtained fromstandard thin plate theory. Thus, if the standard plate theory gives
a value of 1.5 and the present theory a value 2.0 then it is believed that the actual value lies in between 1.90 and 2.10.
A version of the contents of the first third of the present paper, which differs formally fromthe present improved version, together with the discussion of some points
not considered here, has been published elsewhere (11).
Bibliography
1. ''ber das Gleichgewicht und die Bewegung einer elastischen Scheibe," by G. Kirchhoff, Journal fr reine und angewandte Mathematik, vol. 40, 1850, pp.
5188.
2. "Treatise on Natural Philosophy," by W. Thomson and P. G. Tait, Oxford University Press, 1867.
3. "A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity," by A. E. H. Love, fourth edition, The Macmillan Company, New York, N. Y., 1927, pp. 2729.
4. "Mathematical Problems Connected With the Bending and Buckling of Plates," by J. J. Stoker, Bulletin, American Mathematical Society, vol. 48, 1942, pp.
247261.
5. "The Influence of Circular and Elliptical Holes on the Transverse Flexure of Elastic Plates," by J. N. Goodier, Philosophical Magazine, series 7, vol. 22, 1936,
pp. 6980.
6. "The Influence of the Shape and Rigidity of an Elastic Inclusion on the Transverse Flexure of Thin Plates," by M. Goland, Trans. A.S.M.E., vol. 65, 1943, pp. A-
69 to A-75.
7. "Theory of Elasticity," by S. Timoshenko, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, N. Y., 1934, p. 248.
8. "A Treatise on Bessel Functions and Their Application to Physics," by A. Gray and G. B. Mathews, second edition, prepared by A. Gray and T. M. MacRobert,
London, Eng., 1931.
9. "The Effect of a Hole in a Bent Plate," by W. G. Bickley, Philosophical Magazine, series 6, vol. 48, 1924, pp. 10141024.
10. "Stress Concentration Around an Open Circular Hole in a Plate Subjected to Bending Normal to the Plane of the Plate," by C. Dumont, National Advisory
Committee for Aeronautics, Technical Note No. 740, December, 1939.
11. "On the Theory of Bending of Elastic Plates," by E. Reissner, Journal of Mathematics and Physics, vol. 23, 1944, pp. 184191.
Page173
Pure Bending and Twisting of Thin Skewed Plates
[Qu. Appl. Math. 10, 395397, 1953]
1
Introduction
The following is concerned with the problems of pure bending and twisting in the theory of transverse bending of thin plates. Known results for rectangular plates of
uniformthickness will be extended to skewed plates.
It was shown by Kelvin and Tait that the problemof St. Venant torsion of a thin rectangular plate with edges parallel to axes x and y has the solution w =uxy where
w is the deflection function of the plate and u the (constant) angle of twist per unit length. Within this theory, which neglects transverse shear deformation, the torque is
applied to the plate by means of concentrated forces of suitable direction which act at the corners of the plate.
We will show here that Kelvin's and Tait's solution is readily extended to skewed plates of uniformthickness. In so doing we obtain, in particular, the influence of the
angle of skew on the torque-twist relation for the plate. We also obtain a solution for the problemof pure bending of a skewed uniformplate. We find that pure
bending of the skewed plate is associated with a twisting deformation the relative magnitude of which depends on the angle of skew.
2
Formulation of the Problem
Let x, y be mutually perpendicular directions in the undeflected middle surface of the plate. The differential equation for a uniformplate bent by edge forces and
moments only is of the form
where w is the deflection of the plate. Stress couples M
x
, M
y
and M
xy
, defined in the usual way, are
For what follows we have no need for the corresponding expressions for the transverse stress resultants.
We consider plates bounded by two straight lines x =l and by two straight lines y =1/2c x tan A. The angle A is the angle of skew of the plate, 2l is the span of
the plate and c is the chord of the plate.
Expressions for bending moment M
n
and twisting moment M
nt
acting along the edges y =1/2c x tan A follow by means of the usual transformation formulas for
Page174
plate bending couples,
In addition to this we need Kelvin's and Tait's result that there occur concentrated forces P at the corners of the plate given by
and that the effective transverse edge stress resultant R
n
is of the formV
n
+cM
nt
/cs.
3
Choice of Deflection Function
We shall find that for the problems of twisting and bending which are here considered it is sufficiently general to assume a deflection function
where A, B and C are constants. We then have a uniformdistribution of stress couples
vanishing transverse stress resultants V
x
and V
y
, and vanishing effective edge stress resultants R
n
.
4
Twisting of Skewed Plates
The following boundary conditions must be satisfied
In addition to this we have that the applied torque T is given by
Equations (7), (8) and (9) are three simultaneous equations for the determination of the three constants A, B and C. We obtain
and therewith
The meaning of this result becomes somewhat more transparent if we introduce a new chordwise coordinate q counted fromthe centerline y =x tan A of the plate,
by setting
Page175
We then have
We may define an effective angle of twist u per unit length by means of the expression
Combination of (13) and (14) gives the following result for this effective angle of twist
Equation (15) indicates that the skewed plate has a smaller torsional rigidity than the unskewed plate and in which way the torsional rigidity varies with the angle of
skew A.
5
Pure Bending of Skewed Plate
We denote the applied moment by M. The following boundary conditions must be satisfied
In addition to this we have the condition of vanishing torque, or of vanishing corner forces P, which becomes
Fromequations (16) to (18) we obtain the following expressions for the coefficients A, B and C in w
The deflection w is now
In terms of the chordwise variable q defined by (12) this becomes
We see from(21) that the skewed plate has a smaller bending stiffness than the unskewed plate and that moreover the applied bending moment produces also a
torsional deformation.
Page176
On Postbuckling Behavior and Imperfection Sensitivity of Thin Elastic Plates on a Non-Linear Elastic Foundation
[Stud. Appl. Math. 49, 4557, 1970]
1
Introduction
The considerations which follow are presented as a contribution to the understanding of the asymptotic theory of postbuckling behavior of imperfection sensitive
nonlinear elastic structures, in particular for cases for which a multiple mode linear buckling analysis applies. Specifically, a study of Hutchinson's paper on
imperfection sensitivity of externally pressurized spherical shells [1], treated within the scope of Koiter's general theory [2,3], suggested to the author that he should
look for a qualitatively similar problemof a simpler nature than the spherical shell problem, and that he should endeavour to derive the relevant results by asymptotic
expansion considerations applied to a differential equation formulation without making use of potential energy concepts.
Our simplified version of the spherical shell problemconcerns a uniforminfinite elastic plate, on a non-linear elastic foundation, and in a state of uniformtwo-
dimensional hydrostatic compression prior to the onset of buckling in the event that the plate is without imperfection. It is found that in order that this plate problembe
qualitatively similar to the spherical shell problemthe non-linear foundation should be a quadratic foundation. It is further found that with such a quadratic foundation it
is allowable to base the work on the simple Kirchhoff formof plate theory, with no account being taken of the non-linear interaction between stretching and bending
of the middle plane of the plate.
In addition to the plate with quadratic foundation support, we also consider the case of a plate on a cubic foundation. We find that the shift fromquadratic to cubic
foundation has two important consequences. The first of these is that now postbuckling behavior is effectively of the single-mode type. The second is that now it is
generally necessary to base the analysis on the non-linear von Karman type plate equations in which interaction between midplane stretching and bending is taken into
consideration.
2
The Linear Problem
We are concerned with the differential equation
where D, N and k
1
are positive constants where is a given function of x and y and w is to be determined, subject to suitable boundary or periodicity conditions.
Page177
We consider for the problemof buckling, that is for , solutions of the form
where A is an arbitrary constant and have then that N must have a value N
B
given by
We define the buckling load of linear theory N
BL
as the smallest value of N
B
as a function of a and b and we designate the corresponding values of a and b by a
L
and
b
L
. We then have, fromcN
B
/(a2 +b2) =0
In regard to the problemof imperfection sensitivity, we consider the case that is given by
and that w is again given by (2.2). We then have as relation between A and
which is meaningful provided N is sufficiently small compared to N
B
.
Of importance for what follows in relation to the above are the usual superposition possibilities associated with linearity and also that for a plate of given finite
dimensions the effect of boundary conditions becomes insignificant provided the foundation constant k
1
is large enough to cause buckling in ripples the wave lengths
of which are small compared to the linear dimensions of the plate.
3
Non-Linear Buckling. Quadratic Foundation
We consider the equation
where D, N and k
1
are as before and where k
2
and h are additional constants, k
2
having the same dimension as k
1
and h having the same dimension as w. We
assume that k
2
is of the order of magnitude of k
1
and positive. The constant h may be taken to be the thickness of the plate.
Having the results (2.2) to (2.4) of linear buckling theory, we wish to obtain information on the effect of the non-linear termin (3.1). The simplest way that this effect
could manifest itself would be by making the arbitrary amplitude constant A of linear theory a function of N
B
and k
2
. The actual situation comes out to be considerably
more complicated.
Page178
Equation (3.1) may be modified by introducing non-dimensional independent and dependent variables in the form
where L remains to be determined. Inspection of the resulting equation for ] suggests setting
whereupon equation (3.1), with (2.4), becomes
Since we are concerned with values of N near to N
BL
, we rewrite (3.4) with a parameter defined by
to read as
Inspection of equation (3.6) indicates that results of interest for small values of should be obtainable froman expansion of the form
where ]
1
, ]
2
, etc. and their derivatives are O(1) (at most).
Introduction of (3.7) into (3.6) leads to the sequence of equations
etc.
We propose to show that the first two equations of this sequence directly lead to the desired results concerning initial postbuckling behavior.
Evidently, equation (3.8) has solutions of the form
where the A
i
are arbitrary and the o
i
and |
i
are required to satisfy the relation
A comparison of (3.10) and (3.11) with (2.2) to (2.4) indicates that breaking off the expansion of the solution of the non-linear problemat this stage has led to results
equivalent to those obtained by direct consideration of the linear buckling problem.
Introduction of equation (3.10) into (3.9) and observation of (3.11) gives next
Page179
where
The decisive step in our procedure is now to stipulate that the right hand side of (3.12a) must in the end not contain any of the terms cos o
i
cos |
i
q with
, or in other words that the solution ]
2
must be free of secular terms.
To see the meaning of this statement we consider successively the effect of assuming a one-mode, a two-mode or a three-mode combination for ]
1
.
One-Mode Solution
We have on the right of (3.12a)
The only possible way in which all additive terms cos o
1
cos |
1
q can be made to disappear is by setting A
1
=0. This means there is no one-mode solution of the
linear problemwhich can be extended into the non-linear domain by our procedure.
Two-Mode Solution
We now have on the right of (3.12a)
where both A
1
and A
2
are different fromzero and where .
In trying to match terms coming fromthe non-linear portion in the above to the terms of the linear portion we find one possibility, upon setting
whereupon
so that
Furthermore, equation (3.14) may be written in the form
The conditions of no secular terms in ]
2
are then two in number, namely
giving
Page180
Introduction of (3.20), (3.17), (3.7) and (3.5) into (3.2) leads to the conclusion that possible two-mode solutions of the nonlinear problemare such that
representing a severely limited subset of the class of solutions A
1
cos o
1
cos |
1
q +A
2
cos o
2
cos |
2
q of the corresponding linear problem.
We note finally that associated with (3.21) is a formula for the dependence of N/N
BL
on the value w
c
for which w is numerically largest. We find from(3.21) that
Three-Mode Solution
We now have
with A
1
A
2
A
3
= 0, to insure the three-mode property.
In order to make possible the disappearance of secular terms in ]
2
we must now find terms among the non-linear portion of g which annul all three linear portions.
The evident symmetry properties of the expression on the right of (3.23) suggest that we should try to balance the linear A
3
-termby all or part of the non-linear
A
1
A
2
-term. In order that this be possible, we must equate o
3
to either o
1
+o
2
or o
1
o
2
and at the same time equate |
3
to either |
1
+|
2
or |
1
|
2
. Considering that
at the same time
we find that we must use once the plus sign and once the minus sign, i.e.
Introduction of o
1
and |
1
from(3.25) into (3.24) leads to the result that the possible solutions of (3.24) and (3.25) are a one-parameter set which may be written in
the form
Introduction of (3.26) into the terms with A
1
A
2
in (3.23) shows that one of the conditions for the elimination of secular terms in ]
2
comes out to be
Page181
Having taken care of the linear A
3
-termin (3.23) it is next necessary to take care of the linear A
2
and A
1
terms. Inspection of the A
1
A
3
and A
2
A
3
-terms in (3.23)
together with the relations (3.26) shows that elimination of all cos o
2
cos |
2
q-terms and cos o
1
cos |
1
q-terms in g is accomplished upon setting
The system(3.27) and (3.28) has the solutions
which are to be substituted in
Equation (3.30) allows the derivation of a formula for N/N
BL
, analogous to (3.22), differing from(3.22) only insofar as the numerical factor is concerned.
Four-or-More-Mode Solutions
Evidently the most general solution ]
1
of the form(3.10), with (3.11), may be written as
It would seemto be of interest to establish the possible forms of the function A(u) such that combination of (3.31) with (3.9) does not result in the production of
secular terms in ]
2
.
4
Imperfection Sensitivity. Quadratic Foundation
The differential equation for w is now
In addition to non-dimensional variables as in (3.2) we introduce a non-dimensional initial deflection in the form
Equation (4.1) can now be written as
In attempting an asymptotic expansion of the form(3.7) for the solution of (4.3) an important element of the procedure comes out to be the necessity of associating
the effect of with the determination of ]
2
rather than ]
1
. This means that in undertaking the start of an asymptotic expansion we must stipulate that
(rather than ) where and are O(1) (at most).
Page182
Introduction of (4.4) and (3.7) into (4.3) leaves equation (3.8) for ]
1
as before while equation (3.9) for ]
2
is changed to
In solving (4.5) we distinguish between two types of contributions to the imperfection function . One contribution does not contain any of the terms which can occur
in ]
1
and therefore the question of secular terms in ]
2
does not arise. The other contribution does contain terms also occurring in ]
1
and consequently secular terms
must be eliminated. Presumably, it is this second contribution which is critical insofar as imperfection sensitivity is concerned and in what follows consideration is
limited to this second contribution, in conformity with the previous work in this field.
Writing then
and taking ]
1
as in (3.10) we now have as equation for ]
2
Having (4.7) the analysis fromhere on proceeds as for the non-linear buckling problem. Specifically we will have a two-mode solution where
and we will have a three-mode solution where
with the o
i
and |
i
as in (3.15,16) and (3.26), respectively.
The nature of the further discussion of the problemof the imperfect plate is illustrated for the two-mode case with . We now have fromthe second relation in
(4.8)
and fromthe first relation in (4.8)
To see the physical meaning of this result we revert back fromthe dimensionless functions and ] to and w by writing in accordance with (4.4) and (4.2)
and in accordance with (3.7) and (3.2)
We further set
Page183
and we may then consider the variation of
1
and
2
as a function of N/N
BL
, for given .
We take first the case A
2
=0 and . For this we find
We then take the case A
1
=2 and . For this we find
Fromequations (4.15) we obtain the existence of a critical bifurcation-stress N* and of an associated dimensionless deflection , given by the intersection of the
two N versus
1
-curves, that is by
It is apparent that the above results for the quadratic-foundation plate problemare analogous to Hutchinson's results for the externally pressurized spherical shell [1].
The analogy becomes even more evident if we write equations (4.8) and (4.9) in terms of the quantities
i
and as defined in (4.14). Equations (4.8) then become
and equations (4.9) become
For a complete analogy with Hutchinson's equations we should on the right of (3.8') and (4.9') have rather than . This can be accomplished formally by
changing the definition of in equation (4.4) by writing instead of (4.4) the relation . Since, however, the entire analysis is based on using the first step
in an expansion in powers of the quantity , the results obtained in this manner would not seemto be more accurate than the results based on (4.8') and (4.9'), in that
region of N/N
BL
-values for which the analysis based on the first step of the expansion procedure is relevant.
5
Postbuckling Behavior and Imperfection Sensitivity of Plate on Cubic Foundation. Elementary Theory
We now consider the equation
and in it set in extension of equations (3.2) and (4.2)
Page184
This transforms (5.1) into the relation
We take L again as in (3.3) and in addition dispose of w
0
in a manner consistent with what was done for the quadratic-case by setting
With as in (3.5) we can now write equation (5.3) in the form
which differs from(4.3) in the exponent of the non-linear termonly.
Postbuckling Behavior.
Setting we attempt an expansion in powers of analogous to equation (3.7). In order to obtain a systemof successive equations as in (3.8) and (3.9) we must
now set
This gives
We may now proceed in the same manner as in equations (3.10) to (3.12) for the quadratic case by considering successively one-mode, two-mode and three-mode
combinations for ]
1
. We limit ourselves here to the one-mode case because in contrast to what happens for the quadratic foundation, a one-mode solution is possible
for the cubic foundation.
One-Mode Solution
The right-hand side of the equation , as g is of the form
In this all additive terms cos o
1
cos |
1
q can now be made to disappear by setting
The relation between deflection w and load N is obtained upon introducing ]~1/2]
1
and w
0
from(5.4) into equation (5.2). We find
and fromthis
Imperfection Sensitivity
In analogy to the step from(4.3) to (4.4) we now set
Page185
giving as equation for ]
2
Restricting consideration again to the one-mode case, we set in (5.13)
and have then as condition for the absence of secular terms in (5.13) the relation
In view of (5.12), (5.14) and (5.2) this is associated with the representation
If we designate the coefficients on the right of (5.16) by
1
and , respectively, we obtain from(5.15) as load deflection relation, as affected by the initial
imperfection
Fromthis follows for the critical load N* and the associated dimensionless deflection ,
We add the remark that a one-mode solution also applies for the case of a ''quadratic" foundation with k
2
w2 replaced by k
2
|w|w.
6
A Remark on Mixed Quadratic-Cubic Foundation Effects
We set in the non-linear buckling problem, as governed by an equation of the form
w =(k
1
/k
2
)h ](, q), as in (3.2), and =1 N/N
BL
, as in (3.5). This transforms equation (6.1) into
The conclusion which follows concerns itself with the effect of foundations for which
Page186
Assuming, as in (3.7), that ] =]
1
+2]
2
+. . ., we obtain from(6.2) a sequence of equations of which we list the first three,
It is apparent from(6.4) that for the mixed quadratic-cubic foundation, with the restriction (6.3), initial postbuckling behavior is effectively governed by the quadratic
contribution to the foundation effect, the cubic contribution having an influence which is small of higher order.
7
Postbuckling Behavior of Plate on Cubic Foundation. Rational Theory
In place of equation (5.1) we consider the von Karman finite deflection equations
We introduce dimensionless variables as in (5.2) and write further
Choosing
and setting
equations (7.1) and (7.2) may be written in the form
Expanding again in powers of a sequence of systems of equations is obtained, of which the first two are
Further consideration will be limited to the case of a one-mode solution
Page187
of the first equation in (7.8). Fromthe second equation in (7.8) it follows then that
Introduction of (7.10) and (7.11) into (7.9a) gives as equation for ]
2
Avoidance of secular terms in ]
2
now requires that A
1
be subject to the condition
or
which reduces to (5.9) when =0.
Introduction of (7.14) into (7.10) and (7.3) gives further, in modification of (5.10),
and then
It is evident from(7.16) that consideration of the non-linear finite plate deflection terms results in an effect which counters all or part of the effect of the cubic
foundation termin (7.1) and that this countering effect depends on the aspect ratio of the wave pattern through the factor , which varies between one half
and one, and on the value of the parameter . For a homogeneous plate with differing stretching and bending moduli E
s
and E
b
we have from(7.5) with D =1/12(1
v2)E
b
h3 and C =1/E
s
h,
Therewith equation (7.16) becomes
Page188
showing imperfection sensitivity whenever k
3
/k
1
>4/3(1 v2)E
s
/E
b
, and absence of such sensitivity when k
3
/k
1
<4/3(1 v2)E
s
/E
b
.
References
1. J. W. Hutchinson, Imperfection Sensitivity of Externally Pressurized Spherical Shells. Journal of Applied Mechanics 34, 4955, 1967.
2. W. T. Koiter, On the Stability of Elastic Equilibrium, Thesis Delft, 1233, 1945.
3. W. T. Koiter, General Equations of Elastic Stability for Thin Shells. Donnell Anniversary Volume, 187228, Houston, Texas, 1967.
Page189
On the Analysis of First- and Second-Order Shear Deformation Effects for Isotropic Elastic Plates
[J. Appl. Mech. 47, 959961, 1980]
Introduction
In what follows we consider once more briefly the problemof transverse shear deformations for isotropic plates, within the framework of the two-dimensional sixth-
order theory as derived fromthree-dimensional theory by a variational method [2] or, alternately, by means of self-contained two-dimensional considerations [3].
Specifically, we are here concerned with the fact that it is possible to distinguish between first and second-order shear deformation effects, with the determination of
the first-order effects depending on a rational analysis of edge-zone behavior and with the second-order effects requiring no such analysis [5]. As regards the nature
of the two kinds of effects we note, in particular, that the second-order effect is a natural generalization of Timoshenko's analysis of shear deformation in beams while
the first-order effect disappears in a specialization of the plate problemto the corresponding problemof the beam.
As regards the objects of this Note, these are as follows.
Recent considerations by Simmonds [4], including a description of results by Goldenveiser [1] concerning the asymptotic derivation of a fourth-order plate theory in
which first-order shear correction terms are accounted for by a modification of the classical Kirchhoff boundary conditions, make it seemworthwhile to indicate that
results of the same nature are in fact implied by the writer's sixth-order two-dimensional plate theory.*
Our results on modified Kirchhoff boundary conditions in [3] were stated for the case of straight edges only. It seems desirable to present a derivation of the
corresponding results for the case of curved edges inasmuch as edge curvature brings with it a significant supplementary termin the relevant formulas.
Two-Dimensional Plate Equations in Polar Coordinate Form
We depart fromour earlier Cartesian-coordinate statement of sixth-order two-dimensional theory for plates which are two-dimensionally isotropic and homogeneous
[3] and rewrite these (for the case of absent distributed surface loads) with reference to polar coordinates r, u in the form
*Wenotethat wedid not think of this possibility in thepresentation of our earlier work [2], and that our later analysis by adirect two-dimensional approach [3] led us to this possibility without
consciousness of its relation to Goldenveiser's results.
Page190
In this we have
with D and B being transverse bending and shear deformation factors, and w and _ being solutions of the differential equations
The factors D and B are, for the case of a plate which is also homogeneous in thickness direction
Therewith, for this case
and then for a three-dimensionally isotropic material as considered in [2].
Asymptotic Analysis
Given a circular ring plate with inner edge r =a we consider the systemof stress boundary conditions,
and, alternately, the systemof displacement boundary conditions,
The possibility of an asymptotic analysis is given upon making the fundamental assumption
*Therestatement of this expression involves auseful transformation with thehelp of thedifferential equation (7b).
Page191
and upon making use of the order-of-magnitude relations
with these depending on restrictive assumptions of the form , etc.
It follows from(12) and (6) that now
and, if we designate u-contributions to M
rr
, etc., by a superscript i, the boundary conditions (9) may be written in the form
for r =a, while the boundary conditions (10) may be written in the form
Having the systems (14) and (15) we now proceed to deduce fromthema systemof abbreviated relations, in such a way that terms of relative order 1/a are
retained, while terms of relative order 1/(a)2 are being disregarded . To accomplish this reduction, it is necessary to stipulate at the outset a suitable order-of-
magnitude relation between the dependent variables u and _.
Inspection of the system(14) indicates that a reduction of this systemis accomplished upon stipulating that
Therewith equations (14a, b) become, except for terms of relative order 1/(a)2,
with the relevant expressions for , , now involving w rather than u directly, as a consequence of equation (13), and with equation (14c) remaining
unchanged.
The corresponding order-of-magnitude stipulation regarding u and _ for the system(15) is
Page192
Therewith the _-termin (15c) is of the same order of magnitude as the u-term, with the _-contribution in (15b) now being of relative order 1/a. At the same time,
because of (13), equations (15b, c) may be written in terms of w rather than in terms of u, as follows:
Having the systems (17a, b) and (14c), and (19a, b) and (15a), we now use these for the derivation of equivalent systems which are of such nature as to allow a
sequential determination of w and _, with the e-problembeing the desired generalization of Kirchhoff's problemin which first-order transverse shear deformation
terms are taken into account entirely by modification of Kirchhoff's boundary conditions.
In order to derive fromthe given systems of three boundary conditions for w and _ separate systems of two conditions for e and one condition for _ we make use of
the differential equation V2_2_ =0 in the asymptotic form_,
rr
2_ =0, fromwhich it follows that _ =](u) e-
(ra)
and therewith, except for terms of relative order
1/a,
The introduction of (20) into (17a, b) changes these relations into
for r =a. Equation (21b) may be rewritten in the form
A substitution of this in (21a) and (14c) then gives as modified Kirchhoff boundary conditions, involving w alone
for r =a.* It is evident from(23a, b) and (22), in conjunction with the differential equations (7a, b), that the asymptotic determination of w and _ up to terms of
relative order 1/a is now in fact of a sequential nature. The previous result [3] for the case of a straight boundary follow from(23a, b) by first setting ()
,
u/a =()
,2
and
by then going to the limit a , with the term2/a in (23b) disappearing in this process.
*Wenotethat for thecaseof athree-dimensionally isotropic plate, which is thecaseconsidered by Goldenveiser [1, 4], wehavein theforegoing . Thenumerical factor
corresponds to afactor 0.630 . . . in Goldenveiser's three-dimensional asymptotic analysis.
Page193
The analogous reduction of the displacement boundary conditions (19a, b) comes out as follows. We first combine (20) and (19b) in the form
and then use this relation in equation (19a) so as to obtain as second displacement boundary condition for w alone, in complementation of (15a),
for r =a. Equations (25), (24), and (15a) reduce directly to the corresponding conditions in [3] for the case of a straight boundary.
References
1 Goldenveiser, A. L., "The Principles of Reducing Three-Dimensional Problems of Elasticity to Two-Dimensional Problems of the Theory of Plates and Shells,"
Proceedings of the 11th International Congress on Applied Mechanics , 1966, pp. 306311.
2 Reissner, E., "The Effect of Transverse Shear Deformation on the Bending of Elastic Plates," J OURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS, Vol. 12, 1945, pp. A69A77.
3 Reissner, E., "On the Theory of Transverse Bending of Elastic Plates," International Journal of Solids and Structures, Vol. 12, 1976, pp. 545554.
4 Simmonds, J. G., "Recent Advances in Shell Theory," Proceedings of the 13th Annual Meeting Soc. Eng. Science, 1976, pp. 617626.
5 Timoshenko, S., and Woinowsky-Krieger, S., Theory of Plates and Shells, McGraw-Hill, 1959, pp. 98104.
Page194
A Tenth-Order Theory of Stretching of Transversely Isotropic Sheets*
[J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 35, 883889, 1984]
Introduction
In what follows we return once more to a problemwhich concerned us a long time ago [1,2], having to do with the approximate determination of three-dimensional
Poisson's ratio corrections to the two-dimensional generalized plane stress theory of stretching of sheets.
Our reasons for returning to this problemare in part due to a belated recognition that a 1949 joint manuscript on this subject, which had been accepted for
publication, subject to stylistic revisions, had in fact never been resubmitted with these revisions. Going beyond this, subsequent variational developments [4] and
more effective insights concerning the nature of interior and edge-zone solution contributions in the two-dimensional analysis of transverse bending of plates [5] made
it likely that a reconsideration of the problemat this time would result in an analysis both simpler and more insightful than our earlier work. We add to these reasons
the observation that the first paper on the subject, which may be considered effectively as a preparatory effort to the second named author's early analysis of
transverse bending of shear-deformable plates [3], appears in a now nearly unavailable publication [2].
The present paper limits itself to the formulation of the general problem, and to its reduction to a systemof Laplace operator differential equations. A subsequent
paper (by R.A.C.) will be a reconsideration of a specific half-plane boundary-value problempreviously considered in [1], with results going somewhat beyond what
had been obtained earlier.
Derivation of System of Two-Dimensional Differential Equations
We consider a uniformhomogeneous transversely isotropic layer bounded by two parallel planes, z =c, and by cylindrical surfaces, ]
i
(x, y) =0, with there being
two such surfaces for the problemof an infinite layer with a single hole. We assume that the boundary portions z =c are traction free and that the cylindrical
boundary portions are acted upon by an equilibriumsystemof prescribed tractions, , , , with and being even in z and being odd in z.
*With R. A. Clark.
Page195
Differential equations and boundary conditions of the problemas stated are known to be the Euler equations of a variational equation oI =0, where
with E, G, E
z
, positive, with v2 <1 and <1 v to ensure strain energy positive-definiteness, and with independent interior and boundary stress and
displacement variations [4].
We use this variational problemto derive a tenth-order two-dimensional systemof sheet equations by stipulating approximate stress distributions
where
We note that the function Z has been chosen in such a way as to ensure satisfaction of the stipulated traction conditions for z =c and that, moreover, equations (2)
and (3) are consistent with the homogeneous equilibriumequations for stress, provided the nine coefficient functions in (2) and (3) are subject to the two-dimensional
differential equations
An introduction of (2) to (4) into (1), with the supplementary stipulation that the z-dependence of the traction functions and is consistent with the stipulations in
(2) to (4), and with defining relations
Page196
for weighted displacement averages U
x
, U
y
, V
x
, V
y
and W, gives, upon integration with respect to z
In this the constitutive coefficients C, B, A are given by
The variational equation oI =0 now implies as Euler differential equations the five equilibriumequations (5) and (6), together with nine constitutive equations of the
form,
and, as Euler boundary conditions,
We note that the above results, except for the introduction of specific displacement averages, are in essence equivalent to the results in [2], upon setting E
z
=E, v
z
=
v and 2(1 +v)G =E, and equivalent to the results in [1], upon replacing v
1
/E =v
z
/E
z
in [1] by the constitutive parameter in equation (1).
Reduction to a System of Laplace Operator Equations
Then tenth-order system(5), (6), (10) to (13) may be uncoupled in terms of three functions O, and so as to have one second-order equation for O and two
fourth-order equations for and , respectively, with all three equations having derivatives in Laplace operator form
Page197
only. It is found that of these three functions represents the interior solution contribution and O and edge-zone solution contributions to the complete solution of
the given systemof differential equations, in the range of parameter values for which it is appropriate to make this kind of distinction.
The first step of the reduction is satisfaction of the three equilibriumconditions in (5) in terms of stress functions K, O and , as follows:
The second step involves writing the constitutive equations (11) in the inverted form,
with a corresponding expression (17c) for R
yy
, and then to use the equilibriumequations in (6) to deduce as expressions for S
x
and S
y
,
A comparison of (18a, b) with (16) then leads to the conclusion that and O depend on V
x
, V
y
and T in the form
The third step depends on the use of the constitutive equations in (12), in conjunction with equations (19b) and (16), to deduce a differential equation for O, of the
form,
where, on the basis of (9), C
R
B
s
=(2c2/21)(E/G).
The fourth step consists in deducing fromthe constitutive equations in (10), in conjunction with the stress-function relations in (15) and (16) through use of the
conventional compatibility equation involving U
x,x
, U
y,y
and U
x,y
+U
y,x
, the further differential equation,
Equation (21) is evidently equivalent to a representation for K in the form
where and where is a solution of the biharmonic equation
Page198
The fifth and final step is based on the relation,
which is a ready consequence of (12), (19a) and (16). To make use of (24), we note that equation (17a) and its permutation (17c), together with (19a), result in the
relation
Introducing (25) as well as T from(16), N
xx
+N
yy
from(15) and K from(22) into equation (13), we have, after some rearrangement,
Eliminating W between equations (26) and (24) and taking (23) into account, we obtain as a second fourth-order differential equation, which, remarkably, involves
only,
The coefficients A
i
, in this are given by
Given the way in which the half thickness c enters into the coefficient functions in (20) and (27), it is evident that, as long as E, G and E
z
are of the same order of
magnitude, the functions O and represent edge-zone solution contributions provided that all characteristic in-plane linear dimensions which enter into the
formulation of boundary-value problems are large compared to the length c. At the same time it is evident from(23) that under the same circumstances the function
represents the interior solution contribution.
We complement our reduction of the differential equations of the problemby the observation that, while equation (16) directly expresses the transverse stress
measures S
x
, S
y
and T in equation (3) in terms of O and , equation (15) in conjunction with (22) directly expresses the in-plane stress measures N
xx
, N
yy
, N
xy
in
terms of and .
Expressions for R
xx
, R
yy
and R
xy
in terms of the stress functions are more complicated. They may be obtained by first using (19a) to write (17a,c) as
with V
x
and V
y
following from(12), (16), (26) and (22). The results are
Page199
where
We note that the terms with V2 in (31) include as special cases known results for the exact theory of plane stress for isotropic materials [6]. This means that the
approximate results as obtained here include exact results of three-dimensional elasticity subject to the limitation that the formof the prescribed boundary conditions is
such as to be compatible with the stipulation that O =0 and =0 throughout.
References
[1] R. A. Clark, On the theory of generalized plane stress. M. S. Thesis. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1946.
[2] E. Reissner, On the calculation of three-dimensional corrections for the two-dimensional theory of plane stress . Proc. 15th Semi-Annual Eastern
Photoelasticity Conference, 2331 (1942).
[3] E. Reissner, The effect of transverse shear deformation on the bending of elastic plates. J. Appl. Mech. 12, A69A77 (1945); 13, A252 (1946).
[4] E. Reissner, On a variational theorem in elasticity. J. Math & Phys. 29, pp. 9095 (1950).
[5] E. Reissner, On the analysis of first and second-order shear-deformation effects for isotropic elastic plates. J. Appl. Mech. 47, 959961 (1980).
[6] S. Timoshenko and J. N. Goodier, Theory of elasticity, 2nd Ed., 241244 (1951).
Page200
On Asymptotic Expansions for the Sixth-Order Linear Theory Problem of Transverse Bending of Orthotropic Elastic
Plates
[Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering 85, 7588, 1991]
1
Introduction
Given the existing interest, froma computational point of view, in the boundary layer aspects of the sixth-order theory of transverse bending of shear deformable
elastic plates [13] we are concerned in what follows with asymptotic expansions, in extension of earlier results for the leading terms of such expansions, which were
deduced in a less systematic manner for isotropic [4, 5] and orthotropic [6] plates.
The starting point of our analysis is a systemof three simultaneous differential equations for the deflection W of the plate in conjunction with two transverse shear
stress resultants Q
x
and Q
y
, with this systemhaving been established, for isotropic plates, in [7, 8], and for orthotropic plates in [9].
With our earlier work having been concerned with appropriate versions of the canonical stress boundary condition problemand the canonical displacement boundary
condition problemwe here consider a mixed problemwhich has the two canonical problems as limiting cases. As regards our method of analysis we note in
particular our approach to the task of appropriate scaling of the equidimensionalized version of the boundary layer portions of our three dependent variables, for the
purpose of obtaining a better understanding of the importance of distinguishing 'soft' and 'hard' support relative to the matter of a smooth transition fromthe sixth-
order theory to the fourth-order Kirchhoff theory, in the limit of vanishing plate thickness. In this connection we also note our introduction of the concept of 'almost
soft' support as a consequence of the present approach to this transition problem.
For convenience sake our considerations are limited to the problemof a semi-infinite plate with a straight edge, with this limitation enabling us to dispense with road
blocks in the path of clarity without affecting the significance of our results.
2
The Sixth-Order Boundary Value Problem
With x and y coordinates in the plane of the undeflected plate, the differential equations for transverse shear stress resultants Q, stress couples M, rotational
displacements u and deflection W are, for a plate with linear orthotropic behavior,
Page201
For present purposes it is assumed that the values of the coefficients D, A and B are independent of x and y and that the load intensity P is a given function of x, y.
For a solution of (1)(4), in the domain s x s 0, s y s, we here stipulate a systemof boundary conditions of the form
As regards the statement of conditions for y =, it is sufficient in the present context to note the possibilities of decaying or periodic behavior. The barred
quantities in (5) are given functions of y, subject to the requirement that the semi-infinite plate be in overall equilibrium. The quantity b is a characteristic length such
that P
,y
=O(P/b), , etc., and the quantities C are weighting factors with constraints
When C
w
=C
x
=C
y
=0 the mixed conditions (5a, b, c) reduce to a systemof stress conditions. When C
Q
=C
M
=C
T
=0, the mixed conditions reduce to a system
of displacement conditions. Of particular interest in what follows are the limiting cases C
T
=0 and C
y
=0, with the former representing 'hard' support and the latter
'soft' support in the sense of the considerations in [13].
To facilitate our approach to the solutions of the boundary value problem(1)(6) we rewrite (3) and (4) in the form
and we introduce (9a, b, c) into (2) so as to have as two equations for the three dependent variables W, Q
x
, Q
y
:
In place of using (10) and (11) as they stand we use (1) to eliminate Q
y,xy
in (10) and Q
x,xy
in (11) so as to finally have
Page202
Equations (12) and (13), in conjunction with (1), are our basic systemof three simultaneous differential equations for W, Q
x
and Q
y
.1 The associated boundary
conditions in terms of W, Q
x
and Q
y
follow upon introducing (8) and (9a, c) into (5a, b, c), and (9a, c) into (6).
Remark
For the case of isotropy with D
x
=D
y
=D, D
v
=vD, D
t
=1/2(1 v)D, B
x
=B
y
=B and A
x
=A
y
=A, eqs. (12) and (13) reduce to the compact form
and these, with V written in place of Q, become eqs. (V) and (VI) in [7], upon setting
3
Equi-Dimensionalized Form of the Boundary Value Problem
We retain the variables Q
x
and Q
y
and we introduce equi-dimensionalized variables w, |
x
, |
y
, m
x
, m
y
, m
t
and p as follows:
We further write
with o, | and being dimensionless quantities of order unity and with h as the thickness of the plate.
Equations (12), (13) and (1) therewith take on the form
The introduction of (17)(19) into (8) and (9a, b, c) gives
1Equations (12) and (13) havepreviously been derived in [9]. However, in placeof usingthemin conjunction with (1), they arethereused in conjunction with athird equation of higher order which
follows from(1) upon theintroduction of thedifferentiated Q-terms from(12) and (13) into (1).
Page203
while the use of (17) and (18) in (5a, b, c) changes these conditions into
with a corresponding change in (6).
4
Interior and Edge Zone Solution Contributions
In order to effect a solution decomposition into interior and edge zone contributions we introduce three dimensionless independent variables , q, ,, and a
dimensionless small parameter c by writing
With this we assume that the solution of the system(20)(22) will be of the form
At the same time we consider the possibility that the load intensity function p may be of the form
in such a way that there are no changes of orders of magnitude in connection with differentiations with respect to , q and ,.
The introduction of (27) and (28) into the system(20)(22) leaves as differential equations for the determination of interior and edge zone solution contributions two
separate systems of the following form:
and
The introduction of (27) and (28) into (23a, b) and (24a, b, c) gives, in analogy to (27),
Page204
where
and
Given (29)(39) the remaining task is to establish a rational procedure for the formulation of boundary conditions for interior and edge zone solution contributions, on
the basis of the conditions in (25a, b, c) for =, =0 and the corresponding conditions for =, =.
5
Parametric Expansions for Interior and Edge Zone Solution Contributions
An inspection of the system(29)(31) shows the evident possibility of parametric expansions of the form
with the leading terms in these expansions being equivalent to the consequences of the classical fourth-order theory. However, it turns out that it is necessary, in
connection with the nature of the boundary conditions (25a, b, c), to use in place of (40) the more general expansions
with distinct recursion relations following from(29)(31) for terms involving even and odd powers of c.
Corresponding expansions for the solutions of (32)(34) are of a somewhat less elementary nature and the rational resolution of the difficulty in connection with the
negative powers of c represents an essential element of our analysis.
Assuming, for simplicity's sake, that pe =0 in what follows it is necessary to take account of two salient facts, as follows. 1. We do not at this stage know the orders
of magnitude of the edge zone contributions relative to the interior contributions. 2. The orders of magnitudes of we, and relative to each other must be such as
to result in a sequence of second-order problems, which complement rationally the sequence of fourth-order problems for wi, and .
The formof (32)(34) makes it appear that expansions in accordance with the stated two requirements should be
with the exponent n remaining at our disposal.
Page205
The introduction of (42a, b, c) into (32)(34), with pe =0, indicates that in order to accomplish our objective it is essential that we first consider (33), written in the
form
With following fromthis sequentially we next obtain sequentially, on the basis of writing the homogeneous equation (34) in the form
After this it remains to obtain on the basis of (32), written in the form
We complement (43)(45) by a restatement of (38) and (39a, b, c) in the form
In conjunction with the above we have, upon introducing (41) into (36) and (37a, b, c),
Page206
With this and with (27) we now rewrite the boundary conditions (25a, b, c) for x =0 as conditions for =, =0, in the form
In order to utilize the above it is necessary to appropriately dispose of the edge zone solution contribution exponent n. An appropriate disposition will be one which is
associated with the possibility of having self-consistent systems of conditions for the successive terms of the fourth-order interior expansions as well as for the
successive terms of the second-order edge zone expansions. We expect that such a self-consistent systemwill be unique, but we will not, here, furnish a mathematical
proof of the validity of this expectation.
Restricting, for the present, attention to the question of the leading terms in the two types of expansion we see that, in general, the appropriate choice for n will be
With n =1 the boundary conditions for the leading expansion terms become
To see that the system(52a, b, c) is not always self-consistent it suffices to consider the special case C
T
=C
Q
=0. For this case we have that (52a, b, c) becomes a
systemof three conditions for the solution of the fourth-order interior problem, with no condition for the second-order edge zone problem.
An inspection of (50c) suggests that when C
T
=0 we should replace (51) by the stipulation
With this value of n and with C
T
=C
Q
=0 the leading termversion of (50a, b, c) reduces to the form
In connection with the special case n =2 and C
T
=C
Q
=0 we note the following generalization of this case. If we assume
with c
T
=O(1) and c
Q
=O(1) then it follows from(7) that
Page207
With this we obtain, in place of the two conditions in (54a),
with (54c) in conjunction (54b) again being of a self-consistent nature.
Remark
When n =1 we will have the order of magnitude relations
with these being consistent with a previously observed stress concentration result [6]. At the same time it is seen, on the basis of (42c), (46a, b) and (47a, b) that the
edge zone contributions to displacements and bending stress couples come out to be of a smaller order of magnitude than the associated interior contributions.
For the exceptional cases with n =2, and dominate and , respectively, in addition to dominating , while and come out to be of the same
order of magnitude as and .
6
Explicit Determination of the Leading Terms of the Edge Zone Solution Expansions
We deduce from(43) and the prescribed solution behavior for , = that
with K
0
and K
1
being arbitrary functions.
The introduction of (56) into (44) gives
The introduction of (57) into (45) gives
with this being consistent with the known result that we 0 for the case of isotropy, for which |
vy
=v|
xx
and 2|
ty
=(1 v)|
xx
.
With (56)(58) we then have further that
and
and the introduction of (59) and (60) into (46a, b) and (47a, b, c) gives
with (59)(62) being of the essence in what follows.
Page208
7
Kirchhoff and Non-Kirchhoff Interior Solution Results
We depart froma restatement of the here relevant portions of (50a, b, c) with , etc., as follows:
The results which are the principal purpose of our analysis are obtained by solving (63c) for , in the form
and by using this relation to obtain from(63a, b) as a systemof two boundary conditions for the interior solution contribution
Given that the nature of the stipulated parametric expansions implies that is of the same order of magnitude as and , we have to consider separately
the following possibilities.
It follows from(64) that for this case
with (65a, b) reducing to the well-known conditions
for the fourth-order theory of Kirchhoff.
Given the designations in [13] of the boundary conditions with C
y
=0 as conditions of 'soft' support, it suggests itself to designate the boundary conditions with C
y
=
O(c) as conditions of 'almost soft' support.
We now have from(64) that, necessarily,
with (65a, b) reducing to
Page209
It follows from(71a) that in this range of values of the weighting factors C
y
and C
T
the interior solution contribution of the sixth order theory is not in agreement with
the Kirchhoff solution of the problem, unless C
Q
=O(c).
We now have from(64)
and from(65a, b)
For this 'almost hard' case of support to be self-consistent we must have C
Q
=O(c). If we stipulate that C
Q
=c
Q
c then (74a) becomes, with C
w
=1,
with (74b) remaining unchanged.
For (74a', b) to determine an interior solution of the Kirchhoff type it is evidently necessary to have c
Q
=0 and C
M
=O(c), whereupon, in place of (74a', b)
The contents of (75) in conjunction with (73) represent a generalization of the corresponding result in [4, 5], by way of the presence of the parameter c
T
in (73).
8
Explicit Inclusion of First-Order Transverse Shear Deformation Effects
Given the fact that the differential equations for the determination of w
0
, Q
x0
, Q
y0
and w
1
, Q
x1
, Q
y1
are of the same form, it is possible to deduce, on the basis of
(50a, b, c), a reduced systemof boundary conditions for the direct determination of
with
We here limit ourselves to showing this for the case n =1 for which we can write (50a, b, c) in the form
where, in accordance with (61) and (62), , etc. We limit ourselves further by requiring that our results be consistent with the conditions of Kirchhoff, by
again
Page210
stipulating almost soft support conditions, now in the form
We then have, on the basis (77c), that
for =, =0, and therewith from(77a, b) as a systemof generalized Kirchhoff conditions for the determination of the interior solution
Equations (80a, b) are a generalization of our results in [4, 5] which were obtained for the special case C
y
=C
w
=C
x
=0.
References
[1] D. N. Arnold and R. S. Falk, The boundary layer for the Reissner-Mindlin plate model, SIAM J. Math. Anal. 21 (1990) 281312.
[2] I. Babuska * and S. T. Scapolla, Benchmark computation and performance evaluation for a rhombic plate bending problem, Internat. J. Numer. Methods Engrg.
28 (1989) 155179.
[3] B. Hggblad and K.-J. Bathe, Specifications of boundary conditions for Reissner/Mindlin plate bending finite elements, Internat. J. Numer. Methods Engrg. 30
(1990) 9811011.
[4] E. Reissner, On the theory of transverse bending of elastic plates, Internat. J. Solids and Structures 12 (1976) 545554.
[5] E. Reissner, On the analysis of first and second-order shear deformation effects for isotropic elastic plates, J. Appl. Mech. 47 (1980) 19591961.
[6] E. Reissner, Asymptotic considerations for transverse bending of orthotropic shear deformable plates, J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 40 (1989) 543557.
[7] E. Reissner, The effect of transverse shear deformation on the bending of elastic plates, J. Appl. Mech. 12 (1945) A69A78, 13 (1946) A252.
[8] E. Reissner, On the theory of bending of elastic plates, J. Math. & Phys. 23 (1944) 184191.
[9] K. Girkmann, Flchentragwerke, 5th Edition (Springer, Wien, 1959) 583610.
Page211
On Finite Twisting and Bending of Nonhomogeneous Anisotropic Elastic Plates
[J. Appl. Mech. 59, 10361038, 1992]
Introduction
In what follows, we utilize an intrinsic formof the equations for small finite deflections of plates, based on the original Kirchhoff displacement version rather than on
the von Karman deflection-stress function version, in order to obtain generalizations of known exact solutions for the problemof twisting and bending of rectangular
plates. This problemwas first stated and solved, on the basis of von Karman's equations, for isotropic transversely homogeneous plates of constant thickness by
Reissner (1957). Subsequently, solutions were obtained for isotropic plates of variable thickness of the symmetrical double-wedge type by Bisplinghoff (1957) and
Simmonds (1958), and of the symmetrical lenticular type, independently by Mansfield (1959) and Simmonds (1958). A solution for orthotropic plates of constant
thickness has been given by Chen (1974). We now consider anisotropic transversely nonhomogeneous plates with constitutive coupling of stretching and transverse
bending and show that for this class of problems, it is again possible to effect a reduction of the problemto a systemof two simultaneous linear second-order ordinary
differential equations, with the significant nonlinear effects coming fromthe coefficients as well as fromthe right-hand sides of these equations.
In the present analysis, the boundary conditions at the loaded ends of the plate are, as before, prescribed in a global rather than in a local sense, so as to make
possible a one-dimensional solution procedure. We complement our one-dimensional analysis by the statement of a two-dimensional problemwith a suitable system
of local boundary conditions, where it remains to establish that the one-dimensional result does in fact represent the interior portion of an asymptotic solution of the
two-dimensional problem.
Differential Equations and Boundary Conditions
We begin with a statement of the equilibriumand strain displacement equations for small finite deflections in the form
In this, x and y are coordinates in the undeflected midplane of the plate; N and M are midsurface parallel stress resultants and couples; u, v, and w are base plane
Page212
parallel and perpendicular displacement components; and k and c are bending and stretching strains, respectively.
We here associate these equations with constitutive relations of the form
For what follows it is of importance to transformthe above systemto an intrinsic formby deducing fromthe strain displacement relations (3) and (4) the three
compatibility equations
The differential equation system(1), (2), and (5) to (8) is to be solved for a rectangular region |x|s a, |y|s b, with the edges y =b being traction-free and with the
edges x =a acted upon by twisting moments T and transverse bending moments M.
In the statement of these boundary conditions, account must be taken of the nature of the effective transverse edge stress resultants
and of the transverse corner forces 2M
t
,(a, b), in accordance with Kirchhoff. The transverse corner forces are equivalent to base-plane perpendicular forces. The
transverse resultants Qe are distinct frombase-plane perpendicular resultants P which are
The conditions for the traction-free edges are
and the conditions for the loaded edges are here stipulated to consist of three integrated moment conditions
and of three integrated force conditions
Page213
Remark
The analysis which follows turns out to be not applicable to the more general problemfor which
in place of the conditions with F =0 and M
s
=0 in (12) and (13).
The One-Dimensional Semi-Inverse Problem
We restrict attention to plates for which the elements of the constitutive matrices are independent of x and we attempt a solution of the given boundary value problem
with stresses and strains also independent of x.
We then have, on the basis of (1) in conjunction with (11), and on the basis of (7),
with k and u as arbitrary constants.
With (15), and with the omission of all x-derivative terms, Eqs. (2) and (8) take on the form
where the primes indicate differentiation with respect to y.
With P
y
as in (10), and with (15) and (9b), the solution of (16) has to satisfy the boundary conditions
Of the six global traction conditions in (12) and (13), the four homogeneous conditions are readily shown to be automatically satisfied on the basis of the contents of
(16) and (17). The two remaining conditions may be transformed in a similar way, so as to come out in the intrinsic form
In order to solve (16) and (17), for the purpose of determining M and T as functions of k and u, use has to be made of a semi-inverted formof the constitutive Eqs.
(5) and (6), in conjunction with (15), as follows:
The last of these relations is needed only for the purpose of an eventual determination of the displacement components u and v in terms of the solution of the intrinsic
problem.
Page214
Explicit Form of the Semi-Inverse Problem without Constitutive Coupling
With the stipulation of a vanishing C-matrix in (5) and (6), and with (15), we now have as constitutive relations
where B
yx
=B
xy
, etc., and
where D
yx
=D
xy
, etc.
The differential equations in (16) become two simultaneous equations for M
y
and c
x
upon deducing from(23) that
and upon writing (24b) in the form
The elimination of c
x
then leaves as a fourth-order differential equation for M
y
:
The introduction of (26) into (24a, c) gives an expression for M
x
and M
t
to be used in the determination of M(k, u) and T(k, u) on the basis of (18) and (19)
Remark
The same as for the orthotropic case, with B
xt
=B
yt
=0 and D
xt
=D
yt
=0, we have that (27) is an equation with constant coefficients for plates with constant values
of the constitutive coefficients.
The same for the isotropic case in Mansfield (1959) and Simmonds (1958), it is found that for lenticular cross-section plates with
Page215
Eq. (27) has the particular solution
where now
For this case the solution of the homogeneous Eq. (27) is not needed, inasmuch as M
yp
by itself satisfies (17).
A Local Boundary Value Problem
The physical significance of the one-dimensional solution of the problemwith the global boundary conditions (12) and (13) depends on its being an asymptotic interior
solution portion, for sufficiently small values of b/a, of a suitably stated problemwith all boundary conditions of the local kind. Inasmuch as this aspect of the problem
has not been discussed in the previous literature, we here formulate a systemof local boundary conditions for an eventual use in conjunction with an asymptotic
analysis of the two-dimensional problem.
We replace the global conditions on N
x
and N
t
in (12) and (13) by the two local conditions:
Given that the expressions for k
x
and k
t
in (15) imply that w =W(y) 1/2kx2uxy, we replace the global conditions on M
x
, P
x
, and M
t
in (12) and (13) by two local
conditions:
It remains to be established that the boundary value problemwith (31) and (32) in place of (12) and (13) does in fact have a solution which asymptotically coincides
with the solution of the one-dimensional problem, except in zones of order b adjacent to the edges x =a.
References
Bisplinghoff, R. L., 1957, ''The Finite Twisting and Bending of Heated Elastic Lifting Surfaces," D.Sc. Dissertation, Zurich Institute of Technology.
Chen, C. H. S., 1974, "Finite Twisting and Bending of Thin Rectangular Orthotropic Plates," J OURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS, Vol. 41, pp. 315316.
Mansfield, E. H., 1959, "The Large-Deflection Behavior of a Thin Strip of Lenticular Section," Quarterly Journal of Mechanics and Applied Mathematics, Vol.
12, pp. 421430.
Reissner, E., 1957, "Finite Twisting and Bending of Thin Rectangular Plates," J OURNAL OF APPLIED MECHANICS, Vol. 24, pp. 391396.
Simmonds, J. G., 1958, "Finite Bending and Twisting of Thin Wings," B.S. and M.S. Thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA.
Page216
A Note on the Shear Center Problem for Shear-Deformable Plates
[Int. J. Solids Structures, 32, 679682, 1995]
Introduction
Recent results for the shear center problemin the framework of Kirchhoff plate theory have left open the extent to which the effect of transverse shear-deformability
becomes significant with increasing thickness-width ratio and with decreasing transverse shearing stiffness. In the following this problemis considered for an
orthotropic plate, using the principle of minimumcomplementary energy in conjunction with Saint-Venant type stress assumptions. In an earlier application of this
approach to non-shear-deformable plates (Reissner, 1991), the numerical consequences were found to be quite close to corresponding results obtained by a more
accurate and more complex analysis in which account was taken of anti-clastic curvature constraints by Reissner (1989) and Gu and Wan (1993). There is no reason
to suppose that the same would not be true when transverse shear-deformability is taken into account.
The present approximate analysis reduces the problemto an ordinary second order differential equation. It is found that this equation can be solved explicitly for
plates with linear widthwise-thickness variation, with a resultant closed-formexpression for the shear center coordinate in terms of an appropriate dimensionless
parameter.
Formulation
Consider a rectangular cantilever plate of span L and width a, with edges at y =0, a and x =0, L. The edge x =0 is clamped and the edges y =0, a are traction
free. The edge x =L is stipulated to deflect uniformly by an amount W, in conjunction with two conditions of absent bending moments and edgewise rotational
displacements.
The minimumcomplementary energy formulation for a shear-deformable plate is, for this problem, given in terms of stress couplesM
x
, M
y
, M
t
and stress resultants
Q
x
, Q
y
by the variational equation
The complementary energy density V is for a linearly elastic orthotropic plate, to which attention is restricted in what follows, of the form
Page217
where
for a transversely isotropic homogeneous plate of thickness h =h(y).
Equation (1) is associated with constraint differential equations
and with constraint boundary conditions, which in this case are
Equations (1) and (5) will be used in conjunction with the Saint-Venant type assumptions
for an approximate determination of a force Q and a torque T,
and a shear center coordinate
Reduction
The three relations in eqn (4), in conjunction with eqns (5) and (6), give the following as expressions for Q
x
, M
t
, and M
x
:
with the prime indicating differentiation with respect to y.
The introduction of eqns (6) and (9) into eqns (2) and (1) leads to the one-dimensional variational equation
with constraint boundary conditions
and with .
The Euler differential equations of (10) are
While it would be possible to reduce eqn (12) to one second order equation for M
t
, it is preferable to proceed as follows. Introduction of fromthe first
relation in (12) into the second gives the following as an expression for M
t
in terms of Q
x
:
Page218
With eqn (13) the first relation in eqn (12), together with eqn (11), leaves the boundary value problem
It is allowable, for simplicity's sake, to set 3W/L3 =1. Furthermore, except for terms of relative order h2/L2, eqn (14) may be replaced by
With this and upon observation of eqns (15) and (13), the expressions for Q and T become
Upon setting B
x
=0, the non-shear-deformational plate theory result
becomes an immediate consequence.
A Closed-Form Solution
It is possible to obtain an explicit solution in closed formfor plates for which
In view of eqn (3), this includes the case of a homogeneous orthotropic plate of linearily varying thickness h =h
0
q.
Upon setting
eqns (14) and (15) assume the equi-dimensional form
with dots indicating differentiation with respect to q.
An inspection reveals that the differential equation in (19) is explicitly solvable in terms of suitable powers of q. Upon satisfaction of the two boundary conditions the
solution comes out to be
and
Page219
The introduction of eqns (17) and (21) into eqn (16) gives, after some transformations,
and therewith, in accordance with eqn (8),
An impression of the significance of the effect of transverse shear deformation may be gained by considering a homogeneous orthotropic plate for which
with G =G
t
=E/2(1 +v) for the case of isotropy. As c increases, the value of y
s
/a decreases, at first approaching the cross-sectional centroid value y
c
/a =2/3 from
above. For sufficiently large c values, y
s
/a becomes smaller than y
c
/a. For example, when c =1 then y
s
/a =0.59. In this connection it is worth noting that for a
"plate," for which the cross-section is an equilateral triangle with and for which a plate theoretical analysis is clearly not rational, eqn (23) gives y
s
/a =
0.647 when G/G
t
=1 and c2 =4/15, in place of the correct value y
s
/a =2/3.
It seems reasonable to limit the applicability of eqn (23) by the stipulation that h
0
/a s 1/2. This does not preclude the possibility of significant numerical effects, for
sufficiently large values of G/G
t
.
References
Gu, C. H. and Wan, F. Y. M. (1993). Approximate solutions for the shear center of orthotropic plates. Arch. Appl. Mech. 63, 513521.
Reissner, E. (1989). The center of shear as a problemof the theory of plates of variable thickness. Ing.-Arch. 59, 325332.
Reissner, E. (1991). Approximate determinations of the center of shear by use of the Saint Venant solution for the flexure problemof plates of variable thickness.
Arch. Appl. Mech. 61, 555566.
Page221
SHELLS
My first contribution to the literature dealing with shells was motivated by the need to explain the subject to students of Applied Mathematics. Knowing three-
dimensional elasticity and having been a student in Dirk Struik's course on Elementary Differential Geometry, I found a relatively straightforward derivation of a two-
dimensional linear shell theory, involving the Kirchhoff-Love hypothesis [21,28]. While the equilibriumequations of this theory were unambiguous, the same could not
be said about the associated strain displacement relations. It was only later that I learned to use the principle of virtual work to obtain consistent strain displacement
relations, with the Kirchhoff-Love condition as a consequence of constitutive stipulations [136].
Participation in an industry-sponsored research project dealing with pre-stressed spherical domes next led to an analysis of shallow spherical shells. I derived a
systemof differential equations, without realizing that these could have been obtained by transforming Marguerre's cartesian systemto polar coordinate form[41]. I
then applied these equations to obtain quantitative data for a variety of axi-symmetric loading and support conditions [46]. This was followed much later by a study of
certain unsymmetrical load problems, this time in connection with some guided missile problems [120].
Returning to the period 19451950, two efforts stand out. The first was a two-dimensional theory for the behavior of sandwich-type shells [58]. It was clear that the
relative core softness required that allowance be made for the effect of transverse shear deformability, the same as for the sixth-order generalization of Kirchhoff plate
theory. I found that for shells with soft cores it was also necessary to consider the effect of transverse normal stress deformability, with this being analogous in a
physical sense to the cross-sectional flattening effect in the bending of curved tubes. A much later return to the transverse normal stress deformation effect [208] was
to show its significance relative to Naghdi's considerations of "Cosserat-type" shells.
The second effort was an attempt to deal with nonlinear finite deflection problems of shells. It came to me that it should be possible to generalize the well known H.
Reissner-Meissner linear-theory equations for the symmetrical bending of shells of revolution so as to have equations for finite deformations by considering meridional
slices of the shell as plane elastica resting on an elastic circular ring foundation [56, 68]. I later extended this work by a consideration of transverse shear deformation
[141] and, as part of a final comprehensive account, of transverse normal stress in conjunction with anti-symmetric transverse shear, with this resulting in a symmetric
systemof three simultaneous second order equations in place of the usual two-equation system[262].
Page222
After the first two non-linear shell-of-revolution papers, I soon considered a variety of linear and non-linear problems concerned with shallow helicoidal shells [85,
90], buckling of hyperbolic-paraboloidal shells [91], vibrations of shallow shells [94, 95, 107] and corrugation effects for circular cylindrical shells [97].
A membrane-theoretical treatment, in WilhelmFlgge's pioneering text, of the problemof non-axisymmetric edge loads acting on spherical shells led me next [102] to
a boundary layer analysis of this problemon the basis of the shallow shell equations [41]. I established the extent to which the elementary membrane solution came
out as an 'interior' solution, and what the formof the 'contracted' boundary conditions for this interior solution would be. I furthermore discussed how the interior
solution could be either a membrane solution or an inextensional bending solution, depending on the nature of the prescribed edge conditions. The seeds of the
analysis in [102] would prove to be useful, later on, in a number of other plate and shell studies.
Further work fromthis time period concerned symmetrical shell of revolution problems with intriguing solution properties. Bob Clark and I considered the problemof
a pressurized ellipsoidal shell [109] to establish the range of validity of a membrane solution due to H. Lorenz, and to obtain information on bending stiffness effects.
An analysis of the effect of polar orthotrophy showed unexpectedly strong consequences [110]. A study of the finite-deflection equations of shallow isotropic shells
[121] brought out interesting connections between co-existing linear bending and non-linear membrane boundary layers. A General Lecture for the 3rd National
Congress of Applied Mechanics [115] presented an opportunity to summarize these results, as well as the results for some other problems, in particular for toroidal
shells.
A project of a different nature which had been on my mind for a while was to derive asymptotically a systemof two-dimensional shell equations fromthree
dimensional elasticity, for the case of a symmetrically deforming transversely isotropic circular cylindrical shell. The basic thought was to non-dimensionalize the
equations of the three-dimensional theory for a shell of radius a and wall thickness h by the introduction of a third length , based on a knowledge that the
two-dimensional theory to be obtained could be expected to involve this length b. An outline of this procedure led to Millard Johnson's 1957 Ph.D. dissertation, and
subsequently to a joint publication [117]. It fell to others, in particular to E. L. Reiss, to complement our expansion involving the small parameter h/b by a second
expansion in terms of the smaller parameter h/a, for a more rational consideration of the boundary conditions problemthan we were able to entertain without this
second expansion.
In a later attempt to derive shell theory fromthree-dimensional elasticity I pursued the thought that since the two-dimensional theory was concerned with forces and
moments, there might be an advantage to start out froma 3D theory involving moment stresses in addition to force stresses [181]. Froman analytical point of view
one of the attractions of this approach was that now a systemof first order equilibriumdifferential equations became associated with a systemof first order
compatibility equations, rather than one of the second order as in the theory without moment stresses. I found that this approach allowed a particularly simple
derivation of 2D equilibriumand compatibility equations, and that the absence of second derivatives in the 3D theory made it appealing to attempt an asymptotic
Page223
derivation of 2D constitutive relations froma given 3D systemby transforming the 3D relations into a set of integro-differential equations through elimination of
derivatives with respect to the shell thickness coordinate. I believe that my attempt was, in essence, successful but it left a feeling that I might not, in fact, have "dotted
all the i's" in deducing the consequences of my integro-differential equation system. I amhoping that some day someone else will go back to this work for further
progress.
I would like to mention some other concerns with problems of shells, alone or jointly with JimSimmonds, Fred Wan, and W. T. Tsai.
1. Asymptotic expansions for the solutions of the two-dimensional equations for circular cylindrical shells involving 'long and short' characteristic lengths [148, 154].
2. Interior discontinuity aspects for rotating shells of revolution [150].
3. An 'elementary' version of finite-deformation shell theory [157].
4. An inextensional dislocation solution for finite bending and twisting of conical ring sector shells [162].
5. Inversion problems in connection with the formof 2D constitutive relations [155, 158].
6. A 'complete' formulation of the linear version of the symmetric shell of revolution problem, including the possibility of constitutive coupling of bending and twisting
[166, 182].
7. Studies of the behavior of laminated anisotropic cylindrical shells [183, 185, 195, 205].
There were finally two particularly meaningful efforts. The first of these was the formulation of a completely self consistent two dimensional finite deformation shell
theory, including transverse shear deformation and drilling moments [196, 232]. In this I was influenced by related earlier work of Simmonds and Danielson. The
essence of my analysis was to start with a readily established systemof vectorial equilibriumequations, with the subsequent use of virtual work for the establishment
of a vectorial systemof virtual strain displacement relations. It was the step fromvirtual to actual strain displacement relations, by way of the introduction of a special
triad of unit vectors, where I needed to know what Simmonds and Danielson had done (although I had earlier independently resolved an analogous task for the
symmetric shell of revolution problem).
The second final effort was a serendipitous consequence of wanting to show to the students in my course on shells a simple example of the use of linear shallow shell
theory for an explicit solution of a problemwhere the step fromplate to shell would be associated with qualitative consequences the nature of which could not be
foreseen intuitively. I found two such examples by considering the effect of a small circular hole on states of otherwise uniformtransverse twisting or membrane
shearing of a spherical cap. While for the plate the corresponding classical problems of bending and stretching are no more difficult than the problems of twisting and
shearing, the same turned out not to be the case for these shell problems, due to the terms in the shell equations responsible for the coupling of tangential and
transverse action. The two circular-hole problems were solved first [217, 218] and these solutions were then supplemented by corresponding solutions for a rigid
insert [219, 228]. Remarkably, two of these four problems showed a very substantial effect
Page224
of shell curvature while for the other two the effect was relatively minor. An asymptotic analysis involving a boundary layer adjacent to hole or insert revealed the
following circumstances. While the solutions for twisting and shearing were, in the absence of the hole or insert, of the inextensional bending or membrane type,
respectively, the effect of an insert or of a hole, in contrast, induced a membrane state or an inextensional bending state, respectively, just outside the boundary layer.
This meant a conflict for the combinations hole and membrane shear, and of insert and transverse twisting, with no such conflicts for the other two problems. It
became apparent that the substantial effects of shell curvature on stress concentrations were associated with the conflict situations and not with the other two. Of
particular interest was the observation that the indicated conflicts resulted in interior solution portions with inextensional bending or membrane far-field behavior, and
opposite near-field behavior, and with a transition zone in which the two types of behavior were of equal importance. Given the long standing notions concerning
mutually exclusive inextensional bending and membrane states it was intriguing to have come upon a physically meaningful situation with no such exclusivity.
Page225
On the Theory of Thin Elastic Shells
[Contr. Appl. Mech., Reissner Anniv. Vol., 231247, J. W. Edwards, 1949]
Introduction
The present paper is concerned with the subject of rotationally symmetric deformations of thin elastic shells of revolution.
First a self-contained formulation of the problemof finite symmetrical deflections of shells of revolution is given. Fromthis the equations of the small-deflection
(linearized) theory are obtained by specialization. An essential step in the treatment of the small-deflection problems is their reduction to two simultaneous second-
order differential equations. This reduction was first given by H. Reissner [11] for spherical shells of constant thickness. Subsequently E. Meissner [6] published the
corresponding reduction for general shells of revolution. Here this reduction is carried out in a slightly modified manner, which is believed to possess certain
advantages, which will be indicated.
Fromthe general equations of the small-deflection theory a simplified systemof equations is obtained in a systematic manner which applies for shallow shells. It is
shown that the solution of this systemof equations can be expressed in terms of Bessel functions for the entire class of paraboloidal shells of constant thickness. This
generalizes known results for the case of a shallow spherical shell [9] for which the meridian curve is equivalent to a second-degree parabola. It is also shown that the
solution can be given in terms of elementary functions for a class of shallow shells with varying thickness, such that the problemof conical shells with linearly varying
thickness is included as a special case.
Finally, some observations are added on the subject of the asymptotic integration of the differential equations of shell theory, which was first shown in H. Reissner's
work [11] to be an appropriate method for this class of problems [5] These observations concern the effect of significant changes of thickness and curvature of the
shell over distances of the same order of magnitude as those associated with the edge effect in shell theory.
Formulation of the Problem of Finite Symmetrical Deflections of Shells of Revolution
Geometrical Relations
(Figure 1) The equation of the middle surface of the shell is written in the parametric form
so that together with the polar angle u in the x, y-plane are the coordinates on the middle surface. The sloping angle of the tangents to a meridian curve is given
by
Page226
Fig. 1.
Middlesurfaceof shell, showingcoordinates , u on middle
surfaceand unit vectors associated with middlesurface.
FromEq. (2) follows that
where primes denote differentiation with respect to and where o is given in the form
Let i, j, and k be unit vectors in the x, y, and z-directions, respectively. The radial and circumferential unit vectors j
r
and ju, are then defined by
and tangential and normal unit vectors j and n by
The radius vector R to any point of the shell may now be written in the following form:
where , represents the distance of the point fromthe middle surface.
Page227
The quantities , u, , define a systemof orthogonal curvilinear coordinates in space. The linear element for this coordinate systemis of the following form:
Finally it is noted that
where R and Ru are the principal radii of curvature of the middle surface of the shell.
Analysis of Strain
(Figure 2) The quantities referring to the undeformed middle surface are indicated by a subscript o, and the equation of the deformed middle surface is written in the
form
The quantities u and w are then the components of displacement in the radial and axial directions, respectively. Moreover
Fig. 2.
Sideview of element of shell in undeformed and in deformed
state. Also shown arevisiblestress resultants and couples
and load intensity components.
Page228
where | is the angle enclosed by the tangents to the deformed and the undeformed meridian, at one and the same material point.
The customary assumption is now made that the normal to the undeformed middle surface is deformed without extension into the normal to the deformed middle
surface.* Then
and dS2 as given by Eq. (8) refer to the same material element in the body.
Comparison of Eqs. (12) and (8) gives for the components of strain c and cu in the tangential and circumferential directions the following expressions:
In what follows attention is restricted to thin shells in the sense that the thickness h is small compared with the magnitudes of the radii of curvature R and Ru as
defined by Eq. (9). The terms with , may then be neglected in the denominators of Eq. (13) and instead of Eq. (13) may be written,
where
Note that c and cu as given do not involve the axial displacement component w. This component is obtained fromthe relation z' =o sin in the form
Finally a relevant compatibility relation is set down which follows without calculation froma comparison of Eqs. (15) and (16) in the form
The present modification of the customary procedure consists up to this point in using radial and axial displacement components rather than normal and tangential
displacement components. This gives the possibility of obtaining the formulas of the finite-deflection theory with no more difficulty than the formulas of the linearized
small-deflection theory. It also permits a simpler derivation of the compatibility equation than is otherwise the case.
Definition of Stress Resultants and Couples
(Figure 3) Since rotational symmetry has been assumed, the non-vanishing components of stress are the four components o,
*It is recalled that this means that deformations dueto transverseshear stress and transversenormal stress areneglected compared with thedeformations dueto theremainingstresses, and that this
way may bejustified for thin shells by astudy of theequations of thethree-dimensional theory of elasticity.
Page229
Fig. 3.
Element of shell showingstress resultants and stress couples.
ou, o,, t,. The stress resultants and couples are defined as follows:
In writing Eqs. (21) and (22) terms of the order h/R, compared with unity, have again been neglected, that is, attention has again been restricted to thin shells.
Resultants and couples may be combined to resultant and couple vectors as follows:
In addition to this a load intensity vector p is introduced in the form
For what follows it is convenient to write N and p in the alternate form
The radial (horizontal) stress resultant H and axial (vertical) stress resultant V are related to N and Q as follows:
Page230
Differential Equations of Equilibrium
Force and moment equilibriumconditions for elements of the shell are, in vector form,
With Nu fromEq. (23), M and Mu fromEq. (24), and N and p fromEq. (26), Eqs. (28) and (29) imply the three scalar equations
Stress Strain Relations
As the effect of transverse shear and transverse normal stress on the deformations is neglected, the relevant stress strain relations for an isotropic mediumare
In Eq. (32) c and cu are taken fromEq. (14) and the result is introduced into Eq. (21) and (22). This leads to the system
where
Eqs. (30), (31), (32), (34), and (35) represent seven equations for the seven quantities u, |, H, V, Nu, M, Mu and thus forma complete systemof equations for the
problem. The subject of the finite deflection theory will not be pursued further here, but rather fromnow on attention will be restricted to the linearized theory.
The Equations of the Small-Deflection Theory
The small-deflection (linearized) theory follows fromthe foregoing by referring the differential equations of equilibrium(30) to (32) together with Eq. (27) to the
undeformed shell and by omitting in the expressions for the strains as given by Eqs. (16), (17), all non-linear terms. The resultant systemof equations was shown in
Refs. 6 and 11 to be reducible to two simultaneous second order differential equations for | and Ru0Q of a remarkably symmetrical appearance. In what follows this
derivation is modified slightly by choosing as one of the two basic variables the quantity r
0
H rather than Ru0Q. In so doing it is possible to pass directly fromthe
equations of shell theory to the equations of stretching and bending of circular plates, while with | and Q as variables the equation for stretching of plates is certainly
no immediate consequence of the shell equations. While this advantage of ready transition to a special case might be thought to be of no practical consequence, it will
be shown that it does permit a ready discussion of the problemof the shallow shell, with results which go beyond those known heretofore.
Page231
It may further be stated that with the selection of | and r
0
H as basic variables the problemof finite deflections may be reduced in a corresponding manner to two
simultaneous second order equations. Discussion of this latter aspect of the problemis, however, left for a future occasion.
In terms of | and r
0
H and in terms of the components p
V
and p
H
of external load intensity the following expressions obtain for all other quantities:
The two simultaneous equations for | and r
0
H are obtained by introducing M and Mu fromEqs. (41) and (42) into the moment equilibriumequation (32) and by
introducing cM and cuM fromEq. (34), with N and Nu fromEqs. (38) and (40), into the compatibility equation (20'). The results can be written as follows:
If this is desirable Eqs. (45) and (46) may be reduced to one differential equation of fourth order for either | or r
0
H. It was found by Meissner [6] that in some cases
this fourth order equation may be factorized into two independent second order equations. This factorization is of advantage if the solutions of the uncoupled second
order equations can be expressed in terms of tabulated functions. It seems to the writer that for the purpose of obtaining solutions in series or asymptotic formthe
coupled equations (45) and (46) are as convenient as the uncoupled equations. A case in point is the problemof the spherical shell of constant thickness where the
uncoupled second order equations are hypergeometric equations.
The relative order of magnitude of the various terms in (45) and (46) becomes more readily apparent after a transformation which eliminates the first derivative terms
in Eqs. (45) and (46). To this end two new functions X() and Y() are introduced,
Page232
The differential equations for X and Y may be written in the form
The quantities , u, u, and + are given by
In Eqs. (50) and (51) the subscript r indicates the value of at a suitably chosen reference station. In general the quantity 2 is a large number, as, for
instance, for the case of the spherical shell of radius a for which .
Stresses and Deflections of Shallow Shells
The equation of the middle surface of the shell is written in the form
where a is a reference length, ]'() is of order unity, and a number small compared with unity. FromEqs. (50) to (55) are obtained
Page233
A shallow shell is defined by the stipulation that for it terms of order 2 may be neglected compared with terms of order unity. If this is done Eqs. (48) and (49)
assume the following form:
In what follows the question of finding particular integrals for Eqs. (62) and (63) will not be considered but rather it will be shown that Eqs. (62) and (63) with right
sides equal to zero can be solved in terms of elementary or tabulated functions for certain classes of shells.
Shallow Shells of UniformThickness
When h' =0 and F =G =0 Eqs. (62) and (63) reduce to the following form:
Eqs. (64) and (65) can be written as one complex equation
Eq. (66) is solvable in terms of Bessel functions, whenever
that is, for the case of a parabolic shell of nth degree. When n =1 this case is contained in more general results for conical shells [7]. When n =2 the case is that of
the shallow spherical shell [9]. No previous solutions are known to the writer for other values of n.
The solution of Eqs. (66) and (67) can be written in the form
where Z is the symbol for the general cylinder function. The application of this solution to the treatment of specific problems will not be considered here.
Among such specific problems may be mentioned the problemof the shell with clamped edge as treated earlier for the case n =2, and for n <0 the problemof the
infinite shell with circular hole with uniformradial tension at infinity.
A still simpler case arises when
as then the solution of Eq. (66) is composed of powers of .
A Class of Shallow Shells of Variable Thickness
For shallow shells with thickness variation variation
Page234
Eqs. (62) and (63), with F =G =0, become
It is apparent that Eqs. (71) and (72) become a systemof equidimensional equations and therewith have solutions which are composed of powers of when
The case m =1, which gives a conical shell with linearly varying thickness, is included in E. Meissner's result [7] for the conical shell of any opening angle. Note that
m =2 gives a shallow spherical shell with quadratically increasing thickness away fromthe apex. Evidently, applicability of this solution for m =2, and, in fact for all
values of m, is restricted to ring shells only, so that the apex is not part of the actual shell. A problemof practical interest here may be the problemof a ring shell
rotating about its axis with thickness being largest at the inner edge, which is the case when the exponent m is negative.
Note on Asymptotic Solutions
Reverting now to the general differential equations (48) and (49) it can be seen that in general the quantity 2 is a number large compared with unity, while the
functions u, +, and u are of order unity. Under such circumstances the solutions of (48) and (49) may be expressed, for F =G =0, in the following form:
The expansions (74) are not convergent, but rather the error committed in using the first n terms of the series instead of an exact solution tends to zero as tends to
infinity. The possibility of a development of this nature was first indicated by H. Reissner [11]. The results for the case of a spherical shell of constant thickness,
including the determination of bounds for the error, were obtained by O. Blumenthal [1], and first applied in a dissertation of E. Schwerin [12].
Corresponding results for the cylindrical shell with linearly varying wall thickness, which had previously been treated by power series methods [10], were given by E.
Meissner [8]. Subsequently Steuermann [14] gave the first termin each series for the case of arbitrary u, +, and u subject to the aforementioned order of magnitude
conditions. A concise and complete version of the first-termapproximation for the spherical shell of constant thickness together with examples of application was
published by M. Hetnyi [2], while M. F. Spotts [13] worked out the first-termapproximation for a spherical shell with a specific law of wall thickness variation.
In all these cases the two second order equations (48) and (49) were first reduced to one fourth order equation before applyingthe asymptotic integration scheme.
It may not be superfluous to indicate that the first-termapproximation may be obtained in the following manner. Omit the terms with u and + and write
Page235
Then, except for terms small of order 1/, the solution of (75) is
Solutions of this kind, irrespective of the field of application, are also discussed in a recent book by H. and B. Jeffreys [3].* In Eq. (76) the constants C
1
and C
2
are
complex and thus equivalent to four real constants of integration. Separation of real and imaginary parts on the right of Eq. (76) leads to separate expressions for X
and Y and then also for the quantities defined by Eqs. (37) to (44).
For what is to be added to this subject the following two known facts are of significance:
(1) The accuracy of the first-termsolution increases as increases and is in most practical cases, except for shallow shells, sufficient.
(2) The quantity is of order of magnitude (a/h)1/2 where a is a representative linear dimension of the shell which, for instance, for sphere and cylinder is equal to the
radius of the middle surface of the shell. Fromthe formof the approximation (76) it follows that the state of bending in the shell is effectively contained within an edge
zone the width of which is of order (ah)1/2 and thus small compared with a.
The question may then be considered of reducing the stresses due to bending by using shells with appropriately varying thickness and radii of curvature. As the region
over which these stresses are important is of order (ah)1/2 it appears that it might be of advantage to admit significant changes of thickness and of the radii of
curvature over distances of this same order of magnitude. The observation to be made here is that in such cases the approximation (76) is no longer valid. The reason
for this is that in obtaining Eq. (76) the assumption has been made that the functions u and + which occur in Eqs. (48) and (49) themselves are of order unity, which
is the case when significant changes of h and R occur over distances of the order a and not over smaller distances. In the situation which is now contemplated it is
evident that
where now the functions and are of order unity. On this occasion no more can be done than to call attention to this problemwhich requires further
investigation.
References
[1]. Blumenthal, O., Zeitschrift fr Mathematik und Physik, Vol. 62, 1914, p. 343.
[2]. Hetnyi, M., Intern. Assoc. Bridge and Structural Engineering. Vol. 5, 1938, p. 173.
[3]. Jeffreys, H., and Jeffreys, B. S., Methods of Mathematical Physics, Cambridge University Press, 1946, p. 491.
[4]. Lohmann, W., Ingenieur Archiv, Vol. 6, 1935, p. 338.
[5]. Love, A. E. H., Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, Cambridge University Press, 1934, p. 589.
[6]. Meissner, E., Physikalische Zeitschrift, Vol. 14, 1913, p. 343.
*In Eq. (76) it has been assumed that . Thecase requires thechangingof +i into i in theexponents. Theapproximation (76) evidently ceases to hold in theneighborhood
of regions in which . A discussion of this case, which is also of importancein certain problems of quantummechanics, may befound in Ref. 3.
Page236
[7]. Meissner, E., Vierteljahrschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zrich, Vol. 60, 1915, p. 23.
[8]. Meissner, E., Vierteljahrschrift der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Zrich, Vol. 62, 1917, p. 153.
[9]. Reissner, E., Journal of Mathematics and Physics, Vol. 25, 1946, pp. 80, 279.
[10]. Reissner, H., Beton und Eisen, Vol. 7, 1908, p. 150.
[11]. Reissner, H., Festschrift Mueller-Breslau, 1912, p. 181.
[12]. Schwerin, E., Dissertation Technische Hochschule Berlin, 1917, and Armierter Beton, Vol. 12, 1919, pp. 25, 54, 81.
[13]. Spotts, M. F., Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 6, 1939, p. A97.
[14]. Steuermann, E., Proc. 3rd Intern. Congr. Appl. Mech., Stockholm, 1930, Vol. 2, p. 60.
[15]. Tlke, F., Ingenieur Archiv, Vol. 9, 1938, p. 282.
Page237
A Note on Membrane and Bending Stresses in Spherical Shells
[J. Soc. Indust. Appl. Math. 4, 230240, 1956]
1
Introduction
The problemwhich forms the starting point of this note is the following. A segment of a thin spherical elastic shell is acted upon by edge forces which are tangent to
the shell surface. Since these edge forces have no component normal to the shell surface and since no bending moments are applied at the edge of the shell, it may be
thought that for this problemthe state of stress in the interior of the shell is such that bending stresses are negligible in comparison with membrane stresses. If one
attempts to determine the stress distribution on the basis of the assumption that bending stresses are absent, one finds that the general expressions for stresses do not
contain a sufficient number of constants of integration for the satisfaction of the two conditions of prescribed normal stress and of prescribed shear stress along the
edge of the shell segment. While this difficulty disappears of course in a theory which takes bending into account, it is nevertheless desirable to be able to solve the
problemwithin the framework of the much simpler membrane theory. In earlier work1,2,3 this is done by satisfying part of the boundary conditions only, namely the
condition which refers to the prescribed normal stresses. In regard to the remaining shear stresses, the remark is made that these will be carried by a reinforcing
ring.1,2
The original object of the present note was to show that a more satisfactory answer than this is possible, and that it is possible to determine the membrane state of
stress in the interior of the shell by one single boundary condition which involves both the normal stress distribution and the shear stress distribution along the edge of
the shell, without explicit reference to bending. The membrane stress in the interior of the shell obtained in this manner will in general differ fromthe state of stress
determined by satisfying the normal stress edge condition exactly, even though the remaining edge shears are carried by a reinforcing ring.
It is found as is expected that, subject to certain restrictions, deviations fromthe membrane state determined on the basis of the single boundary condition are
confined to a narrow edge region within which bending action is of importance. However, it is also found that the situation is somewhat less simple than indicated
above, in the following sense. The state of stress outside this edge region is not necessarily a membrane state. It may happen that the state of stress in the interior also
is primarily bending rather than membrane. Specifically, this is found to be the case for the shell segment subjected to tangential edge forces, in the absence of
1W. Flgge, Statik und Dynamik der Schalen, pp. 4344, Berlin 1934.
2S. Timoshenko, Theory of plates and shells, pp. 380383, New York 1940.
3R. L'Hermite, Resistance des materiaux, pp. 645646, Paris 1954.
Page238
transverse edge forces and edge moments. On the other hand, if the condition of no transverse edge forces is replaced by the condition of no transverse edge
displacement then the state of stress in the interior of the shell is primarily a membrane state.
In order to simplify the analysis, the present derivations are carried out within the framework of the theory of shallow spherical shells. It will be evident that similar
results may be obtained for spherical shells without the assumption of shallowness, and also for other shells.
2
Differential Equations and Boundary Conditions
The systemof differential equations of the linear theory of shallow spherical shells of constant thickness which we shall use here can be reduced to two simultaneous
equations for axial deflection W and for a stress function F, as follows.4
In these equations R stands for the radius of the middle surface of the sphere, D is the bending stiffness factor Eh3/12(1 v2), C is the membrane stiffness factor Eh, E
is Young's modulus, v is Poisson's ratio, h the wall thickness of the shell, p the axial surface load intensity and V2 the Laplace operator c2/cr2 +r1c/cr +r2c2/cu2.
The stress function F represents the stress resultants N
r
, Nu, N
r
u which are tangential to the middle surface,
The deflection W represents the stress resultants Q
r
, Qu which are perpendicular to the middle surface and the stress couples M
r
, Mu, M
r
u,
We consider a shell segment extending over the region 0 s r s r
0
and acted upon by a distribution of edge loads, tangential to the middle surface of the shell.
Designating the normal component of this edge load by N
0
(u) and the shear component by S
0
(u), we have the following two boundary conditions
4E. Reissner, Stresses and small displacements of shallow spherical shells I, J . Math. Physics, 25 (1946), pp. 8085.
Page239
Additional boundary conditions involve transverse forces and moments and the deformations associated with them. We consider in particular two cases. For the first
of these we assume that transverse forces R
0
and moments M
0
are also applied to the edge of the shell. This means that we have
For the second case we assume that the edge is moment free and that the transverse forces are of such magnitude as to make the transverse deflection vanish,
In addition to the four conditions for r =r
0
the solutions of the differential equations (1) and (2) must also satisfy suitable regularity conditions for r =0.
3
Differential Equation and Boundary Conditions of Membrane Theory
The equations of membrane theory follow from(1) to (12) by setting in them
This means that we are left with the differential equation
and the boundary conditions
for the determination of the stress function F. It is clear that there is in general no solution of this problemwhich also satisfies the regularity conditions for r =0. What
this means is that the given load distribution cannot, in general, be supported by the shell without appealing to its bending stiffness. However, it may be that this
bending stiffness is needed in a narrow edge zone only and that in the interior beyond this edge zone we have a state of membrane stress. So far as this interior
membrane state is concerned the problemthen is to determine the formof the one boundary condition which replaces the two incompatible conditions (17) and (18).
4
General Solution of Differential Equation
We will show that the separation into interior states and narrow-edge-zone states occurs for sufficiently small values of bending stiffness D and that fromthis it is
possible to deduce appropriate boundary conditions for the interior state.
The differential equations (1) and (2) allow the following representation of F and W,
The functions | and are harmonic, F
p
and W
p
are particular solutions which take account of p, and _ is the general solution of
Page240
where
The solutions (19) and (20) allow satisfaction of the complete systemof boundary conditions (11) to (14).
In order to have a separation of the solution into a part which describes what we call the interior state and into a part whichdescribes what we call the narrow-edge-
zone, or boundary layer, state, we are limiting ourselves to problems for which
If this condition is satisfied, we have that the _-contributions to the solution which are necessary to satisfy the boundary conditions for r =r
0
decay rapidly with
distance away fromthe edge and are such that differentiation with respect to r changes their order of magnitude in the vicinity of r =r
0
. Typical relations in
mathematical formare
Before introducing the solutions (19) and (20) into the boundary conditions we list stress resultants and couples once more in explicit formas follows. We set as an
abbreviation,
we indicate the fact that the functions |, , F
p
and W
p
are associated with the interior state by a superscript i and we indicate partial differentiation by a comma
preceding the appropriate subscripts. In this way we have
Page241
The quantities with superscript i follow from(3) to (10) if in these expressions we replace F by | +F
p
and W by +W
p
.
5
The Problem of Prescribed Edge Forces and Moments
If we introduce (26) to (34) into the boundary conditions (11) to (14a), these assume the following form
for r =r
0
. Now, since 1 <<kr
0
, we have that in each of the four equations (35) the highest _-derivative terms dominate the others. This means that in the last two
equations the explicitly appearing _-terms are small compared to the O-terms and we may neglect these _-terms. With only O-contributions remaining the boundary
conditions (35) may be reduced to boundary conditions for the interior state, as follows. The first two of equations (35) are used to express O and O
,r
in the form
Introducing (36) into the abbreviated formof the last two of equations (35) we are left with the following systemof two boundary conditions for the interior state
for r =r
0
.
Explicit Formof Boundary Conditions for the Case of Absent Surface Loads
Setting F
p
=W
p
=0 we may write (37a, b) in terms of | and , as follows:
Page242
For the special case in which the tangential forces N
0
and S
0
are absent the boundary conditions (38) may be replaced by an integrated systemof the form
Equation (39) may be recognised as a specialisation of earlier results for inextensional deformations of general shallow shells.5 In this sense we recognise that the
physical nature of the interior state for the boundary value problem(35), rather than being that of a membrane state, may be that of a state of bending without middle
surface extension. Our present results are more special than the results of the earlier work,5 inasmuch as they are restricted to spherical shells; and they are more
general than the earlier results since they include not only the action of transverse edge forces and edge bending movements but also the effect of tangential edge
forces which were not considered in the earlier work.
6
Prescribed Tangential Edge Forces and Vanishing Transverse Edge Deflection and Moment
For this problemthe first two of equations (35) remain unchanged. The last two equations are replaced by the following:
We may again neglect the explicitly occurring _-terms and then (40) is replaced by
In the first of equations (41) we eliminate O by means of the first of equations (36). In this manner we arrive at the following systemof boundary conditions for the
interior state.
In the event that W
p
=0, which is in particular the case if surface loads are absent, we conclude fromthe second of equations (42) that Wi =0 throughout and the first
of equations (42) reduces to the following simple form
It is evident that for the present problemthe interior state is a membrane state and equation (43) is the one boundary condition for the determination of this state in
terms of given tangential edge loads, which was the original aimof the present discussion. We note that in terms of the potential function | which represents the
interior membrane state the boundary condition (43) assumes the form,
5M. W. J ohnson and E. Reissner, On inextensional deformations of shallow elastic shells, J . Math. Physics, 34 (1955), pp. 335346.
Page243
and this condition, with | replaced by F, takes the place of the two boundary conditions (17) and (18).
Similar considerations involving the explicit determination of interior states without explicit determination of the associated boundary layer state are possible for other
systems of boundary conditions, for instance when instead of prescribed N
r
and N
r0
we have prescribed displacements u and v in radial and circumferential direction.
7
Some Explicit Solutions
In this section we consider the formal solutions of some specific load and support condition problems on the basis of the following expressions for the harmonic
functions | and which occur in (19) and (20),
Simply supported shell with tangential edge loads
The second of equations (42) shows that B =0 and equation (43') determines the coefficient A in (44) as follows
With this we have
and the membrane stress resultants in the interior assume the following form:
Equations (48), for the special case Q =0, may be compared with the corresponding results which follow fromuse of the boundary condition N
r
(r
0
, u) =P cos nu.
Instead of the factor n/(n +1) in (48) there occurs then a factor unity.
Shell Carrying Tangential Edge Loads and Free Otherwise
We take N
0
and S
0
as in (45) and in addition to this set in (38),
Introduction of (44) into (38) leads to the following expressions for stress function F and deflection W,
Introduction of (50) and (51) into (3) to (10) leads to the corresponding equations for stress resultants and couples. It is readily seen that the extreme fiber
Page244
stresses o
B
associated with the couples M through the relation o
B
=6M/h2 are large compared with the average stresses o
D
associated with the resultants N
through the relation o
D
=N/h, as long as the basic order of magnitude relation (23) is satisfied. In this sense we have that for the present problemmembrane action in
the interior is negligible compared with bending action in the interior and the latter is as if the middle surface of the shell were inextensible.
Shell Carrying Radial Edge Loads and Otherwise Free
In order that the edge loads shall be radial rather than tangential we set in the boundary conditions (38) S
0
=0 and introduce a transverse force R
0
of such magnitude
that the resultant of it and of the tangential normal force N
0
is transformed into a radial normal force N
0
. The appropriate value of R
0
is
Therewith and with M
0
=0 the boundary conditions (38) assume the following form,
With N
0
as in (45) the functions | and are now
Again, we will have that bending stresses associated with will be large compared to direct stresses associated with |, as long as 1 <<kr
0
.
It is evident that by suitable combination of solutions of the form(54) and (55) we may solve such problems as the problemof the shell subjected to two
concentrated radial forces acting at the opposite ends of a diameter of the boundary of the shell. It is also evident that the series occurring in such a solution are
expressible in closed formby means of elementary functions.
Among other problems deserving of further consideration we may mention the following three:
(1) A shell acted upon by an equilibriumdistribution of axial edge forces, there being no other loads.
(2) A shell with free edge, acted upon by an equilibriumdistribution of surface loads. Here it will be of interest to see to what extent the interior state will be a
membrane state or a state of inextensional bending or a combination of the two.
(3) Returning to the problemof the shell with given edge forces and moments, as discussed in Section 5, we may ask the question to determine a distribution of
transverse forces R
0
, for given N
0
and S
0
and for M
0
=0 such that the solution has
Page245
the property of vanishing edge deflection W
0
. The solution of this problemshould be the same as the solution of the problemdescribed in Section 6. One can show
that this is in fact the case. Accordingly, the problemof Section 5, for suitable specialisations of the edge loads, may lead to interior states which are either states of
inextensional bending or membrane states. It would seemto be of interest to pursue this subject further by analysing in greater generality possible classifications of
boundary conditions with respect to the physical nature of the interior stress states to which they give rise.
Page246
On Stresses and Deformations of Ellipsoidal Shells Subject to Internal Pressure*
[J. Mech. Phys. Solids 6, 6370, 1957]
1
Introduction
In the following we consider a thin elastic ellipsoidal shell of revolution with the major axis of the elliptic cross section perpendicular to the axis of revolution. We
assume that the only load is a uniforminternal pressure (Figure 1).
Existing solutions (Lorentz 1913; Timoshenko 1940) for the stresses are obtained using the membrane theory of shells which neglects effects due to bending. For the
present problemmembrane theory is general enough to allow one to satisfy all prescribed boundary conditions and, as there are no discontinuities either in the load
function or in the radii of curvature of the shell, membrane theory yields a continuous stress distribution with no singularities.
Fig. 1.
A qualitative consideration of the problemindicates that some bending does occur and that effects due to bending become progressively more important as the
elliptical cross section of the shell becomes flatter and flatter. Our object in the present note is to investigate this aspect of the problemquantitatively. We find that
suitable results may be obtained if appropriate solutions of the differential equations of the bending theory of shells are represented by expansions in powers of a small
parameter. In contrast to some problems of shell theory concerned with bending effects, we do not encounter any solutions of the boundary-layer type in the range of
parameter values which we consider.
Our principal result of a qualitative nature may be described as follows. We know the range of validity of thin-shell theory is restricted by the basic assumption that
h/R
min
<<1, where h is the wall thickness of the shell and R
min
is the least value
*With R. A. Clark
Page247
of the radii of curvature of the middle surface. For an ellipsoidal shell of revolution this order of magnitude relation is equivalent to the relation h/b <<b/a, where a
and b are the major and minor semi-axis of the elliptic cross section of the middle surface. Our result for the present problemis that bending effects are negligible, or
membrane theory is valid, only if the more restrictive relation h/b <<(b/a)3 is satisfied.
2
Basic Equations
The middle surface of a closed ellipsoidal shell of revolution may be represented in cylindrical co-ordinates r, u, z by parametric equations of the form
where 0 sst.
Assuming that the thickness h of the shell is uniformand that a uniforminternal pressure p is the only load, the basic differential equations of the linear bending theory
may be written as follows (Reissner 1949)
where the operators L are defined by
and where
The quantity E is Young's modulus, v is Poisson's ratio, | is the meridional angle of rotation due to deformation, is a stress function, and primes indicate
differentiation with respect to .
Stress resultants and couples are given in terms of | and by the following relations:
Displacements u and w in radial and axial directions are given by the formulas
In order to determine stress and displacement quantities, as given by (6) and (7), it is necessary to solve the two simultaneous differential equations (2) and (3) in the
interval 0 sst subject to suitable boundary conditions at the ends of this
Page248
interval. Such boundary conditions are the symmetry conditions of vanishing angular deflection | and vanishing transverse shear force Q. In view of the formof Q as
given by (6) the systemof boundary conditions may be written as follows:
3
Membrane Solution
Membrane-theory formulation of the problemis obtained fromthe preceding equations by setting, in (2) and (6),
Indicating the corresponding expressions for and | by a subscript M, we have
and these expressions do in fact satisfy the boundary conditions (8).
Introduction of (9) and (10) into expressions (6) for stress resultants shows that the couples and the transverse stress resultant Q are identically zero while the direct
stress resultants N and Nu are given by the known expressions
Of particular interest is the fact that when the circumferential stress resultant NuM changes sign as varies fromzero at the apex to the value 1/2t at points
farthest removed fromthe axis of revolution of the shell.
4
Corrections to Membrane Solution
In order to obtain corrections to the membrane solution (10) and (11) which account for non-zero values of the bending stiffness factor D, we introduce non-
dimensional variables and parameters, as follows:
The quantity R
min
is the meridional radius of curvature for =1/2t and is the least value of the two principal radii of curvature when b <a. The basic equations being
used here are meaningful only if the parameter is large compared to unity.
With (13) to (15) differential equations (2) and (3) assume the following more symmetrical form
Page249
Inspection of the system(16) and (17) suggests expansions of the form
in terms of inverse powers of the large parameter . Equating coefficients of corresponding powers of on the right and on the left of (16) and (17), after
introduction of (18) and (19) into these equations, leads to the following expressions for the coefficient functions g
n
and ]
n
:
It is readily seen that the leading terms of expansions (18) and (19) are identical with the corresponding membrane solutions (10) and (11). Accordingly, the
remaining contributions to the series, beginning with g
1
and ]
1
, represent corrections to the membrane solution due to the finite bending stiffness of the shell wall.
The following observation is of importance. While the expansions (18) and (19), with g
n
and ]
n
given by (20) to (23), represent particular solutions only of the
systemof differential equations (16) and (17), these expansions satisfy the boundary conditions (8) termby term. Accordingly, it is unnecessary to consider the
general solution of the homogeneous systemof differential equations.
For the purposes of this note we may limit ourselves to the explicit evaluation of ]
0
and g
1
in addition to g
0
. We find, making use of the relation
the following expressions
5
Formulae for Stresses
From(6) and (13) we obtain for direct stresses oD and ouD,
From(6) and (14) we obtain for bending stresses oB and ouB,
Page250
We consider in particular the values of stresses at the apex =0 and at the points =1/2t farthest removed fromthe apex of the shell.
Fromequation (12) the direct stresses have the following values according to membrane theory
Fromequations (26) to (29) we have according to bending theory
We are mostly interested in shells for which a/b is reasonably large compared to unity. According to membrane theory the circumferential hoop stress ouD(1/2t) is
the critical stress provided a/b > 2 and we shall limit ourselves to this range in the following discussion. In order to compare the results of bending theory with those of
membrane theory we consider the ratio of ouD(1/2t) and oB(1/2t) to the membrane solution ouM(1/2t). Dividing (35) and (37) by (32) and introducing from
(15) we may write
where
Page251
For a/b greater than 3 or 4, coefficients A and B, given by (40) and (41), vary relatively slowly as a/b increases. In particular, for v =0.3 we have the following
Table:
a/b 2 3 4 5 6
A 1.66 1.14 1.03 0.98 0.96 0.92
B 1.44 0.84 0.70 0.64 0.61 0.55
Using this Table we may easily draw curves, shown in Fig. 2, representing (38) and (39). Since we are limiting ourselves to the calculation of first-order corrections,
we expect that the curves drawn are quantitatively reliable only as long as the corrections amount to no more than, say, 10 per cent of the critical membrane stress
ouM(1/2t), as is indicated by the solid portion of the curves in Figure 2. The broken portions of the curves are probably qualitatively correct, but eventually the
results become meaningless as the corrections, or the combination (a/b)2 (h/R
min
), increase.
The following observations may be made on the basis of equations (38) and (39) or Fig. 2. Membrane theory is valid or bending effects may be neglected only if
which for b/a <<1 is a much more restrictive condition than the basic assumption of thin shell theory that h/R
min
<<1. Thus, for a shell with fixed dimensions a and b,
there will always be a range of shell thickness h, satisfying (42), for which membrane theory is valid, but this may be only a small part of the range for which bending
theory is valid. Also, for a fixed value of h/R
min
, no matter how small, there will always be shells or ratios a/b for which membrane theory is not valid.
Fig. 2.
Page252
6
Formulae for Displacements
Combining relations (7), (13), (26) and (27) we obtain the following general expressions for the displacements:
The axial displacement w is of greatest interest. The integrations involved may be carried out explicitly in terms of elementary functions. Retaining only those terms
which correspond to the membrane solutions (10) and (11), we find that the total axial expansion o =w(t) w(0) is given by
where e is the eccentricity of the elliptic cross section given by
The first termin (45), involving the factor (a/b)2, represents the contribution due to the angular rotation | and is seen to dominate for large values of a/b. Using (46)
we may also write (45) in the somewhat more compact form
For a/b =1 and e =0, expression (47) reduces to the value of the deflection for a spherical shell. But as a/b increases and e 1, the expression for o eventually
becomes meaningless, as does the membrane solution for stresses when the thickness h is held fixed.
References
1. Lorentz, H. 1913. Technische Elastizittslehre p. 34. (Oldenbourg, Mnchen und Berlin).
2. Reissner, E. 1949. Reissner Anniversary Volume, pp. 231247. (Edwards , Ann Arbor, Mich.)
3. Timoshenko, S. 1940. Theory of Plates and Shells p. 265. (McGraw Hill, New York).
Page253
On the Foundations of the Theory of Thin Elastic Shells*
[J. Math. & Phys. 37, 371392, 1958]
1
Introduction
In the following we are concerned with the fundamental problemof establishing two dimensional systems of differential equations for stresses and displacements of
thin elastic shells. Our object is to derive such a systemof equations as a logical consequence of the known systemof differential equations of three-dimensional
elasticity, with the possibility of establishing shell theories of varying degrees of accuracy. While ultimately results of this kind should be obtained for shells of arbitrary
shape and for arbitrarily large deformations the present paper is limited to a consideration of the problemfor the circular cylindrical shell of constant thickness, under
the assumption of small rotationally symmetrical deformations.
The circular cylindrical shell is characterized by two lengths, the radius a and thickness h. The main point of the present paper is that by introducing a suitable third
axial length in the differential equations of the three-dimensional theory it becomes possible to expand the solutions of the equations of the three-dimensional theory in
terms of powers of a suitable dimensionless parameter. The first terms in these expansions are found to represent the results of conventional shell theory as based on
the Euler Bernoulli hypothesis and on the assumption that h/a is negligibly small compared to unity. The second and higher order terms represent the three separate
effects of (i) finite values of h/a, (ii) transverse shear stress deformation, (iii) transverse normal stress deformation. A preliminary order-of-magnitude analysis of the
equations of the three-dimensional theory establishes that the characteristic axial length is the geometric mean (ah)1/2 of radius and wall thickness of the shell.
Associated with this length are boundary layer phenomena typical for thin shell theory. A different class of boundary layer phenomena for the equations of the three-
dimensional theory is associated with the length h, taken in the axial direction. The essential point in our procedure is that it incorporates the consequences of the one
boundary layer while being insensitive to the consequences of the other boundary layer.
2
The Boundary Value Problem
We consider axially symmetric deformations of a semi-infinite cylindrical shell of constant thickness. We start with the three-dimensional equations of the linear theory.
With the usual notation, illustrated in Fig. 1, the equilibriumequations have the following form
*With M. W. J ohnson.
Page254
Fig. 1.
Semi-infinitecircular cylindrical shell showingstress components
o
z
, o
r
, ou, t
rz
, displacement components u
r
, u
z
and coordinates
r, z for axially symmetric deformations.
We assume that the material is orthotropic with the direction normal to the middle surface an axis of elastic symmetry and write the stress strain relations as follows:
We assume that stresses and deformations are due to a systemof tractions applied at the end z =0 of the semi-infinite shell.
We introduce dimensionless coordinates and , and dimensionless parameters and by
Dimensions a and h are the radius and thickness respectively (Figure 1) while b is a typical length in the z-direction to be determined presently. In fact, the proper
determination of b is the crucial step of the non-dimensionalization process. With (2.3) and (2.4) the equilibriumequations (2.1) become
We now non-dimensionalize stresses so that all terms in (2.5) except the additive terms are of the same order in . This is accomplished by setting
and by relating the two parameters and as follows:
Page255
The quantity o, which has the dimension of stress, will be determined later fromthe boundary conditions such that the dimensionless variables are O(1).
We note that the stresses (2.6) agree in so far as the order in is concerned with the results of conventional shell theory. Introduction of (2.6) and (2.7) into (2.5)
gives dimensionless equilibriumequations of the following form:
Relation (2.7) fixes the length scale in the axial direction as b =(1/2ah)1/2 so that this formulation has the possibility of giving results corresponding to the conventional
bending theory. However we cannot expect it to be capable of representing effects associated with a length scale h in the axial direction.
Next we non-dimensionalize the stress-strain relations (2.2). In order that the displacements appear with the proper order of magnitude we set
This results in the following dimensionless formof the stress-strain relations:
where
The factor (1 v2) is added in (2.9) in order to simplify some formulae which follow.
We next arrange equations (2.8) and (2.10) in the order in which integration with respect to will be possible.
Page256
The system(2.12) will be considered in conjunction will conditions of vanishing surface stress over the cylindrical boundary portions, i.e.
3
Expansion with Respect to Small Parameter
We assume that for sufficiently small all quantities in (2.12) can be expanded, asymptotically, for each value of and , in the form
We are interested in the solution for small and will study in detail only the first two systems obtained by substituting (3.1) into (2.12) and equating coefficients of 0
and 1 on both sides of the equation.
First system
Second system
Systems (3.2) and (3.3) can now be integrated with respect to in a step by step fashion since the right sides of each equation are known functions of at each step.
Introducing macroscopic displacements and stress functions , etc., system(3.2) yields
where primes indicate differentiation with respect to ,.
Page257
It is clear fromthe formof (2.12) that this integration can also be carried out in all higher order systems. For the second systemintegration of (3.3) gives
Expressions (3.4), when the proper differential equations and boundary conditions are given for and , are those obtained in the conventional theory of
Page258
thin shells. Expressions (3.5) and (3.6), which are of higher order than (3.4), are not obtained in the usual theory.
4
Equations for Macroscopic Quantities
Satisfaction of boundary conditions at =1 gives equations for the macroscopic quantities appearing in (3.4) through (3.6). Introducing the expansion in powers of
(3.1) into the boundary conditions (2.13), we find that these assume the following form
Satisfaction of conditions (4.1) for k =0 by stresses (3.5) leads to the following expressions:
A convenient formof the macroscopic equations is obtained by reducing (4.2) to the following differential equations for middle surface displacement functions
and ,
plus expressions giving and in terms of these middle surface functions,
In a similar manner, satisfaction of (4.1) when k =1 leads to the following differential equations for middle surface displacement functions and ,
and the following expressions for and ,
Equations (4.3) are two ordinary differential equations with constant coefficients for and . They are, in fact, of the same formas the equations of conventional
shell theory for the displacements of the middle surface. Their solution can be found by elementary means. After solving these equations subject to suitable boundary
Page259
conditions we can find and by (4.4). Then, microscopic displacements and stresses are given by (3.4) and (3.5).
Knowing the first approximation, we can calculate the right sides of (4.5). The left sides are of the same formas in (4.3) and these equations can again be solved by
elementary means. The microscopic quantities of the second approximation are then determined from(3.6) with and given by (4.6).
We note that at the k +1st step one must solve a systemof the form
where G(k) and H(k) are known fromthe previous steps. One then obtains and fromexpressions corresponding to (4.6) and the microscopic quantities from
expressions corresponding to (3.6).
5
Definitions of Stress Resultants and Couples
For the macroscpic formulation of our problemit is necessary to introduce stress resultants and couples defined as follows
Expressions (5.1) are non-dimensionalized and expanded in a -series using (2.3), (2.4), (2.6) and (3.1). The results can be written in the form
where
6
End Conditions
It remains to consider the formof suitable boundary conditions at the ends , =0 and , = of the semi-infinite shell. It will be assumed that these
Page260
conditions are conditions of prescribed normal and shear stress, as follows
In accordance with the stress expansions in the interior it is necessary that the given functions and are expanded in powers of , as follows:
Inspection of equations (3.4), (3.5) and (3.6) indicates that the functions and must depend on the variable in certain specified ways. must be a linear
function of , must be a quadratic function of , and so on. Moreover, the coefficients of the various powers of in the different functions may not necessarily all
be assumed to be independent of each other.
The resolution of the problemof the formof the boundary conditions (6.1) and (6.2) is effected here by the following consideration. The boundary stress functions
and are considered to be composed of two portions,
such that the portions and have form(6.3) which allows their identifications with the boundary values of s
z
and s
rz
and such that the portions and do
not give rise either to forces or moments applied to the elements of the edge of the shell.
The boundary value problempertaining to the boundary stresses and is then solved by the expansions proposed in this paper. For an exact solution of the
complete problemit would be necessary to solve in addition the problempertaining to the boundary stresses and . At this point the assumption is made that
the solution of the second problemdoes not in fact have any bearing on the solution of the originally given problemof obtaining two-dimensional shell theory
equations inasmuch as the stresses associated with the solution of the second problemare significant only in an edge region with axial extension of the order of the
thickness h. Whether this assumption is based on an appeal to St. Venant's principle or on an actual solution of the second problemis not material for the purposes of
the present work. It suffices for the present purposes to define the problemof obtaining two-dimensional shell theory equations in such a way that the stresses
associated with the second problemare ignored.
We now divide boundary conditions (6.1) and (6.2) pertaining to the problemas defined above into two different fundamental sets with the following properties
Page261
It will be seen that (6.5) and (6.6) lead to boundary conditions appropriate to differential equations (4.3) and (4.5). That is, the middle surface displacement functions
are uniquely determined so that equations (4.3), (4.5) and boundary conditions (6.5), (6.6) are satisfied to order 1. This fact shows that it is indeed possible to write
the boundary stress functions and in the form(6.4) where and are identified with boundary values of s
z
and s
rz
and and do not give rise to
forces or moments as far as terms up to order 1 are concerned. The formof equations (4.7) and boundary conditions (6.5) and (6.6) indicates that this can be done
up to any order in .
In terms of the quantities defined by (5.2) and (5.3) boundary conditions (6.5) and (6.6) can be written as
where, in order that dimensionless quantities be O(1) we have chosen o in the following manner,
7
Stress-Strain Relations
In order to write end conditions (6.5) and (6.6) in terms of middle surface displacement functions for use with equations (4.3) and (4.5) we must derive macroscopic
stress-strain relations.
We relate stress resultants and couples as defined in section 5 to the middle surface displacement functions by substituting stresses from(3.4) and (3.6) into (5.3)
performing the integrations and using expressions (4.3) through (4.6). The results are
Page262
We note that relations (7.1) are of the same formas those obtained in the conventional theory.
8
The Boundary Value Problem for the First Two Approximations
By using the results of section 7, we write end conditions (6.7) and (6.8) for k =0 and k =1 as
where
Integrating the first equation of (4.3) and using conditions (8.1) and (8.4) we obtain
Similarly, the first equation of (4.5) together with end conditions (8.2), (8.5), (8.7) and (8.10) yields
We see from(7.1) and (7.2) that (8.14) and (8.15) indicate that and are identically zero. We could have obtained these conditions directly fromthe
fact that N
z
(,) must vanish identically due to the formof the boundary conditions.
If we eliminate fromthe second equation of (4.3) with the aid of (8.14) and eliminate fromthe second equation of (4.5) using (8.15), we obtain the
following systemfor and ,
Page263
where
The problemis now reduced to solving equations (8.16) and (8.17) subject to boundary conditions (8.2), (8.3), (8.5), (8.6), (8.8), (8.9), (8.11) and (8.12). and
are then to be obtained from(8.14) and (8.15).
With equation (8.14) the relevant stress-strain relations (7.1) and (7.2) simplify to
Supplementary Note
The second half of this paper, with analytical and numerical details, is here omitted, as modifications are required in the determination of , upon consideration of
the effect of the boundary layer of width h, which has not been part of this work.
Page264
The Edge Effect in Symmetric Bending of Shallow Shells of Revolution
[Commun. Pure & Appl. Math. 7, 385398, 1959]
1
Introduction
The present paper generalizes earlier work on the edge effect in shallow spherical shells subjected to internal pressure to general shallow shells of revolution and
general symmetric load distributions, for such shells and load distributions as behave qualitatively similar to the uniformly loaded spherical shell. Our previous work [1,
2] consisted in a boundary layer analysis of the spherical shell with simply supported edge, and included as limiting cases the results of linear bending theory [3] and of
non-linear membrane theory [4]. In what follows we consider shells with simply supported edge as well as shells with built-in edge.
The present analysis makes explicit a property of the problemwhich previously has not been stated in such fashion, although it was implicit in our earlier work. It may
be described as follows: For certain well-defined ranges of parameter values the boundary layer at the edge of the shell is suchthat within one boundary layer of
specified width there is to be found a second boundary layer, the width of which is of a different order of magnitude.
2
Basic Equations
The problemof symmetric deformations of shallow shells of revolution subjected to loads in the direction of the axis of the shell may be reduced to two simultaneous
differential equations of second order for a stress function variable and an angular deformation variable |, cf. [1]. In the following it will be assumed that the shell is
isotropic, homogeneous and of uniformthickness. The differential equations are then of the form
where
In equation (2.3) h is the wall thickness of the shell, E is Young's modulus and v is Poisson's ratio. The variable r is the radial distance fromthe axis of the shell of
points of the middle surface before deformation, and the quantity | is the sloping angle of the meridians of the middle surface before deformation. For a shallow shell
Page265
this sloping angle is related to the middle surface equation z =z(r) in the form
where the prime indicates differentiation with respect to r. The quantity L is a differential operator defined by
Stress resultants and stress couples are defined as follows:
The quantity p
V
represents the axial surface load intensity.
To the degree of approximation implied by the use of shallow shell theory axial and normal surface loads are equivalent, and it is assumed that no radial surface loads
are present. Radial and axial displacement components u and w are given by
In what follows equations (2.1) and (2.2) will be considered for systems of boundary conditions of the form
where S stands for simply-supported and C for clamped.
3
Linear Membrane Theory
An approximate solution of the problemwhich is known to be incompatible with the boundary condition u(a) =0 may be obtained by assuming D =0 and by
ignoring non-linear terms in the differential equations (2.1) and (2.2). This solution is
where | and V are restricted in such a way that
LM
and |
LM
satisfy the symmetry conditions
In what follows we are interested in determining the circumstances in which the solution (3.1) is effectively correct except ina narrow edge zone and in determining
the nature of the actual solution which is valid within the narrow edge zone.
Page266
4
Differential Equations and Boundary Conditions for Supplementary Solution
We write
Introducing (3.1) and (4.1) into equations (2.1) and (2.2) we obtain for the supplementary solutions
s
and |
s
the following differential equations:
and the following systemof boundary conditions:
and
5
Non-Linear Membrane Supplementary Solution
If in equations (4.2) and (4.3) we assume D =0, then they are equivalent to one equation for
s
which may be written in the form
The appropriate boundary conditions which remain from(4.4) to (4.7) are those pertaining to
s
, namely
For the purpose of determining the existence of a solution of the boundary layer type we write in (5.1) to (5.3)
where u(1) =+(1) =1 and where it is assumed that u and + and its derivatives with respect to r/a are of order of magnitude unity.
We further set
and
Page267
where x is a new dimensionless variable and where and
0
are parameters which are to be chosen suitably.
Introduction of (5.5) and (5.6) into (5.1) gives as a new formof the differential equation of the problem
where
The boundary conditions (5.2) and (5.3) assume the form
and
We now dispose of the parameters
0
and by setting
Therewith equation (5.7) becomes
The formof (5.12) and (5.9) indicates that in order to have a boundary layer phenomenon we must have
When (5.13) is satisfied we may take (5.12) effectively in the simpler form
with the boundary conditions
Equations (5.14) to (5.16) are the boundary layer equations of non-linear membrane theory of the problems as formulated in equations (5.1) to (5.3). The formof
(5.12) shows that the condition of validity of this boundary layer theory is the order of magnitude relation (5.13). The width o of the boundary layer is given in the
form
Page268
For a spherical shell of radius R with uniformload p
V
=p, which is the case treated by Bromberg and Stoker [4], we have
and therewith
while
6
Boundary Layer Analysis of Supplementary Solution
We make use of the substitutions (5.4) to (5.6) of non-linear membrane theory, together with the additional relations
where B(r/a) and its derivatives with respect to r/a are O(1).
Introduction of (5.4) to (5.6) and (6.1) into (4.2) and (4.3) gives
The boundary conditions (4.5) to (4.7) for r =a become
and
or
The boundary conditions for r =0 become conditions for x = and need not be listed explicitly.
Page269
We now assume the following two relations involving the three parameters
0
, |
0
and :
which may be written in the form
Introducing (6.8) into equations (6.2) to (6.6) we obtain the following formof these equations:
and
or
In addition to the system(6.9) to (6.13) contains the two parameters and .
In view of the formof the first termof equation (6.9) we now take as
and set
In order to have the existence of a narrow edge zone, we assume that >>1. The system(6.9) to (6.13) then reduces to the following form:
Page270
together with the regularity conditions
which take the place of the boundary conditions for x =. We note that in order that these regularity conditions can be satisfied certain regions of k-values are not
admissible. The meaning of this is that the present boundary layer theory is restricted to load conditions for which the question of buckling of the shell in a rotationally
symmetric manner does not arise.
A special case of (6.16) to (6.20) is given when
For this range of surface load intensities the system(6.16) to (6.20) reduces to that for the boundary layer in the linear theory of bending [3].
In contrast to this we have that, when
both linear bending and non-linear membrane action are of importance.
The system(6.16) to (6.20) ceases to be suitable when 1 <<k. In view of the formof the third termin (6.9) we take for the analysis of this latter case in the form
Assuming again that 1 << we see that the system(6.9) and (6.10) reduces to the form
while the boundary conditions are again given by (6.18) to (6.20).
We note that, when
the system(6.24) and (6.25) contains the same type of terms as the system(6.16) and (6.17). The case k <<1, which was covered in (6.16) and (6.17), does not
concern us within the framework of the normalization .
There remains the special case
When (6.27) holds the system(6.24) and (6.25) reduces to the form
This, however, is equivalent to equation (5.14) of non-linear membrane theory. Moreover, for this case the normalization (6.23) of is exactly the same as that given
by (5.13).
Page271
We have then that the boundary layer case of non-linear membrane theory is a special case of the general boundary layer case which is applicable when both
Since the order of the system(6.28) is halved in comparison with the order of the system(6.24) and (6.25) the same must be assumed for the boundary condition
(6.18) to (6.20) and these reduce to the form(5.15) and (5.16).
If we wish to retain all boundary conditions (6.18) to (6.20) we must retain in (6.24) the termk2]'' even though k2 <<1. Since the system(6.24) and (6.25) is a
linear systemwith constant coefficients, this can be done in an explicit fashion and the results so obtained for the support condition (S) have been given earlier [1,2]. It
is, however, more in the spirit of the remainder of the analysis, to consider the case k2 <<1 as one where there occurs a secondary boundary layer, which lies in
the interior of the previous boundary layer of non-linear membrane theory.
7
Analysis of the Secondary Boundary Layer
Assuming that k is in the range (6.27), the system(6.28) together with the boundary conditions (5.15) and (5.16) is valid except in an edge region . Setting
as an abbreviation
we have then the interior solution
which does not satisfy the boundary condition (6.19). This interior solution is to be corrected in the vicinity of x =0, in order that (6.19) be satisfied. To find the form
of the correction to ]
i
=g
i
we introduce a new independent variable y and new dependent variables F and G in the form
where r, s and t are suitable constant exponents.
Introduction of (7.3) into (6.24) and (6.25) gives
The boundary conditions (6.18) and (6.19) assume the form
Instead of the boundary conditions (6.20) we have the transition conditions
where y =krx.
In order to preserve the order of (7.4) and to retain condition (7.6) we now set
Page272
so that
With this choice of exponents the system(7.4) and (7.5) becomes
with the boundary conditions
and
The solution of (7.11) and (7.12) is readily carried out in the form
where G
0
and F
0
are constants of integration. Equation (7.13) furnishes the additional relation
It remains to satisfy the transition conditions (7.8). Since in the range 1 <<y the termwith F
0
in (7.15) is negligible, the transition conditions for both F and G reduce
to the form
which, since y/k =x, is satisfied by setting
The secondary boundary layer solution is then
and
Equations (7.19) to (7.21) may be written in the equivalent form
and
which holds in the region . For larger values of x the solutions (7.22) to (7.24) are to be replaced by (7.2).
We note that while the width of the primary boundary layer was of the order , the width of the secondary boundary layer is of the order
Page273
which, in as much as k2 <<1, is in fact a smaller order of magnitude than the width of the primary boundary layer.
8
The Order of Magnitude of Bending Stresses in the Secondary Boundary Layer
We consider the meridional bending stress o
rB
in comparison with the direct stress o
D
of linear membrane theory.
The order of magnitude of o
D
is
The order of magnitude of o
rB
is
With |
0
from(6.8), this is
and, with from(6.23) and ] from(7.23) and (7.24),
In view of the formof (7.23) and (7.24) this means that for the shell with built-in edge
and for the shell with simply supported edge
Equations (8.5) and (8.6) are in accordance with statements made earlier for the shell with simply supported edge [1] and, quite briefly, for the shell with clamped
edge [2].
9
Summary of Boundary Layer Results
We may summarize our results in the following manner:
Deviations fromthe results of linear membrane theory are confined to a narrow edge zone provided the parameters k and as defined by (6.14) and (6.15) are such
that
When k <<1, the edge zone state is described by linear bending theory and the width o of the edge zone is of the order a/ .
When k =O(1), determination of the edge zone state involves both linear bending and non-linear membrane action, and the width of the edge zone is again of order
a/ .
Page274
When 1 <<k, the edge zone state is effectively separated into two distinct states, with different orders of magnitude for the widths of the two edge zones. The wider
of the two edge zones is associated with non-linear membrane action and its width o
w
is of order . The narrower of the two edge zones is associated with
non-linear bending action and its width o
N
is of order . Stresses associated with this second narrower edge zone become relatively insignificant as k increases
for the shell with simply supported edge, but retain their significance for the shell with clamped edge.
For the spherical shell of radius R with uniformload distribution p, the parameters and k have the following form
The linear dimensions o, o
W
and o
N
associated with the respective edge zones of the spherical shell are given as follows
References
[1] Reissner, E., On axi-symmetrical deformations of thin shells of revolution, Proc. Symp. Appl. Math., Vol. 3, 1950, pp. 2752.
[2] Reissner, E., Symmetric bending of shallow shells of revolution, J. Math. Mech., Vol. 7, 1958, pp. 121140.
[3] Reissner, H., Spannungen in Kugelschalen (Kuppeln), Mller-Breslau Festschrift, Leipzig, 1912, pp. 181193.
[4] Bromberg, E., and Stoker, J. J., Non-linear theory of curved elastic sheets, Quart. Appl. Math., Vol. 3, 1945, pp. 246265.
Page275
On the Equations for Finite Symmetrical Deflections of Thin Shells of Revolution
[Progr. Appl. Mech.; Prager Anniv. Vol., pp. 171178, Macmillan Co. 1963]
Introduction
In this note we complement earlier work on the problemof finite symmetrical deformations of shells of revolution [1] in several ways. We first incorporate into it the
effect of transverse shear deformation by an appropriate generalization of our earlier formulas for components of strain. We then use the principle of virtual work to
show that these formulas are consistent with our earlier equilibriumequations, under the assumption of small strain which is made in our formulation. As a by-product,
we obtain a systemof equilibriumequations which remains applicable without the assumption of small strain. We next state a variational equation for our shell
problemwhich has stress displacement relations as well as equilibriumequations as Euler equations. Fromthis general variational equation we derive a mixed
variational equation in which there remain two independent variations, one of a stress function variable and the other of a displacement variable. We finally use this
mixed variational problemto effect a simplification of the two basic simultaneous differential equations which were established in [1].
Deformation and Strain
We designate the points of the shell before deformation by coordinates and ,, in accordance with Figure 1. We assume that the deformation of the shell is
characterized by middle surface displacement components u and w and by a shear strain component , again in accordance with Figure 1. We then read fromFigure
1 the following formulas for circumferential strain cu and meridional strain c,
where
and
Page276
Fig. 1.
Equation (1) reduces to
while (2) may be written as
Assuming normal and transverse shearing strain to be small compared to unity, we may linearize in terms of , as follows
Page277
A second relation involving follows fromthe identity
in the form
We use (9) to show that, except for terms of relative order 2, equation (7) may be replaced by
Using (10) we obtain that (9) may be replaced to the same degree of approximation by
We may use (10) and (11) to derive our earlier formula for cm in terms of u and u' for the case
m
=0 by eliminating w' between the two relations, and so obtain
We may also use (10) and (11) in conjunction with (5) to establish a compatibility equation of the form
When =0 this formula reduces to our earlier result given in [1].
A further consequence of (10) and (11) is the formula
which again generalizes an earlier result for the case =0.
It is easy to see that we may replace the factors cos u and sin u of cm in (13) and (14) by cos | and sin |, respectively, as long as cm is assumed to be small
compared to unity. In this way we have from(13) and (14)
and
We feel that it should be possible to modify the factors of
m
in (13) and (14) in the same manner as the factors of cm but do not have a similarly simple reasoning for
so doing.
Page278
Variational Derivation of Equilibrium Equations
We require that equilibriumequations and stress strain relations are Euler equations of the variational problem
where cm =cW/cN, etc., are the stress strain relations of the problem. We find, with
the following three Euler equilibriumequations
Equations (19) and (20) agree with the usual formof these equations, upon setting U
,w
=p
V
and U
,u
=p
H
. The moment equilibriumequation (21) reduces to the
usual formof this equation upon introducing the assumption that the effect of strain (but not necessarily of deformation) on the formof the equilibriumequations is to
be ignored.
Variational Derivation of Two Simultaneous Second-Order Differential Equations
We assume linear stress strain relations and an isotropic material such that
where v, B, C, and D may be functions of .
We express M and Mu in terms of u through the relations
and N, Nu, and Q in terms of a stress function +
H
and a load function +
V
which ensures satisfaction of the two force equilibriumequations, through the relations
We introduce (22) to (25) into (15), together with U =up
H
wp
V
, eliminate derivatives of u and w by integration by parts and arrive at the following variational
Page279
equation
In this u and +
H
are to be varied independently. The Euler differential equations of this variational problemare the two simultaneous differential equations for u and
+
H
which have been derived earlier [1], supplemented by the effect of the terms with B in (26) and of the term
m
NcmQ in the moment equation (21).
As these latter terms should not arise to the degree of approximation inherent in the present theory, we modify (26) to prevent their occurrence. The appropriate
modification consists in replacing in the terms with C and B in (26) the quantity u by |. The qualitative a posteriori justification for this step consists in the observation
that upon writing
the terms involving (cos u cos |)/C, etc., are small of the order of strains compared with the terms cos u cos | and sin u sin | inside the last bracket in (26).*
The variational equation oI =0, where
*Strictly speaking, this argument applies only to theterms with 1/C and not to theterms with 1/B. Wenevertheless treat theterms with 1/B in thesameway as theterms with 1/C, sinceour
incorporation of thetransverseshear effect is an approximateone. Wenotethat our analysis is readily extended to thecasewhere(22) contains mixed terms NM as well.
Page280
is associated with the following two Euler differential equations
Equation (28) is identical with a corresponding equation in [1]. Equation (29) differs froma corresponding equation in [1] by the inclusion of transverse shear strain
terms and by the fact that all terms with | in the coefficients of +
H
, +
V
, and p
H
previously were terms with u. Formally, this change fromu to | in (29) represents a
considerable simplification of the earlier result. In previous applications of the equation corresponding to (29) the possibility of this simplification had shown itself in
the course of the analysis of the differential equation.
Differential Equations for Plates
Setting r =, z =0 and | =0 we have from(28) and (29)
and
where again equation (31) is considerably simpler than a corresponding equation in [1].
Reference
[1] Reissner, E., "On Axisymmetrical Deformation of Thin Shells of Revolution," Proc. of Symposia in Appl. Math. 3, 2752 (1950).
Page281
Rotating Shallow Elastic Shells of Revolution*
[J. Soc. Indust. Appl. Math. 13, 333352, 1965]
Introduction
In what follows, we wish to show that the problemof the rotating thin elastic shell of revolution is intriguing in the following sense. It is possible to obtain a solution by
means of a linear theory which looks so reasonable that one expects the nonlinear effects to be of secondary nature. However, when one considers the problemon
the basis of a nonlinear theory, one finds that nonlinear effects are not at all of a secondary nature. Moreover, while a straightforward elementary analysis of the
principal aspects of the nonlinear problemis possible, a consideration of the finer structure of the problemleads to an interior-layer problemin which not only the
nature but also the location of the layer has to be determined in the course of the analysis.
For the sake of simplicity, our analysis is limited to the class of shells which are generally designated as shallow shells. Stresses and deformations in such shallow
shells are governed by differential equations which are similar to the differential equations for finite deflections of flat plates as first obtained by von Krmn.
Statement of the Problem
We consider a thin elastic shell of revolution with middle surface equation z =z(r) which rotates with angular velocity e about its axis. We designate radial, axial, and
angular displacements by u, w, and |, stress resultants and couples by N, Nu, Q, M, Mu, and load intensity components by p
r
and p
z
in accordance with Figure 1.
We assume that the shell is shallow in the sense that sin(| +|) ~| +|, where | =z' and | =w', primes indicating differentiation with respect to r.
The differential equations of the problemconsist of three equilibriumequations which may be written in the form
and of four stress-displacement relations which are taken as
and
*With F. Y. M. Wan.
Page282
Fig. 1.
A rotatingshell of revolution.
where
and
We will limit ourselves here to problems for which axial surface and edge loads are absent and for which the only radial loads are the inertia forces of the rotating shell
so that
where is the volume mass density and e is the constant angular velocity of the shell.
To reduce the problemfurther, we introduce a stress function , in terms of which
and we assume for the purpose of the present discussion that D and A are independent of r. We then obtain fromthe moment equation (1c) a differential equation for
| and of the form
A second equation for | and follows through the use of the compatibility equation c =(rcu)' +|| +1/2|2 which is implied by (3a, b) and the stress strain
relations (2a, b)
Page283
in the form
The nonlinear system(7) and (8) is to be solved in an interval r
i
s r s r
0
, where 0 s r
i
, subject to the boundary conditions of absent edge forces and moments
for r =r
i
, and r =r
0
. For the special case r
i
=0, we may alternately be interested in boundary conditions u =| =0 for r =0. The difference between the two sets of
conditions is the difference between the cap with or without a zero diameter hole at the apex.
When | =0, the system(7) and (8) reduces to a special case of the differential equations for finite bending of flat plates as first formulated by von Krmn. In what
follows, we are particularly interested in the problemof the conical shell for which | =constant, and in the problemof the toroidal cap for which | =(r a)/R.
Membrane Solutions
Experience with related problems of shell theory indicates that for sufficiently thin shells, the state of stress and deformation in the rotating cap or ring should be
effectively as if the shell had no bending stiffness; that is, the solutions of the complete problem(7) to (9) should be effectively the same as those for the special case
D =0. Setting D =0, one of the two second order equations, (7), reduces to a zeroth order equation
while the other, (8), remains as is. Concurrently, only one of the two sets of boundary conditions (9) remains, namely
as long as r
i
= 0. When r
i
=0, the first of these conditions is to be replaced by lim
r
0 r1 =0, or alternately by lim
r
0 (r'v) =0.
Linear Membrane Theory
Omitting the nonlinear termin the dependent variables | and in (10), we have
except where | =0, that is, except in regions where the shell is a flat plate, and where the linearized equation (10) supplies no information concerning . Evidently,
the solution (12) satisfies the boundary conditions (11).
Having (12), we find fromthe linearized formof (8) that
Page284
as long as |= 0. In view of (6), we have further that meridional and circumferential stress resultants are independent of | and are given by
In the region where | =0, we have from(8) that
so that
and
which is the well-known solution for the rotating uniformdisk.
The above analysis suggests in particular the consideration of a problemwhere a flat disk, say for 0 s r s r
t
, is joined to a shell for which |= 0, say for r
t
s r s r
0
,
with the constants of integration c
1
and c
2
to be determined fromone condition for r =0 and fromappropriate transition conditions for r =r
t
. Evidently, there will be
two such transition conditions, one expressing the fact that N must be continuous at r =r
t
and the other that cu must be continuous. As it is not in general possible to
satisfy all three conditions by means of the two constants c
1
and c
2
it follows that the problemof the shell with discontinuous meridional slope does not in general have
a solution within the framework of linear membrane theory.
Before discussing the nonlinear membrane problem, we note the radically different stress distributions as given by the linear membrane solution (14), and by (17) for
the corresponding problemof the flat disk with the boundary condition (r
0
) =0 and with
in particular, when r
i
0. Case (i) of the disk without hole at the apex gives
while case (ii) for the disk with a hole of radius r
i
gives
The distributions of stress in accordance with (14), (19) and (20) are illustrated in Figure 2.
The following question now suggests itself in connection with these results. Given a rotating shallow cap, for which the rotating disk is a limiting case, what
Page285
Fig. 2.
Stresses in rotatingshallow shells accordingto linear membrane
theory compared with thecorrespondingstresses in rotatingdisks
(a) continuous at center, (b) with small circular holeat center.
significance, if any, is associated with the membrane stress distribution as given by (14)?
Nonlinear Membrane Theory
We now consider that (10) may be solved in two different ways:
When =0, we find from(8) and with |
LM
defined by (13), that |2 +2||2||
LM
=0, so that
The plus sign in front of the square root is chosen as we expect that for sufficiently small e, |
NLM
should be nearly the same as |
LM
.
From(22), we find that real values of |
NLM
are obtained only as long as
or, in view of (13), as long as
Equation (24) shows in particular that, for the toroidal cap with | =(r a)/R, there is no real solution of the equations of nonlinear membrane theory with =0 in a
Page286
finite neighborhood of r =a. This is a qualitative distinction fromthe corresponding result of linear membrane theory where there is such a solution.
Equation (24) shows further that for any rotating shallow shell of revolution there is a critical angular velocity e
er
above which the solution (21a) and (22) ceases to
be possible throughout. This critical value of e is given by
The condition (25) may alternately be expressed as a condition of a maximumpossible hoop strain cu in conjunction with the solution =0. Since when =0, cu =
ANu =e2r2/E, we have from(24) that
and, in particular, for a conical shell that (cu)
max
=|2/(6 +2v).
An additional observation of interest is that when |
LM
=1/2|, which is the condition of criticality, we have |
NLM
=|, so that use of the linear theory for this case
results in a one hundred per cent underestimation of the value of |.
We now consider the alternate solution | =| of (10). Introduction of this result into (8) leaves as differential equation for ,
The difference in signs of the two terms of the right side of (27) indicates that the deflection of the given surface in space into the base plane is associated with
compressive circumferential strains while the effect of the rotational motion is to set up tensile circumferential strains.
The solution of (27) may be written in the form
In summary, the differential equations of the nonlinear membrane theory of the rotating shell have the two classes of solutions
and
with meridional and circumferential stress resultants given by
Page287
for the first class of solutions, and
for the second class of solutions.
It remains to determine for any given problemin which range of values of r either the one or the other solution applies.
Conical Shells
For the class of shells for which | is constant, the solution (29) is surely inapplicable for r > r
c
, where
and therefore if the problemhas a solution for r
c
<r it must be given by (30). Evidently, it is possible that the correct solution is given by (30) for values of r which
are less than r
c
, say for r
t
<r, where r
t
s r
c
. If r
i
<r
t
then a transition will occur at r =r
t
, the solution (29) being valid for r <r
t
and the solution (30) being valid for r
t
<r. Setting | constant, we have as expressions for N and Nu in the region r
t
<r:
while for r <r
t
, N and Nu remain given by (31).
In the region where (34) is valid the slope function | is equal to |, expressing the fact that the portion r
t
<r of the shell is deformed into a flat disk. In the
complementary region r <r
t
, we have from(29) and with the definition (33) for r
c
,
This means that at the junction r =r
t
, we have a discontinuity in | of the amount
For the formulation of a systemof boundary and transition conditions we begin by assuming that r
c
<r
0
; we have then from(34a), as boundary condition for r =r
0
,
Page288
As N =0 for r <r
t
, in accordance with (31a), we have fromequilibriumconsiderations that N as given by (34a) must also vanish for r =r
t
, so that
It remains to establish a third condition for the determination of the three quantities c
1
, c
2
, and r
t
. This third condition follows fromthe observation that the
circumferential strain cu must be continuous at r =r
t
. In view of the fact that N =0 for r =r
t
, this means that Nu must be continuous for r =r
t
. From(31) and (34b)
there follows then the further relation
We may use (37a) and (37b) to express c
1
and c
2
in terms of r
t
and in terms of the parameter E|2/e2, which according to (33) may also be written as .
In this way we obtain from(37a) and (37b),
Introduction of (38) into the remaining condition (37c) leads to the equation
fromwhich r
t
/r
0
is to be determined as a function of r
c
/r
0
, or equivalently r
c
/r
0
as a function of r
t
/r
0
, as shown in Figure 3. We see that, indeed, r
t
/r
0
is smaller than
r
c
/r
0
for all 0 <r
c
/r
0
<1.
With r
t
/r
0
as a function of r
c
/r
0
in accordance with (39) and with c
1
and c
2
from(38), we obtain the following explicit expressions for N and Nu in the region r
t
s r.
Equations (40) are supplemented in the region r <r
t
by N and Nu distributions in accordance with (31).
Considering the fact that when r
c
=r
0
we also have r
t
=r
0
, we conclude, by means of a continuity argument, that when r
c
>r
0
the solution everywhere in the
membrane is given by (29) and (31); that is, the stress distribution as given by nonlinear membrane theory is the same as that given by linear membrane theory.
We have then that, for a given conical membrane, stresses and deformations according to nonlinear membrane theory are similar to those of linear membrane theory
as long as the rotational speed e is less than e
er
. When e is larger than e
er
then the nonlinear membrane solution differs in an essential way fromthe solution by
means of linear membrane theory. A flattened-out portion of the membrane
Page289
Fig. 3.
Thecritical and transition radii for aconical ringmembrane.
appears, for r
t
s r, with a discontinuity of the angular displacement | at r =r
t
. As e increases, r
t
decreases. When r
t
=r
i
then the membrane is completely flattened
out. It persists in this flattened-out state for still further increases of e. As e increases towards infinity, the state of stress in the originally conical membrane
approaches the state of stress in a flat disc rotating with the same angular velocity.
In order to see the nature of these results, we have in Figure 4 shown the distributions of ou =Nu/h and o =N/h for various values of r
c
/r
0
for the case of a shell with
r
i
/r
0
=0.2. We note that the result of linear membrane theory is the same for all values of r
c
/r
0
, and that it coincides with the results of nonlinear membrane theory for
r
c
/r
0
> 1. We note in particular that an analysis of the problemby means of the linear membrane theory in general leads to much higher stresses than the corresponding
analysis of the problemby means of nonlinear membrane theory. Figure 5 presents values of oumax and o
max
according to nonlinear membrane theory.
Toroidal Cap
We consider next the class of shells for which
For this problem, it is clear that the solution (29) is inapplicable in a neighborhood of r =a, no matter how small e is. In order to delineate the region of inapplicability
Page290
Fig. 4.
Stress distributions in ashallow conical ringshell for different rotating
speeds accordingto nonlinear membranetheory.
of (29), we first determine for fixed e the range of values of r for which (29) is surely not usable. The endpoints r
ci
and r
c0
of the interval in question are given by
Combining (41) and (42), we find
where
Having established that (29) cannot be applicable for r
ci
s r s r
co
, we anticipate the possibility that the alternate solution (30) must be used in an interval r
ti
s r s r
t0
,
where r
ti
s r
ci
and r
c0
s r
t0
, with transition to the solution (29) occurring at r =r
ti
and r =r
t0
. Without determining the values of r
ti
and r
t0
, we can state that as the
Page291
Fig. 5.
Maximumdirect stresses for ashallow conical membrane.
angular velocity e increases, we will encounter two different situations as follows. For sufficiently small values of e, r
ci
as well as r
c0
will be inside the interval (r
i
, r
0
).
With increasing values of e either one or both of these will be outside (r
i
, r
0
). When both values are outside, the rotating toroidal cap will be completely flattened out.
As the angular velocity increases further and further, the stress distribution will approach more and more the distribution for a rotating disk. Unlike the conical
membrane, the toroidal cap membrane begins to flatten out in the neighborhood of the crown rather than of its outer edge, and does so for arbitrarily small values of
e.
Introducing | from(41) into (32a,b) we have the following expressions for N and Nu in the region r
ti
<r <r
t0
.
while for r
i
<r <r
ti
and r
t0
<r <r
0
, N and Nu remain given by (31).
As N =0 for r <r
ti
and r >r
t0
N as given by (44a) must also vanish at r =r
ti
and r =r
t0
, so that
Page292
The remaining two conditions needed to determine the four quantities c
1
, c
2
, r
ti
, and r
t0
again come fromthe continuity of the hoop stress resultant Nu at r
ti
and r
t0
.
From(31) and (44b) we have
We use (45a) and (45b) to express c
1
and c
2
in terms of r
ti
and r
t0
and in terms of the parameter k2 defined by (43c) as follows:
Introduction of (46a, b) into (45c, d) leads to two transcendental equations of the form
and
for r
t0
/a and for
The solution of (46c, d) leads to values of r
t0
/a and r
ti
/a as functions of the load parameter k which is defined by (43c). This solution is obtained by first using (46c)
to eliminate r
t0
/a from(46d). The resulting equation is then solved to give as a function of k2. Having this, we next use (46c) to obtain r
t0
/a as function of k2. After
that, (46e) is used to obtain r
ti
/a. Values of r
t0
/a, r
ti
/a together with values r
c0
/a and r
ci
/a as given by (43a,b) are shown in Figure 6, which also includes an alternate
definition of k. We note that r
c0
<r
t0
and r
ti
<r
ci
for all k2 >0; that is, the flattened-out portion emanating fromthe crown of the toroidal cap is indeed wider than is
required by the criticality condition (42).
We may introduce (46a, b) into (44a, b) to get explicit expressions for N and Nu with r
t0
and r
ti
given by Figure 6. The corresponding distributions of o and ou for
various values of k2 and for a shell with r
i
/a =0.5 and r
0
/a =1.5 are shown in Figure 7. Figure 8 shows how the maximumstresses vary as functions of k2. It is
interesting to note that while nonlinear membrane theory must be used for all e2 >0 in order to obtain real |, linear membrane theory (with nonexistent real |) gives
the correct maximumhoop stress for sufficiently small values of k2, say k2 less than 0.05.
Page293
Fig. 6.
Thecritical and transition radii for atoroidal cap membrane.
Interior Layer Analysis
Nonlinear membrane analysis, which is based on setting D =0 in the differential equation (7) and in the boundary condition (9b), has been shown to lead to a solution
of the problemfor which | may be discontinuous for one or more values r
t
of r. No such discontinuities can occur when D does not vanish. This suggests that for
sufficiently small values of D, the smoothing out of the discontinuities for D =0 may be confined to relatively narrow layers surrounding r =r
t
. In the following we
determine the circumstances under which this narrow layer will exist and the order of magnitude of the bending stresses in it when it does exist.
We begin by nondimensionalizing the differential equations of the problemby setting
We have then from(7) and (8):
Page294
Fig. 7.
Stress distributions in ashallow toroidal cap for different rotatingspeeds
accordingto nonlinear membranetheory.
where
and primes now indicate differentiation with respect to x.
The following qualitative conclusions appear from(48) and (49):
(1) When 4 <<1, membrane theory should in general be adequate. If, in addition, k <<1, then linear membrane theory should in general be adequate.
(2) When 4 =O(1), the combined effect of nonlinear membrane and linear bending action in the shell must be considered. When k <<1, linear bending theory
should be adequate.
(3) When 4 >>1, we have from(48) that effectively ] =0 and (49) becomes the equation of the rotating disk for all values of the load parameter k.
Knowing that nonlinear membrane theory may lead to a discontinuity in ] at
t
, we now consider the case 4 <<1 in relation to this result. To determine the effect of
bending stiffness near r =r
t
, we set
Page295
Fig. 8.
Maximumdirect stresses for ashallow toroidal membrane.
where and
t
are yet to be chosen. We require that differentiations with respect to y do not change the order of magnitude of ] and g, and we anticipate that will
turn out to be small compared to unity. We may then write (7) and (8) approximately in the form
where now primes indicate differentiation with respect to y.
We require that ] and g approach the appropriate nonlinear solution as y goes fromzero to values of order of magnitude unity, that is, as y tends to . In order to
have a truly fourth order problemwith the assumed order of magnitude relation concerning differentiation with respect to y, we set
Fromthis,
Page296
Since r
t
and |
t
are of the same order of magnitude as r
0
and |
0
respectively, we have =O() <<1 as anticipated. The differential equations for ] and g now
become
with k
t
defined by
We know fromthe earlier nonlinear membrane consideration (see (24)) that k
t
is at most unity. In fact, for a conical shell,
Equations (57) and (58) are supplemented by the limiting conditions
Together they forma boundary value problemfor a layer of shell in the neighborhood of r =r
t
.
Even without the explicit solution to this boundary value problem, we can readily obtain the order of magnitude of the stresses near r
c
/r
t
. Introducing (51a, b), (52a,
b) and (55) into (6a, b) and (2c) we find
Equations (62) show that in the region where bending action is of importance, the bending stress is of a smaller order of magnitude than the maximumdirect stresses if
<<k
t
.
Concluding Remarks
In addition to considering the problems of the conical ring membrane and the toroidal cap membrane as reported here, we have also considered a number of other
cases. These are
(i) a spherical cap, for which | =r/R,
(ii) a shell the meridian of which is a quartic parabola, so that ,
(iii) a shell for which |/|
0
=r
0
/r.
The spherical cap is of particular interest insofar as the criticality condition (25) applies to the entire membrane at once, |/r being constant. Accordingly, when e <
e
er
, we have the possibility of two distinct solutions over the entire membrane, while for e
er
<e only the completely flattened-out state is possible. The question
remains as to which of the two possible solutions for e <e
er
is the appropriate one for all or part of the spherical cap. We think that the unflattened state is the
Page297
physically correct state as it goes continuously over into the flattened-out state as e goes beyond e
er
.
For the case we find, in contrast to what happens for the conical ring and the toroidal cap, that the discontinuity moves outward fromthe apex r =0 as
the rotational speed increases. Moreover, the flat region of the deformed shell is now r s r
t
rather than r > r
t
as in the case of the conical ring, or r
ti
s r s r
t0
as in the
case of the toroidal cap.
The problemof the shell with |/|
0
=r
0
/r attracted our attention originally because the equations of the linear bending theory could be solved in terms of elementary
functions. We have obtained numerical data for both the nonlinear membrane problemand the linear bending problemfor this shell. It turns out that the nonlinear
membrane behavior is similar to that of the conical shell while the results for the linear bending problem, though explicit, do not seemto be of sufficient interest to
warrant including themin this account.
Our analysis of the nonlinear bending problemhas been limited to one interesting aspect of it, the formulation of an interior-layer analysis together with results
concerning various orders of magnitude involved in this analysis. We have also undertaken a narrow-layer analysis of the flattening out phenomenon at the apex of the
toroidal cap shell, which is not included in this account.
While asymptotic considerations such as these are of intrinsic interest, it should however be mentioned that insofar as the symmetric problemof the rotating shell of
revolution is concerned, it is possible today to obtain quantitative data by purely numerical methods.
Added in Proof
Subsequent to the presentation of this paper, the authors became aware of a report by W. Flgge and P. M. Riplog entitled A large-deformation theory of shell
membranes, designated as Technical Report No. 102 of the Engineering Mechanics Division of Stanford University and dated September, 1956. The contents of
this report anticipate the contents of our work insofar as the formulation of transition conditions for the nonlinear membrane solutions is concerned, and insofar as a
rotating conical membrane is considered. The work of Flgge and Riplog assumes general shells of revolution rather than shallow shells of revolution. The limitation to
shallow shells means that we can explicitly evaluate the transition conditions of nonlinear membrane theory whereas without this limitation the evaluation is tied in with
a proposed numerical solution of the differential equations of the problem.
Page298
A Note on Stress Strain Relations of the Linear Theory of Shells*
[J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 17, 676681, 1966]
In a recent paper [1]we have shown, among other things, that the lines-of-curvature stress strain relations of Flgge, Lurje, and Byrne,
etc., where
could, in inverted form, be written as a systemof relations
where the c
jk
and k
jk
, in addition to the usual translational displacement components, involved an angular displacement component e, such that , ,
while
The inversion of part (1) of the FLB systemis straightforward and does not lead to unexpected results. The inversion of part (2) of the systemis not straightforward
to the same degree and leads to results of a formsomewhat simpler than expected, namely
where A
2
=1 +(h)2/24.
*With F. Y. M. Wan.
Page299
In the present note, we show that a corresponding inversion, with somewhat less simple final results, is possible for a systemof stress strain relations which has been
proposed as one combining simplicity and adequacy [2]. This systemfollows upon omitting terms with in (1) and upon writing in (2)
with corresponding modifications of and . By this, Equations (2) are changed to
N
21
being given analogously. Equation (9) and the corresponding equation for N
21
may alternately be written as
We note particularly, that now M
12
=M
21
, while N
12
and N
21
as given in (9') are consistent with the moment equilibriumequation
While it is possible to simply state the final results of our inversion procedure and then verify their correctness, it is of interest here to give the steps leading to these
results. We first solve (8) and (9) in the form
where O and A are arbitrary functions. We then use the compatability relation
to express A in terms of O,
Page300
With this, we write
We now see that it is consistent to identify O with the angular displacement component e in (4) and write, in place of (14) and the first part of (11)
The system(15) and (16) is not yet in such a formthat we can write it in terms of a strain energy function W, as in (3). The appropriate modification consists in
making use of the symmetry relation M
12
=M
21
in order to write c
12
and c
21
as
In this and in (16) the relation M
12
=M
21
is now to be considered not as an identity but as a consequence of the finite compatibility Equation (12).
With (16), (17) and the inverted formof the abbreviated version of Equations (1), we now have for the function W in (3)
The step fromlines of curvature coordinates to general orthogonal coordinates may be carried out in analogy to what has been done in [1] for the relations of Flgge,
Lurje, and Byrne. Using the invariance relations for the states N
jk
and M
jk
, together with the further invariant
we obtain
Page301
Fromthis follows as stress strain relations which generalize (16) and (17) to general orthogonal coordinates
where the quantities c
jk
and k
jk
are, as in [3],
with |
1
+w
,1
/o
1
u
1
/R
11
u
2
/R
12
=0, and |
2
defined analogously. Since M
12
M
21
is an invariant, the symmetry condition M
12
=M
21
continues to hold for general
orthogonal coordinates and the terms involving (M
12
M
21
) may again be omitted in the expressions for c
jk
.
The following further consideration may also be of some interest. Returning again to lines of curvature coordinates and to the stress strain relations (8) and (9) written
in the form
we note that we may write these relations together with the relations N
11
=C(c
11
+vc
22
), M
11
=D(k
11
+vk
22
), etc., in the form
Page302
provided we first observe that we may replace (22) by
in view of the fact that (18) implies c
12
c
21
=0. With this, we have for lines of curvature coordinates
In the resulting stress strain relations , c
12
=c
21
is to be considered as a consequence of the moment equilibrium Equation (10).
The corresponding function U for general orthogonal coordinates follows fromthe invariants for the c
jk
and k
jk
together with the supplementary invariant
as
Introduction of this formof U into (24) gives as stress strain relations which generalize (23) and (22') to the case of arbitrary orthogonal coordinates
Page303
while the remaining relations come out to be
with analogous expressions for N
22
and M
22
.
Equations (27) to (30) can be shown to coincide with the relations stated by Koiter [2] upon setting and upon observing that our k
12
+k
21
, c
12
+
c
21
, e, M
12
=M
21
, and 1/2(N
12
+N
21
) correspond to Koiter's t, , O, W, and S, respectively. A point of interest in this derivation of a systemof relations
analogous to Koiter's is that in the present formulation N
12
and N
21
come out as two separate quantities directly, instead of getting the sumN
12
+N
21
froma stress
strain relation, to be combined subsequently with the moment equilibriumequation giving N
12
N
21
.
References
[1] E. Reissner and F. Y. M. Wan, On Stress Strain Relations and Strain Displacement Relations of the Linear Theory of Shells, The Folke Odquist Volume,
pp. 487500, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1967.
[2] W. T. Koiter, A Consistent First Approximation in the General Theory of Thin Elastic Shells, Proc. of IUTAM Symposiumon the Theory of Thin Elastic
Shells, pp. 1233, Delft 1960.
[3] E. Reissner, Variational Considerations for Elastic Beams and Shells, Proc. of ASCE, J. Eng. Mech. Div. 88, 2357 (1962).
Page304
Small Strain Large Deformation Shell Theory
[Proc. 9th Midwestern Mech. Conference, pp. 5558, 1965]
In speaking of small strain large deformation shell theory, we mean a theory in which the equilibriumequations are affected by the state of deformation but not by the
state of strain, while the stress strain relations involve the states of stress and strain without reference to the state of deformation.
We consider here a relatively elementary self-contained vectorial approach to the problemof deriving small strain large deformation shell theory, omitting references
to earlier more general formulations of this problem. We conclude our discussion with some results for shells of revolution which, as far as we know, have not been
given previously.
Let r =r(, q) be the equation of the middle surface of the shell before deformation, and , q lines of curvature coordinates. Due to deformation r changes into . In
terms of and r and their derivatives with respect to and q we have as middle surface normal and shearing strains (Fig. 1).
which, for small strains is equivalent to
where o =|r'|, , with a corresponding definition for cq.
We next define the corresponding components of strain E, Eq and I for surfaces which before deformation are at a distance , fromthe middle surface. We write R
=r +,n where and we introduce the hypothesis of negligible transverse shear and normal strains by postulating that the change of R due to
deformation results in a vector P = +,v where v is a normal vector to the deformed middle surface given by
It is readily seen that v differs froma unit vector by additive terms of order c.
We now have, in analogy to Equ. (1')
Page305
Fig. 1.
With |R'| =o(1 ,/R), P' =' +,v' and
where
there follows fromEq. (3), except for terms which are small of higher order
where
Equations (6) for the relevant components of strain as a function of the thickness coordinate , imply shell stress strain relations involving stress resultants and couples
which are the same as for linear shell theory. In writing these stress strain relations, we make use of the fact that the , q-coordinates on the deformed middle surface
areexcept for terms of the relative order corthogonal coordinates. This means, for example, that a suitable systemof stress strain relations for an isotropic
Page306
homogeneous shell is of the form
where C =Eh and D =Eh3/12(1 v2).
In writing equilibriumequations for stress resultants and couples, we may use, as we here disregard the effect of strain, the well known formof these equations for
general orthogonal coordinates on the middle surface of the shell, with curvature radii P, Pqq and Pq. It is the appearance of P, Pqq, Pq, instead of principal
curvature radii R, Rq for the undeformed middle surface, which represents the effect of deformation on the formof the equilibriumdifferential equations.
In vector form, with resultant vectors N and couple vectors M, these equilibriumequations are
where
with corresponding definitions for Nq and Mq.
In reducing Eqs. (10) and (11) to scalar formfor ', and v-components, we need in addition to the differentiation formula (4) for v the associated formulas
with an analogous relation for .
Of the six scalar equilibriumequations, the one which represents moment equilibriumabout the normal to the deformed middle surface, together with the seven stress
strain relations (8) and (9), expresses the eight stress resultants and couples N, M, Nq, Mq, Nq, Mq, Nq, Mq in terms of derivatives of the radius vector . The
remaining five equilibriumequations then are a systemof five equations for the two transverse shear stress resultants Q, Qq and for three scalar components of ,
which through elimination of Q and Qq are readily reduced to a systemof three equations for the three components of .
In deriving a small strain large deformation theory, we have made use of the small strain property of the theory in two distinct instances. One of these has to do with
the equilibriumequations and the other with what we may call the strain displacement equationsupon writing =r +u in Eq. (6). If we had been completely
consistent in our procedure, we should now be able to ascertain the consistency of the equilibriumequations and of the strain displacement equations
Page307
via an appropriate variational principle. In attempting to do this, one finds that the approximate theory as formulated is approximately consistent rather than exactly so.
For an exact consistency, we should have to modify the formof the equilibriumequations, in a manner which is not difficult to establish, or we should have to modify
the formof the strain displacement equations, in a manner which seems less easy to establish. We will not concern ourselves here with this question.
We conclude our account with some remarks on the subject of displacement representations. In a general theory it seems easiest to represent the displacement vector
in terms of components referred to in the geometry of the undeformed shell, i.e.,
For more special theories, such as the theory of shells of revolution, including the still more special case of the circular plate, an alternate representation seems to be
as good or better. We may write for a shell of revolution
and
where u, w and u are functions of and q.
We have some years earlier considered the problemof a large deformation small strain theory of shells of revolution for the special case of axisymmetrical
deformations given when u(, q) =U(), w(, q) =W() and u(, q) =q. It may be shown that, as they should be, the present formulas are consistent with those
in our earlier work.
A somewhat more general class of states of displacementnon-rotationally symmetricleading to a rotationally symmetric state of strain in shells of revolution may be
shown to be of the form
where c
1
and c
2
are arbitrary constants. Equations (19) may be taken as the starting point of a large deformation theory of the two dislocation theory problems of
pure bending and pure twisting of shells of revolution, which problems we have, some time ago, considered within the framework of the linear theory of shells, and
within the framework of the nonlinear theory of circular plates.
References
1. J. L. Sanders, Nonlinear theories for thin shells, Q. Appl. Math., 21, 2136, 1963.
2. P. M. Naghdi and R. P. Nordgren, On the nonlinear theory of elastic shells under the Kirchhoff hypothesis, Q. Appl. Math., 21, 4959, 1963.
3. E. Reissner, On axi-symmetrical deformations of thin shells of revolution, Proc. Sym. Appl. Math., 3, 2752, 1950.
4. , On bending of curved thin-walled tubes, Proc. Nat. Ac. Sci., 35, 204208, 1949.
5. , Note on the problemof twisting of a circular ring sector, Q. Appl. Math., 7, 342347, 1949.
6. , On finite twisting and bending of circular ring sector plates and shallow helicoidal shells, Q. Appl. Math., 11, 473483, 1954.
Page308
Finite Inextensional Pure Bending and Twisting of Thin Shells of Revolution
[Qu. J. Mech. Appl. Math. 21, 293306, 1968]
1
Introduction
We are concerned in what follows with the solution of a class of problems involving large deformations of thin elastic shells. We consider sectors of shells of
revolution, the sector of opening angle 2t corresponding to a complete shell of revolution with radial slit. The radial edges of the sector shell are taken to be acted
upon by tractions of such nature as to be equivalent to axial moments and axial forces (Figure 1). Special cases of this class of problems have previously been treated
within the framework of the linear theory of thin shells of revolution. Specifically, the linear probleminvolving axial moments has been shown to include a shell-
theoretical formulation of von Krmn's problemof pure bending of curved tubes [5], and the linear probleminvolving axial forces (the problemof pure twisting) has
been shown, for closed cross section tubes, to be a membrane-theoretical generalization of the Batho-Bredt problemof torsion of thin-walled closed-cross-section
cylindrical tubes [6].
Fig. 1.
Purebendingand twistingof ringsector
shell of revolution (shown for thecaseof
aconical shell of constant wall thickness).
Page309
The present non-linear treatment of the problemof the combined effects of axial moments and forces is based on a recent result concerning states of rotationally
symmetric strain in shells of revolution, which are associated with states of displacement without rotational symmetry [8, 9]. We do not attempt here to make use of
this result in the most comprehensive way possible. Rather we limit ourselves to an application of the result subject to the restrictive assumption of inextensional
(bending) deformations in the (incomplete) shell of revolution. As to the significance of the results, which are based on the assumption of inextensibility of the middle
surface of the shell, it may be considered intuitively evident that the results will be significant for open-cross-section shells, such as conical shells. However, the
example of the flat circular-ring plate shows that care has to be taken not to apply the results based on the assumption of inextensibility beyond their range of physical
significance. While for the ring plate the solution of the axial force problemis of an inextensional character [7], the solution of the axial moment problemassuredly is
not, in an elementary sense, although there, too, conclusions of great interest follow through use of the concept of inextensibility, as shown by Ashwell [2].
As for the problems of bending of rectangular and rhombic strips [1, 3, 4], the exact solution of the finite deformation probleminvolves besides an inextensional
bending state, a superposed more general edge zone state. This problem, which has recently been investigated for the case of pure bending of the ring shell [9], will
not be considered here beyond the observations that determination of the superposed edge zone state leaves, in essence, a linear problem, and that for sufficiently
large deformations the non-linear inextensional-bending solution by itself provides the major portion of the results which are of physical interest.
Additional physical interest in the solution which is obtained in what follows may be ascribed to the fact that this solution can be considered, within the framework of a
theory of elastic dislocations, to represent the state of stress and strain for non-linear combinations of ''edge" and "screw" dislocations, for the class of bodies which
may be treated as thin shells of revolution.
2
Description of Large-Deformation States of Small Strain
In accordance with a recent elementary presentation of the subject [8] let r =r(, q) be the equation of the middle surface of the shell before deformation and , q
lines-of-curvature coordinates. Let =(, q) be the corresponding equation of the deformed middle surface (Figure 2). Components of normal and shearing strain
in the middle surface of the deformed shell are taken in the form
with a corresponding expression for cq. Components of middle surface curvature changes are taken in the form
Page310
Fig. 2.
Shell surfacecoordinates for deformed and undeformed shell
element.
with a corresponding expression for kq. In this n and v are normal vectors to the undeformed and deformed middle surface, respectively, defined by
3
Rotationally Symmetric Strain in Shells of Revolution
The radius vector r to points on the undeformed middle surface is taken in the form
where r =r(), z =z() are parametric equations of the meridians of the surface and q is the longitudinal angle measured in the base plane of the shell (Figure 3). We
further write
where
and, in accordance with (3),
In analogy to equation (4) the radius vector to points on the deformed middle surface of the shell is taken in the form
It has previously been shown [8, 9] that the state of strain associated with the radius vectors r and is rotationally symmetric for the following class of functions , ,,
u:
Page311
Fig. 3.
Position variables for deformed and undeformed shell of
revolution element.
In this c
z
and cq are arbitrary constants. It is their presence which generalizes the known theory of a symmetric bending and torsion of shells of revolution so as to
include the problems of pure bending and twisting of sectorial shells.
Introduction of equations (9) into equations (1) gives as expressions for the components of rotationally symmetric mid-surface strain
In (10) and (12) it will be convenient to introduce, in analogy to the tangent angle | to the meridian curves on the undeformed middle surface, the tangent angle u to
the meridian curves on the deformed middle surface, by means of the relation
Corresponding somewhat more lengthy expressions follow from(2) and (3) for components of curvature change. These are not listed here as they are not needed in
their generality for the purpose of the present analysis.
4
Inextensional Deformations
States of inextensional deformation are defined by the relations
Page312
Introduction of equations (14) into equations (10) to (13) leads to the following representation of the possible states of inextensional deformation
The special case c
z
=0 of equations (15) and (17) has been stated previously [9]. When both c
z
and cq are zero then equations (15) to (17) reduce to the statement
=r, O' =0, u =| which implies that the only inextensional deformations for this case consist of axial rigid body translation and rotation.
5
Inextensional Curvature Changes
We will calculate t and kq directly in accordance with equation (2) and then use Gauss's "theoremegregium," which for inextensional deformations of surfaces of
revolution is of the form
with
in order to obtain k.
Equations (8) and (9) give
and, in accordance with (3),
Fromthis follows
Introduction of the inextensibility conditions (16) and (15) into (23) reduces (23) to
Page313
Introduction of (15) to (17) into (24) reduces this equation after various transformations to the remarkably simple form
Having Pqq and Pq we find from(18),
and then, in accordance with (2),
In this the factor ' tan u follows explicitly fromequations (15) and (17).
6
Moments and Strain Energy
It will be assumed that the shell is orthotropic in such a way that bending and twisting couples M, Mq and T are given in terms of the curvature changes k, kq and t
as follows:
We may account for meridional thickness and material property changes by considering D, Dq, D and Dq =Dq to be functions of .
The stress-strain relations (30) are associated with a strain energy function U of the form
there being no mid-surface strain contribution to U in view of the assumed mid-surface inextensibility.
7
Load-Deflection Relations
Considering the force F and the moment M of the tractions applied to sections q =constant of the shell as prescribed, we may establish the relations between them
and the associated displacement measures c
z
and cq through use of the condition of minimumpotential energy.
The potential energy H of the shell, per unit of circumferential angle q, is given by
Page314
The condition of minimumpotential energy evidently reduces to the two derivative relations cH/cc
z
=cH/ccq =0. Accordingly, we have
as load-deflection relations, with U given in terms of c
z
and cq through equations (31), (28) and (29).
8
Determination of Stress Resultants
Because of the assumption of mid-surface inextensibility the normal stress resultants N and Nq and the shear stress resultants Nq and Nq take on the character of
reactive quantities which must be taken fromthe equations of equilibriumrather than fromstress-strain relations. The expressions for N, Nq, Nq, Nq which are
obtained in this way will not, in general, be such as to allow satisfaction of the conditions of no stress along edges =constant of the shell. It may be expected that in
order to satisfy these conditions the state of inextensional bending as determined above must be perturbed, effectively within narrow edge zones only, by a more
general state of bending and stretching. It may further be expected that the analysis of these narrow edge zone states is associated with a linear systemof perturbation
equations, as has previously been shown to be the case for the problemof pure bending of the shell [9], and for analogous problems of flat plates [1, 3, 4], in the
latter cases subject to the provision of sufficiently large deformations.
9
Pure Bending and Twisting of Conical Shells
A relatively simple application of the general results for inextensional pure bending and twisting of shells of revolution is to the problemof the conical shell. Setting
we have from(15) and (17)
and therewith
Introduction of (37) into (29) and (28) gives as expressions for curvature changes
Page315
and
while t remains as in (29).
With this the strain energy function U may be written as
Three relatively simple special cases will be discussed further.
10
Pure Bending (without Twisting)
It is indicated by the symmetry of the problemthat states of deformation are possible for which simultaneously c
z
=0 and F =0. Setting c
z
=0 reduces U in equation
(40) to a quantity which may be designated by U
0
and which is given by
Fromthis and (33) follows as load-deflection relation
and, upon developing in powers of ,
When Dq =constant the load-deflection relation (42) reduces to a previously given result [9].
For the special case of a circular cylindrical shell equation (42), upon setting sin | =1 and r =a, reduces to the relation
which, in contrast to what happens when sin |= 1, is linear for all values of cq.
In comparing (44) and (43) it is observed that the bending stiffness of the conical shell for sufficiently small cq is of the same order of magnitude as the corresponding
Page316
stiffness of the circular cylindrical shell, the difference between the two corresponding quantities being caused by a factor 1/sin2|. This is in marked contrast with the
elementary result for the limiting case r of a straight strip which deforms extensionally.
We further discuss the case of a uniform conical shell. Setting Dq =constant, we write first
Setting
and
we have from(45)
In introducing an extra factor sin2| on both sides of (48), we have that the right-hand side of the equation becomes independent of |, for sufficiently small values of
|cq|. Figure 4 shows the dependence of Ma sin3|/Dqb on cq for several values of |. It is seen that, except when | =1/2t, a closing of the gap is associated with a
reduction in stiffness and an opening of the gap is associated with an increase in stiffness as measured by the function dM/dcq.
As an additional result of interest we determine the distribution of the circumferential bending moment Mq in the form
An alternative formof Mq is
where, in accordance with (17),
The special case | =0 of the result expressed by (50) and (51) has previously been established by Ashwell [2] through application of the von Krmn equations for
finite deflections of flat plates.* However, in extending the application of the concept of inextensional deformation to the case | =0, consideration must be given to
the fact that for very small cq the plate will surely not behave in accordance with inextensional bending theory but rather in accordance with the theory of plane stress,
with a bifurcation phenomenon occurring for some critical value of cq.
*It is remarkablethat in this way thecorrect result was found for arbitrarily largevalues of u, although thevalidity of thevon Krmn equations is limited to therangetan2u <<1.
Page317
Fig. 4.
Load-deflection relations for purebendingof conical ringsector shells of
constant thickness.
11
Pure Twisting, Linear Case
Setting cq =0 and disregarding higher than second degree terms in c
z
in equation (40), we obtain from(40) and (33) the force-deflection relation
The associated distribution of twisting couples over the cross-section of the shell in accordance with equations (29) and (30) is
while, with k =kq =0, there are no associated bending couples.
It is apparent fromequations (52) and (53) that the solution of the linear pure twisting problemfor the conical shell is the same as the corresponding previously
established result [7] for the case of the flat plate.
Page318
12
Pure Bending and Twisting of Cylindrical Shells
The limiting case of a circular cylindrical shell is obtained by setting in (34) and in the subsequent relations
With this the strain energy function U reduces to
Introduction of equation (55) into equation (33) leads to load-deflection relations of the form
and
where o =c
z
/a.
Some specific consequences of (56) and (57) are as follows.
Setting M =0, we have from(56), for relatively small c
z
/a,
From(57) follows then further
Specifically, for an isotropic shell for which
there follows from(58)
and from(59)
Page319
Setting cq =0 we have from(57), for relatively small c
z
/a,
and for an isotropic shell
The associated values of M are
Setting cq =1, which corresponds to the deformation of the cylinder with radius a into a flat strip, we have from(57)
independent of the values of c
z
/a (excepting c
z
/a =1). From(56) follows further
Equation (66) indicates that as long as , as is the case for isotropic shells with v <1/2, the magnitude of M decreases with so that the configuration
with c
z
=0 would not be stable. Note that for this case the assumption of inextensional deformations cannot be expected to give a physically meaningful result.
Setting cq =2, which means that the cylinder of radius a is bent into a cylinder of the same radius with reverse curvature, we have, from(56),
and, for the isotropic shell,
Equation (57) for F becomes
and for the isotropic shell
It is evident that a general discussion of load-deflection relations for conical shells, on the basis of the strain energy function (40), will be considerably more involved
than the foregoing discussion of special cases. It is apparent, however, that
Page320
such a discussion is feasible and that it will be somewhat easier for the two sets of cases for which the stiffness factors are independent of r and proportional to r3,
respectively, the latter case corresponding to a uniform-material shell with wall thickness varying linearly with distance fromthe apex of the shell.
References
1. D. G. Ashwell, Jl. R. aeronaut Soc. 54 (1950) 708.
2. , Q. Jl. Mech. Appl. Math. 16 (1963) 163.
3. Y. C. Fung and W. H. Wittrick, J. appl. Mech. 21 (1954) 351.
4. , Q. Jl. Mech. appl. Math. 8 (1955) 191.
5. E. Reissner, Proc. natn. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 35 (1949) 204.
6. , Q. appl. Math. 7 (1949) 342.
7. , Q. appl. Math. 11 (1954) 59.
8. , Proc. ninth Midwestern Conference on Mechanics (Madison, Wisc., 1965), 55.
9. W. A. Smith, Pure bending of shells of revolution: A nonlinear dislocation problem. Ph.D. Dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, July 1966.
Page321
On Consistent First Approximations in the General Linear Theory of Thin Elastic Shells
[Ingenieur-Archiv 40, 402419, 1971]
1
Introduction
The present paper considers once more the subject of deriving consistent rational systems of linear two-dimensional differential equations for the approximate analysis
of three-dimensional problems of stresses and strains in ''thin" elastic layers surrounding a given surface in space. The basic assumption in the present considerations
again is the assumption of thinness, in the sense that significant changes of stress and strain along the layer are assumed to require distances large compared to the
thickness of the layer. It is characteristic of this approach that with it the well-known Love-Kirchhoff hypothesis, when applicable, ceases to have the character of a
hypothesis or assumption, and becomes a consequence of an analysis based on the assumption of thinness.
The present writer finds it difficult to attribute the basic idea of the thinness approach for the derivation of two-dimensional shell theory fromthree-dimensional
continuummechanics formulations to a specific source. Evidently, Goodier's parametric expansion approach to deriving equations of plate theory [5], and Chien's
comprehensive considerations of shell theory [1] made use of the concept of thinness. The object of deriving two-dimensional shell theory as the first termof an
asymptotic expansion of suitable solutions of three-dimensional elasticity theory may have been stated for the first time in a paper by Johnson and the present writer
which deals with this problemfor the case of symmetric deformations of circular cylindrical shells [11]. Subsequently, relevant work in this area was done in particular
by Reiss [14, 15], Green [6, 7, 8], Goldenveiser [3, 4], John [9], Rutten [21], and by the present writer [17, 18, 19], in part jointly with Lardner [13].
In one of the earlier papers [18] the point was made that in deriving two-dimensional shell theory, involving the concepts of stress resultants and stress couples, or of
forces and moments, it might be of advantage to start froma three-dimensional theory in which forces and moments play an equally important role, in the sense that
force stresses as well as moment stresses are assumed to be supported by the medium. This earlier consideration did in fact indicate the reality of the anticipated
advantages, in various ways, but in particular in regard to the derivation of two-dimensional equilibriumequations and compatibility equations.
Having subsequently considered this approach further for the case of symmetrical deformations of shells of revolution [19] it was felt that the additional insight gained
made it appropriate to consider once more the case of the general shell.
What follows is then another treatment of the problemof a derivation by asymptotic methods of a rational approximate systemof two-dimensional constitut-
Page322
ive equations of linear shell theory, to be associated with an exact systemof two-dimensional equilibriumand compatibility equations. The method of approach is as in
our Kopenhagen IUTAM presentation [18]; starting with the equations of linear force and moment stress elasticity theory in three dimensions we derive exact two-
dimensional equilibriumand compatibility equations fromthe given three-dimensional formulation of the shell problem. Furthermore, we incorporate all other
consequences of the three-dimensional equilibriumand compatibility equations into the three-dimensional constitutive equations, thereby transforming these into a
systemof integro-differential equations. We then use these integro-differential equations as the starting point of an asymptotic expansion procedure, and we show that
the first termof the asymptotic solution, supplemented by one consequence of a start towards the determination of the second term, does in fact supply the desired
rational systemof two-dimensional constitutive equations.
The present work differs fromour earlier presentation [18] of the basic ideas in two respects. One of these is expository, in as much as the present somewhat
lengthier scalar derivations are believed to be more easily interpreted than the previous vectorial derivations. Another modification of our earlier work is of
considerable technical importance. It consists in a significant rearrangement of the systemof integro-differential constitutive equations, in such a way that the feasibility
of the asymptotic expansion procedure becomes explicit beyond what it had been before.
Having these modifications of the earlier work we first apply our method to the derivation of a systemof two-dimensional constitutive equations for a class of
orthotropic shells, which include the constitutive equations of Koiter [12] and Sanders [22] for isotropic shells without moment stresses.
Secondly, to give some further indication of the scope of the present approach, we derive two-dimensional constitutive equations for a class of shells for which the
normals to the middle surface are not directions of elastic symmetry for the material of the shell. We find that for this class of shells the Love-Kirchhoff hypothesis
ceases to be valid, while at the same time the transverse shear stress resultants remain reactive quantities.
Finally, we consider shells which are sufficiently soft in transverse shear to make transverse shear deformation a first order effect. We find that the asymptotic
procedure as described remains applicable, with the constitutive relations now including expressions for transverse-shearing strains in terms of derivatives of two
dimensional membrane and bending strain components. For transversely isotropic and homogeneous shells it is possible to write these expressions in terms of the
associated transverse shear stress resultants.
2
Formulation of Three-Dimensional Linear Shell Theory
We assume a three-dimensional orthogonal coordinate system
1
,
2
, , with position vector R where the coordinate curves
1
,
2
are the lines of curvature on the
middle surface of the shell with position vector r, and where the ,-curves are the straight lines perpendicular to this middle surface.
We write
Page323
and
With the stipulation that
1
and
2
are lines of curvature coordinates we have the Gauss-Weingarten formulas
and therewith
and where
We utilize force and moment stress vectors , and , , and force and moment load intensity vectors p* and q*, with equilibriumequations
Having these, we define force and moment strain vectors , and , in terms of translational and rotational displacement vectors v and , in such a way that
the relations between strains and displacements are consistent with the equations of equilibriumvia an appropriate version of the principle of virtual work, that is, in
the form
The defining equations (8) and (9) imply a systemof six vectorial compatibility equations
Of the six compatibility equations in (10) and (11) only four involve ,-differentiations. These four together with the two equilibriumequations (6) and (7) are a system
of six equations for the twelve vector variables o*, t*, e*, and k*. This systemof six vector equations for twelve vector variables is complemented by a systemof
constitutive equations which we write here in the symbolic vector form
where U* is a given function of the six strain vectors e* and k*, [20].
Page324
A further complementation of equations (6), (7) and (10) to (12) consists in stating boundary conditions of given tractions for the faces , =c(
1
,
2
) of the shell. In
what follows we assume for simplicity shells of uniformthickness, that is, we assume c to be a constant. We then have as boundary conditions the system
where the four vector quantities and are given functions of
1
and
2
.
In deriving equations of a two-dimensional shell theory fromthe three-dimensional system(6) to (13), we postulate as a property of the results to be obtained that
significant changes of the solution of these equations, either of the three-dimensional systemor of the two-dimensional system, along the curves
i
=const. will require
distances which are large compared with the thickness 2c of the shell. Furthermore, we accept that with this limitation on the type of solution of the given problemthe
question of boundary conditions on the lateral surfaces ](
1
,
2
) =0 may be considered subsequent to the treatment of the part of the problemstated by means of
equations (6) to (13).
Definition of Pseudo-Stresses, Pseudo-Strains, and of Stress Resultants and Stress Couples
The formof the equilibriumequations (5) and (7) together with equation (8) for the linear-element coefficients A
i
suggests the introduction of pseudo stress vectors o
and t and of pseudo load intensity vectors p and q defined by1
Therewith equations (6) and (7) assume the form
In connection with the introduction of pseudo stresses and load intensities as in (14), and as proposed earlier in [17], the following may be noted. Referring to well-
known definitions for stress resultant vectors N
i
and stress couple vectors M
i
in terms of the pseudo stress vectors and we have as expressions for N
i
and M
i
in terms of the pseudo stress vectors o
i
and t
i
and the well-known vector equilibriumequations of two-dimensional shell theory follow, as shown in [18], very simply froman integration with respect to , of the
two pseudo stress equilibriumequations (15) and (16), in conjunction with the face boundary conditions (13).
1Contrary to what has been donein [18] wehereusethe*-sign for actual quantities, instead of for thepseudo quantities, in order to simplify thewritingof alarger number of mathematical
relations involvingthepseudo quantities.
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Just as equations (6) and (7) suggest the introduction of pseudo stress vectors o and t so the formof the compatibility equations (10) and (11) suggests the
introduction of pseudo strain vectors k and e, defined by
Therewith equations (10) and (11) may be written as
Having equilibriumand compatibility equations in terms of pseudo stresses and pseudo strains, it is appropriate to rewrite the constitutive equations (12) in terms of
these quantities. It is readily verified that we may write
provided we define the function U appropriately, that is,
3
Scalar Formulation of Three-Dimensional Linear Shell Theory
While both vectorial equilibriumequations and vectorial compatibility equations of two-dimensional linear shell theory may be derived directly fromthe vectorial form
of the corresponding set of equations of three-dimensional theory [18], the derivation of two-dimensional constitutive equations and the determination of the
dependence of stresses and strains on the thickness coordinate , require the consideration of a scalar version of the equations of three-dimensional theory.
Differential equations of equilibriumand compatibility in scalar formare obtained with component representations
The premultiplication by n in (24) and (26) turns out to be convenient for the transition fromthree-dimensional shell space to two-dimensional shell surface
formulation.
Introduction of (23) and (24) into equations (15) and (16) and observation of the differentiation formulas (3) leaves the following systemof six scalar equilibrium
Page326
equations
and
Equations (27) to (30) are to be considered in conjunction with a systemof scalar boundary conditions which follows from(13) in the form
Introduction of (25) and (26) into equations (19) and (20) and observation of the differentiation formulas (3) leaves the following systemof eighteen scalar
compatibility equations
Page327
and
It would now be possible to use the nine equations (36) to (39) to express the nine pseudo moment strain components k in terms of the nine pseudo force strain
components e and their first derivatives with respect to
i
and ,, and by introduction of these expressions into equations (32) to (33), obtain a systemof nine second-
order compatibility differential equations for the quantities e
ij
, e
i
,, e,i and e,,. This systemin turn could then be shown to be equivalent to the conventional systemof
nine compatibility equations for the six conventional strain components , , and e,,. It is a significant point of the present considerations that this
step is not taken, even for the case of a conventional mediumwhich is unable to support moment stresses, and that, instead, a systemof first-order compatibility
differential equations is used in conjunction with the first-order systemof equilibriumdifferential equations (27) to (30).
4
Some Transformations of Three-Dimensional Equilibrium and Compatibility Equations
Assuming for simplicity's sake the absence of volume force and moment intensities p and q and of surface traction and we deduce fromthe force equilibrium
equations (27a, b), (28) and (31) the relations
Page328
and we write the moment equilibriumequations (29a, b) and (30) in the alternate form
In addition to this we rewrite the twelve compatibility equations (34), (35), (38), and (39), which are the ones containing ,-derivatives, with the help of functions of
integration k
ij
,
i
, c
ij
,
i
, and with the help of operators D(k) and D(e) in the integrated form
5
Two-Dimensional Equilibrium and Compatibility Equations
We may, essentially as in [18], deduce a systemof six two-dimensional equilibriumequations as a rigorous consequence of (40) to (43) and (31), as follows.
Defining scalar stress resultants N
ij
and Q
i
, in accordance with
we have from(40a, b) and (41), with (o,i),=c =0 and (o,,),=c =0, as two-dimensional force equilibriumequations
Page329
In order to obtain the corresponding equations of moment equilibriumwe deduce fromequation (42a) and the boundary conditions (31) the relation
with a similar formula following from(42b).
At the same time, equation (43), with (31), gives
Defining force stress couples and moment stress resultants and P
i
, in accordance with
and setting
it is evident that (53) is the appropriate equation of equilibriumof moments turning about the normals to the middle surface, in the form
In order to obtain the corresponding version of the moment equation (52a) we transformthe termwith o,1 in it as follows
Introduction of (56a) and of the definitions (54a, b, c, d) into (52a) gives
The analogous relation following from(52b) is
While it is of course to be expected that exact two-dimensional equilibriumequations are a rational consequence of exact three-dimensional equilibriumequations, it is
not equally evident that the same should be the case for the systemof two-dimensional compatibility equations which is associated with the equilibriumequations
(50a, b), (51), (55) and (57a, b), when consistent strain displacement relations for two-dimensional shell theory are obtained through use of the principle of virtual
work in conjunction with (50), (51), (55) and (57). This, however, is in fact true, as previously found in [18]. For completeness sake, and for subsequent use we here
restate the argument and the results in scalar formwhich in [18] were developed vectorially.
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We obtain one set of three scalar two-dimensional compatibility equations upon substituting equations (44) and (45) for k
ij
and k
i
, into the three ,-derivative free
three-dimensional compatibility equations (32a, b) and (33). If this is done, the terms involving the operators D(k,1, k,2, k,,) cancel out exactly and the resulting
equations are
and
Next, introduction of (47a, b) and (48) into (36a, b) and (37), after appropriate cancellations, leads to a further set of three exact two-dimensional compatibility
equations,
and
Having now a complete set of two-dimensional equilibriumand compatibility shell equations it remains to establish a set of two-dimensional constitutive equations, in
such a way that this set follows as a rational consequence of a given set of three-dimensional constitutive equations.
6
Constitutive Equations for a Class of Orthotropic Shells
In order to show the essence of our procedure for the derivation of two-dimensional constitutive equations we consider a systemof three-dimensional constitutive
equations which somewhat generalizes the case of a conventional transversely isotropic medium.
We assume relations between force stresses and force strains of the form
Page331
At the same time we assume that moment stresses and moment strains are related in the form
Equations (62) to (67) reduce to a conventional systemof constitutive equations for a mediumunable to support moment stresses upon setting I =A =I, =A, =0,
whereupon the equilibriumequations (42a, b) and (43) imply the symmetry relations and and these in turn, upon introduction into (63) and (64),
imply as part of the constitutive relations the symmetry conditions and .
Equations (62) to (67), when written in terms of pseudo stresses and strains become, consistent with (21) and (22),
Page332
7
Integro-Differential Constitutive Equations
Consideration of the system(68) to (75), in conjunction with equations (40) to (43) for stresses, and equations (44) to (48) for strains, indicates that it is possible to
write (68) to (75) as a systemof integro-differential equations for the stresses o
ij
, o
i
,, t
ij
, t
i
,, together with the strains e,i, e,,, k,i, k,,, there being altogether eighteen
such equations for the above eighteen dependent variables. The solutions of these eighteen equations will involve the twelve functions c
ij
,
i
, k
ij
,
i
and these in turn
are then subject to the six two-dimensional equilibriumequations (50a, b), (51), (55), (57a, b), together with the six two-dimensional compatibility equations (58a,
b), (59), (60a, b) and (61).
Introducing e
11
and e
22
from(46) into equation (68a), the first of the eighteen integro-differential equations becomes, with the abbreviation ,/R
i
=q
i
,
A corresponding equation, (76b), for o
22
follows from(68b).
Equations (76a) and (76b) are taken in conjunction with a relation which follows fromequations (72) for o,,, with o,, taken from(41),
Introduction of equations (47a, b) into equations (69a, b) gives
Equation (70a), combined with (48), becomes
and equation (70b) is changed analogously into (79b).
Equation (71a) becomes, with the help of (40),
and equation (71b) is changed analogously into (80b).
Page333
Equation (73a), together with (44), becomes
with a corresponding equation (81b) for t
2j
following from(73b).
Equation (74a), together with (45), becomes
with a corresponding equation (82b) for t
2
,.
Next, combining (75a) with (42a), we have
and a corresponding equation (83b) holds for o
2
, and k,2.
Finally, equation (75b) together with (43) may be written in the form
Equations (83a, b) and (84) are complemented by the boundary conditions
and of this set of six conditions only three are independent, in view of the side conditions (52a, b) and (53).
So far, all that has been accomplished is the exact reduction of the three-dimensional shell problemfroma differential equation problemfor thirty-six dependent stress
and strain variables to a problemconsisting of eighteen three-dimensional integro-differential equations for eighteen stress and strain variables, together with a system
of twelve two-dimensional differential equations for the determination of twelve two-dimensional parameter functions in the solution of the three-dimensional integro-
differential equation problem. While this reduction may be considered of interest by itself, its significance within the present context is that of a starting point of a
rational iterative or asymptotic expansion procedure for the derivation of a two-dimensional systemof constitutive equations.
8
Derivation of Two-Dimensional Constitutive Equations
Our object is to use the three-dimensional systemof constitutive equations in the form(76) to (85) for an asymptotically rational derivation of a systemof two-
dimensional relations involving the two-dimensional strain measures c
ij
,
i
, k
ij
,
i
in conjunction with the two-dimensional stress measures N
ij
, Q
i
, M
ij
, P
i
, for which
quantities we already have a two-dimensional systemof twelve equilibriumand compatibility differential equations.
Page334
Insofar as this derivation is concerned, we depend at all times on the following basic order of magnitude relations
We designate L as the smallest characteristic length and we stipulate that the two-dimensional shell equations which are to be obtained must be such that its solutions
are consistent with the a priori stipulated behavior (86).
We further stipulate for the purposes of the present derivations the order of magnitude relations
and these again must be consistent with the consequences of the systems of two-dimensional equations which are to be obtained.
Additionally, we here take account of the compatibility equations (60a, b) and (61) by noting that with (86) to (88),
We now introduce the contents of equations (86) to (89) into the constitutive equations (76a, b) and (77), taking in (77) at the same time account of equations (79a,
b). It is then evident that equation (76a) may be written in the form
A corresponding relation for o
22
follows from(76b), and equation (77) together with (79a, b) gives
Turning to equations (78a, b) for o
12
and o
21
we first deduce, in analogy to equations (90a, b), that
Prior to deducing a corresponding relation for o
12
o
21
we consider equations (81) for t
ij
and equations (82) for t
i
,.
Equations (81a, b) become
In reducing equations (82a, b) we take account of (89). Therewith,
We now return to (78a, b) and write first
Page335
In this we use (89) for k
12
k
21
and, with o
12
o
21
as in (84), equations (92), (93) and (94) for o
12
+o
21
, t
ij
and t
i
,. Therewith equation (95) becomes
We next write equations (79a, b), with (88a, b), in the form
and equations (80a, b) in the form
Having equations (90) to (98) we are now in a position to obtain rational asymptotic consequences of the three-dimensional constitutive equations in regard to a
completely two-dimensional formulation of shell theory. It is apparent fromequations (90) to (98) that rational asymptotic consequences consist in the results which
are a consequence of the limiting process
carried out in this systemof equations.
In performing this limiting process we will here assume that the coefficient ratios E/E,, E/G, I/E, etc. are of order of magnitude unity, at most, leaving aside for the
present the consideration of such cases as those for which it is assumed that (E/G)o =O(1) while o <<1.
Letting o tend to zero in (90a, b) and (91) in the above sense, we obtain
Letting o tend to zero in (92), we obtain
Letting o tend to zero in (93) and (94), we obtain
Letting o tend to zero in (96), we obtain
Page336
together with the boundary conditions (85) for k,,. Fromthis we conclude readily the further relations
In the same manner, equations (97) and (98), together with the boundary conditions (I,k,i), =c =0, upon letting o tend to zero, lead to the relations
The contents of equations (105a, b, c) complete the information which is derived by the first-step asymptotic considerations of the systemof three-dimensional
integro-differential constitutive equations. It is evident that what has been obtained are explicit expressions for the components of stress o
11
, o
22
, o
12
+o
21
, t
ij
, t
i
,,
and for the components of strain e,,, e,1, e,2, k,1, k,2, k,,. What has not been obtained are expressions for the components of stress o
12
o
21
and o
i
, which also form
part of the solution of the systemof integro-differential equations. The reason for o
12
o
21
and o
i
, not being determined at this state of the asymptotic analysis is that
these quantities come out to be small of order o relative to the stresses o
11
, o
12
, and o
12
+o
21
. That this is so may be seen most simply fromequation (84),
according to which we have now, except for terms small of higher order,
and fromequation (83a), according to which,
with a corresponding equation (107b) for o
2
,.
Determination of o
12
o
21
and o
i
, from(106) and (107), with o
11
, o
12
+o
21
, o
22
and t
ij
given by equations (100), (101), and (102), must then be considered in the
nature of the beginning of a second step of the asymptotic procedure.
Insofar as the establishment of two-dimensional shell theory is concerned it turns out that use of equations (106) and (107) is almost unnecessary, as will appear
below.
9
Two-Dimensional Constitutive Equations for a Class of Orthotropic Shells
Having in equations (50a, b), (51), (55), (57a, b), and (58a, b), (59), (60a, b), (61) altogether twelve two-dimensional equilibriumand compatibility equations for
twenty-four two-dimensional stress and strain measure components it remains to obtain twelve additional relations which would be expected to be constitutive
equations.
Referring to equations (100a, b), (101), and (102a, b), and to the definitions (49a), (54a, b, c, d) for stress resultants and couples, and assuming for simplicity's sake
that all coefficients in the constitutive equations (100) to (102) are independent of ,, we obtain eight two-dimensional constitutive equations of the following form
Page337
In addition to this we have from(104a) and (105a), also in the nature of two-dimensional constitutive equations, the three constraint relations
Since equations (108a) to (111c) are a set of eleven, rather than twelve as required, it is necessary to look for an additional relation between the dependent variables
of the two-dimensional theory. As indicated in the preceding section, such an additional relation must be in accordance with the three-dimensional equilibrium
conditions (106) and (107a, b). We find that only one of the possible four deductions from(106) and (107a, b) implies information not already included in the two-
dimensional equations obtained so far and it is in this sense that use of (106) and (107a, b) is ''almost" unnecessary.
Use of equations (107a, b) for the calculation of expressions for Q
1
and Q
2
, does no more than reproduce the two-dimensional moment equilibriumequations (57a,
b), with P
1
=P
2
=0 as in (110a, b). Similarly, use of (106) for the calulation of N
12
N
21
reproduces the moment equilibriumequation (55), except for terms small of
higher order.
However, use of (106) in conjunction with (100c) for the calculation of M
12
M
21
does produce an additional relation, namely,
With (108c), equation (112) may be written in the alternate form
and we note that this relation had been stated earlier [16] to be in the nature of a (seventh) two-dimensional shell equilibriumequation, rather than in the nature of a
constitutive equation.
Both equations (112) and (112') may, to the degree of approximation implied by the present two-dimensional shell theory formulation, be replaced by the simpler
2Concurrent with (111a, b, c) wehavethat neither thetransverseshear stress resultants Q
i
nor thestress resultant differenceN
12
N
21
enter into theconstitutiveequations, and thesestress
measures becomereactivequantities in thesystemof equilibriumequations. Thefact that theQ
i
arereactivequantities (subject to theassumed order of magnituderestrictions on elastic moduli) is
of coursewell-known. It is perhaps less well-known, but has been stated clearly beforein [2], that N
12
N
21
is areactivequantity in thesamesenseas theQ
i
.
Page338
relation
To do this we use (112) in conjunction with (109c) for obtaining M
12
and M
21
separately, and we neglect the terms of the order (c
12
+c
21
)/R
i
in comparison with the
termk
12
+k
21
.
Adding (112*), or (112), to the eleven equations (108a) to (111c) we have now completed the derivation of a consistent systemof two-dimensional shell equations.
10
Constitutive Equations for Transversely Isotropic Shells
We define a transversely isotropic shell as one for which the three-dimensional constitutive equations (62a, b) and (65) are derived fromthe inverse relations
that is, for which the coefficients E*, v*, , are given by
Introduction of (115) into the two-dimensional constitutive equations (108a, b) and (109a, b) reduces these, with the relations
(and upon assuming I =0) to the usual constitutive equations for an isotropic medium(which is as it should be in view of the assumption E/E, =O(1), which was
made in the derivation).
We may note that with (116a, b), and with I =0, our systemof relations (108a) to (111c), together with (112*), is precisely that systemof relations which has
previously been proposed by Koiter [12] and Sanders [22].
11
On Constitutive Equations for Anisotropic Shells
Among the many possible generalizations of the systemof constitutive equations (62a) to (67b) we consider briefly a systemin which (62a, b) together with (64a, b)
are replaced, with | =o(1), by relations of the form
Page339
At the same time we assume, for simplicity's sake, the absence of moment stresses , by means of stipulating that I, =0 in (67a, b).
Proceeding now in analogy to what has been done in going fromequations (62) and (64) to equations (90) and (97), we find that in the limit o 0 the system(117a)
to (118b) reduces to
Having (119) we obtain, as for the case | =0, the system(108) and (109) for the N
ii
and M
ii
, with coefficients as in (116a, b). At the same time we no longer have

i
, k,i, and e,i as in (105) and in (111), but rather,
together with .
We note in particular that with the assumed anisotropy we now do not have a condition of absent transverse shear deformation. However, the magnitudes of the
transverse shear deformation terms are not given in terms of the magnitudes of the transverse shear stress resultants. These resultants remain reactive quantities, as in
the theory with | =0.
12
Two-Dimensional Constitutive Equations Including the Effect of Transverse Shear Deformation
We now consider the derivation of two-dimensional constitutive equations fromthe three-dimensional system(62a) to (67b), subject to the assumption
As noted before, the assumption (123) precludes the previous conclusions fromequations (97) and (98) and, consequently, the two-dimensional constitutive
equations (105a) no longer hold.
In what follows we will, in obtaining two-dimensional results under the assumption (123), assume additionally and for simplicity's sake the absence of moment
stresses, and the case of transverse isotropy, as per equations (113) to (116).
Observing (123) we first conclude from(79a) and (80a) that, except for terms small of higher order,
Page340
In order to be able to use (124) for the derivation of a two-dimensional relation involving
1
we next consider equation (76a) together with (77) in the form
A corresponding equation (125b) holds for o
22
, and, except for terms small of higher-order, e
ii
is given by c
ii
+,k
ii
.
We now note, on the basis of (115), the relation
and we assume that v,/(1 v) =O(1).
Having (127), and as long as G/E, =O(1), which we will assume to be the case, we may in (124), through use of the basic order of magnitude relations (86) and
(87), approximate o
11
by
Corresponding approximations hold for o
12
, o
21
and o
22
.
We will not concern ourselves here with the formof k,1 and e,1 but will consider only the expression
where we have (128) for o
11
, and corresponding relations for o
12
, o
21
and o
22
. For simplicity's sake we will limit ourselves here again to ,-independent values of E
and v and write, consistent with (128),
Introduction of this into equation (129) gives
In view of the two-dimensional equilibriumequation (50a) the first termon the right of (131) inside the braces equals 1/2Q
1
/R
1
. The two-dimensional equilibrium
equation (57a) gives for the second termthe value 3Q
1
/4c. Accordingly, the first termis negligible and equation (131) is effectively equivalent to
with an analogous relation between
2
and Q
2
.
Having (132) we see that, indeed, the asymptotic approach can be used to obtain constitutive equations for shells including the effect of transverse shear deformation,
and these are meaningful within the framework of the theory as long as transverse
Page341
shear deformation is in fact a first-order effect as a consequence of the relative smallness of the shear coefficient G.
The result expressed by equation (132) is, however, less far reaching than might be thought. While
1
is indeed given by (132) for the case consideredand for more
general systems of constitutive equations follows from(129) as a combination of derivatives of the c
ij
and k
ij
the resultants Q
i
may be shown not to loose their reactive
character as long as E/G =O(L/c). We find that with this restriction on the order of magnitude of E/G, elimination of the reactive property of Q
i
requires the
consideration of a transverse shear boundary layer, just as for the case E/G =O(1). The situation changes if it is assumed that E/G =O(L2/c2). However, when this is
done then the iterative procedure ceases to work, and it will then in general not be possible to reduce the three-dimensional problemto a twelfth or lower-order two-
dimensional problem.
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Anniversary Volume) p. 47. University of Houston, Texas, (1967).
14. E. L. Reiss: A theory for small rotationally symmetric deformations of cylindrical shells. Comm. Pure Appl. Math. 13 (1960) p. 531.
15. E. L. Reiss: On the theory of cylindrical shells. Quart. J. Mech. Appl. Math. 15 (1962) p. 325.
16. E. Reissner: On some problems in shell theory, Proc. 1st Symposiumon Naval Structural Mechanics (Stanford University, 1958), p. 74, Oxford 1960.
Page342
17. E. Reissner: On the derivation of the theory of thin elastic shells. J. Math. Phys. 42 (1963) p. 263.
18. E. Reissner: On the foundations of generalized linear shell theory, Proc. 2nd IUTAM Symposiumon Shell Theory (Kopenhagen, 1967), p. 15, 1969.
19. E. Reissner: On the derivation of two-dimensional shell equations fromthree-dimensional elasticity theory. Studies in Applied Mathematics 49 (1970) p. 205.
20. E. Reissner and F. Y. M. Wan: A note on Gnther's analysis of couple stress. Proc. IUTAM Symposiumon Mechanics of Generalized Continua (Freudenstadt-
Stuttgart, 1967), p. 83, 1968.
21. H. S. Rutten: Asymptotic approximation in the three-dimensional theory of thin and thick elastic shells. Proc. 2nd IUTAM Symposiumon Shell Theory
(Kopenhagen, 1967), p. 115, 1969.
22. J. L. Sanders: An improved first-approximation theory for thin shells. NASA Report 24, 1959.
Page343
On Pure Bending and Stretching of Orthotropic Laminated Cylindrical Shells*
[J. Appl. Mech. 41, 168172, 1974]
Introduction
In what follows we consider the problemof pure bending and stretching of orthotropic elastic cylindrical shells as a special case of a recent general study [1], in which
no attention was payed to this specific, relatively simple case. Aside fromwishing to indicate once more, in somewhat simpler form, the nature of our analysis in [1],
we are motivated in the work which follows by the discovery of a significant effect which does not exist as long as the analysis is limited to shells which are
homogeneous in the wall thickness direction. Briefly, we have found that for shells which are nonhomogeneous in thickness direction, the magnitude of the overall
bending and stretching stiffness factors of a closed-cross-section shell may be altered to a significant degree if the closed-cross-section shell is made into an open-
cross-section shell by means of a longitudinal slit. The effect of a longitudinal slit on the torsional stiffness of a cylindrical shell is of course well known. One of our
objects here is to show that an analogous effect exists for the problemof bending and stretching of laminated shells, which does not manifest itself as long as the
problemis considered for the class of "ordinary" shells.
Formulation of Problem
We consider a cylindrical shell with circumferential and axial coordinates s and z, with middle surface equations x =x(s), y =y(s), and with curvature function k =
k(s) =' where cos =x'(s) and sin =y'(s). We have as equilibriumand compatibility equations a system
and as constitutive equations a systemwhich we write in the form
*With W. T. Tsai.
Page344
In this N
z
, N
s
, Q are stress resultants and M
z
, M
s
, and P are stress couples, and c
z
, c
s
, , k
z
, k
s
, and are the corresponding strain resultants and couples. We
speak of a "conventional case" of the shell problemwhen P =0 and =0, identically, with the 6 6 matrix relation (3) then reducing to a 4 4 relation.
We have shown earlier [1] that equations (1) and (2) can be solved explicitly, in terms of six constants of integration N
x
, N
y
, M, k
z
, k
y
, and c, in the form
where
and that the six constants of integration are determined by means of six boundary conditions of the form
where
and where M
x
, M
y
, and N are overall moments and axial force acting over the cross section of the shell. Equation (6b), as it stands, expresses the conditions of
circumferentially univalued expressions for displacements of a closed-cross-section shell. The limiting case of a longitudinally slit open-cross-section shell can be
shown to be included in (6b), and to lead to the compatible conclusions of vanishing N
s
, Q, and M
s
.
Expressions for displacements, in terms of membrane and bending strains have been shown previously [1] to be of the form
with equations (9) once more indicating the appropriateness of the univaluedness conditions (6b).
Page345
Form of Exact Solution
Considering the formof the boundary conditions (6a, b) and the choices of signs in (4a) and (6b), we semi-invert equations (3) in the form
where
We then introduce (4a, b) on the right of (10), thereby obtaining the relations
Introduction of (12a, b) into (6a, b) gives as a systemof six equations for the six constants of integration
The open-cross-section case of the longitudinally slit shell can be considered as a special case of (13a, b), upon recognizing that across the slit the elements of B
22
are infinite, implying as a consequence of (13b) the relations M =N
x
=N
y
=0, and leaving directly, as a systemof overall constitutive equations for the longitudinally
slit shell, the system
Page346
We do not, in what follows, consider the numerical consequences of a direct solution in accordance with the exact procedure but instead consider a rational
approximate solution for a class of special cases of some technical interest.
Constitutive Equations for Shell of Laminated Cross-Ply Material
We consider a shell of wall thickness h, with thickness coordinate ,, and with constitutive equations
where E
1
, E
2
, and Ev are constants.
We introduce the assumption of a linear strain distribution in the forme =c +,k, and use this in conjunction with defining equations . In this way
we obtain as a special case of (3)
together with =0 and P =0. The coefficients in (16) are
We particularly note the order of magnitude relations C =O(Eh), B =O(Eh2), D =O(Eh3), v =O(1), and the presence of the cross coupling terms with B, which
are due to the orthotropy of the layers, with B =0 when E
1
=E
2
.
We also note that for a 2n-ply plate, with (15a, b) holding in alternate layers of thickness h/2n, expression (17c) for B is changed into B =[( 1)n/8n](E
2
E
1
)h2.
Approximate Analysis of Cross-Ply Laminated Shells
Considering the formof the constitutive equations (16) we need not consider Q and in equations (3)(6). As may be verified a posteriori, the terms with M
z
and c
s
in
(6a, b) give contributions which are small of higher order* so that (6a, b) may be approximated by
It follows next fromthe formof (4a, b) that N
s
and k
z
contribute terms small of higher order in the constitutive equations (16), so that these may be approximated in
the form
* In makingthis statement welimit ourselves to theconsideration of shells with cross-sectional diameters of uniformorder of magnitudeand wealso omit consideration of thespecial caseof aflat
platewhich is included in thegeneral results of theprecedingsections.
Page347
To evaluate (18a, b) we first solve (19b) and (19d) in the form
and then introduce (20b) into (19a), to get as expression for N
z
,
In this we have from(4a, b)
We now introduce (20c) with (21a, b) into (18a, b). In this way we obtain as a systemof six equations for the six unknowns N
x
, N
y
, M, k
x
, k
y
, c, the relations
The six equations in (22a, b) decouple into three pairs of two equations for two unknowns each, upon assuming v, C, D, and B to be independent of s, and upon
choosing the coordinates x(s), y(s) in such a way that . In what follows we assume that these conditions are given. We then obtain from(22b)
and therewith from(22a)
We note that for the closed-cross-section shell, the influence of the coupling coefficient B is eliminated in the overall constitutive relations, giving a result in agreement
with the result of ''elementary" theory.
We now consider an open-cross-section shell as one having a longitudinal slit for some value s
0
of s. We account for this slit by assuming that over a distance As we
have that the thickness h vanishes. Since C/(CDB2) =O(E1h3) and CB/(CDB2) =O(h1) we may conclude fromthe homogeneous equation (22b) that then,
necessarily,
Page348
(which is in agreement with the direct consequence of setting M
s
=N
s
=Q =0 for s =s
0
) and therewith equation (22a), after a slight transformation, leads to the
result
A comparison of equations (24) and (26) indicates that, to the extent that there is a difference in the stretching and bending stiffnesses of the closed and of the open-
cross-section shell, the open-cross-section shell is the one which is less stiff, since when B2= 0 smaller values of N, M
x
, M
y
are needed to produce specified values of
c, k
x
, and k
y
than when B2 =0.
Expressions for Stresses
In view of the assumed symmetry it will be sufficient to consider the case of an axial load N, setting M
x
=M
y
=0 and therewith k
x
=k
y
=0 and N
y
=N
x
=0, and
from(21), c
z
=c and M
s
=M. At the same time we also have k
z
=0 and N
s
=0.
In order to evaluate (15a, b), we further use the relations
and
and therewith, from(20)
Introduction of the foregoing results into (15a, b) gives as expressions for o
z
and o
s
, for the closed shell
Page349
where c =o
0
h/C(1 v2), and for the open shell
where c =o
0
h(1 B2/CD)/C(1 v2 B2/CD).
Numerical Example
We consider the case
and have then from(17),
and therewith
Equations (24) and (26) then show that for this case the stiffness of the open shell is approximately 92 percent of the stiffness of the closed shell.
Equation (31) for the stresses in the closed shell can now be written in the form
Equations (32) for the open shell become
The distribution of stress in accordance with the foregoing is indicated in Figure 1.
Ratio of Stiffness of Open and Closed-Cross-Section Shells
Equations (24) and (26) give an expression for the ratio r of the stiffness of the open-cross-section shell to that of the closed-cross-section shell which is
Page350
Fig. 1.
Stress distributions across thickness for
longitudinally slit and unslit cylindrical shell,
for thecaseof thenumerical example.
Fromthis may be deduced values of B2/CD as a function of v, with the value of the ratio r as a parameter. The results are as indicated in Figure 2 by means of the
solid lines.
Insofar as the composite structure is concerned it appears as if positive values of r, no matter how small, might be encountered. Consideration of the strain-energy
density of the shell, in accordance with the constitutive equations (16), shows that the condition for the positive-definiteness of the associated strain-energy function is
of the form
and, in the event that (34) is the only restrictive condition, all curves in Fig. 2, down to r =0 (which is given by the equation B2/CD =1 v2) are admissible.
However, a more stringent condition is encountered, upon imposing the requirement that the strain-energy functions of the individual layers, with constitutive
equations as in (15), be positive-definite. An analysis of (15a) or (15b), in conjunction with a consideration of an appropriate three-dimensional orthotropic medium,
for which o, =0, as indicated in the Appendix, gives as condition of positive-definiteness the relation
It remains to see what the restriction (35) means as a restriction on B2/CD, as a function of v. Introduction of the limiting condition into the defining
relations
Page351
Fig. 2.
Ratio r of stiffnesses of longitudinally slit to
un-slit shell as afunction of constitutivecoefficients
in equation (16).
gives as limiting relation between B2/CD and v the relation
As a consequence of this only those portions of the solid curves which lie beneath the curve defined by equation (37), which inFig. 2 is drawn as a dotted line, are
physically admissible. This means in particular that the smallest possible value of the ratio r for the two-ply shell is given by 0.25 rather than by zero.
References
1. Reissner, E., and Tsai, W. T., "Pure Bending, Stretching, and Twisting of Anisotropic Cylindrical Shells," Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 39, 1972, pp.
148154.
2. Washizu, K., Variational Methods in Elasticity and Plasticity, Pergamon Press, 1968, p. 278.
Appendix
The following considerations are stated here insofar as the authors have not been able to locate an equivalent discussion in the literature known to them.
Given an orthotropic mediumwith constitutive equations
and with an associated strain-energy density,
Page352
we have as necessary and sufficient conditions for W to be positive-definite the three relations [2]
In what follows we wish to determine the effect of (40) on the coefficients of a systemof constitutive relations
which follows from(38) upon introducing the assumption of plane stress, in the formo, =0.
Elimination of e, fromthe first two equations in (38), by means of the third equation with o, =0, gives as expressions for the constitutive coefficients in (41),
Introduction of E
ss
, E
sz
, and E
zz
in terms of E
s
, Ev, and E
s
, and in terms of E
s
,, E
z
,, and E,, transforms equations (40) into
and
Remarkably, equation (44) is equivalent, as may be shown by direct expansion of the determinant, to the simple relation
Introduction of (45) into (43) gives the further simple relations
which complete the statement of restrictions imposed on the coefficients in the plane-stress constitutive relations (41).
Page353
Linear and Nonlinear Theory of Shells
[Thin Shell Structures (Sechler Anniv. Vol.) 2944, Prentice-Hall 1974]
Introduction
Among a number of different possible approaches to the theory of elastic shells, we here select one which appears to us to be preferable to others in that it leads to
results of considerable generality, in relatively short order and with the use of relatively simple methods of analysis.
In developing shell theory we consider as basic the dynamics of stress resultants and couples, in a space-curved two-dimensional continuum, rather than the
kinematics of stretching and bending of surfaces. We furthermore consider as basic the concept of work, and in particular the concept of virtual work of equilibrium
systems of forces and moments, in such a way that a "rational" formulation of a principle of virtual work is acceptable, intuitively, provided such a formulation cannot
be shown to be flawed in some specific sense by a knowledgeable student of the subject.
Having the concepts of dynamics and of virtual work we furthermore accept as reasonable the concept that fromthis must flow, in a convincing fashion, all that is
needed to describe the associated kinematics of the two-dimensional continuumvia a systemof strain resultants and couples and the associated translational and
rotational displacements. It is the principal task of this paper to describe, based to a considerable extent on quite recent studies, primarily by Schaefer, Gnther,
Reissner, and Simmonds and Danielson, how by proceeding in this fashion a consistent and rational theory of two-dimensional stress and strain, that is, of a two-
dimensional theory of shells, does, in fact, emerge.
Having a two-dimensional theory of stress and strain in shells, via the concepts of stress resultants and couples and the associated measures of strain, the problemof
stress-strain relations or constitutive equations, relating stress measures and strain measures, remains to be considered. We limit ourselves in this account to stating
certain formal, but nontrivial, aspects of this problem. However, we remark that in its essence this problemmay be considered in at least two distinct ways. One of
these deals with the problemof devising suitable systems of physical experiments for elements of the two-dimensional continuumin order that a systemof two-
dimensional constitutive equations be established directly. The other deals with the problemof devising suitable mathematical methods to deduce constitutive
equations for the shell as a two-dimensional continuum, as exact or asymptotic, or otherwise rationally approximate consequences of a given systemof constitutive
equations for the shell considered as a three-dimensional continuum.
Dynamics of Stress-Resultant and Stress-Couple Vectors
We consider a given surface in space with the equation r =r(
1
,
2
) where
1
,
2
are curvilinear coordinates
Page354
Fig. 1.
Notations.
which, for simplicity's sake, will be considered orthogonal, with linear element . We also consider a second, associated surface with the
equation =(
1
,
2
). On this second surface the coordinate curves
i
=constant will in general not be orthogonal. We assume that the two surfaces represent the
same aggregate of particles, the first one being the undeformed state of the aggregate and the second one being its deformed state.
We now take an infinitesimal element of the surface =(
1
,
2
), with sides given by the vectors
,1
d
1
and
,2
d
2
. For this surface element to be an element of a
shell we assume that its four sides are acted upon by vector forces and moments N
1
o
2
d
2
, M
1
o
2
d
2
, etc., in accordance with Figure 1. We also assume the
existence of vector surface forces and moments po
1
o
2
d
1
d
2
and qo
1
o
2
d
1
d
2
. We note that N
i
and M
i
are forces and moments per unit of undeformed length,
and that p and q are forces and moments per unit of undeformed area. Consideration of increments in going fromsides
i
=const to sides
i
+d
i
=const, and
observation of the principle of action and reaction, then leads to two dynamic vector equations, one concerning the balance of forces and the other the balance of
moments, of the form
Page355
Each of these two vector equations is, of course, equivalent to three scalar component equations in some suitable manner, as will presently be considered.
In addition to the balanced equations (1) and (2) which hold in the interior of the shell we also have balance equations for elements ds of the edges of the shell. With
N and M being edge force and moment intensities we have as expressions for N and M in terms of the edge values of the stress resultants and stress couples N
i
and
M
i
In this, n indicates the outward normal direction of the boundary curve, tangent to the shell surface, and the summation convention involving repeated subscripts is
being invoked.
Virtual Work and Virtual Strain Displacement Relations
We define virtual displacements and virtual strains as sets of (infinitesimally small) kinematically possible arbitrary displacements and strains which, upon being
properly associated with a set of forces and moments, give rise to a quantity of virtual work in such a way that the dynamic equations (1)(3) are equivalent to an
equation of the form
In this, dS =o
1
o
2
d
1
d
2
, o and o are virtual translational and rotational displacement vectors, and oc
i
and ok
i
are virtual strain resultant and strain-couple
vectors.
The way in which Eq. (4) is usually considered is to assume that oc
i
and ok
i
are known in terms of o, o and suitable derivatives thereof, whereuponby means of
integration by parts in order to eliminate derivatives of o and o and by then considering o and o arbitrary in the interior as well as along the
boundarysatisfaction of Eq. (1)(3) appears as a necessary and sufficient condition for the validity of Eq. (4).
In the present circumstances we make use of Eq. (4) in an inverse fashion as follows. We consider Eq. (1)(3) as given and utilize themto eliminate p, q, N, and M in
Eq. (4), with N
i
and M
i
now being arbitrary functions.
Introduction of Eqs. (1)(3) into Eq. (4) gives first
We now integrate by parts to eliminate derivatives of N
i
and M
i
in Eq. (5) and at the same time write (
,i
N
i
)o =(
,i
o)N
i
. In this way Eq. (5) assumes the
much shortened form
Page356
With N
i
and M
i
being arbitrary vector functions in Eq. (6) we deduce fromthis equation the virtual strain displacement relations
We note that since by definition there exists a function =(
1
,
2
) we may write (o)
,i
=o(
,i
) in Eq. (7). However, as long as we have not actually established
the existence of a function corresponding to the quantity o in Eq. (7) we are not in a position to replace (o)
,i
by o(
,i
).
We show in what follows that this difficulty is easily overcome as soon as the foregoing relations of nonlinear theory are reduced to the corresponding relations of
linear theory. We shall also show how to overcome this difficulty, in a much less obvious way, for the given nonlinear relations (7).
Strain Displacement Relations and Compatibility Equations of Linear Shell Theory
We obtain equilibriumand strain displacement relations of linear theory by the simple device of replacing in Eq. (2) the unknown radius vector to points on the
deformed shell surface by the given vector r to points on the undeformed surface.
Changing
,i
into r
,i
in Eq. (2) changes
,i
into r
,i
in Eq. (7), and therewith oc
i
and ok
i
are given as linear combinations of (o)
,i
=o(r +u)
,i
=ou
,i
, o andnow(o)
,i
=o
,i
. With this we can go directly fromvirtual strain displacement relations to actual strain displacement relations, of the form
We note, before considering component representations of c
i
, k
i
, u, and , that the vectorial strain displacement relations (8) evidently imply two vectorial
compatibility equations which read
and
We further note that Eq. (9) and (10), which are due to Gnther (1961), are in a well-defined manner, with which we shall not concern ourselves here, the static-
geometric duals of the (homogeneous) equilibriumequations (1) and (2). Fromthis it then follows further that, in analogy to the strain displacement relations (8), we
have a systemof relations expressing stress resultants and stress couples in terms of stress functions, by means of which the (homogeneous) equilibriumequations
(1) and (2) are identically satisified. In crediting Gnther with Eq. (8)(10) and with the associated stress-stress function relations we remark that Gnther
acknowledges that equivalent scalar-formresults for the special case of the circular cylindrical shell had earlier been established by Schaefer (1960).
Component Representations
We list in what follows the systemof scalar strain displacement relations which follows fromthe virtual relations (8) upon writing
Page357
and
where r
,i
=o
i
t
i
and n =t
i1
t
2
, with the Gauss-Weingarten differentiation formulas
In this S
1
and S
2
are in-plane radii of curvature given by 1/S
1
=o
1,2
/o
1
o
2
and 1/S
2
=o
2,1
/o
1
o
2
, and the R
ij
=R
ij
are the usual out-of-plane curvature radii of the
surface.
Introduction of Eq. (11)(13) into Eq. (8) gives as expressions for in-plane strain resultants e
ij
, transverse (shearing) strain resultants
i
, transverse (bending and
twisting) strain couples k
ij
, and in-plane strain couples
i
,
We note that all six strain-couple components are given in terms of components of rotational displacement only, while four of the six strain-resultant components are
given in terms of both translational and rotational displacement components.
Constitutive Equations of Linear Theory
For the purpose of establishing constitutive equations it is evidently necessary to have in conjunction with the component representations (11) for strain resultants and
couples corresponding representations for stress resultants and couples. We write
Equations (18) and (11) in conjunction with Eq. (4), indicate that it is appropriate to stipulate that constitutive equations should be a systemof 12 relations involving
N
ij
, Q
i
, M
ij
, P
i
, e
ij
,
i
, k
ij
, and
i
in the formN
ij
=N
ij
(e
11
, e
12
, . . .,
2
), etc.
Page358
It is remarkable that Gnther's work (1961) as well as Schaefer's work (1960) does not allude to this point. Instead, the general considerations of dynamics and
kinematics of the two-dimensional problemare complemented by a consideration of constitutive relations for the three-dimensional problem, with attention restricted
to conventional three-dimensional mediums, unable to support moment stresses, and with negligible transverse shear deformability, thereby precluding the possibility
of obtaining constitutive equations which involve the quantities P
i
, Q
i
,
i
, and
i
in addition to the other measures of stress and strain. The appropriate statement of
sufficient generality appears to have been made subsequently only, in a report by Reissner (1966).
Among possible general forms of constitutive equations we mention specifically the case where a strain energy function A exists, depending on all 12 measures of
strain e
11
, e
12
, . . .,
2
, such that
We also mention the partially inverted case where in terms of a function B =B(N
11
, . . ., Q
2
; k
11
, . . .,
2
),
Evidently, ''conventional theories" in which
i
=0 as well as P
i
=0, throughout, will be given whenever the function B in Eq. (20) does not involve the four arguments
Q
i
, and
i
. Additional restrictions of practical significance are given when N
12
and N
21
enter into B in the formN
12
+N
21
only and/or when k
12
and k
21
enter in the
formk
12
+k
21
only, implying constitutive relations e
12
=e
21
and/or M
12
=M
21
, respectively.
We have considered elsewhere the way in which two of the best-known and most rational systems of conventional constitutive equations, known as the Flgge-
LurieByrne relations and the Koiter-Sanders relations, respectively, may be written in terms of the strain measures e
ij
and k
ij
as defined by Eqs. (14) and (16)
(Reissner and Wan, 1966, 1967). As an example of less conventional possibilities which may arise within the present context, we mention the case of a sandwich-
type plate, constructed in such a way that in addition to transverse shear deformation being significant, by way of constitutive-relation portions
i
=CQ
i
, we have that
M
12
= M
21
, with constitutive-relation portions (M
12
, M
21
) =D
1
(k
12
+k
21
) D
2
(k
12
k
21
) (Reissner, 1972b).
We conclude this discussion of constitutive relations for two-dimensional (linear) shell theory with two general observations.
The first is to recommend, as a potentially fruitful and as yet essentially unexplored area of study, the problemof designing programs for the experimental
determination of constitutive relations, without explicit reference to the three-dimensional nature of the structure.
The other is the further consideration of systematic analytical procedures for the derivation of the forms of appropriate two-dimensional constitutive equations, given
a knowledge of the formof these relations for the structure considered as a
Page359
three-dimensional continuum. Our own approach here is through the use of formal asymptotic expansion procedures (Reissner, 1971), which in various differing
ways have also been used by Goodier, Friedrichs, Johnson, Reiss, Goldenveiser, Green, Rutten, and Novotny, to mention the names of some of the investigators in
this area.
Solution of the Virtual Strain Displacement Relations of Nonlinear Theory
We may consider the central difficulty of extending the linear two-dimensional theory of shellsas expressed by means of Eqs. (8)(18), together with the appropriate
scalar versions of the linearized equilibriumequations (1) and (2)to consist in going fromthe nonlinear vectorial virtual strain displacement relations (7) to consistent
nonlinear, scalar actual strain displacement relations which generalize the linear relations (14)(17).
We have ourselves obtained an explicit solution of this problemfor the special case of rotationally symmetric bending of shells of revolution (Reissner, 1969, 1972a).
Going beyond this, Simmonds and Danielson have considered the general case of the problem(Simmonds and Danielson, 1970, 1972).* In doing this they have,
through use of Rodrigues' vector representation of finite rigid-body rotation, obtained one possible generalization of Eqs. (16) and (17) for strain-couple components.
Insofar as expressions for strain-resultant components are concerned, Simmonds and Danielson limit themselves to the statement that "these can easily be expressed
in terms of the components of [the finite rotation vector] and the [translational] displacement vector" (Simmonds and Danielson, 1972).
In attempting to deal with the nonlinear virtual strain displacement relations (7) it is reasonable to expect that it will be necessary to use component representations
instead of dealing directly with vectorial relations, as in going fromthe linearized version of Eq. (7) to the vectorial results in Eq. (8). However, inasmuch as now finite
deformations are anticipated in association with the change fromthe radius vector r to the radius vector it is no longer reasonable to use the triad t
i
, n in expressing
stress vectors and strain vectors in terms of scalar components. We could use, instead of t
i
, and n, the non-orthogonal vectors
,i
/|
,i
| and the unit vector v
perpendicular to the plane of
,1
and
,2
. Instead, we follow the suggestion of Simmonds and Danielson (1970, 1972) to use an independent, and for the time being
otherwise undefined, mutually perpendicular triad T
j
, N in the representation of both stress and strain resultants and couples, as follows:
A crucial step in the procedure now is to assume that the triad T
i
, N may be chosen in such a way that the difference between it and the deformed tangent and normal
vectors
,i
and
,1

,2
comes out to be a measure of the state of strain e
ij
,
i
, in the form
*Thedifferencebetween Simmonds and Danielson's approach and our approach is indicated by thetitles of their publications as well as by theabsenceof areferenceto Gnther's work.
Page360
with o
ij
being the Kronecker delta. Equations (23) evidently imply the formulas
upon writing
,i
=r
,i
+u
,i
=o
i
t
i
+u
,i
. Returning to Eq. (23) we next deduce the relation
Introduction of Eqs. (25) and (23) and of the first of equations (22) into the first of equations (7) gives
We now note that the terms with oe
ij
and o
i
on the left and on the right of Eq. (26) cancel each other. This leaves a systemof relations which is valid no matter
what the values of e
ij
and
i
, of the form
We next show that the system(27) may be used to express o in terms of T
j
, N, oT
j
and oN. For this purpose we consider the vector products T
1
oT
1
, T
2

oT
2
, and N oN, together with the canonical decomposition formula for expressions a (b c). In this way we obtain T
1
oT
1
=o (T
1
o)T
1
. etc., and then,
by addition of the three vector equations,
Having Eq. (18) and the second of equations (22), we now have as an equation for the determination of the strain couples k
ij
and
i
To proceed further we evidently will need expressions for T
j,i
and N
,i
, in terms of T
j
and N, analogous to Eqs. (13) for the derivatives of t
j
and n. We write, in
analogy to Eq. (13),
*Equation (28) is analogous to aformulafor the"angular velocity vector of therigidly rotatingtriad (T
i
, N)" in Simmonds and Danielson (1972). Its validity is indeed "easy to show," as a
consequenceof Eq. (27). It is less easy to seein Simmonds and Danielson, whereEq. (28) is equivalent to an Eq. (2), whileEq. (27) is equivalent to an Eq. (25) which appears later on.
Page361
FromEq. (30) follows
Introduction of Eqs. (31) and (30) into the righthand side of Eq. (29) is readily seen to result in a cancellation of all the terms with oT
j
and oN. What remains can be
written in the convenient form
Having Eq. (32) we conclude that, evidently, ok
ij
=o(1/r
ij
) and o
i
=o(1/s
i
).
In going fromvirtual strains to actual strains we must observe that the actual strain couples k
ij
and
i
should vanish in the event that the triad T
i
, N remains coincident
with the triad t
i
, n. Comparing Eq. (30) with Eq. (13) we find that this will be the case if we use the coefficients in the differentiation formulas (13) as functions of
integration, as follows:
We now have in Eqs. (24) and (33) expressions for six strain-resultant and six strain-couple components, in terms of the displacement vector u and in terms of
parameters which describe the rotation of the triad t
i
, n into the triad T
i
, N, that is, in terms of three translational and three rotational displacement parameters. We
might choose as these parameters the components of u in the directions of t
i
and n, together with the components of a Rodrigues' finite rotation vector. However, we
prefer to make no choice of such a nature at this point but instead proceed to the statement of an intrinsic formof the theory, consisting of a complete systemof scalar
equilibriumand compatibility equations for strain resultant and couple components and stress resultant and couple components.
Compatibility Equations for Finite Strain
Familiarity with the results of linear theory suggests that there should be altogether six scalar compatibility equations for strain resultants and couples.
It is possible to obtain three such compatilibity equations, in accordance with Simmonds and Danielson (1972), by using the two equations in Eq. (23) in the form
(
,1
)
,2
=(
,2
)
,1
, that is, by writing
and by making use of the differentiation formulas (30) for T
i
and N. In this way there follows, upon making use of the defining equations (33) and of the Gauss-
Codazzi
Page362
equations involving the o
i
, S
i
and R
ij
,
The linear terms in Eqs. (35)(37) are identical with the contents of known scalar component decompositions of the compatibility equations (10). We also note that
suitably specialized forms of Eqs. (35)(37) reduce, upon introduction of a restriction to small e and , to previously given equations of a proposed nonlinear shallow
shell theory (Reissner, 1969b).
Having obtained three compatibility equations expressing the fact that
,12
=
,21
we now obtain another set of three such conditions, on the basis of the
differentiation formulas (30). Equations (30) imply altogether three vectorial compatibility relations, of the formT
i,12
=T
i,21
and N
,12
=N
,21
. Of the associated nine
scalar relations there are only three which are not identically satisfied. These three can be written in the following form:
Again, the linear terms in Eqs. (38)(40) are identical with the contents of the known scalar version of Eq. (9). Equations (38)(40) reduce to previously stated shallow
shell theory equations for the case that the
i
are considered small compared with the k
ij
(Reissner, 1969b).
We add the observation that the six first-order partial differential compatibility equations (35)(40) reduce to a "conventional" systemof one second-order, two first-
order, and one zeroth-order equation, upon setting
1
=
2
=0 and upon using Eqs. (35) and (36) as equations of definition for
1
and
2
. With this, Eq. (40)
becomes a second-order equation, Eq. (38) and (39) remain first-order equations, and Eq. (37) becomes a zeroth-order equation, all in the eight variables k
ij
and
e
ij
.
Equilibrium Equations for Finite Strain
We complement the six scalar compatibility equations (35)(40) by six scalar equilibriumequations which follow upon introduc-
Page363
tion of the representations (21), together with the differentiation formulas (30) and the defining equations (33), into the two vector equations (1) and (2).
FromEq. (1) follows
FromEq. (2) follows
A reduction to a more conventional systemof equations again becomes possible upon assuming P
i
=0 and
i
=0 and upon using Eqs. (44) and (45) as defining
equations for Q
1
and Q
2
in conjunction with Eqs. (41)(43).
A general observation which may be made at this juncture is this. Both equilibriumequations and compatibility equations display the nonlinearizing effects of possible
large deformations and strains in the same relatively mild fashion, by an occurrence of second-degree dependent-variable terms only. It would seemthat this fact will
be of significance in limiting the validity of direct applications of constitutive equations which have been established in connection with linear theory in the treatment of
problems requiring the use of nonlinear equilibriumand compatibility equations.
Page364
Equations for Rotationally Symmetric Deformations of Shells of Revolution
We now compare the formof Eq. (35)(46) for the special case of rotationally symmetric deformations of shells of revolution with previously given results of the linear
theory (Reissner and Wan, 1969) and also with previously given results of the nonlinear theory for the problemof symmetric bending (Reissner, 1969a, 1972a).
Setting
and
we obtain fromEqs. (35)(40) as compatibility equations
At the same time the equilibriumequations (41)(46) assume the form
Page365
Equations (49)(60) are in complete agreement with the contents of Eqs. (3)(6) in Reissner and Wan (1969) upon omission of all nonlinear terms. At the same time the
six nonlinear equations (49), (51), (54), (56), (57), and (59) become identical with a set of six such equations in Reissner (1969a)* upon setting Nu =Nu =Qu =
Mu =Mu =P =0, eu =eu =u =ku =ku = =0, and
We note in particular that while the derivation of these equations in Reissner (1969a) was for the case of rotationally symmetric displacements, the present derivation
includes the case of nonrotationally symmetric displacements, as long as these are compatible with the assumption of rotationally symmetric stress and strain.
References
Gnther, W., 1961. Analoge Systeme von Schalengleichungen. Ingenieur-Archiv 30: 160186.
Reissner, E., 1966. On the foundations of the theory of elastic shells. Proc. 11th Intern. Congre. Appl. Mech. , Munich, 1964, pp. 2030.
Reissner, E., 1969a. On finite symmetrical deformations of thin shells of revolution. J. Appl. Mech. 36: 267270.
Reissner, E., 1969b. On the equations of non-linear shallow shell theory. Studies Appl. Math. 48: 171175.
Reissner, E., 1971. On consistent first approximations in the general theory of thin elastic shells. Ingenieur-Archiv 40: 402419.
Reissner, E., 1972a. On finite symmetrical strain in thin shells of revolution. J. Appl. Mech. 39: 11371138.
Reissner, E., 1972b. On sandwich-type plates with cores capable of supporting moment stresses. Acta Mechanica 14: 4351.
Reissner, E., Wan, F. Y. M., 1966. A note on stress strain relations of the linear theory of shells. J. Appl. Math. Phys. (ZAMP), 17: 676681.
Reissner, E., Wan, F. Y. M., 1967. On stress strain relations and strain displacement relations of the linear theory of shells. The Folke-Odqvist Volume, pp.
487500.
Reissner, E., Wan, F. Y. M., 1969. Rotationally symmetric stress and strain in shells of revolution. Studies Appl. Math. 48: 117.
Schaefer, H., 1960. Die Analogie zwischen den Verschiebungen und den Spannungsfunktionen in der Biegetheorie der Kreiszylinderschale. Ingenieur-Archiv 29:
125133.
Simmonds, J. G., Danielson, D. A., 1970. Nonlinear shell theory with finite rotation vector. Proc. Koninkl. Ned. Akad. Wetenschap. B, 73: 460478.
Simmonds, J. G., Danielson, D. A., 1972. Nonlinear shell theory with finite rotation and stress-function vectors. J. Appl. Mech. 39: 10851090.
*Correctingamisprinted sign in Eq. (10a'), thecorrect sign beingas in (10a).
Page366
On Small Bending and Stretching of Sandwich-Type Shells
[Int. J. Solids Structures, 13, 12931300, 1977]
Introduction
Recent work on the subject of direct formulations of two-dimensional theories for three-dimensional problems, with emphasis on the concept of a Cosserat surface
[1], suggested a reconsideration of the author's earlier work on sandwich-type shells [2].
In what follows we show that our earlier derivation of a two-dimensional sandwich-type shell theory froma suitably idealized three-dimensional formulation contains
in a natural way what appears to be the essence of the difference between Cosserat-type elastic surface theory and ordinary two-dimensional shell theory, to wit an
incorporation of the effect of transverse normal stress deformation into the equations of the two-dimensional theory, over and above the incorporation of the effect of
transverse shear stress deformation.
The developments which follow are in the main equivalent to our earlier developments. However, in reviewing our earlier work the possibility of certain improvements
and simplifications became apparent. It is these improvements and simplifications, in addition to recognition of the fact that sandwich-type shell theory as formulated
by us does in fact contain the essence of Cosserat elastic surface theory, which led to the writing of the present paper.
To indicate the nature of the following considerations it may be worthwhile to quote (with some slight modifications in wording) fromthe Introduction to our earlier
work [2], as follows. "In this report an extension of the classical theory of small bending and stretching of thin elastic shells is considered. Instead of a homogeneous
shell we consider a shell constructed in three layers: A core layer of thickness 2c with elastic constants E
c
, G
c
, v
c
and two face layers of thickness t with elastic
constants E
t
, G
t
, v
t
. In the developments certain restrictive assumptions are made, which somewhat limit the applicability of the results. In so doing formulas are
obtained which are as compact as possible while still describing the essential characteristics of the sandwich-type shell." (Our reconsideration shows that the earlier
formulas, while being "compact", were not in fact "as compact as possible".)
"The thickness ratio t/c is assumed small compared to unity; at the same time the ratio tE
t
/cE
c
is assumed large compared to unity. This latter assumption means that
the face material is so much stiffer than the core material that the contribution of the core layer to stress couples and tangential stress resultants is negligible. It is
known that for flat plates this assumption necessitates the taking account of the effect of transverse shear deformation. The same would be expected to be true for
curved shells."
Page367
"A further effect. . . . is the effect of transverse normal stress deformation. We show that this effect arises in a manner which is typical for shells and has no
counterpart in plate theory. It may be likened, roughly, to what happens in the bending of curved tubes."
Statics of Sandwich-Type Shell
In order to derive a complete systemof equations we first consider the statics of the face layers and of the core layer. Combination of the results obtained for these
two components will lead to those equations of equilibriumwhich hold for elements of a shell regardless of the constructional nature of the elements, and in addition to
relations which are associated with the sandwich-type nature of the elements.
Coordinate Systemon Shell
In formulating differential equations we use a curvilinear coordinate system
1
,
2
, ,, such that
1
and
2
are lines-of-curvature coordinates on the middle surface of
the composite shell, and , the normal distance fromthis
Fig. 1.
Page368
middle surface (Figure 1). The linear element in this systemof coordinates is of the form
Statics of Face Layers
The face layers are treated as shells of thickness t, with negligible bending stiffness about their own middle surfaces. Because of this they are designated in what
follows as face membranes.
The middle surfaces of the face membranes are given with reference to the three-dimensional systemof coordinates by , =(c +t/2) ~ c, with the linear elements
on these two middle surfaces given by
The components of external load intensity on the upper and lower face membranes are designated by p
iu
, q
u
and p
il
, q
l
, respectively. The core layer stresses which
act upon the two membranes are designated by t
i
,u, o,u, t
i
,l, o,l, and the stress resultants acting over the cross sections of the membranes by N
iju
=N
jiu
and N
ijl
=
N
jil
(Figure 2).
Fig. 2.
There are then three equations of force equilibriumfor the elements of each of the two membranes. Writing o
nu
=o
n
(1 +c/R
n
), a
nl
=o
n
(1 c/R
n
), we have two
tangential component equations for forces in the direction
1
,
two analogous equations for forces in the direction
2
, and two equations for forces in the normal direction,
Page369
Statics of Core Layer
Assuming that the components of stress o
1
, o
2
, t
12
are negligible so that only the transverse stresses o,, and t
i
, need to be retained we have three differential
equations of equilibriumof the form
Integration of these gives
with o,m and t
i
,m being the values of o, and t
i
, for , =0.
Statics of Composite Shell
In view of the fact that all face-parallel core-layer stresses are neglected we have as expressions for stress couples M
ij
and middle surface parallel stress resultants
N
ij
,
etc., with evident differences between N
12
and N
21
as well as between M
12
and M
21
. In the same way we have as expressions for components of external force and
moment load intensity
Furthermore, a load termof the following formis encountered,
with this termrepresenting the average transverse normal stress at any station of the shell, in the event that the loads q
u
and q
l
alone were responsible for this stress.
The above is complemented by expressions for transverse shear stress resultants Q
i
. We find, with the help of eqn (5),
Page370
with a corresponding expression for Q
2
, and we note that eqn (9) in conjunction with the first relation in (5) makes it possible to express the shear stress values t
i
,u
and t
i
,l in terms of Q
i
.
Differential equations of equilibriumfor the composite shell are now obtained by suitable combination of the above results.
Addition of the two relations in (2) gives as one equation of force equilibrium
Subtraction of the same two relations gives as one equation of moment equilibrium
Two analogous equations follow upon interchange of subscripts.
Two additional equations are obtained by adding and subtracting, respectively, the two normal component equilibriumrelations in (3).
Addition of the equations in (3), and observation of eqns (5)(7), gives the conventional equation of transverse force equilibrium,
A further equation, which is required for the sandwich-type shell, is obtained by subtracting the second relation in (3) from the first relation. We find,
making use of eqns (5) and (9),
We note that this sixth equilibrium equation for the elements of the composite shell has no relation to the conventional sixth equilibrium equation for shell
elements which expresses the condition of moment equilibrium about the normals to the middle surface.*
We obtain the middle surface normal moment equilibriumequation, now as a seventh equilibriumequation, together with what amounts to an eighth equation of
equilibrium, by using the exact expressions for N
12
, N
21
, M
12
, M
21
, which correspond to (6), in conjunction with the fact that N
12u
=N
21u
and N
12l
=N
21l
. The
resultant relations are
We note that while it is often assumed that the second of these relations is effectively equivalent to a ''constitutive" relation M
12
=M
21
, there is no need and no
obvious advantage, in making such an assumption in this place. Beyond this we can say that, while the first relation in (14) is entirely a statement of two-dimensional
statics, the
*Thecorrespondingrelation in [2] is therewritten without theQ
i
-terms which appear above. Thereason for this is the"provisional" definition of o,m in eqn (33) in [2] which is not consistent with
thesignificanceof o,m in eqn (40). However, theconsiderations which follow show that theQ
i
-terms in (13) and (15) may in fact beconsidered negligible.
Page371
second may be thought of as a consequence of a mixture of constitutive and equilibriumconsiderations, inasmuch as the formof this relation does depend on
information on the three-dimensional nature of the state of stress, as previously discussed for the problemof the homogeneous shell [3].
Stress Strain Relations for Composite Shell
We derive stress strain relations through the use of the theoremof minimumcomplementary energy, as first employed by Trefftz for homogeneous shells without
consideration of the effect of transverse stresses [4].
Designating the complementary energy of face layers and core layers by H
t
and H
c
, respectively, we obtain stress strain relations through the device of extremizing
H
t
+H
c
, with the constraint differential equations of equilibriumfor the composite shell incorporated into the variational equation through the device of Lagrange
multipliers which then may be identified with the appropriate displacement components, as follows.
In this, the u
i
, w, |
i
and e are readily identified as effective components of translational and rotational displacements. As regards the multiplier k it was noted in [2]
that "there is no immediate simple geometrical interpretation, [although] such an interpretation in terms of an average transverse normal strain might be deduced."
Similarly, there is no immediate simple geometrical interpretation for the multiplier .
It remains to express the complementary energy contributions H
t
and H
c
in terms of stress resultants and couples and in terms of the transverse normal stress
measure o,m.
Assuming the face membranes to be isotropic we have an expression for H
t
,
Page372
Equation (16) is transformed into an expression involving stress resultants and couples for the composite shell by writing, on the basis of eqn (6),
In what follows we restrict attention to cases for which c/R <<1.* Therewith, and with the definitions,
for stiffness coefficients, we have
Next, with the face-layer-parallel core stresses o
1
, o
2
, t
12
assumed negligible, we have as expression for H
c
,
In this we now take the stresses in accordance with eqn (5), and we again neglect terms of the order ,/R in comparison with unity. Therewith and with the help of the
defining relation (9), we now have
In our earlier work [2] eqn (21) had been transformed by elimination of the Q
i
-derivative terms through use of the transverse force equilibriumeqn (12), thereby
introducing a termN
11
/R
1
+N
22
/R
2
q into H
c
. We now undertake a significant simplification of the results to be obtained by showing that it is, in effect, rational to
neglect the Q
i
-derivative terms in the above in comparison with the Q
i
-terms themselves, as long as E
c
is of the same order of magnitude as G
c
, and as long as it is
assumed that significant changes of stress resultants and couples of the composite shell require distances of an order L which are large compared to 2c, that is, as
long as it is required that the solutions to be obtained are such as to justify the use of a two-dimensional theory. For a proof of the correctness of our statement we
need only observe that with Q
i,j
/o
j
=O(Q
i
/L) the Q
i
-derivative terms in (21) are in fact small of relative order (c/L)2 in comparison with the Q
i
-terms, and so may
rationally be neglected in the expression for H
c
.
Remarkably, it is possible to justify neglect of the Q
i
-derivative terms in the last termof the variational eqn (15) in a manner which is in every way consistent with
*Except for evaluation of theterm in (16). Remarkably, this termreduces to theform2N
12
N
21
+2M
12
M
21
/c2, without any restriction on
themagnitudeof c/R. Our statement hererepresents acorrection of thecorrespondingresult in [2].
Page373
the above. To see this we take account of the moment eqn (11) in order to establish that Q
i
=O(M/L). Fromthis it follows that the Q
i
-derivative terms in the last term
in (15) are in fact small of relative order (c/L)2 in comparison with the M
ii
-terms, consistent with the formulation in [2].
We refrain fromrewriting eqn (15) with the appropriate expressions for H
t
and H
c
, and with the two aforementioned simplifications involving neglect of Q
i
-derivative
terms, and proceed to state the stress strain relations for the composite shell which follow as a consequence of this variational equation
In these we have
While e
11
, e
22
, k
11
, k
22
are the usual expressions for midsurface normal strains and bending strains, the quantities e
12
, e
21
, k
12
, k
21
have no such direct geometrical
significance, whereas e
12
+e
21
and k
12
+k
21
are midsurface shearing strain and twisting strain, respectively.
We make two observations in regard to the formof the stress strain relations (22). The first of these is as follows.
We may use the two equilibriumrelations (14) in order to eliminate e and fromthe expressions for N
12
, N
21
, M
12
, M
21
. When this is done we obtain, except for
terms of relative order c2/R2,
Page374
and therewith
with corresponding expressions for N
21
and M
21
.*
Our second observation concerns the appearance of the terms with k in the two relations involving M
11
and M
22
, and the relation between k and o,m in eqns (22).
We may, in order to eliminate the explicit appearance of the Cosserat-concept fromthe above, proceed as follows. We combine the last equation in (22) with the
simplified version of the Cosserat-type equilibriumeqn (13), in order to obtain the relation k =(M
11
/R
1
+M
22
/R
2
)/E
c
. We introduce this result into the equations
involving M
11
and M
22
in (22) and have therewith as "conventional" stress strain relations
It is evident, as first noted in [2], that there will be significant effects of the transverse normal stress deformability of the core layer on the bending stiffness of the
composite shell whenever E
c
is small enough to result in the order of magnitude relation (tc/R2) (E
t
/E
c
) =O(1).
References
1. P. M. Naghdi, Direct formulation of some two-dimensional problems of mechanics. Proc. 7th U.S. National Congr. Appl. Mech. , 321 (1974).
2. E. Reissner, Small bending and stretching of sandwich-type shells. NACA TN 1832 (1949). (Also NACA Report 975, 126, 1950).
3. E. Reissner. On some problems in shell theory. Proc. 3rd Symp. Naval Struct. Mech. 8794. Pergamon Press, Oxford (1960).
4. E. Trefftz, Ableitung der Schalenbiegungsgleichungen mit demCastigliano's chemPrinzip. Z. f. ang. Math. & Mech. 15, 101108 (1935).
*Wenotethat in theevent that thesecond relation in (14) is replaced by thestatement that M
12
=M
21
weshall then have
and theterms with in theexpressions for N
12
and N
21
will beabsent. Fromthis it follows that (1 +v) (N
12
+N
21
) =C(e
12
+e
21
). and furthermore, with (1 +v) (N
12
N
21
) =C(e
12
e
21
+2e) =
(1 +v) (M
21
/R
2
M
12
/R
1
) wemay eliminatee fromtheexpressions for M
12
=M
21
in such away that, except for terms of relativeorder c2/R2,
Page375
On the Transverse Twisting of Shallow Spherical Ring Caps
[J. Appl. Mech. 97, 101105, 1980]
Introduction
The original aimof this paper was to formulate a nonrotationally symmetric stress-concentration problemfor thin shells which could be solved in closed form, and to
obtain the solution of this problem. It appeared in the course of the analysis that this stress-concentration problemwas also a particularly fitting example for the
application of an asymptotic solution method for unsymmetric shell problems, involving the concepts of interior and edge zone solution contributions and of the
concept of contracted boundary conditions for the separate determination of these contributions, which had been proposed sometime earlier [4].
The problemis as follows. We consider an isotropic shallow spherical shell with the edges defined by two pairs of mutually perpendicular planes perpendicular to a
base plane, with the corners of the rectangle in the base plane which is determined by the two pairs of mutually perpendicular planes coinciding with the corners of the
shell boundary curve. Given this configuration, we assume that the edges of the shell are free of stress, except for the actionof equal and opposite concentrated
corner forces, as indicated in Figure 1. Our object is the state of stress in the shell, without or with a small concentric circular hole at the apex.
Fig. 1.
Page376
It is evident that a limiting case of the foregoing problemis the corresponding problemof a flat plate, with the solution of the problemwithout the circular hole being a
special case of the problemof Saint-Venant torsion of narrow rectangular cross section beams, and with the solution of the circular-hole problembeing included in
solutions by Goodier for a class of transverse plate flexure problems [2].
In the present analysis the plate flexure problemappears upon assuming the value of a certain parameter to be zero. At the same time the asymptotic analysis
corresponding to the procedure described in [4] is appropriate for values of which are large compared to unity. In the interimregion of finite values of it is
necessary to obtain appropriate solutions of the equations of shell theory, which in this instance may be taken fromshallow-shell theory.
Regarding the physical aspects of the problemwe find, as expected, a dominance of bending stresses over membrane stresses in the interior of the shell region. On
the other hand, we also find that for sufficiently large values of we have membrane stresses in an edge zone which are of the same order of magnitude as the
bending stresses in this zone, in such a way that the value of the stress-concentration factor for this problemof transverse bending involves both bending and
membrane stresses in a significant manner.
Equations for Isotropic Homogeneous Shallow Spherical Shells
We consider a shallow spherical shell with middle surface equation z =Hr2/2R, where R is the radius of the shell, H the distance of the apex fromthe base plane of
the shell, and r and u are polar coordinates in the base plane. We assume that the shell is free of distributed surface forces and have then that tangentional stress
resultants N, stress couples M, and transverse stress resultants Q are expressed as follows in terms of a stress function K and a transverse displacement function w,
[3].
Use of appropriate equations of equilibriumand compatibility in conjunction with the foregoing and in conjunction with stress-strain relations of the formc
rr
=
B(N
rr
vNuu), etc., leads to differential equations for K and w of the form
where V2 =( )
,rr
+r1( )
,r
+r2( )
,
uu.
It is readily verified that the solution of the system(4) may be expressed in terms of three functions |, , and _ in the form[4],
provided that
where 4 =1/R2BD.
Page377
We note for what follows as expressions for resultants and couples in terms of |, , and _
and we also note the designations of | and as inextensional bending and membrane (interior) solution contributions, respectively, and the designation of _ as
edge zone solution contribution, with the physical significance of the latter designation depending on an appropriate relation between the length-parameter 1/ and
an appropriate linear dimension of the shell.
The Boundary-Value Problem
We start out with the observation that the classical solution w =Pxy/2(1 v)D for Saint Venant twisting of a flat rectangular plate as produced by an arrangement of
concentrated corner forces P, in conjunction with an assumption of no in-plane stress, that is, in conjunction with the stipulation K =0, also satisfies the differential
equations (4) for shallow spherical shells. Furthermore, this solution of (4) satisfies the same corner force conditions for a spherical cap with otherwise free edges, in
the event that the projection of these edges onto the base plane of the shell happens to be rectangular.
Having the aforementioned simple solution for transverse twisting of a spherical cap, we ask for the way in which this solutionis modified by the presence of a circular
hole of radius a, concentric with the apex of the shell, given that a is small compared to the overall dimension of the cap. Evidently, the boundary conditions for the
edge of this hole are of the form
As regards the boundary conditions along the outer edges of the cap we make the stipulation that for large r we will have a homogeneous state of stress with
Cartesian couple and resultant components M
xy
=P/2, M
xx
=M
yy
=0, Q
x
=Q
y
=N
xx
=N
yy
=N
xy
=0. This is transformed, in an elementary manner, into four
Page378
conditions of the form
Closed-Form Solution
The formof the boundary conditions (14) and (15), in conjunction with the formof the differential equations (4) indicates that suitable expressions for w and K will be
product solutions ](r) sin 2u. Considering that w and K must be as in (5) and (6), and deleting at the outset terms not compatible with the prescribed boundary
condition at infinity, we have then that w and K will be of the form
with four arbitrary constants c
n
, and with the Kelvin functions ker and kei
2
subject to the two ordinary second-order differential equations
In deriving expressions for stress resultants and couples from(16) and (17), it will be convenient to introduce the abbreviations
Therewith, and with (18a, b), we obtain fromequations (1) and (3)
Introduction of (20) to (23) into the boundary conditions (14) then leads to the following set of four simultaneous equations for the determination of the four
Page379
constants of integration c
n
,
where now k
i
k
i
(), etc.
Upon suitable transformations, this systemof equations can be written in a somewhat simpler form. To begin with, equations (24) and (25) are readily shown to be
equivalent to the set1
Having (24') and (25'), we may use (26) and (27) so as to obtain in place of these two equations the set
Before evaluating the system(24') to (27'), it is useful to establish the analytical formof the quantities which are of principal physical interest. These quantities are the
edge values of the couple Muu and of the resultant Nuu. We obtain a particularly convenient formof these expressions by making use of equations (1) and (2), in
conjunction with two of the boundary conditions in (14), so as to have
An introduction of (16) and (17) into (28) gives, with the help of (18a, b).
Having (29a, b) we see, with the help of (24') and (27'), the possibility of the further relations
1 Correspondingto thefact that theconditions N
rr
=N
r
u =0 for r =a can beshown to beequivalent to conditions K =K
,r
=0.
Page380
and it remains only to determine the coefficients c
1
and c
2
fromequations (24') to (27'). We do this by first expressing c
3
and c
4
in terms of c
2
, from(24') and (25'),
in the form
and by then using (26') and (27') in order to obtain the relations
It is possible to simplify the formof (32a, b) somewhat by making use of certain identities involving Kelvin functions of various orders. In this way we obtain,2 upon
introducing (32a, b) into (30a, b), as expressions for the significant edge moment and the significant edge resultant, in terms of zeroth-order Kelvin functions,
where
and
where
Stress-Concentration Factors for Bending Stresses and Membrane Stresses
We define a bending stress-concentration factor k
b
as the ratio Muu(a, t/4)/M
0
where M
0
=Muu(, t/4) =P/2. Therewith k
b
is directly given by the right-hand side
in (33a).
In order to obtain the corresponding membrane stress-concentration factor k
m
, it is necessary to be more specific about the nature of the two-dimensionally isotropic
shell medium. We shall assume in what follows that the shell is homogeneous in thickness direction and have then the relation
2 Seeequations (9.9.14) to (9.9.17) in [1].
Page381
We write further
and therewith obtain from(34a)
Stress-Concentration Factors for Small and for Large Values of
Given that =a = , the limiting case of a flat plate corresponds to the assumption =0. We find, fromequations (33b) and (34b),
that ]
1
(0) =1/4 and ]
2
(0) =0 and therewith from(33a) and (35c),
with this result coinciding, as it should, with Goodier's result for plates, without consideration of transverse shear deformation [2].
For the case of large , corresponding to a shell problemwith distinct interior and edge zone solution contributions use may be made of appropriate asymptotic
formulas. We find, by making use of certain known cross-product expansion formulas3 that
and therewith,
Inasmuch as bending and membrane stresses superimpose the relevant stress-concentration factor for the most highly stressed face of the shell comes out to be, for
sufficiently large values of ,
It may be noted that the numerical values of k for =0 and for = are not greatly different, but that while for =0 the stress concentration is due entirely to
bending, a significant fraction of it is, for 1 <<, due to membrane rather than due to bending action. Numerical values for ]
1
, ]
2
, k
b
, and k
m
, as a function of and
v, may be found in Table 1.
Interior Solution Stresses for Large
The formof the expressions (16) and (17) for w and K indicates that for large values of the effect of the terms with c
3
and c
4
is significant in a narrow edge zone
only and that outside this zone the remaining
3 Equations (9.10.32) to (9.10.34) in [1].
Page382
Table1
k
b
k
m
]
1
]
2 v =0 v =1/3 v =1/2 v =0 v =1/3 v =1/2
0 0250 0 1333 1600 1714 0 0 0
0.1 0.007
0.3 0.036
0.5 0.069
0.8 0.116
1 0.143
2 0.241
3 0.299
4 0.336
5 0.362
0 1.000 1.000 1.333 1.500 0.577 0.544 0.500
expression for w is as if bending occurred without stretching and the remaining expression for K is as if the state of stress of the shell was a pure membrane state.
We obtain information on the state of stress outside the narrow edge zone, and in particular on the relative significance of bending and membrane stresses, by
determining the values of Muu and Nuu in accordance with (16) and (17) and the defining relations (1) and (2), by setting c
3
=c
4
=0 in (16) and (17) and by then
deriving the relations
We evaluate (40a) by taking c
1
fromequation (26), with c
3
and c
4
as in (31) and (32a). Therewith we obtain, except for terms small of higher order
A corresponding evaluation of (40b) leads to the relations
A comparison of (41a, b) with (38a, b) shows that the order of magnitude of the bending stress in the interior is the same as the order of magnitude of this stress in
the edge zone, in such a way that the dimensionless edge zone value 1 +v decreases to a value 1 in the interior. At the same time the interior membrane stress
comes out to be small of relative order 1/2 so that, effectively, the interior state of the shell is a state of inextensional bending.
Direct Asymptotic Solution for Interior and Edge Zone States
We proceed as in [4] to solve the given boundary-value problem, for values of which are sufficiently large compared to unity, through use of equations (5)(13).
Introduction of (7) and (13) into the two sets of boundary conditions (14) and (15) then leaves as conditions for
Page383
the determination of the two harmonic functions | and and of the ''plate on an elastic foundation" function _, for r =a,
with equations (42), (43), and (45) also holding for r =, and with the right-hand side of (44) being replaced by (P/2D) sin 2u for r =.
We now note that when 1 << we have the order-of-magnitude relations,
etc. We use these for an asymptotic solution of the problem, by retaining in (44) and (45) the highest and second highest order-of-magnitude terms in _, (V2_)
,r
and
V2_, only, that is, we replace equations (44) and (45) by the abbreviated equations
An introduction of this into (42) and (43) then leaves as two conditions for the determination of the two harmonic functions | and ,4
Having determined | and , we subsequently determine the associated approximation for the edge zone function _ with the help of equations (48),5 and we use the
results obtained in this way in order to obtain fromequations (8) and (12) as approximate expressions for the relevant edge values of circumferential stress resultant
and stress couple
for r =a.
4Notethat upon writingequations (7)(13) in theform , etc., so as to distinguish between interior and edgezonesolution contributions, equations (49) and (50) areequivalent to the
previously derived contracted boundary conditions for thedetermination of theinterior state[4], of theform .
5Wenotethat theseequations may bewritten, equivalently, as and , for r =a.
Page384
In order to carry out the remaining simple calculations we write, consistent with (16) and (17), in order to assure satisfaction of all conditions at infinity
and we further write
and
We now introduce (52) and (53) into the boundary conditions (49) and (50) and obtain as two equations for the determination of c
1
and c
2
Equations (56) imply, consistent with (32), that
Having c
2
and c
1
as in (57), we obtain C
3
and C
4
from(47) and (48) in the form
and therewith, from(51),
The above expressions for the edge values of Nuu and Muu may be compared with the interior values of these same two quantities, and
, which follow from(52), (53), and (57), consistent with the contents of equation (41).
References
1 Abramowitz, M., and Stegun, J. A., Handbook of Mathematical Tables, Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1965.
2 Goodier, J. N., "The Influence of Circular and Elliptical Holes on the Transverse Flexure of Elastic Plates," Philosophical Magazine, Series 7, 22, 1936, pp.
6980.
3 Reissner, E., "Stresses and Small Displacements of Shallow Spherical Shells-I," Journal of Mathematics and Physics, 25, 1946, pp. 8085.
4 Reissner, E., "A Note on Membrane and Bending Stresses in Spherical Shells," Journal of the Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 4, 1956, pp.
230240.
Page385
On the Effect of a Small Circular Hole on States of Uniform Membrane Shear in Spherical Shells
[J. Appl. Mech. 47, 430431, 1980]
Introduction
In extension of a recent analysis of the problemof stress concentration due to a small circular hole in a transversely twisted shallow spherical shell [1], we consider in
what follows the problemof stress concentration in the same shell which, without the hole, would be in a state of uniformmembrane shear. The method of analysis is
similar to the method described in [1]. However, the nature of the results which are obtained in what follows is significantly different fromthe nature of the results for
the problemof transverse twisting. While for the former problemthe effect of the parameter a2/Rhwhere a is the radius of the hole, R the radius of the shell, and h the
wall thickness of the shelldid not greatly affect the numerical value of the stress-concentration factor, it is found that for the present problemnot just the numerical
value but the order of magnitude of the stress-concentration factor depends on the value of the parameter a2/Rh.
Differential Equations and Boundary Conditions
With polar coordinates r, u in the base plane of the shallow spherical shell with middle surface equation z =H r2/2R, and with the radius of the small circular hole
being at r =a, we have that stress resultants and stress couples may be expressed in terms of a transverse deflection function w and an Airy stress function K, where
w and K are given in the form
In this | and are harmonic functions and _ satisfies the differential equation V4_ +4_ =0, where 4 =1/R2BD. For a shell which is uniformin thickness direction,
so that D =Eh3/12(1 v2) and B =1/Eh, the defining relation for takes on the form4 =12(1 v2)/R2h2.
For the determination of the functions |, , and _ use is made of the boundary conditions of the problem. The condition that at an "infinite" distance fromthe hole the
state of stress is a state of uniformmembrane shear of magnitude S, means that as r approaches infinity, w must tend to zero, and K must approach Sxy =1/2Sr2 sin
2u. The stipulation of a traction-free edge of the hole is expressed by means of the four conditions
Page386
In order to satisfy these conditions, expressions are needed for N
rr
, N
r
u, M
rr
, Q
r
, and M
r
u in terms of |, , and _. These are [1]
For the determination of stress-concentration factors, the edge values of the resultant Nuu and the couple Muu are needed. In view of the formof the boundary
conditions, it is convenient to take these, for an exact solution, in the form
For an asymptotic solution, for large values of the dimensionless parameter a, it is preferable to write Nuu and Muu in the form
Closed-Form Solution
The boundary conditions at infinity indicate that w and K should be products of the form](r) sin 2u. Considering the representation (1) and deleting at the outset
terms which are inconsistent with the existence of a uniformmembrane stress state at infinity, K and w come out to be
In this the c
n
are four arbitrary constants and ker
2
and kei
2
are Kelvin functions.
Having equations (6), it is possible to obtain as edge values of Nuu and Muu, on the basis of equations (4) and (2) and with a,
In view of the relative complexity of determining the constants c
n
, we limit ourselves here to the observation that the results obtained in this way are consistent
Page387
Fig. 1.
with the flat-plate results
and that in the range 1 <<, where the formof the solution (6) indicates the distinction between the "interior" solution contribution, involving the constants c
1
and c
2
and an "edge zone" solution contribution involving the constants c
3
and c
4
, there is consistency with the more simply derived asymptotic results which follow.
Asymptotic Solution for Large Values of
The solution (1) is now written in the form
where we =_, Ke =RDV2_ and, consistent with (6),
In applying the boundary conditions (2) with the help of (3), an asymptotic solution of the problemis obtained by using the fact that when 1 << then _/a =o(_,
r
)
etc. This allows writing the conditions of vanishing edge values of M
rr
and Q
r
+r1M
r
u,u in the asymptotic form
for r =a. A substitution of (11) into the conditions of vanishing N
rr
and N
r
u for r =a then leads to the relations
for r =a. The introduction of (10) into (12) gives
Page388
Having determined | and it remains to determine the asymptotic formof the edge zone solution contribution _, with the help of (11). For this purpose we write as
asymptotic expression for _, consistent with (6),
and as asymptotic expression for V2_
A use of (15) and of the corresponding formula for (V2_),
r
in (11) gives
Having determined c
1
, c
2
, C
3
, and C
4
, we now obtain the relevant values of Nuu and Muu, on the basis of (5). Outside the edge zone these values are
Inside the edge zone we are limiting ourselves here to giving the corresponding values at the edge,
Equations (18a, b) imply as the asymptotic values of membrane and bending stress-concentration factors
The foregoing results are noteworthy for the following reasons:
1 While the state of stress in the shell is, in the absence of a hole at the apex, a pure membrane state, the existence of the hole changes the "interior" state into a state
which is predominantly a state of inextensional bending, in spite of the fact that the loading conditions for the shell involve tangential stress resultants only.
2 The state of stress in the edge zone adjacent to the hole involves membrane and bending stresses of the same order of magnitude. More importantly, as the value of
increases, a more and more pronounced stress concentration occurs, with the stress-concentration factors k
m
and k
b
becoming large
compared to the value "4" of the factor k
m
for the limiting case =0 of a flat plate.
Reference
1. Reissner, E., "On the Transverse Twisting of Shallow Spherical Caps," Journal of Applied Mechanics, 47, 1980, pp. 101105.
Page389
A Note on the Linear Theory of Shallow Shear-Deformable Shells*
[J. Appl. Math. Phys. 33, 425427, 1982]
Introduction
The starting point of what follows in an earlier consideration of the equations of linear shallow shell theory including the effects of transverse shear deformability and of
moment components normal to the shell surface [2]. Given the relatively greater technical importance of the first-named effect, and given certain recent advances in
the formulation of the problemof shear-deformable plates [3], we now undertake a reconsideration of the appropriate special case of the results in [2], in such a way
that the final formof the equations of this tenth-order theory shell theory contains both the eighth order classical results, and the sixth order theory of shear-
deformable plates as special cases. While we limit consideration to the problemof shells which are two-dimensionally homogeneous and isotropic it will be apparent
that analogous results may be obtained without these assumptions of homogeneity and isotropy.
Basic Equations
We have as equilibriumequations of linear shallow shell theory
and we take stress strain relations in the form
with corresponding expressions for c
22
,
2
and M
22
. Equations (1) to (5) are complemented by strain displacement relations,
with corresponding expressions for c
22
,
2
, k
21
, k
22
.
In the above z =z(x
1
, x
2
) represents the middle surface of the shell, the u
i
and w are tangential and transverse displacement components, the u
i
are rotational
displacements, the N
ij
and Q
i
are tangential and transverse stress resultants and the M
ij
are stress couples.
*With F. Y. M. Wan.
Page390
We note that while the transverse component w and the tangential components N
ij
are effectively equivalent to base plane perpendicular and parallel components,
respectively, there is no such equivalence for the transverse components Q
i
and the tangential components u
i
.
Reduction of Differential Equations
We satisfy (1) in terms of an Airy stress function by setting
and we note that (6) and (7) imply a compatibility equation of the formc
11,22
(c
12
+c
21
)
,12
+c
22,11
+Lw =0 where
Therewith, and with (4), we obtain as one of three differential equations governing the problemof the shallow shear-deformable shell, the same as in the theory
without transverse shear deformability,
In order to obtain the remaining two differential equations we begin by combining (5) and (7) in the form
with a corresponding expression for M
22
, and we use (11), in conjunction with (3), so as to have
Equations (12) evidently imply the relation (1 ADV2)(Q
1,1
+Q
2,2
) =DV2V2w and this, in conjunction with (2), (8), and (9), gives as the second of three differential
equations
We may note, as before [2], that equations (10) and (13) in conjunction with (12) have earlier been given by Naghdi [1], and that it remains to reduce the twelfth
order system(10), (12), and (13) to one of tenth order. We here accomplish this reduction, essentially as in [2] and in [4 (p. 52)], by the introduction of a function _
with defining relation
Having (14) we obtain from(12) as differential equation for _, and as the third differential equation of the systemof three,
where it remains to express the quantities Q
i
and M
ij
in terms of w, K and _. We accomplish this by deducing from(2), in conjunction with (8) and (9),
Page391
Q
1,11
=Q
2,21
(LK +q)
,1
and therewith V2Q
1
=(Q
1,2
Q
2,1
)
,2
(LK +q)
,1
, with a corresponding expression for V2Q
2
. This, in conjunction with the defining relation
(14) then gives, with the further defining relation
in place of equations (12),
and in place of equations (11)
where we can, with the help of (13), replace V2v by V2w +A(LK +q) and in this way avoid the appearance of fifth derivatives of w in the expressions for Q
i
.
We recover the previously known results for shear-deformable plates upon setting L 0, and for shells with absent transverse shear deformability upon setting A
0 and therewith _ 0.
References
[1] P. M. Naghdi, Note on the equations of shallow elastic shells. Quart. Appl. Math. 14, 331333 (1956).
[2] E. Reissner and F. Y. M. Wan, On the equations of linear shallow shell theory. Studies Appl. Math. 48, 133145 (1969).
[3] E. Reissner, On the theory of transverse bending of elastic plates. Intern. J. Solids Structures 12, 545554 (1976).
[4] S. Lukasiewiecz, Local loads in plates and shells. PWN-Polish Scientific Publishers (1979).
Page392
A Note on Two-Dimensional Finite-Deformation Theories of Shells
[Int. J. Non-Linear Mech. 17, 217221, 1982]
Introduction
In what follows we are concerned with a simplification and extension of two-dimensional shell theory as previously considered in [1].
Our simplification has to do with the avoidance of an a priori assumed implicit relationship between components of force strain and tangent vectors to the deformed
shell surface. Our extension has to do with a description of the state of moment strain in a way which involves a symmetric treatment of two rotational displacement
measures for the description of rotations about the two mutually perpendicular surface tangent vectors, without a participationin this of the one rotational
displacement measure which describes rotation about the normal vector to the shell surface.
Vectorial Equilibrium Equations and Virtual Strain Displacement Relations
We consider an undeformed surface in space with equation r =r(
1
,
2
), where
1
and
2
are orthogonal coordinates, with linear element ,
and we write =(
1
,
2
) for the equation of the corresponding deformed surface. We write N
i
and M
i
for stress resultant and stress couple vectors associated
with the deformed shell surface and p and q for surface force and moment load intensity vectors, in accordance with Figure 1. We then have as equations of force
and moment equilibrium
As in [1] we obtain virtual strain displacement relations for force strain vectors e
i
and moment strain vectors k
i
in terms of virtual translational and rotational
displacement components o and o| through use of the virtual work equation
in the form
where it is permissible to write o(
,i
) in place of (o)
,i
in (4a), with no equivalent exchange in (4b) inasmuch as we do not necessarily have the existence of a function
| in association with the o| in (4).
Page393
Fig. 1.
Derivation of Scalar Strain Displacement Relations
Given the radius vectors r and to the undeformed and the deformed surfaces, we introduce, in association, two triads of mutually perpendicular unit vectors (t
1
, t
2
,
n) and (T
1
, T
2
, N). In this t
1
and t
2
are tangent vectors to the coordinate curves on the undeformed surface and n the corresponding normal vector, but no
corresponding stipulation is made in relation to the triad (T
1
, T
2
, N), so that the determination of and of T
1
, T
2
and N is part of the problemof the shell.
In order to derive scalar strain displacement relations fromthe vectorial virtual relations (4) we now take (oe
i
and ok
i
in the form
and we write
,i
in the form
with the choice of a
ij
and b
i
remaining to be made.
In addition to the defining relations (5) and (6) we further define virtual triad vectors oT
i
and oN in terms of the virtual rotational displacement vector o| in the form
Page394
The introduction of (5a), (6) and (7) into (4a) leaves, after some cancellations,
and therewith oa
ij
=oe
ij
and ob
i
=o
i
.
Considering the fact that when =r and therewith
,i
=o
i
t
i
we will have e
ij
=0 and
j
=0 we conclude that the derived relations involving the virtual strain
components oe
ij
and o
i
are equivalent to relations involving actual strain components e
ij
and
i
of the form
consistent with the a priori expression for
,i
in [1] and in [2].
In order to derive corresponding relations involving scalar moment strain components fromequation (4b) we make use of the fact that equation (7) implies as
expression for o|
and we write as expressions for the derivatives of T
i
and N
Introduction of (10), (11) and (5b) into (4b), with (oT
i
)
,j
=o(T
i,j
), etc. leaves, after some cancellations
and therewith ok
ij
=o(1/r
ij
) and o
i
=o(1/s
i
).
In order to derive fromthese relations involving virtual moment strain components relations involving actual moment strain components, we use in addition to the
differentiation formulas (11) the Gauss-Weingarten formulas
Inasmuch as k
ij
=0 and
i
=0 for coincident triads (T
i
, N) and (t
i
, n) we have then on the basis of (11) and (13) as relations involving the moment strain components
k
ij
and
i
,
with the possibility of deriving from(9) and (14), in conjunction with (6) and (11), a systemof six scalar compatibility equations, as in [1], without the need for an
explicit consideration of translational and rotational displacement measures.
Page395
In order to derive expressions for moment strains involving three scalar rotational displacement measures we here proceed as follows.
We first define two mutually perpendicular vectors , depending on two parameters |
i
, in the form
where | =|
1
|
2
/2 and .
We then define N through the relation which gives
and we finally define T
i
with the use of a third scalar rotational measure e in the form
where B2 =1 +e2.
Having equations (16) and (17) we may use equations (14) and (15) in order to derive expressions for 1/r
ij
and 1/s
i
, and therewith in accordance with (14) for k
ij
and
ij
, in terms of |
1
, |
2
and e. We will, in this note, limit ourselves to a derivation of such results for the case of small finite deformations, up to and including first
and second degree terms in |
i
and e and their derivatives.
With a restriction to second and no higher-degree terms equations (16) and (17) assume the following form:
Having (16') we have further,
and then, with (17a'), up to and including second degree terms,
so that
Page396
Expressions for the remaining k
ij
and
i
come out to be in an analogous manner,
Expressions for force strains e
ij
,
i
may be deduced, in terms of translational and rotational displacement components, by writing
,i
=r
,i
+u
,i
with, for example, u =
u
i
t
i
+wn, with this leading to expressions of the form
where and represent the corresponding expressions of linearized theory, in accordance with equations (14) and (15) in [1]. We note that as far as the solution
of specific boundary value problems is concerned it may be of greater utility to determine, rather, the displacement vector u, in terms of force strain and rotational
displacement components, by suitably integrating the two relations u
,i
=o
i
[(o
ij
+e
ij
)T
j
+
i
N t
i
].
References
1. E. Reissner, Linear and non-linear theory of shells. Thin Shell Structures (Sechler Anniversary Volume) pp. 2944. Prentice Hall, New York (1974).
2. J. G. Simmonds and D. A. Danielson, Non-linear shell theory with finite rotation and stress-function vectors. J. Appl. Mech. 39, 10851090 (1972).
Page397
Some Problems of Shearing and Twisting of Shallow Spherical Shells
[Proc. Intern. Conf. Comp. Mech., pp. I.3I.12 Springer Verlag, 1986]
Summary and Introduction
The present account has four separate purposes. The first of these is a concise rederivation of some results for two problems of stress concentration in shallow
spherical shells due to the effect of a circular hole, or rigid insert. Aside fromtheir numerical significance these results have a special analytical significance for shell
theory, for the following reason. They involve the asymptotic analysis of shell problems for which the interior solution contribution is not either of the membrane type
or of the inextensional bending type, but is such that a far-field membrane solution goes into a near-field inextensional bending solution, or vice versa, with a transition
region in which membrane stresses and bending stresses are of the same order of magnitude. Of particular interest is that this kind of interior solution complexity is
associated with stress concentrations which are an order of magnitude higher than analogous concentrations which are encountered for related problems with interior
solution contributions which are of the membrane type, or of the inextensional bending type, throughout.
The results as described above were obtained in 1980 [69, 11], in extension of earlier considerations in 1956 [3], 1959 [4] and 1967 [12, 13]. We here propose to
high-light the indicated aspects, independent of other aspects of the more comprehensive earlier considerations.
The second purpose of the present account is a complementation of the linear-theory formulation in [69] by a statement, in dimensionless form, of the associated
finite-deflection problems. On the basis of this formulation we describe a perturbation analysis for the effect of small finite deflections on the values of the factors of
stress concentration, including interaction effects which are due to nonlinearity.
Our third purpose is to use the nondimensional nonlinear shallow spherical shell equations for the solution of a problemof buckling due to membrane shear, to the
extent of deriving formulas for the critical stress and for the wavelength of the associated wrinkles, in accordance with the classical elementary theory of buckling,
(without here considering the associated problemof initial post buckling behavior and imperfection sensitivity, in analogy to the corresponding analysis for the problem
of uniformsurface pressure, as considered by John Hutchinson, and by the writer [5]).
We conclude by a formulation of the bifurcation problemassociated with the effect of a systemof equal and opposite transverse forces applied to the corners of a
square-based shell with edges which are otherwise traction free. We discuss, in particular, results for the associated special-case problemof a square plate, as
considered by Lee and Hsu with the use of a finite-difference method within the
Page398
framework of the present formulation [1], and by Ramsey within the framework of an elastic Cosserat surface theory [2], with widely differing numerical results.
Linear-Theory Equations for Isotropic Homogeneous Shallow Spherical Shells
Assuming the absence of distributed surface loads the differential equations for an Airy stress function K and for the transverse deflection w are
In this R is the radius of the shell, and V2 =( )
,rr
+r1( )
,r
+r2( )
,
uu, D =Eh3/l2(1 v2), C =1/Eh, and the associated expressions for stress resultants and couples in
terms of K and w are the same as those for the limiting case 1/R =0 of a circular plate.
The solution of (1) can be written, effectively as in [3], in the form
where
with | and being inextensional bending and membrane solution contributions, and with _ being an edge zone solution contribution, for shell problems in the range of
parameter values which is associated with the possibility of such behavior.
Elementary Solutions for Transverse Twisting and Membrane Shearing
These elementary solutions are
The associated expressions for stress couples and resultants are
Boundary Conditions for the Problems of a Circular Hole or Rigid Insert
We have as conditions at the edge of a circular hole of radius r =a,
where R
r
=Q
r
+M
r
u,u/r, and at the edge of a rigid insert of radius r =a,
Conditions at the outer boundary r = are, for the problemof membrane shear,
and for the problemof transverse twisting
Page399
The nonhomogeneous portions of (8) to (11) indicate that all solutions of (1) which are here needed will be of the form
Fromthe four problems in accordance with (8) to (11) we here consider two only, these being the effect of a hole on the otherwise uniformstate of membrane shear,
and the effect of a rigid insert on the otherwise uniformstate of transverse twisting. In connection with the latter problemwe have as expressions for the tangential
displacement components u
r
and uu, consistent with formulas derived in [4],
Boundary Conditions Written in Terms of |, and _
With the introduction of a dimensionless coordinate =r/a, and in terms of a parameter
we have from(8) and (2) as conditions at the boundary =1 of a hole
The corresponding conditions at the boundary =1 of the rigid insert follow from(9), (13) and (14) in the form
We omit an analogous rewriting of the conditions for =, and shall instead use (10) and (11) directly.
Asymptotic Boundary Conditions
It follows fromthe formof the differential equations in (3) that as long as we stipulate that differentiation with respect tou leaves orders of magnitude unchanged, the
same is the case for differentiation with respect to , insofar as the solution contributions | and are concerned. In contrast to this, the relation V4_ +4_ =0, with
_
,
u =O(_), implies that _
,
=O(_) and V2_ =O(2_).
Page400
Accordingly we have that when 1 << equations (15c, d) are asymptotically equivalent to
The introduction of (18) into (16a, b) leaves as a systemof two conditions for | and
when =1. It is evident from(18) and (19a, b) that when 1 << the simultaneous determination of |, and _ in accordance with (16ad) becomes in effect a
sequential determination, with the interior solution contributions | and being obtained first and the edge zone solution contribution _ following subsequently, in
terms of the results for |, with the second relation in (18) now being, effectively, of the form(V2_)
,
=0.
The corresponding reduction of the rigid-insert conditions (17ad) proceeds even more simply, as follows. It is concluded from(17c, d) that, necessarily, _ =O(|),
and therewith V2_ =O(2|) and (V2_)
,
=O(3|) in (16a, b). This means that, except for terms of relative order 1/, (17a, b) is equivalent to the set of relations
for =1, with _ again being determined subsequently, on the basis of the two conditions
for =1.
Effect of a Circular Hole for the Problem of Membrane Shear
Given the boundary conditions for = in (10) and (11), with T =0, we have as appropriate choices of , | and _ in accordance with (3) and (12)
and, with ,
The introduction of (22) in (19a, b) gives
The introduction of |
2
, with c
2
as in (24), into the reduced formof (18) gives
Page401
With this and with (2) we have as expressions for K
2
and w
2
With Nu =a2K
,
we obtain from(26) for the ''interior" values of that stress resultant which is responsible for the membrane stress concentration at the edge of the
hole
The corresponding quantity at the edge of the hole is, when 1 <<,
Equations (29) and (28) imply a membrane stress concentration factor k
m
=2/2, in agreement with the result in [7], and consistent with the numerical results for the
full range of -values in [11].
The corresponding circumferential stress couple values follow from(27) in the form
With o
b
=6M/h2 and with o
0
=S/h we then have from(31) a bending stress concentration factor , again in agreement with the results in
[7] and [11].
With equations (28) to (31) it is now possible to make the following qualitative statements.
(i) Stresses in an edge zone 1 << <
e
, where
e
=1 +O(1/), are such that the membrane stress o
m
decreases rapidly fromits edge value o
0
2/2 to o
0
. At the
same time the bending stress o
b
decreases slightly, from to .
(ii) The interior domain
e
<s is subdivided into three sub-regions, a "near field" region, a "far field" region and a transition region, as follows. When
e
< <<
1/2 then o
m
<<o
b
, and we have inextensional bending. When 1/2 <<s then o
b
<<o
m
and we have membrane behavior. When =O(1/2) then o
m
and o
b
are of the same order of magnitude.
It is evident that the far field membrane behavior of the shell is a consequence of the boundary conditions for =. It is not evident, but may be concluded fromthe
analysis, that the condition of no edge tractions for =1 "forces" an adjacent portion of the interior domain into a state of inextensional bending. Apparently, this
"conflict" between far field and near field behavior is responsible for a much enhanced stress state in the edge zone, with membrane and bending stress concentration
factors which are both O(2), in contrast to the flat plate results k
m
=4 and k
b
=0.
Effect of a Rigid Insert for the Problem of Transverse Twisting
The boundary conditions (10) and (11), with S =0, and with |, and _ as in (2) and (3) are
Page402
satisfied upon stipulating
The introduction of (32a, b)( into (20a, b) gives
The introduction of (32a), (33) and (34) into (21) gives
With this, and with (3), we now have
With M
r
=Da2[(1 v)|
,
+_
,
], except for terms of relative order 1/, we have from(36)
With N
r
=a2(1K
,
+2K
,
uu) we have from(37), except for terms of relative order 1/,
Equation (38) implies a bending stress concentration factor k
b
=2/2(1 v).* Equation (40) gives, with o
0
=3T/h2, a membrane stress concentration factor
, consistent with the results in [8] and [9].
With (38) to (40) we now make the following qualitative statements, analogous to the statements made for the problemof the effect of a hole on the state of
membrane shear.
(i) In the edge zone 1 s <
e
, where
e
=1 +O(1/), o
b
decreases fromo
0
2/2(1 v) for =1 to o
0
for =
e
. The value of o
m
does not
change.
(ii) The interior domain is again subdivided into a near field
e
< <<1/2, a far field 1/2 <<s, and a transition region =O(1/2). In the near field we now have
o
b
<<o
m
, and in the far field o
m
<<o
b
, in contrast to the reverse relations for the problemof the effect of a hole on the state of membrane shear.
It is again evident that the far field behavior is a consequence of the boundary conditions for =. It is now concluded fromthe analysis, again with no clear physical
advance insight, that the condition of no edge displacements when =1 forces the adjacent portion of the interior domain into a state of membrane stress, with this
conflict between near field and far field behavior being responsible for an
*Consistent with theresult in [9], which corrects an earlier formulawith 1 +v in placeof 1 v in [8].
Page403
enhanced stress state in the edge zone, compared with the stress state for the case of a flat plate, for which K
b
=4/(1 v) and k
m
=0.
Finite Deflection Effects
The effect of small finite deflections is introduced into equation (1) by replacing the zeros on the right hand side by quantities L(w, K) and L(w, w)/2, respectively,
where L(w, K) =[w
,xx
K
,yy
+w
,yy
K
,xx
2w
,xy
K
,xy
]R =[(r1w
,r
+r2w
,
uu)K
,rr
+(r1K
,r
+r2K
,
uu)w
,rr
2(r1w
,r
u r2w
,
u)(r1 K
,r
u r2 K
,
u)] R in the sense of von Karman and
Marguerre.
A dimensionless formof the ensuing systemof nonlinear equations, which is appropriate in the present context, follows upon introducing independent variables =
_/a, q =y/a, =r/a, and dependent values ] and g in the form
With as in (15) and with the additional parameters
we then have as a dimensionless nonlinear generalization of (1)
with the possibility of perturbation expansions
It is evident that the homogeneous differential equations for the zeroth order terms in the expansions (46), with the nonhomogeneous boundary conditions (10) and
(11), represent the linear uncoupled version of the results associated with either one of the two loading conditions which are here considered. The subsequent
determination of first and higher order terms depends on the solution of systems of nonhomogeneous differential equations, withhomogeneous boundary conditions,
and with a coupling of the effects of the loads S and T.
Given the formal expansions in (46) for the solutions of (44) and (45) there remains the question of the range of c-values, in their dependence on the value of , for
which such expansions are practical. A reasonable expectation is that the procedure will be feasible, when =O(1), as long as c
t
=O(1) and c
s
=O(1). A wider
range of admissable c-values may be surmised when 1 <<, on the basis of the following argument. We may expect, as for the linear problem, interior and edge
zone solution contributions. For the interior solution contributions we will have, effectively, expansions in powers of c/2 in place of the expansions in powers of c.
For the edge zone solution contribution, with a radial edge zone of width a/, we will have that the left hand sides in (44) and (45) are O(c4) while, in view of the
polar coordinate formof L(], g), the right hand sides will be O(c23). Accordingly,
Page404
as long as c =O(1), the right hand sides will be of order 1/ relative to the left hand sides, and asymptotically negligible in first approximation, with the possibility of
meaningful expansions for second and higher order approximations, in powers of c/.
Given the above qualitative discussion of expansion procedures in the context of the indicated three-dimensional parameter space, we here briefly mention the effects
of a fourth parameter which becomes part of the problemupon incorporation of the effect of transverse shear deformability into the equations for shallow shells. An
analysis of the linear-theory problemof the shallow spherical shell with a circular hole, for the two loading conditions considered in the foregoing, may be found in
[10].
Shear Wrinkling of Spherical Shells
We consider a problemof buckling due to membrane shear in spherical shells, as follows. The stipulation g
s
=q +k, ]
s
=], c
s
=c and ]
t
=g
t
=0, with
subsequent linearization of (44) and (45) in terms of k and ], reduces these equations to the form
Inasmuch as we anticipate that we will be concerned, primarily, with wrinkles caused by the principal compressive stress we stipulate at the outset a buckling mode
, . The introduction of this into (47) leads to the relation (o2c)o2 +4o4 =0 for the determination of a critical value
c
c
and a critical wave length parameter o
c
. Setting cc/co2 =0 we find and c
c
=2
2
. With c as in the second relation in (43) and as in (15), and with o
c
=
t, we then obtain as expressions for a wrinkling half wave length a
c
and for the associated stress t
c
It remains to complement these classical linear-theory results by considerations of initial postbuckling behavior and imperfection sensitivity, in analogy to the earlier
analysis of the mathematically related problemof the effect of radial pressure [5].
Finite Transverse Twisting Due to Corner Forces
We consider a shell with edges defined by =1, and q =1 and with the corners (1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1), (1, 1) acted upon by an equilibriumsystemof forces T,
with the solution of the linear version of the problemas in (4).
Given equations (44) and (45) we have that a dimensionless formulation of the nonlinear version of this problemfollows, with vanishing c
s
, ]
s
, g
s
, and upon omitting
the subscript t, fromthe system
with edge conditions
Page405
for =1 and q =1, respectively, and with corner conditions
Writing, in a manner which is consistent with (46)
we then have, from(49) and (50)
etc., with (51) and (52) satisfied by the expansions in (54) termby term, and with the corner conditions (53) understood to require ]
1,
q =]
2,
q =0, etc.
While the expansions in (54) contain even and odd powers of c for both ] and g, when = 0, the case =0 of a flat plate is special, inasmuch as for this case ]
2n+1
=g
2n
=0, so that (52) and (53) reduce to the formV4g
1
=1, V4]
2
=2g
1,
q, with the next two equations following from(49) and (50) as V4g
3
=]
2,
q and V4]
4
=
L(]
2
,g
1
) g
3,
q.
Given the possibility of expansions as in (54) it remains to be seen up to what values of c it is practical to obtain solutions in this way. Independent of this, there is the
question concerning the existence of a smallest critical value c
c
for which solutions which evolve continuously as c increases fromzero bifurcate for c =c
c
. If we
designate the continuously evolving functions ] and g which are associated with c
c
by ]
c
and g
c
and if we write ] =]
c
+u and g =g
c
++ for the determination of
c
c
by means of a characteristic value problemwe will have from(49) and (50) as a linear systemof buckling differential equations
with edge conditions for u and + in accordance with (51) and (52), and with the homogeneous corner conditions u,q(1, 1) =0.
The special case =0 of this problemhas been considered by Lee and Hsu [1] by the method of finite differences. The numerical results in [1] include the relations
c
c
~ 10 and o
c
=w
c
(1, 1) w
c
(0, 0) ~ 4h, for the case v =0. The number of subdivisions which were used in [1] was thought to be sufficient to make the value of o
c
reliable, but insufficient to make the value of c
c
entirely reliable, with the given data suggesting that the actual value of c
c
might be larger by about ten percent.
An alternate analysis of the problemby Ramsey [2] "using the restricted formof Naghdi's nonlinear shell theory, along with kinematic results of Green and Naghdi for
superposed small deformations on a large deformation of an elastic Cosserat surface" includes numerical results which may be written in the form
and o
c
~ 0.75h.
References
1. Lee, S. L.; Hsu, C. S.: Stability of saddle like deformed configurations of plates and shallow shells. Int. J. Non-Lin. Mech. 6 (1971) 221236.
2. Ramsey, H.: A Raleigh quotient for the instability of a rectangular plate with free edges twisted by corner forces. J. Mec. Theor. & Appl. 4 (1985) 243256.
Page406
3. Reissner, E.: A note on membrane and bending stresses in spherical shells. J. Soc. Ind. Appl. Math. 4 (1956) 230240.
4. Reissner, E.: On the determination of stresses and displacements for unsymmetrical deformations of shallow spherical shells. J. Math. & Phys. 38 (1959) 1635.
5. Reissner, E.: A note on postbuckling behavior of pressurized shallow spherical shells. J. Appl. Mech. 37 (1970) 533534.
6. Reissner, E.: On the transverse twisting of shallow spherical ring caps. J. Appl. Mech. 47(1980) 101105.
7. Reissner, E.: On the effect of a small circular hole on states of uniformmembrane shear in spherical shells. J. Appl. Mech. 47 (1980) 430431.
8. Reissner, E.: On the influence of a rigid circular inclusion on the twisting and shearing of a shallow spherical shell. J. Appl. Mech. 47 (1980) 586588.
9. Reissner, E.; Reissner, J. E.: Effects of a rigid circular inclusion on states of twisting and shearing in shallow spherical shells. J. Appl. Mech. 49 (1982) 442443.
10. Reissner, E., Wan, F. Y. M.: On the effect of a small circular hole in twisted or sheared shallow shear deformable spherical shells. J. Appl. Mech. 53 (1986)
597601.
11. Reissner, J. E.: Effects of a circular hole on states of uniformtwisting and shearing in shallow spherical shells. J. Appl. Mech. 48 (1981) 674676.
12. Wan, F. Y. M.: Membrane and bending stresses in shallow spherical shells. Intern. J. Solids Structures 3 (1967) 353366.
13. Wan, F. Y. M.: On the displacement boundary value problemof shallow spherical shells. Intern. J. Solids Structures 4 (1968) 661666.
Page407
On a Certain Mixed Variational Theorem and on Laminated Elastic Shell Theory
[Refined dynamical theories of beams, plates and shells, Proc. Euromech Coll. 219, pp. 1727, 1987]
1
Summary and Introduction
We are concerned in this paper with the derivation of a two-dimensional systemof shell equations by means of the direct methods of the calculus of variations, for an
elastic layer the material of which is non-uniformin thickness direction. We have on earlier occasions considered this problemfor transversely isotropic layers with
uniformmaterial properties in thickness direction, by means of the classical variational theoremfor displacements [1], as well as by means of a variational theoremfor
displacements and stresses [3, 4].
We now consider the problemof the non-uniformshell, in particular the problemof the laminated shell, as the problemof a three-dimensional an-isotropic elastic
layer, through use of a variational equation which has recently been established for displacements and transverse stresses [6, 7]. In connection with this equation we
note in particular that by its use we avoid the necessity of making approximations for stresses which may be discontinuous functions of the thickness coordinate,
because of material property discontinuities, while retaining the capability of using approximate expressions for stresses which must be continuous in thickness
direction.
Among the results which are obtained in what follows we mention in particular those which concern the effects of transverse shear and normal stresses, for layers with
material properties which are not symmetric about the middle surface of the shell.
2
Strain Displacement Relations and the Variational Equation for Displacements and Stresses in Three Dimensions
We use lines of curvature coordinates on the middle surface of a layer of thickness 2c, with a third coordinate , along the normals to the middle surface. The element
of volume which is associated with this orthogonal systemof coordinates is given by the expression
with o
1
and o
2
as the coefficients of the linear element and R
1
and R
2
as the principal radii of curvature of the middle surface.
Page408
For this coordinate systemwe have as components of normal and shearing strain, in terms of displacement components U
1
, U
2
, U,, the expressions
with corresponding expressions for c
2
and
2
,.
Given the above components of strain, in conjunction with the corresponding components of stress o
i
, t
12
, t
i
,, o,, we have as the volume integral portion of the
functional which enters into the variational theoremfor displacements and stresses
with the function W being the complementary energy density and with the constitutive equations of the layer being
Given I
SD
as in (5), with c
i
,
12
,
i
,, c, as in (2) to (4), the variational equation oI
SD
=0 has, with arbitrary variations oo
i
, ot
12
, ot
i
,, oo,, oU
i
, oU,, as Euler
equations the six stress displacement relations in (6) together with the three (homogeneous) differential equations of force equilibrium.
We do not, in what follows, make use of the variational equation oI
SD
=0 in connection with the problemof deriving two-dimensional shell equations. We note
instead that earlier work of this nature which was based on a generalization of the functional I
SD
, so as to have a moment equilibriumcondition o
12
=o
21
as
additional Euler equation of the variational equation [4], should be considered superceded by what follows, even for the problemof the layer with material properties
which are uniformin thickness direction.
3
A Variational Equation for Displacements and Transverse Stresses
A wish to avoid the complications of having to approximate the discontinuous distributions of membrane and bending stresses in laminated shells, coupled with a wish
to avoid the necessity of having to obtain the associated transverse stresses fromquantities which involve differentiations with respect to the thickness coordinate,
suggests the formulation of a variational equation for displacements and transverse stresses, as follows. We change the character of the first three relations in (6)
fromthat of Euler equations to constraint equations and we consider these three constraint equations solved in the form
Page409
With this we define a semi-complementary energy density through the Legendre transformation
with (8) implying the systemof inverted constraint constitutive relations
The introduction of W from(8) in I
SD
in (5) results in a new functional
which is such that the variational equation oI
TSD
=0 has, with arbitrary variations ot
i
,, oo,, oU
i
, oU, and with the constraint equations (9) and (2) to (4), a system
of Euler equations consisting of the three constitutive relations
in conjunction with the three (here homogeneous) equations of equilibriumfor stress.
In connection with the intended applications of this variational equation for transverse stresses and displacements we have, as previously noted [7], that when W is of
the form
where W
2
is homogeneous of the second degree and W
1
homogeneous of the first degree in terms of the arguments o
i
, t
12
then the three constraint equations (6)
become a systemof linear equations for o
i
, o
2
and t
12
, of the form
and the semi-complementary energy V in (8) becomes
In this W
0
remains as in (12) and the arguments o
i
and t
12
in W
2
are now functions of c
i
,
12
, t
i
,, o,, in accordance with (7).
For the special case of a transversely isotropic material with
Page410
We have, on the basis of (13) and (14)
For the general linear case for which, in addition to the indicated homogeneity properties for W
2
and W
1
, we further have that W
0
is homogeneous of the second
degree, the semi-complementary energy function V will be of the form
upon determination of the coefficients E
ij
and F
ij
in terms of the corresponding coefficients in W
2
and W
1
by means of (13). We note that in order to make the
foregoing result applicable to cases of body forces in the equilibriumequations for stress it is necessary to add in the defining relation (10) for I
TSD
a termP(U
i
, U,),
with for problems of simple harmonic motion.
4
Derivation of a System of Two-Dimensional Shell Equations
We proceed on the basis of an assumption that we may obtain a rationally approximate two-dimensional theory of laminated shells without considering the effect of
material changes in thickness direction on the nature of the dependence of the components of displacement on the thickness coordinate ,. Accordingly, we here
stipulate as approximations
In regard to these approximations we note in particular the fact that their use in conjunction with the variational equation oI
TSD
=0 will, in a natural way, introduce
stress resultants and stress couples into the two-dimensional theory which is to be established. We furthermore note that for many purposes the approximation U, =
w(
1
,
2
) will be adequate but that the more flexible approximation as in (19) will make possible some observations of interest.
With (19) we next write, on the basis of (2) to (4)
and
Page411
In this
with corresponding expressions for c
22
, c
21
, k
22
, k
21
, and
In association with this we stipulate as approximations for components of transverse stress
and
together with normalization conditions
for the even functions ]
e
, g
e
and the odd functions ]
0
, g
0
. We need, at this stage, to be no more specific concerning the formof the functions ] and g. We note,
however, the possible choices
or, as none of the traction conditions for , =c are constraint conditions, even more simply
We know that for a transversely uniformshell a choice of ]
e
as in (28), in conjunction with a stipulation S
i
=0 in (25) will be appropriate, whereas for a sandwich-
type shell with uniformcore and thin facings, and with material properties which make non-transverse core stresses negligible, a choice as in (29) is preferable [5].
We next write the variational equation oI
TSD
=0, with the indicated supplementary function P, in the form
Page412
and in this introduce c
i
,
12
,
i
,, c,, U
i
, U,, t
i
,, o, from(19) to (21), (25) and (26). We further write as a systemof two-dimensional constraint constitutive relations,
on the basis of the three-dimensional relations in (9),
and we observe that, as a consequence of (25) to (27)
and
Finally, we write analogously
With this equation (30) takes on the form
The arbitrariness of oQ
i
, oS
i
, oT, oK in (35) implies as Euler constitutive equations
and
Page413
The arbitrariness of ou
i
, o|
i
, ow, o, in conjunction with equations (22) to (24), implies as Euler equations of equilibrium
Equations (38) and (39) are the conventional force and moment equilibriumrelations. Equation (40) is not a third moment equilibriumcondition but, rather, a relation
showing the dependence of the transverse normal stress measure T on the stress couples M
11
and M
22
and on the rates of change of the antisymmetric transverse
shear stress measures S
i
, similar to an earlier result for sandwich shells, with S
i
=0 because of a material symmetry assumption [5].
Satisfaction of the third moment equilibriumequation
is assured as a consequence of the formof the constitutive relations (31).
Conventional Theory
We are left with a systemof ''conventional" shell equations upon stipulating at the outset that =0 in (19). With this the seventh equilibriumequation (40) does not
arise and furthermore we have
i
=0 in (36) and =0 in (37). In this connection we note specifically that the associated constitutive relations remain a part of the
conventional theory, so as to account rationally for the deformational effects of the transverse components of stress in shells with significant material unsymmetries
relative to their middle surfaces.
5
Two-Dimensional Constitutive Relations for Transversely Isotropic Shells
The introduction of V from(17) and of the expressions for strain from(20) and (21) and for stress from(26) into (31), and the neglect of terms of relative order c/R
leads to the
Page414
following systemof relations
with
Analogously we have from(32) and (33)
with
The following observations may be made in regard to this systemof constitutive relations.
(i) The approximation =0 in (48) implies the relation
The effect of the termwith C
QS
in (48'), for shells for which G is not an even function of ,, may not have been considered previously.
(ii) The special case =C
TT
T of equation (49) in conjunction with k
11
and k
22
in accordance with (23), and in conjunction with the equilibriumequation (40), with
S
i
=0, has previously been encountered in the analysis of sandwich-type shells [5].
(iii) When C
2
= 0 then the assertion that, in first approximation, the strain energy is the sumof the stretching and of the bending strain energy does not apply.
(iv) Equations (43) and (45) are consistent with the recommendation in [2] to allow for the non-negligibility of terms (c
12
c
21
)/R
i
while considering terms
Page415
(c
12
+c
21
)/R
i
as negligible, the same as terms c
11
/R
i
and c
22
/R
i
which could have been retained in (42) and (44).
6
On Two-Dimensional Constitutive Relations for the General Linear Case
With V as in (18) the most general linear systemof constitutive relations comes out to be, on the basis of equations (31), (36) and (37), of the symbolic form
in conjunction with a relation ](c
kl
, k
kl
, Q
k
, S
k
, T, K) =0 which comes from(37). We will here not concern ourselves with consequences or special cases of this
result except for noting the possibility of a first-order importance of transverse shear stress effects, in connection with the analysis of shells of such construction that
some or all of the coefficients F
11
, F
12
, F
21
, F
22
in equation (18) do not vanish.
References
1. Hildebrand, F. B., Reissner, E. and Thomas, G. B., Notes on the Foundations of the Theory of Small Displacements of Orthotropic Shells, NACA Technical
Note No. 1833, 1949.
2. Koiter, W. T., A Consistent First Approximation in the General Theory of Thin Elastic Shells, IUTAM Symp. on Thin Elastic Shells, pp. 1233, North-Holland
Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1960.
3. Reissner, E., Stress-Strain Relation in the Theory of Thin Elastic Shells, J. Math. & Phys. 31, 109119 (1952).
4. Reissner, E., On the Formof Variationally Derived Shell Equations, J. Appl. Mech. 31, 233238 (1964).
5. Reissner, E., On Small Bending and Stretching of Sandwich-Type Shells, Intern. J. Solids Structures 13, 12931300 (1977).
6. Reissner, E., Reflections on the Theory of Elastic Plates, Appl. Mech. Rev. 38, 14531464 (1985).
7. Reissner, E., On a Mixed Variational Theoremand on Shear-Deformation Plate Theory, Intern. J. Num. Math. Engg. 23, 193198 (1986).
Page416
On Finite Axi-Symmetrical Deformations of Thin Elastic Shells of Revolution
[Computational Mechanics 4, 387400, 1989]
1
Introduction
In what follows we return once more to the problemof formulating a systemof two simultaneous second order ordinary differential equations for the analysis of finite
torsionless axi-symmetrical deformations of thin elastic shells of revolution, including the effects of transverse shear deformation and of membrane drilling moments.
Given the existing literature on this subject, the reasons for the present paper may be described as follows.
We generalize a previously used procedure for the problemof plane deformations of plane beams (Reissner 1972b) so as to have a new and more transparent
derivation of our analogous earlier results (Reissner 1969, 1972a) for the shell-of-revolution problem.
We show that the introduction of a certain semi-complementary energy density function leads to a particularly simple formof the two simultaneous second order
equations, as well as to a particularly simple variational formulation of the torsionless axi-symmetrical finite deformation problemof the shell of revolution.
The foregoing general considerations are complemented by a consideration of some aspects of the problemof formulating linear constitutive relations, by
consideration of some critical comments (Naghdi and Vongsarnpigoon 1985; Schmidt and DaDeppo 1975) on an early version (Reissner 1950) of the finite-
deformation analysis of the shell-of-revolution problem, and also by a consideration of some recent concerns (Koiter 1980; Simmonds 1975) with an elimination of
lateral-contraction effects fromthe basic systemof two simultaneous second order differential equations.
Finally, we introduce the effect of transverse normal stress deformability and we show that this leads to a systemof three simultaneous second order equations, in
place of the two equations without the effect of transverse normal stress deformability.
2
Kinematics of Shell Element
We consider an arc length element ds of the meridians of the undeformed shell-of-revolution surface, with r =r(s) and z =z(s) as parametric equations. We designate
the associated tangent angle by |, and write r' =cos | and z' =sin |, with the primes indicating differentiation with respect to s.
Due to deformation the radial distance r(s) is changed into r(s) +u(s) and the elevation z(s) is changed into z(s) +w(s). At the same time, the tangent angle | is
changed into | +, and the arc length ds of the undeformed meridian curve is
Page417
Fig. 1.
Sideview of shell element beforeand after deformation.
changed into (1 +e) ds such that
For the purpose of a kinematic account of the effect of transverse shear deformability we consider the tangent angle change to be composed of two parts,
In this the angle | represents the change, due to deformation, of the material normals to the meridian curves, and the angle q is a measure of the effect of transverse
shear deformability, as indicated in Figure 1.
3
Dynamics of Shell Element
We complement the meridional arc length coordinate s by a circumferential angular coordinate u and we consider an undeformed surface element r du ds which is
deformed into an element (1 +e)(r +u) duds. For this deformed element we introduce stress resultants and stress couples as forces and moments per unit of
undeformed length, and body forces and body moments as forces and moments per unit of undeformed area. We further stipulate that the meridional membrane
stress resultants N
s
and the meridional transverse shear stress resultants Q are perpendicular and tangential, respectively, to the deformed material surface normal
(and not tangential and perpendicular, respectively, to the deformed meridian curves, except when q =0). The stress resultants N
s
and Q are complemented by a
circumferential membrane stress resultant Nu, parallel to the base plane of the shell. With these three stress resultants, and with radial and axial body force
Page418
Fig. 2.
Sideview of deformed shell element, showingorientation of stress resultants,
stress couples, and load intensity components.
components p
r
and p
z
we have as axial and radial component equations of force equilibrium
In order to write the associated equation of moment equilibriumwe introduce meridional bending stress couples M
s
and circumferential bending stress couples Mu.
While, evidently, the axis about which M
s
turns coincides with the direction of Nu we stipulate that the axis about which Mu turns coincides with the direction of N
s
, in
accordance with Figure 2. For the sake of mathematical symmetry we introduce a drilling stress couple P, the axis of which coincides with the direction of Q. The
stress couples M
s
, Mu and P are complemented by body moments m and with these we read fromFigure 2 as equation of moment equilibrium
4
Strain Displacement Relations
Given the six stress resultants and stress couples N
s
, Nu, Q, M
s
, Mu, P we postulate the existence of six associated strain resultants and strain couples c
s
, cu, , ku,
, with these measures of strain and of stress being
Page419
conjugates via an equation of virtual work of the form
We use (6) for the purpose of obtaining virtual strain displacement relations, by eliminating p
r
, p
z
and m by means of (3)(5), and by then integrating by parts so as to
eliminate derivatives of stress resultants and couples, as well as the boundary terms on the right. Inasmuch as the remaining relation can then be considered to be valid
for arbitrary N
s
, Nu, Q, M
s
, Mu, P we arrive at the following systemof virtual strain displacement relations
The step fromthese virtual relations to actual relations is an obvious one for Eqs. (9a, b) and (10a, b), as follows
The determination of c
s
and is less simple and is carried out as follows. We write, on the basis of (1a, b)
and we use these two relations to eliminate ou' and ow' in (7) and (8). The subsequent observation of (2) then gives
with these two virtual relations implying as actual relations
In order to deduce expressions for c
s
and in terms of u, w and | we first deduce from(1) and (2), in conjunction with (17a, b), that
A consideration of (18) and (19) as a systemof two simultaneous equations for c
s
and then gives as expressions for the remaining two strain resultants c
s
and
Page420
5
Compatibility Equations
The first, and froma practical point of view most significant compatibility equation follows from(18) in conjunction with (11a) in the formof a relation which is not a
compatibility equation in the usual sense of the word. Evidently, an introduction of u from(11a) into (18) gives the relation
Equation (22) becomes a true compatibility equation upon making use of (11b) and (12b) in order to transform(22) into
Two additional compatibility equations follow from(11b) and (12a, b) in the form
Given the three first order compatibility equations (23)(25) we note, for historical reasons, that they are equivalent to two equations, one of the first order and one of
the second order, without appearance of the strain couple . With taken from(23) the second order equation evidently follows from(25). We omit listing this
second order equation which, upon stipulating that =0, coincides with a special case of a corresponding relation in (Koiter 1966). We will, however, list the
remaining first order equation which follows from(24) in the form
and we note that an earlier observation in (Reissner 1969) that the generally non-negligible termk
s
on the right of (26) had not been taken account of in Koiter
(1966), appears to be not well known.
6
Constitutive and Variational Equations
Given the conjugacy of the stress resultants and couples in (3) to (5) relative to the strain resultants and couples in (11), (12), (20) and (21) we have as a systemof
constitutive equations for elastic shells
Given the virtual work equation (6) we expect, and readily verify, the possibility of a variational equation for displacements in the event that the six relations in (27)
are specialized so as to read, in terms of a strain energy density function U(c
s
, cu, , k
s
, ku, ; s)
If we limit ourselves, as we shall do in this account, to the consideration of problems with displacement-independent load intensity functions p
r
, P
z
, and m then the
formof this variational equation is
with the boundary condition functional I
b
depending on the nature of the prescribed boundary conditions.
Page421
The fact that for most problems in shell theory it is of practical advantage to have strain resultants expressed in terms of stress resultants instead of the other way
around suggests the formulation of a variational equation for displacements and stress resultants, as follows. We invert the first three of the six relations in (28) so as
to have
and we define a semi-complementary energy density function V(N
s
, Nu, Q, k
s
, ku, ; s) through the partial Legendre transformation
in terms of which
The introduction of (31) into (29) results in a variational equation of the form
In this we now have the strain displacement relations, in conjunction with the partial set of constitutive relations
as constraint conditions and, in view of the fact that now ou, ow, o| and oN, oNu, oQ are arbitrary, the complementary set of constitutive relations (32) as well as
the differential equations of equilibriumas Euler equations.
For completenessake we also list, in connection with our analysis in (Reissner 1963), the variational equation for displacements, stress resultants and stress couples
which obtains upon inverting all six of the constitutive relations in (28) and upon introducing a conventional complementary energy density function W(N
s
, Nu, Q, M
s
,
Mu, P; s) through the complete Legendre transformation
in terms of which
and with which we then have as a canonical variational equation for displacements, stress resultants and stress couples
We finally note that a change of the character of the strain displacement relations fromconstraint equations to Euler equations, in the sense of Hu and Washizu, is
again possible, as is a deduction fromthis of a variational equation for displacements and strain resultants and couples, uponchanging the character of the constitutive
Page422
relations fromthat of Euler equations to constraint equations.
7
The General Two Simultaneous Second Order Equation Form of the Problem, and the Associated Variational Equation
We here proceed as in earlier less general considerations to reduce the (pseudo) compatibility Eq. (22), in conjunction with the moment equilibriumEq. (5) to a
systemof two simultaneous second order differential equations. Of particular interest, in connection with the present reduction, is the fact that the step to greater
generality has as a consequence a result of unexpected simplicity.
In order to accomplish the proposed reduction we introduce alongside the angular displacement variable | a stress function variable
and we integrate the axial force equilibriumequation (3) in the form
where . With (39) and (40) we have then that
and the introduction of (39) into the radial force equilibriumequation (4) gives
With (41)(43) and with (11b) and (12a, b) the semi-complementary energy density function V, as defined in (31) and (30), may be seen to depend entirely on |, |',
_, _' and s.
In order to reduce (22) and (5) to two simultaneous equations for | and _ we now proceed as follows. We first conclude from(32) in conjunction with (43), from
(35) in conjunction with (12a), and with V(N
s
, . . .) =V* (_', |', _, |; s), that
The appearance of (44a, b) suggests that we next endeavour to obtain expressions for cV*/c_ and cV*/c|, with this being the crucial step in the derivation of the
simple general result of our analysis. Again with V as in (30) and (31), and now with N
s
and Q as in (41) and (42), k
s
and as in (11b) and (12b), and with c|
cos(| +|) and s| sin(| +|) we then have
Page423
The introduction of (45) and (44a) into (22) gives as the first of the two simultaneous equations for _ and |
The introduction of (46) and (44b), in conjunction with a use of the relation (1 +e) (N
s
sin q Q cos q) =N
s
(1+c
s
)Q which follows from(17a, b), into (5) gives as
the second of the two simultaneous equations
With N
s
, Q and Nu given directly in terms of the solutions _ and | of (47) and (48) we recall that determination of M
s
, Mu and P requires the use of (31) in
conjunction with (11b) and (12a, b), and that determination of the translational displacements u and w may be accomplished by means of the relations
which follow from(11a) and (19).
Given the differential equations (47) and (48) it is possible to derive a variational equation which has these as Euler equations, as follows. We depart from(34) with V
as in (31), with Nu, N
s
, Q as in (41)(43) and with cu, c
s
, as in (11a), (20) and (21). In this we eliminate derivatives of u and w by integrations of part. In this way
we arrive at a variational equation of the form
with arbitary o_ and o| and with a suitable combination of I
b
and of the boundary terms which come fromthe indicated integrations by part.
8
The Two Simultaneous Second Order Equations for Sheardeformable Two-Dimensionally Isotropic Shells with Linear Constitutive Equations
We stipulate
where A, B, D and v are given functions of s.
Page424
We now have, with N
s
, Q and Nu as in (41)(43) and with k
s
and ku as in (12a) and (11b) as expressions for the various V-derivative terms in (47) and (48)
The introduction of (52) and (54) into (47) leaves as the first of the two simultaneous equations for _ and |,
The introduction of (53) and (55) into (47) gives as the second of the two equations for _ and |
As regards these two somewhat formidable appearing simultaneous differential equations we note the following.
(i) The terms having A and B as factors in Eq. (57) come fromconsidering the terms c
s
QN
s
alongside the termQ in the condition of moment equilibrium. They are
here included, it is believed for the first time, because they are a natural consequence of the compact equations (48) and (51). It is questionable whether there are
problems of practical interest concerning thin shells where these terms would ever play a significant role. They must, however, be considered as long as one wishes to
have the possibility of dealing with problems where c
s
and/or would come out to be order of magnitude unity.
Page425
(ii) The terms with v on the left sides of (56) and (57) may be transformed as follows
As regards the presence of these terms in equations (56) and (57), a case has been made by (Simmonds 1975), that it would be legitimate to omit these terms
altogether within the range of validity of the present theory with this conclusion subsequently having been supported in (Koiter 1980). In light of this concern in
(Simmonds 1975) and (Koiter 1980) it seems worth stating that when there is no s-independence of v, A and D these terms must certainly be retained, as may be
seen most easily on the basis of an inspection of Eqs. (56) and (57) for the linear-theory case of a flat plate for which (56) and (57), with | =0 and r =s, reduce to
the uncoupled form1
(iii) Given the remarkably compact and symmetrical appearance of (47) and (48), for all possible choices of the semi-complementary energy density function V it is
tempting to conjecture that whatever simplication of these equations would be physically reasonable should consist entirely in a modification of the formof this
function V. For example, if there are reasons to expect that N
s
and Q are small compared to Nu, and ku small compared to k
s
, so that , Eqs. (56)
and (57) would appear in a greatly simplified form. An a posteriori validation of the appropriateness of this simplication would then consist in deducing reactive values
of Q and N
s
in terms of the values of _ and | as obtained on the basis of the simplified problemfromEqs. (41) and (42), and to show that these are in fact small
compared to the values of Nu which follow from(43), with a corresponding a posteriori verification concerning the stipulated smallness of ku.
(iv) A recently proposed (Simmonds and Libai 1987) simplified version of the two simultaneous differential equations for | and _, subject to an assumption of small
strain and subject to the further assumptions that =0, A' =0 and D' =0, suggests a comparison with the corresponding version of (56) and (57), for simplicity's
sake with p
r
=0 and N
z
=0.
We have from(56)
1For an exampleof thequantitativesignificanceof theterms with v weconsider Eq. (60) with p
r
, =0, N
z
=0, Nu =_', rN
s
=_, in theinterval a s r s, for thecaseA =A
o
(r/a)m, N
s
(a) =N
s
(a) =
N
o
and N
s
() =0. It is readily established that thesolution of this problemcomes out to be_ =N
o
a (r/a)p with and therewith N
s
/N
o
=(r/a)p1 and Nu =pN
s
.
When m =0 wehavep =1, for all values of v. When m =2 wehave and therewith p(0) ~ 2.41 and p(1/2) =2.73, which indicates asignificant quantitativeeffect of the
Poisson's ratio term.
Page426
and from(57)
The corresponding equations in Simmonds and Libai (1987) are
Aside fromthe non-occurrence of the terms with v in (62) and (63) we see that the termr1[sin(| +|) sin |] cos(| +|) in (63) is replaced by the |-independent
termr1 sin | in (65), while the termr1_cos2(| +|) in (62) is replaced by a termr1_ in (64). Given the present direct two-dimensional analysis we here do not have
the possibility of order of magnitude considerations in connection with admissable strain energy properties as in (Simmons and Libai 1987) and we think therefore
that it may be preferable in the analysis of specific problems to use (62) and (63) in place of (64) and (65), in particular inview of the statement in (Simmonds and
Libai 1987), that there is ''no proof that the terms which we neglect will have a negligible influence on the solution of the equations; rather we merely assert that our
simplifications are consistent with those that are unavoidable in any first-approximation theory that adopts an uncoupled quadratic strain energy density in which
transverse shear strains are ignored."
9
Historical Comments
With the history of the linear-theory problemof axi-symmetric deformations of shells of revolution being securely associated with the names of H. Reissner and E.
Meissner we here limit ourselves to an outline of the developments concerning the corresponding finite-deflection problem.
The first attempts towards a non-linear formulation of the symmetric shell of revolution problemis thought to be due to V. I. Feodosiev (1945). The approach in
Feodosiev (1945) is to depart fromthe two simultaneous H. Reissner-Meissner equations, by way of a reference to a Swedish monograph which appeared in 1933,
with the introduction of the finite-deflection effect depending on a replacement of the angle | in the coefficients of the two simultaneous second order differential
equations of the linear theory by the corresponding tangent angle | +| for the deformed shell.
Without awareness of (Feodosiev 1945) it subsequently occurred to the present author that the symmetrical finite-deflection problemof the shell of revolution should
be treated as a problemof finite (meridional) bending of a systemof variable cross section beams resting on an elastic (circular ring) foundation, and that, proceeding
in this fashion, it would be possible to establish directly a finite-deflection analogue of the linear H. Reissner-Meissner formulation, without needing to consider a then
non-existent general finite-deflection theory of elastic shells. A first report on this analysis, including the derivation of all relevant strain displacement and equilibrium
equations, but without reduction of the problemto two simultaneous second order differential equations, was completed in time for it's publication in a particularly
appropriate volume (Reissner 1949). The derivation of the two simultaneous differential equations, as well as of a number of significant consequences therefrom, was
shown shortly therafter in (Reissner 1950).
Page427
With the analysis in (Reissner 1949, 1950) having been subject to the classical constraint hypothesis of undeformed middle surface normals being deformed into
normals to the deformed middle surface we subsequently reconsidered the problemof deriving strain displacement relations without this constraint hypothesis in
(Reissner 1963). Additionally, in place of the formally unrelated derivation of strain displacement equations and equilibriumequations in (Reissner 1949, 1950) we
derived in (Reissner 1963) a formally consistent systemof equilibriumequations, based on an appropriate version of the finite-elasticity variational theoremfor
stresses and displacements in (Reissner 1953). The principal consequence of this alternate approach is, as already suggested in (Reissner 1950), that the variationally
consistent stress resultants and couples had to be understood as forces and moments per unit of undeformed length measured along lines on the middle surface of the
shell, in place of the earlier definitions of forces and moments per unit of deformed length.2
We returned to the finite symmetrical deflection problemof the shell of revolution problemagain in (Reissner 1969), for a simpler and more direct derivation of the
results in (Reissner 1963) and also for the purpose of incorporating into the theory the effect of a drilling moment P. In this derivation an assumption of small strain
was made and while direct geometrical considerations were again employed for a rederivation of the strain displacement relations in (Reissner 1963) the now
required supplementary definition of a drilling strain couple was accomplished through an appropriate virtual work consideration. A subsequent brief note (Reissner
1972a) showed that "removal of the restrictive assumption of small strain is a relatively simple matter" but did not concern itself with the problemof the two
simultaneous second order differential equations. Instead we used the insights gained in (Reissner 1969, 1972a) for an ab initio analysis of the finite-strain problemof
plane deformations of originally plane beams (Reissner 1972b), with virtual work instead of geometric derivations of all strain displacement relations, and with
emphasis on the concept of force-deformational effects in beamtheory.
Given the analysis in (Reissner 1972b), the present account of the symmetric shell of revolution problemrepresents a long planned ab initio analysis of this latter
problem, in complementation of the work in (Reissner 1969, 1972a).
10
A Comment on Linear Constitutive Relations
An earlier observation in Reissner (1972b) on the subject of transverse shear deformation effects for a problemof circular ring buckling suggests the following
observations concerning the formulation of constitutive relations.
2Theindicated differencemanifests itself by way of theappearanceof aterm[(1 +cu)rM
s
]' in placeof theterm(rM
s
)' and of aterm(1 +c
s
)Mu in placeof Mu in Eq. (5), with corresponding
modifications in (3) and (4). Given that thethought occurs that thesecond termon theright might not always benegligiblecompared to thefirst termso
that it might not always besafeto assumethat [(1 +cu)rM
s
]' is effectively equivalent to (rM
s
)' as had been donein (Reissner 1950). Whileno examples of application areknown wheretheabove
has been of importance, this formal difficulty with theanalysis in (Reissner 1950) is herementioned in light of thefact that it has twicebeen commented upon in theliterature, in (Schmidt and
DaDeppo 1975) and in (Naghdi and Vongsarnipigoon 1985). Inasmuch as theanalysis in (Reissner 1963) disposed of this difficulty, onemay regret that neither of thetwo criticisms referred to the
analysis in (Reissner 1963), or to therelated later developments in (Reissner 1969, 1972a).
Page428
While the semi-complementary energy function V in (51) implies the linear relations
an inspection of Figure 2 suggests that we might have, equally well or perhaps even more appropriately, stipulated a systemof physically linear relations of the form
In transforming (67a, b, c) into expressions for c
s
, cu and in terms of N
s
, Q and Nu we here limit ourselves to an assumption of small strain with e and q related to
c
s
and , as a consequence of (17a, b), in the form
The introduction of (68) into (67a, b, c) then gives, except for terms which are small of higher order
or, equivalently,
Equations (70a, b, c) are, as they should be, consistent with the existence of a stress resultant portion V
R
of the semi-complementary density function V. It is readily
verified that when
(70a, b, c) is consistent with (32).
Furthermore, (70c) is consistent with a beamtheory relation =BQ/(1 +BN) ~ BQB2QN in (Reissner 1972b), which had there been stated, on the basis of an
implied order of magnitude stipulation that A <<B.
11
An Analysis of the Deformational Effect of Transverse Normal Stress
Given the surface-theoretical concepts of stress and strain in accordance with Figures 1 and 2 we now introduce, in accordance with Figure 3, a transverse normal
stress measure T in conjunction with a supplementary anti-symmetrical transverse shear stress measure S, and an antisymmetric transverse load intensity measure q.
In order to take account of these three additional dynamic variables in a statement of a generalization of the virtual work Eq. (6) we further introduce additional
conjugate strain measures c
t
and and an additional conjugate displace-
Page429
Fig. 3.
Visualization of transversenormal stress measureT, antisymmetric transverseshear
stress measureS, and antisymmetric transverseload intensity measureq.
ment measure . With the help of these we add a term
on the right of Eq. (6).
In order to make use of the augmented virtual work equation it is necessary to stipulate appropriately modified equilibriumrelations or appropriately modified strain
displacement relations We here decide, in contrast to the procedure utilized in the analysis without the effects of transverse normal stress deformation, to stipulate
appropriately modified strain displacement relations involving the supplementary displacement variable .
An inspection of Figures 13 suggests that the strain resultant components c
s
, cu and , and the strain couple component should be unaffected by . At the same
time, the strain couple components k
s
and ku should now be of the form
As regards the formof the additional strain measures c
t
and we stipulate, on the basis of Figure 3, the relations
Page430
With (11a), (12b), (20), (21), (66a, b) and (67a, b) we then deduce fromthe augmented virtual work equation a systemof four differential equations of equilibrium,
as follows. The two force equilibriumequations (3) and (4) remain unchanged. The moment equilibriumequation (5), with e and q as in (17a, b), is changed and now
involves the displacement variable ,
An additional fourth equilibriumequation comes out to be of the form
The above kinematic and dynamic modifications require associated constitutive modifications. The introduction of the supplementary strain measures c
t
and leads to
a supplementation of the six constitutive relations in (28) by two relations of the form
The eighth order problemas stated in equations (3), (4), (11a), (20), (21), (28), and (66)(70) can be reduced, as follows, to a surprisingly symmetric sixth order
form.
We again introduce a semi-complementary energy function V, in accordance with (31), and we again observe (32) and (35), with the latter three relations now
supplemented by two relations of the form
We again make use of the stress function representations in (41)(43) and we again use the pseudo-compatibility relation (22), now in conjunction with the modified
moment equilibriumequation (74), for a re-derivation of the two fundamental second order Eqs. (47) and (48). We then use the supplementary equilibriumEq. (75)
in conjunction with (77) and (72a, b) to derive a third second order differential equation, as follows.
We conclude from(77) and (73b) that
and we conclude from(72a, b) and (73a), in conjunction with (35) and (77), that
The introduction of (78) and (79) into (75) gives as the third of three simultaneous second order equations the remarkably harmonious relation
Given the sixth order system(47), (48) and (80) we add the following observations.
(i) The variational Eq. (50) which has (47) and (48) as Euler equations will also have (80) as Euler equation upon introductionof the terms with and ', in
accordance with (76) and (77), and upon adding a termrq to the integrand in (50).
Page431
(ii) We have the physically rational possibility of a reduced fourth order problemfor the analysis of transverse normal stress deformation effects, by assuming that the
deformational effect of S is negligible. Negligibility of the effect of S means the non-occurrence of the argument in the energy density functions U and V. Equation
(80) then reduces to the zeroth-order formcV*/c =q, which determines as a function of |, |', _ and _'. The introduction of this into (47) and (48) results in
the indicated fourth order systemincluding the effect of transverse normal stress deformation.
(iii) The foregoing analysis of the effect of transverse normal stress deformation is consistent with our earlier analysis, within the framework of infinitesimal deformation
theory, of the problemof sandwich-type shells by way of an exact solution of a suitably idealized layer problem(Reissner 1977), and of the problemof arbitrarily
laminated shells by way of an approximate solution through use of a variational theoremfor displacements and transverse stresses (Reissner 1987).
References
Feodosiev, V. I. (1945): Large displacements and stability of a circular membrane with fine corrugations. Prikl. Mat. Mekh. 9, 389412 (in Russian).
Koiter, W. T. (1966): On the nonlinear theory of thin elastic shells. Proc. R. Netherlands Acad. Sci. B69, 152.
Koiter, W. T. (1980): The intrinsic equations of shell theory with some applications. Mech. Today 5, 139154, Pergamon Press.
Naghdi, P. M.; Vongsarnpigoon, L. (1985): Some general results in the kinematics of axi-symmetrical deformation of shells of revolution. Q. Appl. Math. 43, 2336.
Reissner, E. (1949): On the theory of thin elastic shells. In: Contributions to applied mechanics (Reissner anniversary volume), pp. 231247. Ann Arbor/MI: J. W.
Edwards.
Reissner, E. (1950): On axi-symmetrical deformations of thin shells of revolution. Proc. Symp. Appl. Math. 3, 2752.
Reissner, E. (1953): On a variational theoremfor finite elastic deformations. J. Math. & Phys. 32, 129135.
Reissner, E. (1963): On the equations for finite symmetrical deflections of thin shells of revolution. In: Progress in Applied Mechanics (Prager anniversary volume),
pp. 171178. New York: MacMillan
Reissner, E. (1969): On finite symmetrical deflections of thin shells of revolution, J. Appl. Mech 36, 267270.
Reissner, E. (1972a): On finite symmetrical strain in thin shells of revolution. J. Appl. Mech. 39, 11371138.
Reissner, E. (1972b): On one-dimensional finite strain beamtheory: the plane problem. Z. Angew. Math. Phys. 23, 795804.
Reissner, E. (1977): On small bending and stretching of sandwich-type shells. Int. J. Solids Struct. 13, 12931300.
Reissner, E. (1987): On a certain mixed variational theoremand on laminated elastic shell theory. In: Elishakoff, I.; Irretier, H. (eds.) Refined dynamical theories of
beams, plates and shells and their applications. Proc. Euromech. Colloq. 219. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer, pp. 1727.
Schmidt, R.; DaDeppo, D. A. (1975): On finite axi-symmetric deflections of circular plates. Z Angew. Math. Mech. 55, 768769.
Simmonds, J. G. (1975): Rigorous expunction of Poisson's ratio fromthe Reissner-Meissner equations. Int. J. Solids Struct. 11, 10511056.
Simmonds, J. G.; Libai, A. (1987): A simplified version of Reissner's nonlinear equations for a first-approximation theory of shells of revolution. Comput. Mech. 2,
15.
Page433
VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES
As far as I remember, my first exposure to the use of variational methods came froman assignment to consider the effective width problemof beams with wide
flanges, on the basis of von Karman's least work analysis of this problem. Von Karman's results and the method of analysis evidently had been of considerable
interest to Timoshenko, as he devoted several pages to it in his Theory of Elasticity which had appeared just then. Somewhat later, I used the theoremof least work
for a Rayleigh-Ritz type analysis of the related problemof shear lag in box beams [24], together with Francis Hildebrand of the problemof the flanged built-in
cantilever as a problemof plane stress [27], and of the problemof three- dimensional corrections for the two-dimensional theory of plane stress [30].
After having seen the usefulness of the theoremof least work for approximate reductions of the dimensionality of three different two- and three-dimensional problems
it occurred to me to inquire what a similar approach would accomplish for the derivation of a two-dimensional theory of transverse bending of plates. The outcome of
this were the equations of the 6th order theory of shear-deformable plates in [36].
With four applications of a variational theoremfor stresses, and with the knowledge of Kirchhoff's use of a variational theoremfor displacements for a fourth order
theory of plates, I became interested in seeing what I could do using the displacement theorem. It seemed natural that the first such effort should be a reconsideration
of the box beamshear lag problem[43]. A judicious choice of displacement approximations showed that there could in fact be certain advantages in the use of the
displacement principle, in place of the stress principle. This insight was then utilized, with the help of my friends Hildebrand and Thomas, for the formulation of a
procedure to derive two-dimensional plate and shell theories of varying orders [57].
Having used the variational theoremfor stresses and the variational theoremfor displacements, I began to wonder whether this had to be an either-or proposition.
The first consequence was a generalization of the variational theoremfor stresses, to make this theoremapplicable to linear problems of simple harmonic motion [52].
The possibility of this generalization depended on the simultaneous introduction of stress and displacement variations, which had to be interdependent to retain the
dynamic constraint stipulations.
With the concept of interdependent stress and displacement variations, a natural next step was to think about the possibility of a variational theoremwith independent
stress and displacement variations. Once that question was asked in this fashion, a quite simple answer was found, essentially by experimentation with various
possible combinations of terms, first within the framework of geometrically
Page434
linear elasticity [66], and subsequently for the general case [84] in terms of Green-Lagrange strains and Kirchhoff-Piola stresses.
Soon afterwards, my friend Washizu, who at that time was spending two years at M.I.T., came one day to my office to say that he had a variational theoremwith
independent variations not only of stresses and displacements, but also of strains, in such a way that not only equilibriumand stress-strain, but also strain displacement
relations came out as Euler equations. I first objected that since only stresses and displacements would be encountered in the boundary conditions of problems, it was
not natural to consider strain displacement relations in ways other than as defining relations. I was, however, soon persuaded that the "three-field" theoremwhich
Washizu, and independently Hu, had proposed was a valuable advance which I wished I had thought of myself.
Some years later, in 1963, I eventually had another good idea. I asked what would happen if one considered the symmetry property of the stress tensor not as a
definition but as an explicit consequence of moment equilibrium, in such a way as to have the moment equilibriumequations as Euler equations of a variational
theorem, the same as the force equilibriumequations [149]. I submitted the answer to this question, within the framework of a two-field as well as a three-field
variational theorem, as a brief note to a journal which had a special section for such notes. The manuscript was returned to me with the opinion of two referees who
thought this result to be "somewhat trivial" and "a complication rather than a simplification."
Having to submit the note to a second journal caused some delay in its publication. The usefulness of the thought became eventually apparent, in particular through
Frayes de Veubeke's publication in 1972 of a deeper result for geometrically non-linear elasticity in terms of Biot stresses, and through work by TomHughes in 1988
on drilling degrees of freedom.
I then lost interest in variational principles, except in connection with their use for the exact or approximate solution of various specific problems, until 1982, when
Satya Atluri suggested that I write an article on the subject for a planned finite-element handbook. I declined at first, saying that I had been away fromthis field for
too long. However, after reconsidering I accepted, with the idea that it would perhaps be a good experience to collect once more one's thoughts about an area of
work that had been personally meaningful for quite a time, a long time ago. The article appeared in print in 1987 [258] and it did, I believe, throw additional light on
some aspects which before had not been understood as well as I had hoped.
Re-thinking old thoughts sometimes leads to new results. Mine included a generalization of Leonard Herrmann's theoremfor incompressible or nearly incompressible
materials [242], an alternate approach to Frayes de Veubeke's 1972 theorem[243, 248], and after that what might be called a one and-a-half field theoremfor
displacements and transverse stresses, intended for use with problems of laminated plates and shells [241, 256]. Finally, Satya Atluri and I jointly formulated a five-
field theorem, with independent pressure and volume change variations in addition to the variations of displacements, distortional strains and deviatoric stresses
[266].
Page435
Note on the Method of Complementary Energy
[J. Math. & Phys. 27, 159160, 1948]
In the following lines we propose to show that the well known minimumprinciple for the stresses in the theory of elasticity (the principle of minimumcomplementary
energy) may be extended in such a way that it applies to dynamic as well as to static problems. While the proof of this extended principle is quite simple, we have not
been able to find a statement of it in the literature. The subject is considered in quite a different way in a recent paper by H. M. Westergaard.1
We do not here intend to give the most general theorempossible2 but rather restrict attention to problems in which loads, stresses and displacements are simple
harmonic functions of time. We use the customary engineering notation for stresses (o, t) and displacements (u, v, w), and omit the common time factor cos et in all
equations of the theory. (In so doing we exclude consideration of materials with non-linear stress strain relations).
We have as differential equation of equilbriumin the x-direction
and two corresponding equations for equilibriumin the y and z-directions. As in the static case, which corresponds to e =0, we have a stress energy function W
which is determined by the relations
where the components of strain e
x
,
xy
etc. are appropriately expressed in terms of the stresses o
x
, t
xy
etc., but are not at this stage required to satisfy the equations
of compatibility.
We further introduce a kinetic energy function K given by
If we assume for simplicity's sake that on the entire surface of the body we have prescribed stresses then the extended theoremmay be formulated as follows.
Theorem
Among all states of stress and displacement which satisfy the differential equations of equilibriumin the interior of the body and the condition of prescribed stress on
the surface, the state of stress which also satisfies the compatibility relations
1On theMethod of Complementary Energy. Proc. American Soc. Civil Engs., February 1941, pp. 199227.
2Such generalizations should also includethethree-dimensional theory of elastic stability.
Page436
for strain is determined by the variational equation
Proof
We have
According to (2) the compatibility relations are equivalent to
The conditions that stresses and displacements satisfy the differential equations of equilibriumare of the form
with corresponding equations involving ov and ow.
We put (5) into (4), integrate by parts, and take into account that because of the conditions of prescribed surface stress we have three relations of the form
so that the remaining surface integrals vanish. Eq. (4) then assumes the form
The right hand side of (8) vanishes because of (6) and thus the theoremis proved.
Remark
As for the problemof statics a more general formof the theormstates that if over a part S
1
of the surface the stresses are prescribed while over the remaining part S
2
the displacement components have prescribed values , , then the appropriate variational equation is
where p
x
, p
y
and p
z
are the unknown x, y and z-components of the surface stress.
Page437
On a Variational Theorem in Elasticity
[J. Math. & Phys. 29, 9095, 1950]
1
Introduction
There are in the theory of elasticity two well known variational theorems or principles, one of thembeing for displacements and the other one being for stresses [1].
The former is also called the principle of minimumpotential energy while the latter is often referred to as the principle of minimumcomplementary energy. With
reference to the differential equations of the theory of elasticity, which consist of equations of equilibriumfor the components of stress and of the stress-displacement
relations, a possible characterization of the difference between the two variational theorems is as follows. In the theoremfor displacements the stress-displacement
relations are taken as equations of definition for the components of stress in terms of appropriate displacement derivatives and the variational equation is equivalent to
the systemof differential equations of equilibrium. In the theoremfor stresses the differential equations of equilibriumserve to restrict the class of admissible stress
variations and the variational equation is equivalent to the systemof stress-displacement relations.
Both variational principles have been found valuable for the purpose of obtaining approximate solutions of boundary value problems. When viewed in the above light
these approximate solutions are such that part of the complete systemof differential equations (either the stress-displacement relations or the equations of equilibrium)
is satisfied exactly while the remaining equations are satisfied approximately only.
It is natural to ask whether it might not be possible to use the calculus of variations for the purpose of obtaining approximate solutions in such a manner that there is no
preferential treatment for either one of the two kinds of differential equations which occur in the theory. In what follows this question is answered in the affirmative. A
variational problemwill be formulated which has both the equation of equilibriumand the stress-displacement relations as appropriate Euler equations.
It is also shown that application of the theoremto a problemwhich had previously been treated by means of the method of complementary energy leads to the results
obtained by the complementary-energy method in a manner which represents some simplification over the earlier derivations.
2
The Boundary Value Problem
Let o
x
, t
xy
, etc. be components of stress in the usual notation and let u, v, w be components of displacement. Define quantities e
x
,
xy
, etc. in the usual way in terms
of displacements by e
x
=cu/cx,
xy
=cu/cy +cv/cx, etc.
Page438
The differential equations to be considered are the three equations of equilibrium
(where for simplicity's sake body forces are not considered), and the six stress-displacement relations
In Eqs. (2) W is a given function of the six arguments o
x
, t
xy
, etc.
Let
be the x-component of the stresses acting on an element of area with normal direction n, with corresponding definitions for p
y
and p
z
.
The system(1) and (2) is to be solved for a region bounded by a surface S subject to the following boundary conditions on S,
A bar indicates a given function and equations (4) are to be understood in the sense that on that part of S where p
x
is prescribed u is not prescribed while on the
remaining part of the surface the reverse is true. Corresponding statements hold for the other two formulas in (4).
3
The Variational Theorem
We introduce a function F which is defined in terms of twelve arguments o
x
, t
xy
, . . ., e
x
,
xy
, . . . by the relation
The variational theoremmay be stated in the following form.
Among all states of stress and displacement which satisfy the boundary conditions of prescribed surface displacement the actually occurring state of stress
and displacement is determined by the variational equation
The symbol S
1
in equation (6) indicates that each of the three surface integrals is to be taken over that part of the surface only where the appropriate surface stress is
prescribed.
For the proof of the theoremit must be shown that the Euler equations of the variational problem(6) are the differential equations (1) and (2) and that the natural
boundary conditions corresponding to (6) are equations (4).
Page439
Writing equation (6) in the form
there follows first
Elimination in (8) of partial derivatives of displacement variations by integration by parts leads to the final formof the variational equation,
where S
2
is the part of S which does not belong to S
1
.
The integrals over S
2
vanish because in themou =0, etc. The vanishing of the volume integral requires satisfaction of the equilibriumequations (1) and of the stress-
displacement relations (2) and the vanishing of the surface integrals over S
1
requires satisfaction of the stress boundary conditions. It has thus been shown that the
variational equation (6), under the assumed restrictions concerning variations of boundary displacements, is equivalent to the complete systemof the differential
equations (1) and (2) and of the boundary conditions (4). This is the result which was to be proved.
We may note the fact that extensions of the theoremare possible to more general systems of boundary conditions, to thermo-elastic and to dynamic problems, and to
problems of finite strain.
4
An Application of the Variational Theorem
As an example of application consider the problemof deriving a systemof two-dimensional equations for transverse bending of plates. Let z =h/2 be the equations
of the faces of the plate. Assume a distribution p(x, y) of normal stress and no tangential stress over the face z =h/2 and let the face z =h/2 be unloaded. For
simplicity's sake assume further that all boundary conditions at the cylindrical boundary ](x, y) =0 of the plate are displacement boundary conditions.
Page440
For an isotropic plate material which obeys Hook's Law the variational equation (6) reads then as follows
In order to obtain a two-dimensional systemof equations the following expressions are used as approximations to the true stresses
Equations (11) are of the same formas those used in an earlier consideration of the same problemby means of the method of complementary energy [2]. Substitution
of (11) into the variational equation (10) permits explicit integration with respect to z in all terms which are quadratic in the stresses and suggests introduction of the
following weighted displacement averages
The resulting variational equation is of the form
After carrying out the variations, integrating by parts and taking account of the fact that for the assumed boundary conditions the variations of the displacement
averages vanish at the boundary, the following equation is obtained
Page441
The contents of every bracket in (14) must vanish. The first three of the resulting equations are, as was to be expected, the differential equations of equilibriumof
plate theory. The remaining equations are the appropriate stress-displacement relations of plate theory when deformations due to transverse shearing and normal
stresses are taken into account [2].
In comparing the present with the earlier derivation of the same results the fact that the equilibriumequations are now obtained fromthe same variational equation as
the stress-displacement relations is of little importance for the present problemsince direct derivation of the equilibriumequations is simple. A considerable
simplification may, however, be thought to be the fact that the present derivation avoids the use of the Lagrangian multiplier method which was basic in the earlier
work and which made necessary special considerations in order to determine the physical significance of these multipliers.
The foregoing derivation has in common with the derivation by means of the method of complementary energy the consequence that approximations are obtained for
weighted averages of the displacements rather than for the displacements themselves. In order to obtain approximations for the displacements themselves one may
use equations (12) and in themintroduce the approximations
If this is done it is found that o* =o, |* =| and .
In contrast to this it is found that if the problemis analyzed by means of the method of potential energy, approximations suchas equations (15) may be made for
displacements and the energy method furnishes equations for weighted averages of the stresses [3]. In view of the fact that the various terms in the expressions for the
strain energy are obtained in the potential energy method by differentiations of expressions such as (15) while no such differentiations are required with the use of the
complementary energy method it is likely that the complementary energy method results in a more accurate systemof equations than does the potential energy
method.
In addition to this a certain difficulty appears in the use of the potential energy method for the problemof plate bending in connection with the approximation
. It is found that in order to be able to use this approximation the further unrelated and formally incompatible assumption must be made that in the general
expression for the strain energy the terms with e
z
are first eliminated by setting in the stress strain relations o
z
=0, making for an isotropic mediume
z
=[v/(1 v)] (e
x
+e
y
).
No such difficulty occurs in the application of the present variational theorem. It is in fact possible to use simultaneously in the variational equation (10) the
approximations (11) for the stresses and the approximations (15) for the displacements. The result is a variational equation of the same formas (14) except that in it
Page442
o, | and w
0
are replaced by the corresponding starred quantities. This apparent greater flexibility of the variational theoremobtained here may possibly be found
useful in connection with still other problems of the theory of elasticity.
References
[1] See for instance E. Trefftz in Handbuch der Physik, vol. 6, p. 73, Berlin 1927, or R. Courant and D. Hilbert, Methoden der mathematischen Physik, vol. 1,
p. 228, Berlin 1931, or I. S. Sokolnikoff, Mathematical theory of elasticity, p. 284, New York 1946.
[2] E. Reissner, On bending of elastic plates, Quarterly of Applied Mathematics 5, 5568, (1947).
[3] F. B. Hildebrand, E. Reissner, and G. B. Thomas, Notes on the foundations of the theory of small displacements of orthotropic shells, NACA T.N. No.
1833 (1949).
Page443
On a Variational Theorem for Finite Elastic Deformations
[J. Math. & Phys. 32, 129135, 1953]
1
Introduction
In the following we formulate a variational theoremof the theory of finite elastic deformations, which is characterized by the fact that the Euler equations of the
variational problemconsist of the differential equations of equilibriumand the stress-displacement relations and for which stress and displacement boundary
conditions are natural boundary conditions.
A corresponding result for infinitesimal deformations has been indicated earlier [1, 2, 3]. It is found here that generalization to finite deformations is quite direct if one
works with the notion of stress introduced by Trefftz [4] and further developed by Kappus [ 5].*
On the basis of the theoremfor three-dimensional elasticity it is possible to state analogous relations for beams, plates and shells. We do this here for the problemof
finite bending of plates. The appropriate variational equation is such that fromit one may obtain by specialization results previously given by Kirchhoff [6], Marguerre
[7], and Wang [8].
2
Differential Equations for Finite Elastic Deformations
Let x
m
be the cartesian coordinates of a point of a body before deformation and let r be the corresponding radius vector, written in the form,
Let r +u be the radius vector to the same material point after deformation and write the displacement vector u in the form
An infinitesimal rectangular parallelepiped with edge vectors (cr/cx
j
) dx
j
=i
j
dx
j
in the undeformed state is deformed into a parallelepiped which in general is not
rectangular. Its edge vectors are [c(r +u)/cx
j
] dx
j
=[i
j
+(cu/cx
j
)] dx
j
=g
j
dx
j
where
*This was first reported in acolloquiumat Brown University on March 14, 1952. Thesameresult was found independently by B. Frays deVeubeke.
Page444
Components of finite strain e
jk
may be defined in terms of the lattice vectors g
j
by means of the relations 2e
jk
= g
j
.g
k
o
jk
, or
Let s
j
be the force, per unit of undeformed area, acting on an element of area which before deformation was perpendicular to the x
j
-direction. Components of
(pseudo) stress are defined, following Trefftz [4], by writing
Introduction of (5) and (3) into the force equilibriumequation Ecs
j
/cx
j
+f =0 leads to the following three scalar equilibriumequations
The conditions of moment equilibriumfor the deformed parallelepipedon are of the form
We shall assume in the following that the components of body force intensity ]
m
may be written in terms of a function +(x
1
, . . . ; u
1
, . . .) in the form
The systemof equations (6), (7) and (8) is completed by the stress strain relations which for the present purposes are taken in the form
where W is a given function of its arguments s
mn
.
For the formulation of boundary conditions we require a component representation for surface forces. Let p
m
be the x
m
-component of surface force, per unit of
undeformed surface area, acting on an element of area which before deformation was perpendicular to a vector v. The condition of force equilibriumfor an
infinitesimal tetrahedron before deformation with sides perpendicular to the vectors v and i
m
gives
Let S
1
be that part of the surface of the body where stresses are prescribed and S
2
that part of the surface where displacements are prescribed. The boundary value
problems of the theory of elasticity with finite deformation which we consider here consist of the differential equations (6) and (9) together with the boundary
conditions
where and are given functions.
Page445
3
The Variational Theorem
The following theoremwill be proved. The state of stress and displacement which satisfies the differential equations of equilibrium and the stress
displacement relations in the interior of the body, and the conditions of prescribed stress on the part S
1
and of prescribed displacement on the part S
2
of
the surface of the body, is determined by the variational equation
In order to see the validity of (12) it is noted that according to the rules of the calculus of variations and in view of the definitions of the functions W and + the
variational equation (12) is equivalent to,
From(4) we have for the variations of the components of strain e
jk
,
With (14) we obtain by suitable integration by parts,
Since s
jk
=s
kj
equation (15) may also be written in the form
The surface integral in (16) may be rewritten in terms of p
m
according to (10). Introduction of (16) and (13) gives then
Page446
Since in the interior of the body we have os
jk
and ou
m
arbitrary, on the surface S
1
ou
m
arbitrary and on S
2
op
m
arbitrary there follows that the variational equation
(17) is equivalent to the differential equations (6) and (9) and to the boundary conditions (11). This proves the theorem.
4
Stress Strain Relations
For many problems for which non-linearity due to finite deformations must be considered although the strains themselves are very small, it is adequate to assume
linear relations between the components of pseudo stress s
jk
and the components of finite strain e
jk
. If in addition it is assumed that the material is isotropic then we
may write
where E is the modulus of elasticity and v is Poisson's ratio. For a material with the stress strain relations (18) the function W introduced through equation (9) is of the
form
As an example of stress strain relations for finite strain we may consider the stress strain relations for an incompressible isotropic material which has been termed neo-
Hookean. According to Rivlin [9] the relations between components of principal strain and principal stress for this material are of the form
where p is of the nature of a hydrostatic pressure the magnitude of which follows by application of the condition of incompressibility,
The determination of p from(20) and (21) requires the solution of a cubic equation.
In view of the definition of the components of pseudo stress s
mn
the relation between the component of principal stress t
I
and the component of principal pseudo
stress s
I
is of the form
with corresponding relations between t
N
and s
N
. For an incompressible material equation (22) may be written alternately as
Therewith the stress strain relations (20) assume the form
Combination of (24) with the incompressibility relation (21) next gives the following explicit expression for p
Page447
and with this the stress relations (24) may be written as
Since e
N
=cW/cs
N
we have then for the function W
In order to obtain relations between e
jk
and s
jk
from(27) we introduce in (27) the invariants
In terms of these,
If (29) is developed according to powers of s/E the result is, up to third-degree terms,
Retention of only second degree terms leads back to the linear relations (18) between s
jk
and e
jk
, with v having the value 1/2.
5
Finite Bending of Plates
The variational equation corresponding to (12) for finite bending of plates as discussed by Kirchhoff [6] and von Karman [10] is of the following form,
Page448
In (31) u, v, w are components of displacement of points of the middle surface, N
x
, N
y
, N
xy
, Q are stress resultants and M
x
, M
y
, M
xy
stress couples, v is the direction
in the plane of the undeflected middle surface normal to its boundary, and
and M
x
v and M
y
v are defined correspondingly. The expression for Qv is
and Qv is a force in the direction of z, while V
x
and V
y
are transverse shear stress resultants in the direction of the normal to the deformed middle surface, given by V
x
=cM
x
/cx +cM
xy
/cy and V
y
=cM
xy
/cx +cM
y
/cy. Note that although is obtained fromQv by putting bars on V and N but not on w.
Elimination of all stress resultants and couples from(31) by means of the stress strain relations and comparison of only such displacements as satisfy all prescribed
displacement boundary conditions, together with the assumption that + =X u +Y v +p w leads to the minimum-potential-energy equation for finite bending of plates
as given by Kirchhoff [6].
Introduction in (31) of an Airy stress function F for N
x
, N
y
, N
xy
, together with the assumption that + =pw, elimination of the displacement components u and v and
comparison of only such states as satisfy the boundary condition for N
x
, N
y
, and N
xy
and w leads to a variational equation given by Marguerre [7]. The Euler
equations of this variational equation are the two simultaneous differential equations for F and w given by von Karman [10].
Finally, by restricting admissible states to those satisfying all equilibriumequations, equation (31) may be reduced to a recent result by Wang [8].
Equation (31) may be generalized in such a way that the effect of transverse shear stress deformation is taken into account. To this end we must replace in (31) the
expression M
x
c2w/cx2 M
y
c2w/cy2 2M
xy
c2w/cxcy by
and make corresponding changes in the boundary integrals. Furthermore we must add in the double integral the terms
The quantities o and | are projections on the x, z and y, z-planes, respectively, of the angle which the deformed normal encloses with the z-axis.
References
1. Reissner, E., On a variational theorem in elasticity. J. Math. and Physics 29, 9095 (1950).
2. Reissner, E., Stress-strain relations in the theory of thin elastic shells. J. Math. and Physics 31, 109119 (1952).
3. Reissner, E., On Non-uniform torsion of cylindrical rods. J. Math. and Physics 31, 214221 (1952).
4. Trefftz, E., Uber die Ableitung der Stabilittskriterien des elastischen Gleichgewichts aus der Elastizittstheorie endlicher Deformationen. Proc. III
Intern. Congr. Appl. Mech., vol. III, 4450 (1931).
Page449
5. Kappus, R., Zur Elastizittstheorie endlicher Verschiebungen. Z. ang. Math. and Mech. 19, 271285, 344361 (1939).
6. Kirchhoff, G., Vorlesungen ber Mechanik, Dreissigste Vorlesung . Leipzig, Teubner 1876, 1883 and 1897.
7. Marguerre, K., Die mittragende Breite der gedrckten Platte. Luftfahrtforschung 14, 121128 (1937).
8. Wang, C. T., Principle and application of complementary energy method for thin homogeneous and sandwich plates and shells with finite deformations.
N.A.C.A., T.N. 2620 (1952).
9. Rivlin, R. S., Large elastic deformations of isotropic materials. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 240, 459490 (1948).
10. von Karman, T., Festigkeitsprobleme im Maschinenbau, Encyclopdie der mathematischen Wissenschaften 4, 1910, p. 349.
Page450
A Note on Variational Principles in Elasticity
[Int. J. Solids Structures, 1, 9395, 1965]
We are conerned in what follows with a class of extensions of known variational principles for boundary value problems of the differential equations of elasticity
together with
or
In this A
d
and A
s
are given functions of the six variables c
x
,
xy
, etc. or o
x
, t
xy
, etc., respectively, these variables being defined in such a way that
in terms of displacement components, and
Omitting for the sake of brevity a discussion of boundary conditions we have that equations (1) and (2b) are the Euler equations of a variational equation of the form
where
with c
x
,
xy
, . . ., t
xy
, t
yx
, . . . defined in accordance with (3) and (4) and with the six components of stress and the three components of displacement being varied
independently. Imposition of appropriate partial constraint on the nine variation variables reduces the general variational equation involving F
1
to the minimum
principles of complementary and potential energy, respectively [1].
A more general variational equation than the one for stresses and displacements has been formulated by Washizu [2], by changingthe status of the defining equations
for strains (3) into additional Euler equations of the variational equation. Washizu's equation is of the form where
and where now the six components of strain, the six components of stress and the three components of displacement are varied independently.
Page451
The principal purpose of the present note is the formulation of two variational equations in which the three moment equilibriumequations (4) for components of stress
are Euler equations of a variational principle, rather than equations of definition. This purpose is accomplished by defining nine components of strain in terms of three
components of linear displacement and three additional components of angular displacement, as follows
and by replacing the six stress-strain relations (2) by nine stress-strain relations of the form
or
It is now readily seen that the variational equation involving F
1
may be generalized to a variational equation where
with c
x
, c
xy
, etc., defined by (7) and with the nine components of stress o
x
, t
xy
, t
yx
, etc., and the six components of displacement u
x
, e
x
, etc., being varied
independently.
Analogously, the variational equation involving F
2
may be generalized to a variational equation where
and where now there are altogether nine independent strain variations, nine independent stress variations and six independent displacement variations.
Further generalizations of the variational equations involving G
1
and G
2
, so as to take account of body forces, finite deflections, time dependence, couple stresses,
etc. may be obtained by following the same procedures as with F
1
and F
2
.
It remains to establish the formof the functions B
d
(c
x
, c
xy
, c
yx
, . . .) and B
s
(o
x
, t
xy
, t
yx
, . . .) which corresponds to the formof the functions A
d
(c
x
,
xy
, . . .) and
A
s
(o
x
, t
xy
, . . .) for the case that the moment equilibriumequations (4) are equations of definition rather than Euler equations.
In order to determine B
d
we take account of the fact that the stress-strain relations (8a) should be compatible with the Euler moment equilibriumequations.
Accordingly we have the relations
and these, as partial differential equations in the independent variables c
xy
, c
yx
, etc., imply that B
d
depends on the variables c
xy
, c
yx
, etc., as a function of the sums c
xy
+c
yx
, etc. Since c
xy
+c
yx
=
xy
we may then identify the function B
d
with the customary function A
d
, except that in this
xy
needs to be considered explicitly as the
combination c
xy
+c
yx
, with oc
xy
and oc
yx
as independent variations.
In order to determine the formof B
s
we take account of the fact that the angular displacement quantities e
z
, etc., and the linear displacement quantities u
x
, etc.,
should satisfy the relations
Page452
In view of equation (7) this means that the stress-strain relations (8b) should be compatible with the relations c
yx
c
xy
=0, etc., or with
The partial differential equations (11b) indicate that B
s
must depend on the six independent variables t
xy
, t
yx
, etc. as a function of the sums t
xy
+t
yx
, etc. Accordingly
we have that B
s
is obtained fromA
s
by replacing t
xy
, t
xz
, t
yz
in it by 1/2(t
xy
+t
yx
), 1/2(t
xz
+t
zx
), 1/2(t
yz
+t
zy
).
In order to illustrate the meaning of this requirement we consider the case of a linear isotropic medium. For this case t
xy
, etc. occurs in A
s
in the combination
A corresponding invariant termin B
s
is
with k an arbitrary constant.
The requirement that B
s
be a function of the sums t
xy
+t
yx
, etc. means that, necessarily, we must have
Possible applications of the variational equations or depend on the idea that it may be of advantage, in the approximate solution of
problems by the direct methods of the calculus of variations, to satisfy moment as well as force equilibriumequations approximately only, instead of satisfying one set
exactly and the other approximately. One such application of a special formof the equation is to the derivation of approximate stress-strain relations for
thin elastic shells [3].
References
[1] E. Reissner, On some variational theorems in elasticity, Problems of Continuum Mechanics (Muskhelisvili Anniversary Volume), pp. 370381, Philadelphia
(1961). This paper also contains references to earlier work on the subject.
[2] K. Washizu, On the Variational Principles of Elasticity and Plasticity, Report No. TR2518, Aerospace and Structures Research Laboratory, M.I.T. (1955).
[3] E. Reissner, On the formof variationally derived shell equations, J. Appl. Mech. 31, 233238 (1964).
Page453
A Note on Gnther's Analysis of Couple Stress*
[Mechanics of Generalized Continua, IUTAM Symp. Freudenstatt-Stuttgart, pp. 8386, Springer Verlag 1967]
The following considerations are concerned with Gnther's formof couple stress theory [1]. While the observations which follow were made without knowledge of
the earlier work, they are offered here as a supplement to it.
We assume an orthogonal coordinate systemx
i
, with position vector x and with coordinate tangent unit vectors t
i
=x
,i
/o
i
where x
,i
x
,j
=o
i
o
j
o
ij
. We designate force
stress vectors by o
i
, moment stress vectors by t
i
and body force and moment intensity vectors by p and q. We take as basic relations the two equations of force and
moment equilibrium
where V =o
1
o
2
o
3
, S
1
=o
2
o
3
, etc.
We next introduce force and moment strain vectors c
i
and k
i
, and translational and rotational displacement vectors u and |. We obtain expressions for c
i
and k
i
in
terms of u and | through use of the principle of virtual work, written in the form
In this p and q are taken from(1) and o
n
and t
n
are surface traction vectors. Integration by parts to eliminate derivatives of o
i
and t
i
in (2) and observation that o
i
and t
i
are arbitrary functions in the remaining volume integral leads to the vectorial strain displacement relations
which are equivalent to relations stated by Gnther [1]. The present approach and Gnther's approach differ fromeach other inasmuch as Gnther departs from(3)
and obtains (1) by use of the principle of virtual work. It seems to us easier to depart from(1), which is in accordance with elementary principles of dynamics, and
avoid the less elementary geometrical considerations which are involved in stipulating (3).
From(3) follows by inspection, as noted previously in [1], a systemof six vectorial compatibility equations
*With F. Y. M. Wan.
Page454
We complement Gnther's formulation by phenomenological stress strain relations as follows. Writing
we stipulate the existence of functions A(c, k) and B(o, t) such that
An appropriate definition of vectorial derivatives allows us to write (7) in the form
Observing (1), (3) and (7) we readily have as variational principles, generalizing corresponding principles of elasticity without couple stresses, a variational principle
for stresses and displacements, oI
SD
=0, and a variational principle for stresses, displacements and strains, oI
SDS
=0, where
and
In oI
SD
stresses and displacements are varied independently and the Euler differential equations consist of the equations of equilibriumand the stress strain relations.
In oI
SDS
stresses, displacements and strains are varied independently and the Euler differential equations are equilibriumequations, strain displacement relations and
stress strain relations1.
A recent result [4] on a static-geometric analogue of the two-dimensional elastic-shell theory version of the variational principle for stresses and displacements [3]
suggests the formulation of a variational principle for strains and stress functions in couple stress elasticity, such that the compatibility Eqs. (4) and (5), together with
the stress strain relations, are Euler differential equations.
1A restricted formof thevariational principleoI
SDS
=0 has previously been stated by Naghdi [2]. Therestriction consists in assumingsymmetry conditions c
ij
=c
ji
as equations of definition. As
aconsequenceof this, an additional Euler differential equation | =1/2 curl u is obtained, theforcestress strain relations become1/2(o
ij
+o
ji
) =cA/cc
ij
=cA/cc
ji
and thenumber of associated Euler
boundary conditions is fiveinstead of six.
Page455
A small amount of mathematical experimentation indicates that a suitable stress function representation of the solutions of the homogeneous Eqs. (1) is
Taking Eqs. (10) and (11) as equations of definition, we find that the variational equation
where the F
i
, H
i
, c
i
and k
i
are varied independently does in fact have the compatibility Eqs. (4) and (5) and the stress strain relations (7) as Euler equations. In
addition, it is found that the associated Euler boundary conditions are displacement boundary conditions expressed in terms of tangential strain vectors. These
conditions are homogeneous conditions which may be made non-homogeneous conditions upon adding in (12) an appropriate surface integral.
We state two further variational principles which we think will eventually be found useful. The first of these is a mixed principle, in the sense that it has parts of the
equilibriumequations and compatibility equations as Euler equations, while the complementary parts are equations of definition.
Restricting attention to the case of absent body forces and moments, we take as equations of definition the conditions of force equilibriumin (1), via the stress
function Eqs. (10), and the equations for bending strains in (3), these being equivalent to the compatibility Eqs. (4). Additionally, we now take the relations between
stresses and strains in the mixed form
as equations of definition.
We then have that the equation oI
M
=0 where
and where | and the F
i
are varied independently has as Euler differential equations the conditions of moment equilibriumin (1) together with the force strain
compatibility Eqs. (5).
The second additional variational principle is for boundary values. It is a generalization of a principle previously stated for elasticity without couple stresses [5]. Define
a functional
Page456
where u, |, o
n
and t
n
are the surface values of states of displacement and stress which in the interior satisfy equilibriumand stress displacement relations, subject to
the limitation of absent body forces and moments and subject to the limitation that the stress energy function B in (7) is homogeneous of the second degree in the
sense that Eo
i
cB/co
i
+t
i
cB/ct
i
=2B. It can then be shown, in extension of what is done in [5] for elasticity without couple stresses, that the Euler equations of oI
B
=0 are the boundary conditions.
References
[1] Gnther, W.: Abh. d. Braunschweigischen Wiss. Ges. 10, 195213 (1958).
[2] Naghdi, P. M.: J. Appl. Mech. 31, 647652 (1964).
[3] Reissner, E.: Proc. American Soc. Civil Eng. 88 (EM), 2357 (1962).
[4] Wan, F. Y. M.: J. Math. and Phys. 47, 429431 (1968).
[5] Reissner, E.: Problems of ContinuumMechanics (Muskhelishvili Anniversary Volume), Philadelphia 1961, pp. 371381.
Page457
On a Certain Mixed Variational Theorem and a Proposed Application
[Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng. 20, 13661368, 1984]
Introduction
In this note we report briefly on the formulation of a variational equation for displacements and some stresses, with the thought that this equation will prove useful for
the approximate analysis of isotropic and anisotropic laminated elastic plates [1]. The basic thoughts in the formulation of this equation are (1) that it is inconvenient
to use approximations for the primary bending and stretching stresses in the approximate analysis of laminated plates, and (2) that it is allowable to make relatively
crude approximative assumptions concerning transverse stresses, in view of the fact that these are of a smaller order of magnitude than the primary bending and
stretching stresses. The result of our consideration is a variational theoremfor the three components of displacements and for three of the six components of stress
in three-dimensional geometrically linear elasticity.
Derivation
We begin with a statement of the classical variational equation for displacements, for simplicity's sake subject to the assumptions of absent body forces and traction-
free boundary portions z =h/2, and of displacement boundary conditions over all cylindrical boundary portions ](x
1
, x
2
) =0. With a view towards our ultimate
purpose, we write this equation in the form
where c
ij
=1/2(u
i,j
+u
j,i
), c =u
z,z
and
i
=u
i,z
+u
z,i
, for i, j =1, 2.
To obtain the intended result we begin by rewriting (1), with the help of Lagrange multipliers o and t
i
, as
and we separate the function U in this into two parts
such that U
0
(c
ij
) =U(c
ij
, 0, 0) and U
1
=U U
0
.
We next use three of the Euler equations associated with (2),
as three simultaneous equations for the determination of c,
1
,
2
in the formc =c(o, t
i
, c
ij
),
j
=
j
(o, t
i
, c
ij
), and we define a complementary function W through
Page458
a partial Legendre transformation
where then, in the usual way, c =cW/co and
i
=cW/ct
i
.
Introduction of (5) and (3) into (2) gives as the wanted mixed variational theoremthe equation
with arbitrary ou
i
, ou
z
, ot
i
, oo, and with oc
ij
=1/2(ou
i,j
+ou
j,i
).
An alternative version of (6), with the variations oo and ot
i
restricted so as to be consistent with constraint conditions (o, t
i
)
z
=
h/2
=0 and t
i,i
+o
,z
=0, evidently
may be deduced from(6) so as to read
The Physically Linear Problem
We have for this that U
0
is a second-degree polynomial in the c
ij
and that U
1
may be written in the form
with U
11
being linear homogeneous in c
ij
, c,
i
, and U
12
a homogeneous second-degree polynomial in c and
i
. An introduction of (8) and (4) into (5) and
observation of the consequences of the indicated homogeneity properties then gives as expression forW,
For the example of a transversely isotropic material with
and
the function W in the variational equation (6) follows from(9), with
in accordance with (9), (8) and (11) in the form
The same result also follows, somewhat less conveniently, by a direct evaluation of (5). For the general case, with U
1
in (8),
equations (4a, b) take on the form
Page459
The function W in (6) is now
with c,
1
and
2
expressed in terms of o, t
1
, t
2
and c
ij
by way of the solution of the three by three system(15a, b, c).
Derivation of an Approximate Linear Two-Dimensional Sixth-Order Laminated Plate Theory
We assume material symmetry relative to the x
1
, x
2
-plane* and we stipulate as expressions for displacements
At the same time we stipulate as expressions for transverse stresses
where the even function ] may, in the absence of reasons for a better choice, be approximated by 1 (2z/h)2, and we carry out the indicated integration in (6), with W
as in (9), with respect to the thickness variable z. With appropriate defining relations for stress couples and resultants, the remaining two-dimensional variational
equation will then have the wanted sixth-order theory as its systemof Euler equations.
Concluding Comment
The possibility of obtaining more general higher order results, involving plate surface loads, absent material symmetry relative to the plane z =0, as well as body
forces, in particular inertia forces associated with simple harmonic motion for physically linear theory, is apparent. Similarly, a corresponding curvilinear co-ordinate
formulation, to be used in connection with the derivation of approximate two-dimensional shell theories, is an evident possibility.
It is conceivable that the variational equation (6), and its generalization to the case of curvilinear co-ordinates, may also prove useful in connection with the
development of finite element procedures.
References
[1] E. Reissner, 'Note on the effect of transverse shear deformation in laminated anisotropic plates', Computer Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng. 20, 203209 (1979).
*As regards equations (14), this means that C
ij
, B
ij
and B must beeven functions of z, whileC
ijk
and B
i
must beodd functions of z.
Page460
On a Variational Principle for Elastic Displacements and Pressure
[J. Appl. Mech. 51, 444445, 1984]
Introduction
In what follows we obtain a generalization of a variational principle in geometrically linear elasticity, for displacements u
i
and for a suitably defined pressure variable
p, which is known to be of technical significance for incompressible or nearly incompressible materials. Recognition of the possibility and importance of such a
principle for the case of physically linear isotropic elasticity, as well as its formulation for this case, is due to L. R. Herrmann [1]. A generalization of Herrmann's
result to the case of anisotropic physically linear materials has been given by S. W. Key [2]. Our purpose here is a simple and direct derivation of the corresponding
result for physically nonlinear materials.
Derivation
We depart froma statement of the variational principle for displacements, in the form
where e
ij
1/2(u
i,j
+u
j,i
) and where, for simplicity's sake, we assume that body forces are absent and that all boundary conditions are displacement conditions. As is
well known, equation (1), with the further defining (or constraint) relations o
ij
=cU/ce
ij
, has as its Euler equations the differential equations of equilibriumfor stress.
To retain the technical significance of (1) for cases for which the formof U is such as to make the sume
kk
exactly or nearly equal to zero we introduce, following
Herrmann and Key, the alternate strain variables
where
and we write with this
Having (3) and (4) we rewrite (1), with the introduction of a multiplier p, in the form
Page461
We will transform(5) into what is wanted by stipulating p to be given by
and by using the inversion u =u(e'
ij
, p) of this to define a complementary function
An introduction of U' from(7) into (5) transforms (5) into
where now, in view of (2) and (3), e'
ij
=e
ij
1/3o
ij
e
kk
, with independent ou
i
and op, and with this being in essence the desired result.
Given that (8) is readily shown to be equivalent to the relation
we, incidentally, have as a ''parametric" version of the constitutive relations o
ij
=cU/ce
ij
,
Determination of the Complementary Function
Determination of W for the case of a physically linear material, with U =U
1
(e
jj
) +U
2
(e
ij
) where U
1
and U
2
are homogeneous first and second-degree polynomials,
respectively, is a simple matter. We can now write, in accordance with (4)
where U
10
and U
20
may depend on x
i
, but not on the e'
ij
, and, in accordance with (6),
The introduction of (12), (11) and (4) into (7) gives
and therewith
Page462
A corresponding explicit determination of W, in accordance with (6) and (7), for physically nonlinear materials, is in general not possible. An obvious exception to
this difficulty is given by the class of materials for which U =U
1
(e
ij
) +U
2
(e
ij
) +(e
kk
)2F(e
12
, e
13
, e
23
).
References
1. Herrmann, L. R., "Elasticity Equations for Incompressible or Nearly Incompressible Materials by a Variational Theorem," AIAA J., Vol. 3, 1965, pp. 18961900.
2. Key, S. W., "A Variational Principle for Incompressible or Nearly Incompressible Anisotropic Elasticity," Int. J. Solids Structures, Vol. 5, 1969, pp. 951964.
*This result is consistent with thecontents of equation (16) in [2], upon writing , and discardingtheadditivequantity in (14),
which is of no relevancefor thevariational statement.
Page463
On Mixed Variational Formulations in Finite Elasticity
[Acta Mechanica 56, 117125, 1985]
1
Introduction
In what follows we place on record two variational formulations for the equations of finite elasticity, with arbitrary variations of translational and rotational
displacements and arbitrary variations of some stresses. These formulations have the property that for themforce and moment equilibriumequations as well as some
of the constitutive equations come out to be Euler equations, with the remainder of the constitutive equations, together with the strain displacement relations, being
equations of constraint. The nature of our results is such that they may be considered natural generalizations of two recent results, one of themdealing with variational
formulations of finite elasticity, with arbitrary variations of displacements and all stresses [5], and the other with a variational formulation of infinitesimal elasticity,
with arbitrary variations of displacements and some stresses [6].
2
Differential Equations and Boundary Conditions
We write
for the radius vectors to material points in their initial and finite positions and we stipulate the existence of vectors of stress t
i
, as forces per unit of undeformed area,
acting on elements of area with unit normal vectors e
i
in their initial state. We further stipulate that the state of stress in the deformed mediumis subject to the
equations of force and moment equilibrium
For present purposes we assume that the vectors t
i
have a component representation
with the t
j
being a triad of mutually perpendicular unit vectors which we take in the form
We designate the t
ij
as generalized Piola components of stress, given the designation "Piola components" for the special case o
ij
=o
ij
. While we may consider the
coefficients o
jk
as given functions of x
i
, in what follows they will be considered as dependent "rotational displacement" variables, to be determined in conjunction
with the translational displacement variables u
i
and the stress variables t
ij
as a consequence of a constitutive stipulation.
Page464
We further write, on the basis of Eqs. (1) and (4),
and then, on the basis of (2) to (5), with o| =t
n
o|
n
and o
mk
oo
jk
=e
mjn
o|
n
,
We take (6) to imply conjugacy of the t
ij
and
ij
and we designate the generalized displacement gradient components
ij
as components of strain, conjugate to the
components of stress t
ij
.
Given the above statical and geometrical relations we here limit ourselves to a consideration of the class of materials with single-valued constitutive relations
in terms of a complementary strain energy density function
with this formof the constitutive equations selecting fromthe class of generalized Piola stress components a systemof distinguished generalized Piola components.
We take our assumption of single-valuedness of the derivatives in (7) as an assumption concerning material properties, with this assumption not necessarily holding for
"more general cases" for which relations
ij
=cW/ct
ij
with
ij
=
ji
, are deduced, by a Legendre transformation, fromsingle-valued relations t
ij
=cU/c
ij
.
The nine scalar constitutive relations (7) are associated with the nine scalar strain displacement relations in (5), and with six scalar equilibriumrelations which follow
(2) to (5), with , in the form
Altogether (9), (7), and the second sets of relations in (5) and (4) represent a systemof thirty first and zeroth order differential equations for the determination of thirty
dependent variables t
ij
,
ij
, o
ij
and u
i
.
Boundary conditions which are associated with this systemare here taken to be conditions of prescribed surface displacements
over boundary portions S
u
, and conditions of prescribed surface stresses
over boundary portions St.
The traction components t
k
are given in terms of the surface values of the stress components t
ij
and in terms of the components v
i
of the unit normal vectors v to
undeformed surface elements. With t
k
e
k
=t =v
i
t
i
we have, with (3) and (4)
Having earlier noted that for the o
ij
to be dependent variables requires a supplementary constitutive statement we may now say that this requirement consists in the
stipulation that W depends on the six quantities t
11
, 1/2(t
12
+t
21
), . . . rather than on the nine quantities t
11
, t
12
, t
21
, . . ., with the physico-geometrical aspects of
Page465
this assumption having been discussed in [5]. We also note the equivalence of our distinguished generalized Piola components t
ij
, with components as introduced
by Biot [2], with Biot designating the combinations as "alternative" stress components. Related considerations, differing in various details may be found in
[3], [4] and [7].
3
A Variational Formulation for Stresses and Displacements
We have, upon appropriate synthesis, in complete formal analogy to our original formulation in terms of Kirchhoff-Trefftz stresses and Green strains [1], that the
variational equation
with W as in (8), with
ij
as in (5), with t
k
as in (11), and with the o
ij
constrained in accordance with (4), is such as to have as Euler differential equations the six
equilibriumequations in (9) and the nine constitutive equations in (7), and as Euler boundary conditions the conditions in (10) and (11).
To see this we first deduce from(13) that
with the variations ot
ij
, ou
k
and ot
k
arbitrary and with the variations oo
ij
having to be such that o
mk
oo
jk
+o
jk
oo
mk
=0.
It is readily evident, on the basis of the formof (14), that the constitutive relations (7) as well as the force equilibriumconditions in (9) and the boundary conditions in
(10) and (11) are Euler equations of this variational equation. To see that the moment equilibriumconditions in (9) are also Euler equations associated with (14) we
have earlier made use of the constraint relations o
ik
o
jk
=o
ij
through the use of Lagrange multipliers [5]. The same conclusion follows, without use of such multipliers,
upon observing that the antisymmetry oa
mj
=oa
jm
of the quantity oa
mj
o
mk
oo
jk
implies the possibility of writing, in terms of three arbitrary variations o|
n
, o
mk
oo
jk
=e
mjn
o|
n
. In as much as we can, in (14), write
This then implies that the moment equilibriumequations in (9) are in fact also Euler equations of (13).*
*I amindebted to H. Bufler for suggestingthis alternatederivation of theequations of moment equilibriumas part of theEuler equations of (13).
Page466
4
A Variational Formulation for Displacements and Reactive Stresses [5]
For the derivation of one version of the intended mixed variational formulation we make use of a variational equation which involves a strain energy density function
U(
11
,
12
+
21
, . . .) in terms of which
with
ij
as in (5), and with Euler equations which consist of the differential equations of equilibrium(9), of the boundary conditions (11), and of the kinematical
conditions
ij
=
ji
. This variational equation is, with the reactive stress quantities t
ij
t
ji
,
In evaluating (17) we stipulate ou
i
, o(t
ij
t
ji
), and o|
n
in o
mk
oo
jk
=e
mjn
o|
n
to be arbitrary in the interior, with ou
i
arbitrary over St, and with and ou
i
=0
over S
u
.
The correctness of our statement is readily verified upon showing that (17), in conjunction with (16), is equivalent to the relation
with o
ij
following from(5), in the same way as in going fromEq. (13) to Eq. (14).
We complement the above by noting the possibility of a formal derivation of (17) (with the more general boundary conditions in Eq. (60) in [5]), in place of the
synthesizing procedure used in [5]. This formal procedure consists in the use of a Legendre transformation relation of the form
with
and with the reactive stress measures t
ij
t
ji
then appearing in the resulting variational equation automatically.
5
A Mixed Formulation for Displacements and Some Stresses
In generalization of our consideration for infinitesimal elasticity [6] we now derive a variational formulation of our finite-elasticity boundary value problemwhich
involves independent variations of displacements and of the "transverse" stresses t
13
, t
31
, t
23
, t
32
and t
33
, as follows as a consequence of (17).
We separate the function U in (17) into two parts
such that
Page467
We then use the three constraint equations
as three equations for the determinations of
13
+
31
,
23
+
32
,
33
in terms of t
13
+t
31
, t
23
+t
32
and t
33
, and thereafter define a partial complementary energy
function W
1
through the partial Legendre transformation
Upon taking account of the dependence of
13
+
31
,
23
+
32
,
33
on 1/2(t
13
+t
31
), 1/2(t
23
+t
32
), t
33
in accordance with (23) we then find as the desired partial
set of inverted constitutive relations
Our new mixed variational formulation follows upon substituting U from(21), with U
1
as in (24), into Eq. (17). This leaves, after appropriate cancellations, as the
desired formulation
In evaluating (26) we again consider
ij
given in terms of u
k
and o
jk
, with arbitrary ou
k
and with oo
jk
such that o
mk
oo
jk
=e
mjn
o|
n
with arbitrary o|
n
. We
furthermore take o(t
12
t
21
), ot
13
, ot
31
, ot
23
, ot
33
and ot
33
as arbitrary in the interior, and ou
k
arbitrary over St.
As regards examples of the determination of the function W
1
for a given function U we here limit ourselves to making reference to the work in [6]. As in [6], we
anticipate useful consequence of our formulation, now for problems of finite deflections of laminated plates.* Also as in [6], we note the evident possibility of
analogous results in terms of curvilinear coordinates, for prospective applications to problems of finite deflections of shells.
6
An Alternate Version of the Variational Formulation for Displacements and Some Stresses
We depart from(13) instead of from(17) and, with the notation introduced in (20), invert the three relations
*Thefirst application of our formulation in [6] is contained in recent work by H. Murakami [8].
Page468
in the form
With this we then define a new "semi-complementary" function V(
11
, ,
22
; , ,t
33
) through the relation
which implies, in the usual way
The introduction of W from(29) into (12) then gives as the alternate version of (26)
It is of interest to note that for the class of problems for which
with W
0
homogeneous of the second degree in its arguments, and W
1
homogeneous of the first degree, the function V becomes, upon making use of (24),
In this the arguments t
11
, , t
22
, are obtained, in accordance with (27), froma systemof three simultaneous linear equations
For the special case of a transversely isotropic medium, with
where E =2(1 +v)G, and
Eq. (34) is the same as
Page469
together with . The introduction of the latter relation, together with
into (35) then gives as the formof the function W
0
in Eq. (32)
with W
2
in (32) remaining in the form(36).
References
[1] Reissner, E.: On a variational theoremfor finite elastic deformations. J. Math. & Phys. 32, 129135 (1953).
[2] Biot, M. A.: The mechanics of incremental deformations, pp. 482485. New York: John Wiley 1965.
[3] Frayes de Veubeke, B.: A new variational principle for finite elastic deformations. Intern. J. Eng. Sc. 10, 745763 (1972).
[4] Bufler, H.: On the work theorems for finite and incremental elastic deformations. Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng. 36, 95124 (1983).
[5] Reissner, E.: Formulation of variational theorems in geometrically nonlinear elasticity. J. Eng. Mech. (ASCE) 110, 13771390 (1984).
[6] Reissner, E.: On a certain mixed variational theoremand a proposed application. Intern. J. Num. Meth. Eng. 20, 13661368 (1984).
[7] Atluri, S. N.: Alternate stress and conjugate strain measures and mixed variational formulations involving rigid rotations, for computational analyses of finitely
deforming solids, with applications to plates and shells-1, theory. Comp. & Struct. 18, 93116 (1984).
[8] Murakami, H.: A mixture theory for wave propagation in angle-ply laminates. J. Appl. Mechanics 20, 331337 (1985).
Page470
Some Aspects of the Variational Principles Problem in Elasticity
[Comp. Mech. 1, 39, 1986]
1
Introduction
In speaking of elasticity, we here mean the statement of physically meaningful boundary value problems for deformations due to applied loads in bodies which behave
elastically. By elastic behavior, we mean the local interdependence of stress and strain, with suitable definitions for what is meant by stress and what is meant by
strain. We assume in what follows an acquaintance with these definitions and with the elements of the associated analysis.
Given the computational usefulness of variational formulations of appropriately stated boundary value problems, it is our objective in what follows to survey the matter
of such formulations in elasticity, in a way which reflects our long-time concern with it, emphasizing that which seems to be of the essence and, in the process,
indicating certain pitfalls.
While our concern here is on matters historical, primarily, some new insights are thought to have been included. Specifically, the statement of a generalized Hellinger
formulation, in terms of generalized Piola stresses, belongs in this category.
2
Conventional Infinitesimal Elasticity
With the usual definitions for components of stress o
ij
=o
ij
and components of displacement u
i
, and with cartesian coordinates x
i
, the differential equations of
conventional infinitesimal elasticity are here taken in the formof a systemof first-order differential equations, involving material-property functions P(u) and W(o), as
follows
This systemis associated with boundary conditions which are here taken, with functions S(u) and D(t), in the mixed form
In this the quantities t
k
=o
mk
v
m
are cartesian surface traction components, and the boundary portions a
S
and a
D
together, without overlapping, represent the surface
a which bounds the volume v in which (1a) and (1b) hold.
Given Eqs. (1a, b) and (2a, b), one finds that the variational equation which has both these sets of relations as Euler equations is of the form
with oo
ij
and ou
i
being altogether nine independent variations.
Page471
For a discussion of the origin of this two-field variational equation for stresses and displacements, supplementing earlier variational equations for stresses or
displacements, we here refer to Reissner (1983).
In connection with the associated one-field formulations for stresses or displacements, the following consequence of (3) is thought to be of particular interest. If we
consider (1a) and (2a) to be equations of constraint, we find, through an appropriate integration by parts, the modified variational equation
Equation (4) is still a variational equation for stresses and displacements, although with interdependent rather than independent variations oo
ij
and ou
i
. A reduction to
an equation for stresses alone requires the restrictive stipulations and , with and given functions of position.
Alternately, if we take (1b) and (2b) as constraint equations and if we introduce U(c), with c
ij
(u
i,j
+u
j,i
)/2, and B(u) through the Legendre transformations
we will have from(3), with o
ij
=cU/cc
ij
and t
k
=cB/cu
k
, as a variational equation for displacements alone
The conventional formof (6), with B =0, results fromthis upon setting and .
A Four-Field Equation for Stresses, Displacements, Strains and Body Forces
Given the well-known three-field formulation, associated with the names of Hu and Washizu, which obtains upon writing (1b) in the form
in conjunction with the Legendre transformation (5a), we here note the possibility of a four-field formulation, upon writing (1a), analogously, as
An inversion of (8b), in circumstances where this is meaningful, in conjunction with the introduction of a function Q(p) =p
j
u
j
(p) P[u(p)], with which u
j
=cQ/cp
j
, then
results in a variational equation
Equation (9), with arbitrary variations oc
ij
, oo
ij
, ou
i
, and op
i
, is readily seen to have (7a), (8a) and the inverted formof (7b) and (8b) as Euler differential equations,
with (2a, b) remaining as Euler boundary conditions.1
Page472
A Two-Field Equation for Strains and Displacements
If in the two-field equation (3) for stresses and displacements we write o
ij
=cU/cc
ij
, and if we eliminate W(o) through use of (5a), we obtain from(3) as a
variational equation for strains and displacements
where t
j
=(cU/cc
jk
)v
k
. Evidently, we now have that the equilibriumand strain displacement relations are Euler equations, with the constitutive relations being
constraints, instead of having equilibriumand constitutive relations as Euler equations, with the strain displacement relations as constraints.
Fromthe vantage point of the three-field Hu-Washizu formulation, with equilibrium, constitutive and strain displacement relations as Euler equations, (10) is an
immediate consequence, upon changing the Euler constitutive relations into constraints.
We finally note that when U =(1/2)E
ijkl
c
ij
c
kl
, , , and then equation (10) reduces to a result which has previously been stated by Oden and
Reddy (1976).
3
Infinitesimal Elasticity and the Effect of Body Moments
Given that the effect of a body moment intensity with components q
k
results in a de-symmetrization of the components of stress, on the basis of the vectorial equation
of moment equilibrium, we now write, in terms of nine components of stress t
ij
, as component equations of force and moment equilibrium
The change fromsix distinct components of stress as in (1) to the set of nine components in (11) necessitates the introductionof nine components of strain,
ij
, in
place of the six components c
ij
=(1/2)(u
i,j
+u
j,i
). It has earlier been shown by Reissner (1965) that a suitable set of nine such components, involving rotational
displacement components e
i
in addition to the translational components u
i
, is of the form
As before, the suitability of this introduction is made to depend on the possibility of obtaining the moment Eqs. (11b) in addition to the force Eqs. (11a) as Euler
equations of a variational statement which may be considered as a natural extension of the statement in (3).
We now reason, somewhat more effectively than before, where there was no introduction of moment load components q
k
, as follows. Inasmuch as (11b) indicates
that the tangential stress component differences t
ij
t
ji
have a reactive character,
1Theabovewas written with thethought that theconcept of thefour-field equation had not previously been considered. Subsequently, theauthor was madeawareof such aconsideration in Bufler
(1979). This, in turn, reawakened memories of thecontents of aset of hectographed lecturenotes, written sometimebetween 1960 and 1965, which also contained thevariational Eq. (9).
Page473
these differences should not enter into relations of constitutivity, that is, the material behavior function W(t) should again depend on six measures of stress, t
11
, t
12
+
t
21
, etc. It turns out to be convenient to write
and then to stipulate, in place of (1b), as a set of constitutive equations
Given (11a, b) as a point of departure, it is possible to write, in analogy to (1a), as a more general set of equilibriumequations
where now P is a given function of the u
j
and e
k
. However, with the step from(11b) to (15b), we will no longer be able to say that the t
ij
t
ji
are reactive; and we can
then no longer pre-suppose, on the basis of the same reasoning, that W must be restricted as in (13).
With boundary conditions as in (2a, b) except for writing t
mk
in place of o
mk
, it is then possible to stipulate a variational equation for stresses, translational
displacements and rotational displacements, of the form
with ot
ij
, ou
j
, and oe
k
being independent variations. The verification that (15a, b) and (14) are Euler differential equations of (16), and (2a, b) are Euler boundary
conditions, can be carried out readily.
4
Differential Equations for Finite Elasticity
In establishing equations for finite-deformation elasticity, we begin with expressions
for position vectors before and after deformation. We then note that the vectors z
,1
dx
1
, z
,2
dx
2
, z
,3
dx
3
are the edge vectors of deformed elements of volume which in
their undeformed state have edge vectors e
1
dx
1
, e
2
dx
2
, e
3
dx
3
.
We next define stress vectors o
i
acting on the faces of the deformed element of volume, as well as body force and body moment vectors p and q associated with this
element. We take stress vectors as forces per unit of undeformed area, and we take body force and moment vectors as forces and moments per unit of undeformed
volume. With these stipulations we have vectorial differential equations of force and moment equilibriumwhich read
For an elastic body (18a, b) must be supplemented by relations which involve the stress vectors o
i
, with the rates of change u
,j
of a displacement vector u =z x.
This will be done here in two distinct ways, one of thembeing the classical procedure associated with the names of Kirchhoff and Trefftz, and the other being a
modification of a classical procedure generally associated with the name of Piola.
Page474
5
Kirchhoff-Trefftz Components of Stress and the Associated Variational Equation for Stresses and Displacements
Following Kirchhoff and Trefftz, we restrict consideration to problems for which q =0 and we stipulate a component representation
The introduction of (19), in conjunction with component representations,
into (18a, b) then gives as scalar equations of equilibriumthe symmetry relations o
ij
=o
ji
, in conjunction with the differential equations
In order to have stress strain relations which take the place of (1b) for infinitesimal elasticity, one then defines componentsc
ij
of finite strain in the form
and with this one stipulates, in place of (1b), as constitutive relations
Given that the above choice of c
ij
=c
ji
for the description of states of finite strain is, effectively, a natural one, in view of the geometrical significance of these
quantities, one has to think of the component representation (19) for the vectors of stress as an inspired one. The reason that this is so depends on the dual symmetry
property o
ij
=o
ji
, in conjunction with the fact that the work expression o
i
oz
,i
=o
ij
z
,j
oz
,i
can, with o
ij
=o
ij
and with (22), be written in the formo
ij
oc
ij
, thereby
establishing the conjugacy of o
ij
and c
ij
, and the possibility to think of a variational equation which has (21) and (23) as Euler differential equations.
As regards the formof this variational equation, it turns out that it is the same as equation (3), except for a replacement of the volume integral term(u
i,j
+u
j,i
)o
ij
by a
term(u
i,j
+u
j,i
+u
m,i
u
m,j
)o
ij
, with a corresponding change of the expressions for t
k
so as to now read t
k
=(o
jk
+u
k,j
)o
mj
v
m
.
Given that the essence of Eq. (3) for infinitesimal elasticity was in effect synthesized by visualizing a calculus of variations problemwhich would have (1a, b) as Euler
equations [Reissner (1950)], the validity of the analogous result for the problemof finite elasticity, with (21) and (23) as Euler equations, was subsequently
conjectured, and then proved by a verification of the correctness of this conjecture [Reissner (1953)].
6
Generalized Piola Components and a Generalized Hellinger Theorem
We define generalized Piola components of stress t
ij
, as in Reissner (1984), by writing in place of (19)
in terms of a triad of mutually perpendicular unit vectors t
j
, where
Page475
An introduction of (24a, b) and (20b) into (18a) then gives, in place of (21), the force component equations
In writing the scalar consequences of the associated moment condition (18b), it is of advantage for what follows to consider components in the direction of the
vectors t
j
. In this connection we here also limit ourselves by now setting again
in (18b) and we further write, with e
m
=o
nm
t
n
,
With this and with t
n
t
j
=e
njk
t
k
, we than have as component moment equilibriumequations
In order to have components of strain
ij
with the property that o
i
oz
,i
=t
ij
o
ij
we here introduce these strain components by writing
Equation (28') in conjunction with (24a) allows a ready verification of the desired property of the
ij
, as long as the direction cosineso
ij
are given quantities, that
is, as long as oo
ij
=0. Consequently, the strain components
are, for given o
jk
, the conjugates of the stress components t
ij
in (24a).
The generalized Piola components t
ij
reduce to the conventional Piola components upon setting o
ij
=o
ij
, with this reducing Eq. (30) for the conjugate strain
components
ij
to the usual displacement gradient formu
j,i
. Furthermore, an assumption of very small rotations, by way of stipulating that o
jk
=o
jk
+e
jkm
e
m
, with
subsequent linearization in terms of u
j,i
and e
m
, ensures the consistency of Eqs. (30) and (12).
A complementation of the force equilibriumEqs. (26) and the strain displacement Eqs. (30) by constitutive equations
may be considered to result in a generalized Hellinger formulation of the finite elasticity problemin the following sense. The variational equation
has, with independent variations ot
ij
and ou
k
, and with (30) as constraint conditions, the constitutive Eqs. (31) and the force equilibriumEqs. (26) as Euler differential
equations. The formulation of Hellinger (1914) results fromthe above upon stipulating that o
ij
=o
ij
.
Equations (32) and (30), with the consequences (31) and (26), are subject to the same complications as the special-case result in Hellinger (1914). These
complications are of two kinds. In the first place it is, in general, not possible to write a physically reasonable systemof constitutive equations in the form(31). In the
second place, no account is taken of the moment equilibriumEqs. (29) which must be satisfied.
Page476
As in the case for Hellinger's result, Eq. (32) may be transformed into a pseudo-variational equation for stress alone, upon considering the force equilibriumEq. (26)
as conditions of constraint. This allows the deduction of a variational equation , with the ot
ij
having to be such that (o
ik
ot
ij
),
i
=0.
It does not seemto have been remarked before in connection with Hellinger's result that a frequently referred-to analysis by Levinson (1966) is no more or no less
than a reformulation of Hellinger's analysis in terms of curvilinear coordinates. As regards the two complications mentioned above, Levinson notes that it may not
always be possible to write constitutive equations for Piola stresses and their conjugate strains in the form(31). However, it is not noted that non-satisfaction of the
moment Eq. (29) means the effective non-validity of the result, with the absence of a possibility to be concerned with the conditions of moment equilibriumbeing
mentioned as a possible advantage in connection with the solution of specific problems by direct methods procedures.
7
On Fraeijs De Veubeke's Theorem
Given that the variational Eq. (32) is, for fixed values of the o
ij
, in general associated with states of stress and displacement which imply non-satisfaction of the
moment equilibriumconditions (29), we find that this difficulty disappears upon removing the indicated constraints on the o
ij
. To see that this is so, we now write as
expression for o
ij
in the developed formof (32), with m in place of k,
The terms with ou
m,i
in this lead, as before, to Euler equations of force equilibrium. To see that the terms with oo
jm
in (33) lead to Euler equations of moment
equilibrium, we take account of the fact that equation (25) implies that
with this in turn implying the possibility of writing
A multiplication on both sides in (35) by o
nm
, and observation of (25), gives the further relation
Equation (36) in conjunction with (33) now allows us to state that a variational equation of the form
with
ij
as in (30) has, with independent variations ot
ij
, ou
k
and oe
k
, and with oo
jm
as in (36), a systemof Euler equations consisting of the stress displacement
relations (30) in conjunction with the force equilibriumconditions (26) and the moment equilibriumconditions (29).
Equation (37), in conjunction with (33), is now free of one of the two complications associated with the generalized Hellinger Eq. (32). There remains the other
complication which concerns the physical reasonableness of a systemof constitutive
Page477
relations of the form(31). Our relatively simple way of dealing with this complication is as follows. We stipulate, on intuitive grounds, that the contents of (32) will be
physically reasonable in the event that the function W of the nine arguments t
ij
does in effect depend on six arguments (t
ij
+t
ji
)/2 only. With the formof W restricted
in this fashion, we then have the strain symmetry condition,
ij
=
ji
, as a consequence of the variational equation. As previously noted by Reissner (1984), this strain
symmetry condition can be thought of as a condition that the directions of the stress components t
ij
are parallel to the edges of that rectangular element of volume
which is ''most nearly" congruent with the deformed, in general oblique element of volume, and with this in turn meaning that these distinguished generalized Piola
stresses are the same stresses as those first introduced, in a different context, by M. A. Biot.
With the basic idea of a finite-elasticity variational equation with rotational as well as translational displacement variations, including the step fromEq. (34) to (36)
being, as far as is known, due to Fraeijs de Veubeke (1972), we note here that extensions and clarifications of this idea and of the ensuing analysis have since been
considered by others, in particular by Atluri (1983), Murakawa and Atluri (1978), Bufler (1983, 1985) and the present writer (1984, 1985).
References
Atluri, S. N. (1983): Alternate stress and conjugate strain measures, and mixed variational formulations involving rigid rotations, for computational analyses of finitely
deformed solids, with application to plates and shells Part: Theory, Comp. & Struct. 18, 93116.
Bufler, H. (1979): Generalized variational principles with relaxed continuity requirements for certain nonlinear problems, withan application to nonlinear elasticity.
Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng. 19, 235255.
Bufler, H. (1983): On the work theorems for finite and incremental elastic deformation with discontinuous fields: A unified treatment of different versions. Comp.
Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng. 36, 95124.
Bufler, H. (1985): The Biot stresses in nonlinear elasticity and the associated generalized variational principles. Ing. Arch. 55, 450462.
Fraeijs de Veubeke, B. (1972): A new variational principle for finite elastic deformations. Int. J. Eng. Sci. 10, 745763.
Hellinger, E. (1914): Die allgemeinen Anstze der Mechanik der Kontinua. Enzyklopdie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften, 4, Art. 30, pp. 654655.
Levinson, M. (1966): The complementary energy theoremin finite elasticity. J. Appl. Mech. 33, 826829; ibid. 34, 714.
Murakawa, H.; Atluri, S. N. (1978): Finite elasticity solution using hybrid finite elements based on a complementary energy principle. J. Appl. Mech. 45, 539547.
Oden, J. T.; Reddy, J. N. (1976): Variational methods in theoretical mechanics, p. 115. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York: Springer.
Reissner, E. (1950): On a variational theoremin elasticity. J. Math. & Phys. 29, 9095.
Reissner, E. (1953): On a variational theoremfor finite elastic deformations. J. Math. & Phys. 32, 129153.
Reissner, E. (1965): A note on variational principles in elasticity. Int. J. Solids Struct. 1, 9395.
Reissner, E. (1983): Variational principles in elasticity, manuscript of a chapter in: Handbook of finite element methods. London: McGraw-Hill.
Reissner, E. (1984): Formulation of variational theorems in geometrically nonlinear elasticity. J. Eng. Mech. 110, 13771390.
Reissner, E. (1985): On mixed variational formulations in finite elasticity. Acta Mechanica 56, 177125.
Page478
On the Formulation of Variational Theorems Involving Volume Constraints*
[Comp. Mech. 5, 337344, 1989]
1
Introduction
A continued concern with variational theorems which are suitable for numerical implementation in connection with the analysis of incompressible or nearly
incompressible materials has led us to the formulation of five-field, and in one case seven-field, theorems for displacements, deviatoric stresses, pressure, distortional
strains and volume change. In essence these theorems may be thought of as generalizations of the Hu-Washizu three-field theoremfor displacements, stresses and
strains and of the earlier two-field theoremfor displacements and stresses.
For ease of exposition, what follows is divided into three parts. The first part deals with geometrically linear elasticity. The second part deals with the effect of
geometric nonlinearity in terms of Kirchhoff-Trefftz stresses and Green-Lagrange strains. The third part is concerned with results involving generalized Piola stresses
and conjugate strains, as well as with results about distinguished (Biot) generalized stresses and their conjugate strains. Also for ease of exposition, attention is limited
to statements about volume integral portions, omitting body force and boundary condition terms.
In addition to formulating five-field theorems, as well as one seven-field theorem, we use these theorems, through the introduction of various constraints, for the
deduction of alternate six, five, four, three, and two-field theorems for incompressible or nearly incompressible elasticity.
2
A Five-Field Generalization of the Hu-Washizu Theorem for Geometrically Linear Elasticity
With u
i
as components of displacement, with the abbreviation,
and with a strain energy density function U(u
ij
) we have for the volume integral portion, in the absence of body forces, of the classical one-field principle of minimum
potential energy
With components of stress o
ij
, with constraint constitutive equations o
ij
=cU/cu
ij
and with arbitrary variations ou
i
, Eq. (2) implies the Euler differential equations of
equilibriumo
ij,i
=0. Furthermore, with components of strain c
ij
, and with constraint
*With S. N. Atluri.
Page479
strain displacement relations c
ij
=u
ij
, Eq. (2) may alternately be written in the form
Given (2') we obtain, following Hu and Washizu, a three-field variational theoremfor displacements, stresses and strains upon changing the character of the constraint
relations c
ij
=u
ij
, and o
ij
=cU/cc
ij
into Euler equations, with this three-field theoremhaving the form
Given the step fromthe one-field theorem(2) to the three-field theorem(3) we now propose to establish a five-field theoremfor displacements u
i
, distortional strains
, a volume change variable u =c
kk
, deviatoric stresses and a mean stress p =(1/3)o
kk
, as follows.
We write, with the introduction of a deviatoric displacement gradient tensor ,
We further write
and with this we assert the validity of the five-field variational theorem
It is evident that the Euler equations of (6) include the relations , u =u
kk
, and therewith the strain displacement relations c
ij
=u
ij
.
The further Euler equations , p =cU*/cu also imply the constitutive relations o
ij
=cU/cc
ij
as Euler equations, inasmuch as
Finally, in order to verify that (6) also implies the equilibriumequations o
ij,i
=0 as Euler equations it is sufficient to observe, on the basis of (4), that
Remarks
Equation (6) may also be obtained upon writing the principle of minimumpotential energy in the form , with an introduction of the side
conditions and u =u
kk
by means of Lagrange multipliers and p.
Still another way of deriving (6) is to introduce the decompositions (4) into the Hu-Washizu Eq. (3), with the desired result following upon observing the relations
.
We further note that the linear isotropic materials case of (6) was included in an unpublished 1978 manuscript "Notes on an analysis of nearly or precisely
incompressible behavior of elastic-plastic solids" by the first named author in collaboration
Page480
with H. Murakawa. The present deduction of (6) evolved on the basis of a manuscript "On a modification of the Hu-Washizu variational equation in elasticity"
concerning the four-field theoremin Eq. (10) which the senior author submitted in July 1986 to the journal Computational Mechanics.
3
Reductions of the Five-Field Theorem of Geometrically Linear Theory
Our first reduction is to a four-field theoremfor displacements, distortional strains, deviatoric stresses and pressure. We change the character of the relation p =
cU*/cu fromEuler equation to constraint equation and, with the inversion of this relation, define a semi-complementary energy density function V*
through the partial Legendre transformation
Equation (9) implies in the usual way that u =cV*/cp and the introduction of U* from(9) into (6) gives as the desired four-field theorem
As regards the problemof determining V* we note the ease of doing this for materials for which at the outset , and also for materials for
which U(u
ij
) =U
2
(u
ij
) +(u
kk
)2F(u
12
, u
13
, u
23
), with U
2
as a second degree polynomial. For other more general cases, and in connection with numerical applications
of (10), we expect that it will be possible to combine the discretization of (10) with a determination of the function V* in an incremental sense as in [1].
Our second reduction of (6), to a three-field theoremfor displacements, volume change and pressure, is obtained upon changing the character of the relations
and fromEuler equation to constraint equation. With this, Eq. (6) evidently reduces to the form
Equation (11) has been stated previously in [5]. An implicit version of (11) occurs also in [2], not for it's own sake but as a stepping stone towards a two-field
theoremfor displacements and pressure which is obtained by again changing the Euler equation p =cU*/cu into a constraint equation where now and
therewith
The introduction of U* from(12) into (11) leaves the two-field theorem
with (13) being equivalent, upon writing and so that , to the result in
[2].
Page481
4
The Five-Field Theorem of Geometrically Nonlinear Theory for Green-Lagrange Strains and Kirchhoff-Trefftz Stresses
We again depart froma statement of the volume integral portion of the classical variational principle for displacements (1), with the u
ij
now being the components of
the Green-Lagrange strain tensor
and with the principle of Hu and Washizu for displacements, strains and (Kirchhoff-Trefftz or second Piola-Kirchhoff) stresses being again Eq. (3).
The additive decomposition of geometrically linear theory in (4) into distortional and dilatational contributions is known to be replaceable in geometrically nonlinear
theory by a multiplicative decomposition which is dependent on the determinantal relation
where o is the relative change of volume due to deformation, so that J
u
=1 for an incompressible material.
Given Eq. (15) we have the possibility of defining quantities which correspond to the quantities in (4) by writing
inasmuch as, evidently,
We now again make use of the artifice of replacing the basic Eq. (2) by (2'), with constraint strain displacement relations c
ij
=u
ij
, and we define distortional strain
components through the relations
where
Having (18) and (19) we next write, in analogy to Eq. (5) for the geometrically linear case,
and we stipulate, in analogy to the result for the geometrically linear case, that the five-field theoremof geometrically nonlinear theory, involving Lagrange multipliers
and p, be of the form
with ] as a function the choice of which remains at our disposal.
Given Eq. (21) we note in particular the Euler constitutive equations
Page482
In view of (20) and in view of the relation o
ij
=cU/cc
ij
we have as expressions for and p in terms of Kirchhoff-Trefftz stresses and Green-Lagrange strains:
and, alternately, as expressions for the o
ij
, in terms of the , and p
In order to verify that (21) has the appropriate equilibriumequations as Euler equations as well, it is only necessary to verify that
This is readily accomplished on the basis of (16) in conjunction with the Euler strain displacement equations of (21).
5
Reductions of the Five-Field Theorem (21)
As for the geometrically linear problemwe obtain a four-field theoremwhich no longer involves the volume change measure Jc by inverting (22b) and by then defining
a function
with which the desired four-field equation follows from(21) in the form
Our second reduction, to a three-field theorem, again depends on considering the relations and as constraint equations rather than Euler
equations. With this we obtain from(21) as a three-field theoreminvolving u
i
, Jc, and p
which corresponds to an equivalent theoremin [5], upon stipulating ](J
u
) =J
u
and ](Jc) =Jc.
Given Eq. (27) we may further deduce a two-field theoremfor p and the u
i
, by changing the Euler relations into constraints so as to have this two-field
theorem, in generalization of the result in [2] for the geometrically linear problem, in the form
6
A Five-Field Theorem of Geometrically Nonlinear Theory in Terms of Generalized Piola Stresses and Displacement Gradient Components
With stress vectors o
i
as forces per unit of undeformed area acting over the surfaces of deformed material elements
Page483
defined by position vectors z =x +u the equations of equilibriumfor deformed material elements are, except for body force terms which are omitted in this account,
Given that, in terms of the unit vectors e
i
in the directions of the coordinate axes x
i
, we have as defining relations for Piola components of stress
we have earlier [3] defined generalized Piola components of stress t
ij
by writing
with the unit vectors t
j
given by
with (33) implying that
With (33) and (34) we define generalized displacement gradient components
on the basis of deducing with the help of (34a) that,
Given the representations (32) and (36) we have from(30a, b) as component equilibriumequations
As long as we stipulate that oo
ij
=0, we have on the basis of (32) and (36) that
which assures the conjugacy of t
ij
and w
ij
. If, with (38) and with
we stipulate constitutive relations of the form
we then have that the variational equation
with arbitrary ou
i
, has the force equilibriumEq. (37a) as Euler equations.
For (41) to be meaningful, it is necessary to restrict the formof Ut in such a way that the moment equilibriumEq. (37b) is also satisfied. It is readily shown that Eq.
(37b) will be satisfied, identically, upon stipulating that
Page484
with u
ij
as in (14), where we note that on the basis of the relations u
ij
=1/2(z
,i
z
,j
o
ij
), we have as expression for the u
ij
in terms of the w
ij
,
With (42) and (43) it is then established that (41) is a one-field variational theoremof geometrically nonlinear theory in terms of generalized displacement gradient
components as defined by (35) which directly corresponds to the theoremin Eq. (2) for geometrically linear theory.
From(41) to (43) we next have as a three-field Hu-Washizu theorem, corresponding to Eq. (3) of the linear theory
where now Ut(
ij
) =U(c
ij
), with c
ij
=
ij
+
ji
+
ik

jk
.
The generalization of (44) to a five-field theoreminvolving volume change and pressure, in addition to deviatoric stresses and strains, involves the relation
where
with corresponding formulas for ,
ij
and J. In this way we then have in analogy to (21) with
as a five-field theoreminvolving displacements, deviatoric strains and stresses, and pressure and volume change variables,
From(48) we may again deduce a three-field theoremwhich corresponds to a result in [5] upon introducing the relations and as constraints.
This three-field theoremis, in analogy to (28)
The possibility of deducing four- and two-field theorems corresponding to (10) and (13) is questionable to the extent that the invertibility of the constitutive relation
is questionable within the framework of the concept of generalized Piola components of stress.
While the practical usefulness of the theorems in (48) and (49) is in doubt for other than the special case of o
ij
=o
ij
, the considerations leading to themfurnish a
particularly convenient approach to a broadened formulation where the status of the o
ij
is changed fromthat of given quantities to that of additional dependent
variables.
Page485
7
A Seven-Field Theorem Involving Distinguished Generalized Piola or Biot Stresses and Displacement Gradient Components
We now consider the directions of the vectors t
j
in (33a,b) not as given but as dependent variables which are to be determined as part of the solution of the problem.
We then have, as a consequence of (35)
An observation of the fact that, as a consequence of (33b), o
ik
oo
jk
=o
jk
oo
ik
and therewith, in terms of the quantities oe
m
, o
ik
oo
jk
=e
ijm
oe
m
leads, with (34b)
and with a consistent change of subscripts, to the relation oo
ij
=o
kj
e
kim
oe
m
. This, in conjunction with (35), transforms (50) into
With equation (39) replaced by (51), and with t
ij
again as in (40) we will now have that the variational equation (41), with arbitrary ou
j
and oe
m
, has the character
of a two-field principle with not only the force equilibriumEq. (37a) but also the moment equilibriumEq. (37b) as Euler equations.
It is necessary at this point to decide to what extent the formof the function Ut(w
ij
) cannot be arbitrarily stipulated. We do know that if Ut is as in (42) that then the
moment equilibriumequations are satisfied automatically and that therewith the variational Eq. (41), with or without oo
ij
=0, is a valid one-field equation. An
alternate disposition concerning Ut, leading to a three-field variational equation, is as follows. We stipulate, as a physically reasonable restriction, to be satisfied by an
appropriate determination of the o
ij
, the strain symmetry conditions
and we write
After this we change the constraint relations (52) into Euler equations with the help of Lagrange multipliers
k
, and therewith state as a three-field variational equation
which has force and moment equilibriumconditions as well as the same kinematic relations (52) as Euler equations
The physical significance of the multipliers
k
is obtained upon deducing from(54), with the abbreviation
or
Page486
For (56), with ow
ik
as in (50), to have the equilibriumEqs. (37a, b) as Euler equations it is evidently necessary to have
Equation (57), with the further abbreviation implies that
and accordingly we have that only the sums of the stresses t
12
and t
21
, etc., enter into the constitutive relations.
Having expressions for the
k
in accordance with (58), it is possible to write the three-field theorem(54) in the form
with independent variations ou
i
; oe
i
; and o(t
ij
t
ji
), consistent with a result in [4].
Given equation (59) it is again possible to increase the number of fields and now obtain a five-field principle in the sense of Hu-Washizu, by introducing components
of strain
ij
, with strain displacement relations
ij
=w
ij
as additional Euler equations. In this way we then have, in place of (59)
with independent variations o
11
, , . . ., ot
11
, , . . ., o(t
12
t
21
), . . ., ou
i
, and oe
i
. Finally we may use (60) to again deduce a theoremwith supplementary
volume change and pressure variables, where we now write in analogy to (16)
and
with corresponding formulas for
11
, , . . ., and J and with
With (63) and again with a pressure function p, we now deduce a seven-field theorem
Page487
with independent variations , , . . ., oJ, , , . . ., , . . ., op, ou
i
, and oe
i
.
As before, we may deduce fromthis, by introduction of suitable constraints, lower field relations including a five-field theorem
corresponding to the three-field theoremin [5], and a four-field theorem
corresponding to the two-field theoremin terms of Green-Lagrange strains and pressure in Eq. (29).
References
1. Atluri, S. N. (1978): On rate principles for finite strain analysis of elastic and inelastic nonlinear solids. In: Recent research on the mechanical behavior of solids,
pp. 79109. University of Tokyo Press.
2. Reissner, E. (1983): On a variational principle for elastic displacements and pressure. J. Appl. Mech. 51, 444445.
3. Reissner, E. (1984): Formulation of variational theorems in geometrically nonlinear elasticity. J. Eng. Mech. 110, 13771390.
4. Reissner, E. (1985): On mixed variational formulations in finite elasticity. Acta Mechanica 56, 117125.
5. Simo, J. C., Taylor, R. L. and Pister, K. S. (1985): Variational and projection methods for the volume constraint in finite deformation elasto-plasticity. Comp.
Meth. Appl. Mech. Eng. 51, 177208.
Page489
VIBRATIONS
My concern with problems of vibration came froman interest of my father and his colleague A. Hertwig, in the possibility of utilizing Lamb's solution for an oscillating
point force on the surface of an elastic halfspace as a tool for the interpretation of machine vibration tests. I volunteered for a first step in such an attempt by selecting
as Dipl. Ing. Thesis topic the problemof a uniformoscillating pressure distribution acting over a circular surface portion of the halfspace. The thesis was accepted in
December 1935 and led to a temporary appointment by the Institute for Soil Mechanics (Degebo), with the assignment to apply theresults in it to the problemof
forced vibrations of a systemconsisting of a body of given mass and given base radius, resting on the elastic halfspace. I was able to deduce the equations which
were needed to obtain data of engineering interest and discovered, in particular, the importance of radiation damping for the solution of this problem. The report on
this work was well received by Professor Hertwig, to the point of his deciding, in April 1936, that it could serve as a Dissertation for the degree of Dr. Ing. Excerpts
fromthis were published in [5].
An opportunity for further graduate studies at M.I.T. meant that I lost contact with the later work at the Degebo, and so failed to be aware that my numerical results
did not well agree with experimental data. A number of years later it was discovered by others that there was a sign mistake inone of the terms of my halfspace
solution. Upon correcting this mistake, theory and experiment were no longer inconsistent. It is gratifying to know that in spite of this known flaw the contents of [5]
are still being appreciated, with F. E. Richart's text on Vibrations of Soils and Foundations referring to this day to [5] as ''the classic paper in this field." It should be
added that when thought was given to a re-publication of this paper, my colleague Enrique Luco generously volunteered to obtainnew versions of the numerical data,
including the preparation of new corrected figures. I feel greatly indebted to Professor Luco for his unselfish effort, which made inclusion of the paper in this volume
possible.
I no longer remember why very soon thereafter I considered the problemof torsional oscillations of the halfspace [9]. The analysis came out much simpler, with a
closed-formsolution for the case of forced oscillations due to a radially linear distribution of circumferential surface shear. Also considered, briefly, was the mixed
boundary value problemwith displacements prescribed for r s r
0
and absent tractions for r
0
<r, by means of a systemof dual integral equations.
It later occurred to me that it would be useful to approach this mixed boundary value problemwith the help of an oblate spheroidal coordinate system. My notes on
this approach were utilized by H. F. Sagoci who was then a Turkish army officer, on leave to obtain a Ph.D. in geophysics. We found a closed-formsolution for the
Page490
static case [35], and an exact series solution in terms of Mathieu functions for the case of simple harmonic motion. As the responsibility for the analysis for this later
case were entirely Dr. Sagoci's, this part of the work was published by himas a follow-up report without my being co-author.
In addition to interests in nonsteady aerodynamics [62], and in making the minimumcomplementary energy principle applicable to vibration problems [52, 59] the
main other effort which is to be mentioned here concerns the vibration problemof shallow elastic shells. Beginning with a note on axisymmetric vibrations of spherical
shells [45], as a straightforward extension of the work on the static problem[46], I later realized, by means of systematic order of magnitude considerations, that in
many cases the problemcould be much simplified by neglecting the effect of horizontal inertia in comparison with the effect of transverse inertia [94]. This observation
was first applied to a problemof beamvibrations [88], and then to obtain quantitative results for the problemof axi and non-axisymmetrical vibrations of spherical
shells [95, 107], partly in cooperation with Millard Johnson.
Aside fromthis there was a paper on torsional vibrations of shallow helicoidal shells, jointly with K. Washizu [108], and a paper on breathing vibrations of
pressurized cylindrical shells, jointly with J. G. Berry [113], where we reported on work done in conjunction with the Atlas missile project.
Page491
Stationre, Axialsymmetrische, Durch Eine Schttelnde Masse Erregte Schwingungen Eines Homogenen Elastischen
Halbraumes
[Ingenieur Archiv 7, 381396, 1936]
1
Aufgabestellung
Die axialsymmetrische Schwingung des elastischen Halbraumes bei gegebenen Oberflchenspannungen ist zuerst in einer grundlegenden Arbeit von H. Lamb
behandelt worden*.
Schon der Titel der Lambschen Arbeit zeigt, da die Theorie imHinblick auf die seismologischen Anwendungen entwickelt werden sollte.
Als daran gegangen wurde, die Untersuchungen Lambs und seiner Nachfolger auf die dynamische Bodenuntersuchung anzuwenden, zeigte es sich, da zwar die
vorhandenen Anstze fr diese Problemstellung benutzt werden konnten, da aber sowohl bei der formellen Durchfhrung als der numerischen Auswertung noch
erhebliche Weiterarbeit notwendig war, da in allen diesen Arbeiten auf die Erscheinungen in unmittelbarer Nhe des Erregungszentrums bei Erregung durch
zustzliche Massen (Resonanzverhltnisse usw.) nicht eingegangen worden ist.
Bei der Untersuchungsmethode, die den Anla zu dieser Arbeit gegeben hat, sollen die Eigenschaften eines Bodens aus seinemVerhalten bei periodischer Belastung
eines begrenzten Oberflchenstckes erschlossen werden**.
Der erregende Mechanismus, ein schttelndes Massensystem, der sog., "Schwinger", versetzt den Boden in eine nach kurzer Zeit stationre Schwingung, bei der
Amplitude, Phasenwinkel zwischen erregender Kraft und Verschiebung sowie Leistungsbedarf in Abhngigkeit von der erregenden Kraft und der Frequenz bei
gegebener Schwingermasse und Belastungsflche gemessen werden knnen.
Umeine Theorie dieses Verfahrens der Bodenuntersuchung aufzustellen, hat man bisher das SystemSchwinger-Erdboden als ein Systemeines oder zweier
Massenpunkte betrachtet, die untereinander und gegen ein starres Fundament elastisch und reibend verbunden gedacht sind***.
In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Annahme zugrunde gelegt, da das Systemaus einemelastischen, homogenen, mit Masse behafteten, isotropen Halbraum
besteht, an welchemperiodisch wirkende Oberflchenspannungen angreifen. Insbesondere wird auf den Fall eingegangen, da diese Spannungen erzeugt werden
durch rotierende Massen, die an einemschweren auf demHalbraumruhenden Krper angebracht sind.
*H. Lamb, On thePropagation of Tremors over theSurfaceof an Elastic Solid. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc., Lond. (A) 203 (1904), 142.
**A. Hertwig, G. Frh, H. Lorenz, DieErmittlungder fr das Bauwesen wichtigsten Eigenschaften durch erzwungeneSchwingungen. Verff. Inst. Dtsch. Forsch. Ges. Bodenmech. (Degebo), Heft 1,
Springer, Berlin 1933.
***H. Lorenz, Diss. Techn. Hochsch. Berlin 1934, sowieA. Hertwig, G. Frh, H. Lorenz, a.a.O.
Page492
Da die vorstehende Annahme sich demwirklichen Systemmehr annhert als die vorhergenannten Anstze, werden die dabei auftretenden Abweichungen zwischen
Theorie und Versuch noch sicherer auf die Erweiterung sowohl der experimentellen wie der theoretischen Untersuchung hinweisen.
Fr die Natur des den Boden darstellenden Halbraumes sind Elastizittsmodul, Schubmodul oder Querkontraktionszahl, Massendichte, innere Reibung und bei
sandfrmigen Krpern deren jeweilige Sackungsgrenze der inneren Reibung magebend. Jedoch wird hier von der Bercksichtigung der inneren Reibung abgesehen,
was umso mehr angebracht ist, als der zunchst immer versuchte Ansatz einer von der Geschwindigkeit abhngigen Reibung fr feste und sandfrmige Massen sicher
wesentlich falsch ist und ber andere Anstze noch keine Klarheit herrscht.
Die allgemeine Behandlung der erzwungenen rotationssymmetrischen Schwingungen des elastischen Halbraumes erfolgt unter Zugrundelegung der erwhnten Arbeit
von Lamb, welche unter Benutzung eines Vortragsmanuskriptes von H. Reissner etwas vereinfacht werden konnte. Des Zusammenhangs halber wird die Ableitung
dieser Ergebnisse nochmals angedeutet.
Es mge noch genauer gesagt werden, worin der Unterschied der vorliegenden Arbeit gegenber den bisherigen durch seismologische Fragen angeregten Unter-
suchungen besteht.
Auf Grund der Fragestellungen der Erdbebentheorie ist von Lamb und seinen Nachfolgern hingearbeitet worden auf die Darstellung der Erschtterungswellen in
groer Entfernung vomErregungszentrum. Man konnte sich dabei auf den Fall gegebener linien- bzw. punktfrmiger Erregungsquelle beschrnken und die in diesem
Fall auftretende unendliche Amplitude imErregungszentrumin Kauf nehmen.
Dagegen war es fr die oben angegebene Fragestellung erforderlich, die Methode auf den Fall einer flchenhaft verteilten, durchzustzliche Massen verursachten
Erregung zu erweitern und hauptschlich die Oberflchenverschiebungen innerhalb der Belastungsflche zu betrachten.
Groe Schwierigkeiten bereitete dabei die Auswertung der durch uneigentliche Integrale gegebenen formelmigen Resultate, die auf einemWege erfolgte, der,
soweit festgestellt werden konnte, neu ist und an anderer Stelle dargestellt wird.
2
Theorie Der Rotationssymmetrischen Schwingungen in Einem Elastischen Halbraum
Seien die Dichte, und die Lamschen Elastizittskonstanten des homogen und isotrop vorausgesetzten Halbraumes und t die Zeit, so gelten fr die
Fortpflanzung der Dichtenderung o und des Rotationsvektors die Gleichungen
Bei axialer Symmetrie ist in Zylinderkoordinaten r, und z, wenn u, v, w die entsprechenden Verschiebungen bedeuten,
Page493
Zwischen o und e einerseits und den Verschiebungen u und w andererseits besteht folgender Zusammenhang:
Partikularlsungen der Gleichungen (1) und (2), von denen spter der reelle Teil zu nehmen ist, sind
worin J
0
und J
1
Besselsche Funktionen bedeuten. Fr die nachherige Erfllung der Oberflchenbedingungen mu zwischen o und | unter Einfhrung einer Gre
die Beziehung
gelten, worin imfolgenden zwecks Abkrzung
gesetzt werden soll. Fr die Verschiebungen u und w erhlt man dann aus (4)
Als nicht verschwindende Spannungen treten o
r
, o, o
z
und t
rz
auf, von denen imfolgenden nur o
z
und t
rz
t bentigt werden. Diese letzteren ergeben sich wie
folgt:
(a)
Freie Schwingung
Die freie Schwingung, die von Rayleigh* zuerst behandelt worden ist, ist definiert durch die Forderung
Unter Benutzung von (11) und (12) erhlt man aus diesen Forderungen als Frequenzengleichung
*Rayleigh, Proc. Lond. Math. Soc. 17 (1885), 411.
Page494
F() besitzt, wie Rayleigh gezeigt hat, nur zwei Nullstellen, die mit k bezeichnet werden, und zwar ist fr
Unter Einfhrung einer neuen Konstanten D ergibt sich, wenn o
1
und |
1
die Werte von o und | an der Stelle 2 =k2 bedeuten, bei der freien Schwingung
(b)
Erzwungene Schwingung
Fr die Behandlung der durch gegebene Oberflchenkrfte erzwungenen Schwingung wird der folgende durch Summation aus (9) bis (12) hervorgehende Ansatz
gemacht, in demA und B willkrliche, durch die Oberflchenbedingungen zu bestimmende Funktionen sind.
Ist die Oberflche schubspannungsfrei, ein Fall, der allein hier betrachtet wird, so folgt aus (20)
und fr die Oberflchennormalspannung ergibt sich aus (19)
*Fr den Fall, da weiterek-Werteinteressieren, geht man zweckmigerweiseso vor, da man k annimmt und aus (14) dann dieQuerkontraktion m =/2( +) bestimmt, dadieAuflsungder
Gleichung(14) nach k bei gegebenemm bei der erforderlichen, sehr groen Genauigkeit wesentlich umstndlicher ist.
Page495
Andererseits ist das gegebene o
z
(r, 0) folgendermaen durch ein Fourier-Besselsches Integral darstellbar:
so da man durch Vergleich von (22) und (23)
erhlt. Fr den Fall einer gleichmig ber einen Kreis mit demHalbmesser r
0
verteilten Normalbelastung Peipt
ergibt sich aus (24)
so da sich bei dieser Belastungsverteilung, die fr die weiteren Betrachtungen zugrunde gelegt wird, aus (17) und (18) folgende Ausdrcke fr die weiterhin
bentigten Oberflchenverschiebungen u und w ergeben, wobei noch nach Gleichung (14) wieder die Funktion F() eingefhrt wird,
Die Integrale (27) und (28) sind in gewissemSinne unbestimmt, da ja die Funktion F() auf demIntegrationswege (fr =k) einmal von erster Ordnung
verschwindet, in welchemFalle man demIntegral verschiedene Werte zuerteilen kann, je nachdemin welcher Weise, man von links und von rechts bei der Integration
an die Polstelle des Integranden herangeht.
Dieser Willkr in der Wahl der Inte grale entspricht die Tatsache, da die vorstehend gegebene Lsung des Problems keine vollstndige ist, da ihr noch ein System
freier Schwingungen berlagert werden kann, ohne die Oberflchenbedingungen des Problems zu verletzen und berlagert werden mu, umdie gleich zu nennende
Bedingung imUnendlichen zu erfllen. Unter Bercksichtigung dieser Tatsache wird so vorgegangen, da man den sog. Cauchyschen Hauptwert* der auftretenden
Integrale als partikulare Lsung nimmt und dieser Lsung eine freie Schwingung so berlagert, da die resultierende Schwingungsformaus divergierenden Wellen
besteht, was die Bedingung dafr darstellt, da aus demUnendlichen keine Energieeinstrahlung stattfindet.
*Hauptwert:
Page496
Diese Bedingung, da die Wellen nach auen fortschreitende sind, ist also eine aus physikalischen Grnden hinzukommende Forderung an die richtige Lsung, die
dadurch zu einer eindeutigen gemacht wird.
Umsie zu befriedigen, ist es ntig, den Anteil der stehenden Schwingungen in der hergestellten Lsung (27) und (28) in Evidenz zu setzen. Dies geschieht nach dem
Vorgang von Lamb mit demHilfsmittel der Integration imKomplexen. Es werden in (27) und (28) an Stelle von J
0
und J
1
Hankelsche Zylinderfunktionen eingefhrt*,
und zwar ist
wobei
Damit ergeben sich aus (27) und (28) die jetzt von bis + erstreckten Integrale
Nach Einfhrung einer komplexen (, = +iq)-Ebene knnen, fr r >r
0
die Integrale (31) und (32) durch Integration lngs eines geeigneten Weges in die folgende
Formgebracht werden:
Die darin zur Abkrzung eingefhrten Zeichen H, K und ]() sind definiert durch
*Dabei ist fr das folgendewesentlich, da imGegensatz zu Jv dieEigenschaft besitzt, fr Wertedes Arguments mit groempositiven Imaginrteil exponentiell abzunehmen.
Page497
Nun stellen bei Zylindersymmetrie Andrcke von der Form wie bekannt* divergierende Wellen dar, so da also bereits erreicht ist, da die
stehengebliebenen Integrale Aggregate von divergierenden Wellen darstellen, whrend die ausintegrierten Teile den Anteil der stehenden Schwingung an der
hergestellten Partikularlsung angeben.
Durch berlagerung einer freien Schwingung nach (15) und (16), in der fr die willkrliche Konstante D der Wert
festgesetzt wird, erreicht man, da die gesamte Schwingung, deren Verschiebungen durch einen Stern gekennzeichnet werden mgen, aus divergierenden Wellen
besteht. Man erhlt insbesondere an der Oberflche
dabei mu jedoch beachtet werden, da diese Darstellung abgeleitet ist unter der Voraussetzung r >r
0
, und da fr die Berechnung der Verschiebungen innerhalb
des Belastungskreises die ursprnglichen Formeln (27) und (28), zu denen ebenfalls die freie Schwingung nach (15), (16) und (38) hinzuzufgen ist, benutzt werden
mssen.
Lt man in (39) und (40) r
0
0 gehen, nimmt also eine punktfrmige Last an, ein Schritt, den Lamb a.a.O. bereits zu Anfang seiner Rechnungen vornimmt, so
gehen die Ergebnisse in die Lambschen ber, bei denen die Verschiebung imLastangriffspunkt unendlich ist.
Fr die Aufgaben der Baugrundmechanik ist dieser Grenzbergang nicht zulssig, da es, wie sich zeigen wird, hierbei gerade auf die Verschiebungen innerhalb der
Lastangriffsflche ankommt.
Fhren wir, umdimensionslose Gren zu erhalten, eine neue Integrations-variable u ein, definiert durch
und setzen wir
*Es ist dies ersichtlich mit Hilfeder Integraldarstellung
Page498
so erhalten wir fr die vertikale Oberflchenverschiebung w*(r, 0) di fr alle r gltige Darstellung
was fr r >r
0
nach (39) identisch ist mit
Formel (44) ist zwar fr die hier durchgefhrte Untersuchung der Erscheinungen in der Nhe des Erregungszentrums nicht brauchbar, dagegen wre sie dann von
Vorteil, wenn es sich darumhandeln wrde, eine asymptotische Entwicklung fr groe a (d.h. also fr groe r) zu gewinnen.
Da das Integral von bis luft, ist es fr >0 (d.h. fr alle Flle, in denen das Mittel kompressibel ist) ohne weiteres mglich, diese Rechnung zu vereinfachen,
indembereits unter demIntegral fr die Hankelsche Funktion ihre asymptotische Entwicklung eingesetzt wird. Dadurch wird man auf die asymptotische Entwicklung
einer Reihe von Integralen gefhrt, deren jedes dieselbe Formhat wie die Formel fr die Oberflchenverschiebung beimebenen Problem, fr welches Lamb a.a.O.
diese Entwicklung angegeben hat, whrend er sich fr den rotationssymmetrischen Fall auf Angabe ds ersten Gliedes beschrnkt. Eine solche Rechnung mte noch
durchgefhrt werden, wenn Beobachtungen ber Abnahme der Amplituden mit der Entfernung, ber Wellenlngen u. dgl. zur Beurteilung der Bodeneigenschaften mit
herangezogen werden sollen.
Die allgemeine Theorie der durch gegebene Oberflchenkrfte erzwungenen Schwingungen des elastischen Halbraumes ist vorstehend soweit gefhrt worden, wie sie
imfolgenden bentigt wird.
3
Das System Schwinger-Halbraum
Umdie allgemeine Theorie auf den Fall einer schwingungserzeugenden Schttelmaschine anwenden zu knnen, ist es ntig, gewisse die Grundplatte des Schwingers
betreffende Idealisierungen einzufhren, da andernfalls die Frage des Gleichgewichts zwischen Oberflchenspannungen o
z
(r, 0) und den Trgheitskrften des
Schwingers auf ein gemischtes Randwertproblemfr den Halbraumfhrt, das bisher selbst in demwesentlich einfacheren statischen Fall nur unter Annahme einer
vollkommen starren Platte gelst ist.
Die vereinfachende Annahme besteht darin, da man die elastische Nachgiebigkeit der Grundplatte so festsetzt, wie sie sich bei einer von vornherein angenommenen
Druckverteilung unter der Platte ergibt und nur die Gre der resultierenden Kraft, die durch die Platte auf den Boden bertragen wird, aus der
Gleichgewichtsbedingung fr die vertikalen Krfte entnimmt.
Page499
Abb. 1.
Schemades Systems.
Als Druckverteilung unter der Platte wurde die in Abschnitt 1 betrachtete gleichmige angenommen.
Wenn Verschiebung und Beschleunigung entsprechend Abb. 1 positiv in Richtung wachsender z, die amHalbraumangreifende Kraft entsprechend positiv als
Zugkraft angenommen wird, so lautet die Gleichgewichtsbedingung fr die vertikalen Krfte
in welcher m
0
die Gesamtmasse der Schttelmaschine und C die Amplitude der Erregungskraft bedeutet. Fr den besonderen bei der Schttelmaschine der Degebo
vorliegenden Fall der Erregung durch zwei umlaufende Massen m
1
vomUmlaufsradius l ist
In (45) soll c so bestimmt werden, da man von der in Abschnitt 2 abgeleiteten Lsung den reellen Teil nimmt, also so, da
ist. Dann wird (45)
worin nach (43)
mit
Page500
und
Damit schreibt sich (48)
woraus man
und
erhlt. Aus (54) und (49) folgt als Formel fr die Schwingungsamplitude
Fr die Maschinenleistung bzw. die ins Unendliche ausgestrahlte Energie L erhlt man
Der Winkel c ist Phasenwinkel zwischen Erregungskraft C und Bodendruck . Der Messung zugnglich und als eigentlicher Phasenwinkel zu bezeichnen ist jedoch
der Winkel zwischen Erregungskraft C und Verschiebung w*(0, 0), fr den man die folgende Gleichung erhlt:
Es erweist sich fr die Diskussion als zweckmig, in den Gleichungen (53) bis (57) das Massen verhltnis
einzufhren. Es ist dann
Page501
und man erhlt aus (55) bis (57)
Durch die Formeln (55) bis (57) ist die Aufgabe nun zurckgefhrt auf die Berechnung der durch uneigentliche Integrale gegebenen Funktionen ]
1
(a
0
, ), und ]
2
(a
0
,
), weleche den grten Arbeitsaufwand in dieser Untersuchung erforderte. Unter Verzicht auf die Wiedergabe der Methode sowie der Rechnungen werde jedoch
hier nur das Resultat angegeben. Man erhlt
worin, umdaran zu erinnern, zu setzen ist. Die Funktionen ]
1
und ]
2
sind fr den bentigten a
0
-Bereich in Abb. 2 dargestellt.
Addendum(1995)
Es war schon lange bekannt, durch die Arbeit von T. Y. Sung (ASTM Special Technical Publication No. 156, ''Symposiumon Dynamic Testing of Soils" pp. 3564,
1953), dass die Funktionen ]
2
in den Gleichungen (60a, b, c) keine Minuszeichen vor den Anteilen mit J
1
haben sollten, imGegensatz zu den Formeln in der
Originalformdieser Arbeit. Es folgte daraus dass die numerischen Daten in den Abbildungen 2 bis 13 nicht richtig waren.
Als die Frage einer Neu-Publikation der Arbeit in einemSammelband aktuell wurde schlug mein Kollege Enrique Luco vor dass es gerechtfertig wre, in Hinblick auf
die seminale Bedeutung der Arbeit auf demGebiet der Bodenmechanik, die numerischen Resultate in der Originalarbeit zu korrigieren mit Hilfe der verbesserten
Werte der Funktion ]
2
. Die folgenden Abbildungen enthalten die korrigierten Resultate.
Page502
Abb. 2.
Bild der Funktionen ]
1
und ]
2
.
Ich schulde Professor Luco und seinemMitarbeiter Dr. Francisco Barros herzlichen Dank fr ihre selbstlosen Bemhungen die neue Daten zu erhalten. Weiterhin
schulde ich ihnen Dank fr die Herstellung der dazugehrigen Figuren.
4
Ergebnisse
Nach den Formeln (55a) bis (57a) wurden eine Reihe von Phasen-, Amplituden- und Leistungskurven berechnet und in den Abb. 3 bis 7 dargestellt, aus denen der
Einflu der dimensionslosen Gre , der Querkontraktionszahl m und der Gre auf Phase, Leistung und Amplitude hervorgeht. In Abb. 8
ist der Zusammenhang zwischen b und der kritischen Frequenz pk, bei der die Phasenverschiebung 90 betrgt, fr einige Werte der Querkontraktionszahl m
dargestellt.
Fr die Rechnung erwies es sich als zweckmig, die Einhllenden der Amplituden- und Leistungskurven zu berechnen, die sich ausA und cA/cb =0 bzw. L und
cL/cb =0 ergeben, wenn daraus die Gre b eliminiert wird. Sowohl cA/cb =0
Page503
Abb. 3.
Einflu der Schwingermasseauf diePhasenkurven.
als auch cL/cb =0 fhrt auf die Gleichung
welche gerade auch die Bedingung dafr darstellt, da die Phasenverschiebung 90 betrgt. So erhlt man den wichtigen Satz, da Phasen- und Leistungskurven ihre
Einhllenden bei derjenigen Frequenz berhren, bei der die Phasenverschiebung 90 betrgt. Es ist
welche Kurven ebenfalls in Abb. 6 und 7 sowie gesondert in Abb. 9 und 10 aufgetragen sind, und welche also den Zusammenhang zwischen kritischer Frequenz,
kritischer Amplitude bzw. Leistung sowie Apparat- und Bodenkonstanten darstellen.
Page504
Abb. 4.
Einfluss der Querkontraktionszahl m
auf diePhasenkurven.
Abb. 5.
Einfluss der Querkontraktionszahl m
auf dieAmplituden bei konstanter ErregungC.
Page505
Abb. 6.
Amplitudenkurven A bei
frequenzunabhngiger ErregungC
fr den Fall m =0.
Abb. 7.
Einflu der Schwingermasseauf die
Leistungskurven bei konstanter Erregung.
Page506
Abb. 8.
Abhngigkeit der kritischen Frequenz
p
k
von Apparat- und Bodenkonstanten
(Phasenwinkel =90.
An Hand der Kurvenbltter 8 und 9 ist es grundstzlich mglich, Eigenfrequenzen und Schwingungsamplituden von Motorprfstnden oder hnlichen Einrichtungen
bei Kenntnis der elastischen Eigenschaften des Bodens imvoraus zu berechnen.
Dies werde an einemBeispiel gezeigt. Seien fr einen Boden (Sandstein):
Schubmodul =29000 kg/cm2
Querkontraktionszahl m =0.25
Bodendichte g =2.38 103 kg/cm3
Auf ihmstehe eine Maschine mit folgenden Konstruktionsdaten:
Fundament-plus Maschinengewicht m
0
g =3000 kg
Erregungskraftamplitude C =5000 kg
Auflagerflche
Massenverhltnis
b =7.0
Page507
Abb. 9.
Einhllendeder Amplitudenkurven.
Daraus folgt aus Abb. 8
und aus Abb. 9
Also ergibt sich fr die kritische Frequenz
und fr die kritische Verschiebungsamplitude
Man kann dann untersuchen, ob diese Frequenz und Amplitude in der Nachbarschaft Strungen hervorrufen knnen und ob man die in manchen Fllen der Praxis
Page508
Abb. 10.
Einhllendeder Leistungskurven.
bewhrten Federzwischenschaltungen vornehmen mu, bei deren Vorhandensein die Rechnung allerdings etwas abzundern wre.
5
Eine Beziehung Zwischen Der Massenpunkttheorie Und Der Theorie Des Schwingenden Halbraumes
Folgende Frage ist noch von Interesse und kann beantwortet werden: Gibt es einen gedmpft elastisch schwingenden Massenpunkt, bei demMasse, Federkonstante
und Dmpfungskonstante so gewhlt werden knnen, da Phasen-, Amplituden- und Leistungskurven bereinstimmen mit denjenigen, die vorstehend fr das System
Schwinger-Halbraumabgeleitet worden sind?
Die Antwort ist die, da es ein fr einen Schwinger und einen Boden einmal gewhltes Massenpunktsystemnicht gibt, da man aber zu jeder Erregungsfrequenz ein
Systemmit passender Masse, Dmpfung und Federkraft angeben kann. Die genannten Gren wren also frequenzabhngig zu whlen.
Fr die Schwingung des Massenpunktes gilt die Differentialgleichung
Ihre Lsung ist
Page509
Abb. 11.
Dmpfungskonstanteals Funktion von a
0
und m.
worin
und
ist, whrend man fr die Maschinenleistung
hat.
Fordert man bereinstimmung von A*, * und L* mit den entsprechenden Gren A, und L, die durch die Gleichungen (55a) bis (57a) gegeben sind, so erhlt
man fr den Dmpfungskoeffizienten
Page510
Abb. 12.
Feder und Massenkonstanteals Funktion von
a
0
wenn m =0.
und zwischen Federkonstante c und Masse M die Beziehung
Damit ist eine elastizittstheoretische Deutung der Gren und c Mp2 gefunden. Man knnte Versuchsreihen daraufhin studieren, inwieweit die Relationen (69) und
(70) der Wirklichkeit entsprechen. und c Mp2 sind fr einige Werte von m als Funktion von in Abb. 11 und 12 dargestellt. Fr gengend langsame
Schwingungen (a
0
hinreichend klein) erhlt man aus (69) und (70) mit f
1
=c
0
(m) +c
2
(ma
0
2 +... und f2 =c
1
(m)asub>0 +... in erster Nherung
Ubrigens mu bemerkt werden, da bei demvorliegenden Systemc und M nur in der Verbindung c Mp2 vorkommen und da es nicht mglich scheint,
eine,,mitschwingende Bodenmasse" Mm
0
und eine Federkonstante c getrennt voneinander zu erhalten.
Page511
Forced Torsional Oscillations of an Elastic Half-Space. I*
[J. Appl. Phys. 15, 652654, 1944]
1
Introduction
The subject of this and a subsequent note is the investigation of the torsional oscillations in a homogeneous, isotropic elastic half-space under the influence of periodic
shear stresses applied in rotationally symmetric manner to a circular portion of the surface of the half-space. This same problemwas studied some time ago1 under
the supposition that the law of variation of shear stresses over the surface is given. Under these circumstances it is possibleto obtain an explicit solution of the
problemby means of Fourier-Bessel integral methods and this solution was evaluated for the case of shear stresses increasing linearly fromthe center of the stressed
surface region to the edge of the stressed surface region. Of greater practical interest, as was previously pointed out,1 is the case that the law of variation of
displacements over the loaded portion of the surface is prescribed. Specifically, the question arises for the distribution of surface shear if the load is applied by means
of a rigid disk which means that the torsional displacement varies linearly fromthe center of the disk to the edge of the disk. Mathematically this is a mixed boundary
problemand Fourier-Bessel methods only reduce the problemto an integral equation problemwhich in turn may be reduced to the problemof solving an infinite
number of linear equations for an infinite number of unknowns.1
In this and the following paper it is shown that an explicit solution of the mixed boundary problemcan be obtained by introducing in a suitable manner a systemof
oblate spheroidal coordinates. In the present paper the formulation of the problemis given and a solution in closed formis obtained for the static case of torsional
deformation. In the subsequent paper the characteristics of the vibration problemare determined by means of spheroidal wave functions.
Results of interest of the present calculations are expressions for the angle of rotation of the loaded surface in terms of the applied torque, for phase difference
between angle of rotation and applied torque, and for the shear stress distribution under the rigid disk.
2
Formulation of the Problem
To be obtained are the stresses and displacements in a homogeneous isotropic elastic half-space (z > 0), a circular portion of whose
*With H. F. Sagoci.
1E. Reissner, Ing. Arch. 8, 229245 (1937).
Page512
Fig. 1.
surface (r s r
0
) is forced to rotate an angle u, the axis of rotation being perpendicular to the surface of the half-space. The remaining portion of the surface (r
0
<r) is
assumed to be free of stress (Figure 1).
On the basis of the general equations of the theory of elasticity2 it had been shown previously1 that in the solution of this problemonly the circumferential displacement
component v occurred and that all components of stress are zero except the following two components of shear stress
The differential equation for v is, if internal damping is neglected
The boundary conditions of the problemare
*
The applied torque T is given by
It is of importance to notice that the solution of Eq. (2) can be reduced to the solution of the wave equation. Introducing a function W defined as
there follows that the equation for W is
2See, for instance, A. E. H. Love, A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity (CambridgeUniversity Press, London, 1927), pp. 144145.
*In what follows it would bepossibleto obtain thesolution of themoregeneral problemin which ur is replaced by ](r).
Page513
Fig. 2.
3
Introduction of Oblate Spheroidal Coordinates
Looking upon the infinitely thin circular disk as the limiting case of an ellipsoid of revolution suggests introduction of the systemof curvilinear coordinates in which the
disk becomes one of the coordinate surfaces. Such coordinates , q are3 the following
The surface =const. represent ellipsoids of revolution, the surfaces q =const. represent hyperboloids of one sheet (Figure 2). The half-space z > 0 is defined in the
new coordinates by q> 0 while the portion r s r
0
of the surface of the half-space is characterized by =0.
In terms of the coordinates , q the boundary conditions (3) and (4) become
Equation (10) indicates that the solution for the half-space q> 0 may be thought of as contained in the solution for the space exterior to the limiting ellipsoid =0, the
additional requirement being that this solution is an even function of q.
4
Solution for the Static Case (cu/ct = 0)
The equation of motion (7) is solved by separation of variables
The equations for ] and g are
3See, for instance, Stratton, Morse, Chu, and Huttner, Elliptic Cylinder and Spheroidal Wave Fuctions (J ohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1941).
Page514
The values of the separation constants d
l
, insuring periodicity in q are4
Solutions of Eqs. (12) and (13) are the associated Legendre polynomials
As becomes infinite as , approaches infinity and becomes singular for q =1, it must be required
The condition that v and W are even functions of q requires that only even values of the subscript l occur. A series soloution for v possessing appropriate behavior is
then
We note that the first terms of this series are the functions5
It can be seen, according to Eq. (9), that the first termof the series (18) is sufficient to satisfy the boundary conditions of the problem. There follows
and the expression for the displacement v becomes in terms of the curvilinear coordinates and q
FromEq. (22) there follows that in cylindrical coordinates the surface displacements are given by
4Whittaker and Watson, Modern Analysis (CambridgeUniversity Press, London, 1940), pp.323326.
5Hobson, Spherical and Ellipsoidal Harmonics (CambridgeUniversity Press, London, 1931).
Page515
Fig. 3.
The shear stress distribution under the plate is given by
and in cylindrical coordinates
At the edge of the disk (r =r
0
) the shear stress becomes infinite. Surface displacements and shear according to Eqs. (23) and (25) are plotted in Figure 3.
The relation between torque and rotation is obtained by substituting Eq. (25) in Eq. (5). The result is
This formula may be compared with the expression for the angle of rotation at the center of the disk under the assumption of a linear shear stress distribution.1 In that
case Eq. (26) holds when the factor 16/3 is replaced by a factor t. This indicates that when the results of the theory are to be applied to the interpretation of soil-
mechanical data, no quantitative agreement can be reached unless rather accurate information regarding the distribution of the stresses acting between the actuating
disk and the foundation is known. This fact must also be taken into consideration for the solution of the problemof the vibrations of an elastic half-space due to
stresses applied normal to the surface of the half-space. It suggests itself that earlier work6 on this problemshould be extended with this observation in mind.
6E. Reissner, Ing. Arch. 7, 381396 (1936).
Page516
Complementary Energy Procedure for Flutter Calculations
[J. Acron. Sc. 16, 316, 1949]
In the following there is outlined a procedure for flutter calculations which bears the same relation to the well-known Rayleigh-Ritz procedure1 as does the theoremof
minimumcomplementary energy in elasticity (minimumprinciple for the stresses) to the theoremof minimumpotential energy (minimumprinciple for the
displacements).
The procedure is stated here for the case of torsion-bending flutter of a cantilever wing. The possibility of its extension to more general flutter problems will be
apparent.
The differential equations for torsion-bending flutter of a cantilever without sweep may be written in the form
where the coefficients a
nm
depend in a known way1 on reduced frequency and other parameters.
Boundary conditions may be taken in the form
The variational principle that forms the basis of the proposed procedure may be stated in the following way: Among all states of stress (M, T) and displacements
(y, u) that satisfy Eqs. (1), (2), and (5), the state that also satisfies Eqs. (3) and (4) is determined by the variational equation,
The proof of this theoremconsists in showing that Eq. (6) is satisfied if one substitutes in it Eqs. (3) and takes account of the fact that oM, oT, oy, and ou must
satisfy Eqs. (1), (2) and (5), the same as M, T, y, and u.
To use the theoremfor the approximate determination of flutter speeds, set
1See, for instance, U.S. Air Forces Technical Report No. 4798 (1942) by B. Smilgand L. S. Wasserman.
Page517
where Y and u are assumed modesfor instance, the fundamental uncoupled bending and torsion modes of the cantilever beamor, more simply, Y =(x/L)2 and u =
(x/L)and where A and B are constant amplitude factors. Substitute Eq. (7) in Eqs. (1) and (2) and calculate
such that M and T satisfy Eqs. (5) for all values of A and B. Corresponding to Eqs. (7) and (8) one has oy =(oA) Y, etc. The results are substituted in Eq. (6), and
this equation reduces themto the following two simultaneous equations for A and B
The coefficients k are given by the following expressions
The determinantal equation determining the flutter speed follows fromEqs. (9) as
It is believed that the use of Eqs. (10) and (11) may lead, for the same modes Y and u, to more accurate results than the Rayleigh-Ritz procedure, because in the
present procedure the strain energy is expressed in terms of functions that are obtained fromthe assumed modes by integration rather than by differentiation as in the
Rayleigh-Ritz procedure. This may permit the working with less close approximations to the actual modes than is possible with the Rayleigh-Ritz procedure; or it
may, in some instances, permit to take account of fewer degrees of freedomthan is necessary with the Rayleigh-Ritz procedure. These advantages will be somewhat
offset by the fact that evaluation of the coefficients k involves a larger number of integrations than does evaluation of the corresponding coefficients in the Rayleigh-
Ritz procedure.
Page518
Reihenentwicklung Eines Integrals Aus Der Theorie Der Elastischen Schwingungen
[Math. Nachr. 8, 149153, 1952]
Imfolgenden geben wir die Herleitung eines Resultates wieder, welches in der Theorie der erzwungenen Schwingungen eines elastischen Halbraumes gebraucht
wird1). Dieses Resultat ist senierzeit in weniger allgemeiner Formund ohne Herleitung angegeben worden2).
Es handelt sich umdie Auswertung des Integrals
von demder Cauchysche Hauptwert zu nehmen ist. Die feste Zahl o2 ist kleiner als 1; insbesondere sind die Werte o2 =0, 1/3, 1/2 von Interesse. Die Auswertung
wird bentigt fr reele Werte von a
0
.
An Stelle von (1) kann geschrieben werden3):
oder auch
wo
Herrn GeorgHamel zum75. Geburtstaggewidmet.
1SieheE. Reissner, Stationre, axialsymmetrischedurch eineschttelndeMasseerregteSchwingungen eines homogenen elastischen Halbraumes. Ingenieur-Arch. 7, 381396 (1936).
2Loc. cit., 388389. Diefolgenden Betrachtungen sind einemunverffentlichten Abschnitt der Dissertation des Verfassers (Techn. Hochsch. Berlin 1936) entnommen.
3Loc.cit., Gleichung(60).
Page519
und
In beiden Integralen (2) und (3) ist der Cauchysche Hauptwert zu nehmen.
Statt (2) und (3) knnen wir auch schreiben:
und wir beachten, da fr gengend groe u die folgenden konvergenten Reihenentwicklungen bestehen:
die Werte der ersten drei Koeffizienten in diesen Reihen sind
Das Resultat, welches wir herleiten wollen, ist die folgende Reihenentwicklung fr das Integral (1):
Insbesondere wird dann, wie man mit Hilfe von (5) sieht,
Umdie Entwicklung (6) zu erhalten, schreiben wir mit einer endlichen reellen Zahl e, welche grer ist als die grte Nullstelle von M(u):
Page520
Die Singularitt des Integranden steckt dann in den S'. Wir betrachten vorerst S' und S'' gesondert. Dabei beachten wir folgendes: S' und S'' knnen nach Potenzen
von a
0
und e entwickelt werden. Zusammenfassung von S' und S'' ergibt dann eine Potenzreihe in a
0
mit Koeffizienten, welche Potenzreihen in e sind. Da das
Integral, das durch diese Reihe dargestellt wird, unabhngig von e ist, wird der Koeffizient jeder Potenz von a
0
unabhngig von e sein. Wir behalten in der
Entwicklung von S' und S'' von vornherein nur diejenigen Glieder bei, welche von e frei sind, da sich die anderen nach der Zusammenfassung wegheben.
Wir beginnen mit der Berechnung von S''. Auf Grund der Annahme ber die Gre von e knnen wir unter Beachtung von (2a), (3a) und (5) schreiben:
Wir setzen weiter
Fr die Funktion Gv wird durch partielle Integration die Rekursionsformel
erhalten, so da sich alle Gv durch Besselsche Funktionen und durch G
0
ausdrcken lassen. Fr G
0
erhlt man
Wir brauchen von Gv nur diejenigen Bestandteile, welche von e frei sind. Wenn wir diese Bestandteile durch einen Stern kennzeichnen, haben wir
und damit
Fr die von e freien Bestandteile von haben wir dann
Wir betrachten nun S'. Wir werden zeigen, da keinen von e freien Bestandteil hat und da somit . Umdies zu sehen, verfahren wir
Page521
in folgender Weise. Wir schreiben
Wie man zeigen kann, liegt nur eine Polstelle des Integranden in demIntervall (o, e). Es sei O
3
diese Polstelle, die der Gleichung
gengt. Weiterhin machen wir Gebrauch von der Tatsache, da O
1
und O
2
die folgende Gleichung befriedigen:
Wir betrachten nun Integrale von der Form
und
Umin demletzteren den von e freien Bestandteil zu erhalten, setzen wir
womit
wird. Beachtet man, da
ist, so sieht man, da in (23) auer demIntegral
nur Integrale von der Form vorkommen, welche zu S
nv
Beitrge von der Form(e2o2)(2k +1)/2 liefern. Da
Page522
kein von e freies Glied besitzt, bleibt also nur der von e freie Bestandteil von
brig.
Fr n =3 haben wir
und da die Entwicklung dieses Ausdruckes nach Potenzen von 1/e keinen von e freien Bestandteil besitzt, folgt dasselbe fr s
3
v und somit
Fr n =1, 2 haben wir
Der von e freie Bestandteil dieses Austruckes hat den Wert , und damit ist
Zusammenfassung der vorstehenden Rechnungen ergibt
Nun verschwindet aber der Ausdruck in der eckigen Klammer, wie man folgendermaen sieht. Vergleich von (16) und (17) mit (2), (3) und (4) zeigt, da
ist und infolgedessen
Unter Bercksichtigung von (19) folgt daraus
und damit
was wir beweisen wollten.
Kombination von (15) und (35) ergibt die Reihenentwicklung (6) fr das Integral (1).
Page523
On Axi-Symmetrical Vibrations of Shallow Spherical Shells
[Qu. Appl. Math. 13, 279290, 1955]
1
Introduction
The present note may be considered as a sequel to an earlier paper on the same subject [4]. In this earlier paper the solution of the differential equations for axi-
symmetrical vibrations of shallow spherical shells was given in terms of certain Bessel functions. The problemof the frequency determination for a shell segment with
clamped edge was considered as an example of application of this solution. It led to the vanishing of a third-order determinant each element of which involved Bessel
functions and the solution of a certain cubic (Eqs. 32 and 35 of Ref. 4). Similar results, by a somewhat different method, had earlier been obtained by Federhofer [2].
The Bessel-function frequency determinant being difficult to evaluate, no numerical results have yet been obtained by its use. Instead, an approximate solution for the
lowest frequency was obtained by means of the procedure of Rayleigh and Ritz (Eq. 40 of Ref. 4 and a similar result in Ref. 2).
The Bessel-function solution of Ref. 4. was obtained on the basis of assumptions which had previously been made for the problemof static deformations of shallow
spherical shells [3]. It was not observed at that time that an additional approximation would be appropriate for the problemof transverse vibrations. This additional
approximation is based on the fact that for transverse vibrations of shallow shells the magnitude of the longitudinal inertia terms is negligibly small compared with the
magnitude of the transverse inertia terms [5]. Upon omission of longitudinal inertia terms it becomes possible to reduce the differential equations of dynamics to the
same formas the equations of statics except that the transverse load function must include the d'Alembert term hw
tt
.
The present paper contains applications of this result to three specific problems of axi-symmetrical vibrations of spherical shells.
(1)
Determination of the Lowest Frequency of Free Vibrations for a Shell Segment with Clamped Edge
The numerical results are compared with the corresponding results fromthe earlier Rayleigh-Ritz formula.
(2)
Determination of the Frequencies of Free Vibrations of a Shell Segment with Free Edge
The relation between the present frequency equation and the corresponding frequency equation for a flat plate is of such nature that known numerical results for the
flat plate can be translated with little difficulty so as to furnish the corresponding results for the shallow spherical shell.
Page524
(3)
Forced Vibrations Due to Point Load at Apex of the Shell
We determine first the point-force singularity which occurs regardless of the formof the boundary conditions at the edge of the shell. We then consider further the
case for which the boundary is sufficiently far removed to assume it at infinity and use the condition that sufficiently far fromthe point of load application the solution
must represent outward travelling waves. Our results generalize corresponding results of H. Cremer and L. Cremer [1] for the unlimited flat plate.
2
Differential Equations for Transverse Vibrations of Shallow Spherical Shells
Let the equation of the shell surface be given by
In the absence of longitudinal loads we have as differential equations for the displacement w in the direction of z and for an Airy stress function F,
where =density of shell material, h =wall thickness (assumed constant), E =modulus of elasticity, D =Eh3/12(1 v2) and V2 =c2/cr2 +r1c/cr +r2c2/cu2 (Figure
1).
We shall further need the relations
which are the same as in problems of statics.
3
Axi-Symmetrical Solutions
We set
Restricting attention to the case q =0 it is found that solutions of the homogeneous equations (2) and (3) are of the form
Page525
Fig. 1.
Spherical shell segment, showingnotations for geometrical
dimensions.
The constants C
n
in (8) and (9) are arbitrary, the usual notation for Bessel functions and modified Bessel functions is employed, and furthermore
Taking account of the fact that
there results for the constants B
n
Of the eight constants C
n
only six are physically significant. The constant C
7
has no effect on stresses and displacements. The condition of vanishing circumferential
displacements as in problems of statics [3], is of the form(hE/R)W =V2] +const. Fromthis (hE/R)C
6
=4B
6
. With B
6
from(12) this implies 4C
6
=0. Since = 0
we have
and therewith altogether
Page526
The solution (13) and (14) will be applied to the three problems indicated earlier.
4
Frequency Equation for Shell Segment with Clamped Edge
Let r =a be the edge of the shell segment. Since W and ] must be regular for r =0 we have
The conditions of vanishing edge displacement W and edge slope W' are
where =a.
We assume that the third edge condition stipulates vanishing horizontal displacement or, equivalently, vanishing circumferential strain eu. With the help of (4) this
relation becomes (F''vr1F')
a
[V2F (1 +v)r1F']
a
=0. Introduction of (14) gives as third relation for the constants C
1
, C
3
, C
5
,
The frequency equation of the problemis the condition of vanishing of the determinant of the system(16), (17) and (19). Setting , , this frequency
equation may be brought into the following form
The parameter k4 is
and e is given in terms of and k, as follows
The quantity H in (21) is the rise of the shell. It is related to the radii R and a through the formula,
The frequency equation (20) furnishes as a function of k. Approximate values of for the lowest frequency may be found in Table 1.* Having as function of k we
obtain further from(22)
*For theseand all other computations in this paper theauthor is indebted to Millard W. J ohnson.
Page527
Table1. Numerically smallest solution of
Eq. (20)
k4
0 3.196
10 3.235
20 3.273
50 3.380
100 3.537
300 4.000
500 4.328
800 4.680
1000 4.855
1400 5.112
1800 5.285
2500 5.482
3000 5.570
5000 5.723
10000 5.828
5.910
Let e
0
be the value of e corresponding to k =0 and v =0, that is the value of the frequency e for a flat plate and for vanishing Poisson's ratio. We have
where
0
=3.195 and . It is convenient to express the actual values of e in units of e
0
, as follows,
Numerical values of e/e
0
as a function of v and H/h may be found in Table 2 and in Figure 2.
When H/h is large enough so that the second termunder the square root in (26) dominates the first term, practically when H/h is larger than about 25, then Eq. (26)
may be replaced by the approximation
It is interesting to note that the thickness h which occurs in the flat-plate frequency formula (25) has been replaced by the shell rise H and the frequency has become
independent of wall thickness. It should be emphasized, however, that the simple formula (26*) depends on two limitations. On the one hand we must have that
and on the other hand we must have in order that the theory of shallow shells is applicable. We may note that it is this latter restriction which
ensures that the transverse vibrations of the shell take place at frequencies which are low compared with the frequencies of longitudinal vibrations of flat plates, these
latter being of order (E/)1/2(1/a).
Page528
Table2. Frequency of clamped-edgeshell in units of correspondingflat-plate
frequency for v =0, as function of v and H/h
e/e
0
v =0 v =.3 v =.5
0 1.000 1.0483 1.1547
.5 1.08 1.149 1.28
1.0 1.31 1.40 1.59
1.5 1.61 1.75 2.00
2.0 1.94 2.16 2.42
2.5 2.31 2.57 2.87
3.0 2.67 2.99 3.32
3.5 3.06 3.40 3.73
4.0 3.43 3.78 4.12
4.5 3.81 4.16 4.49
5 4.18 4.51 4.89
6 4.90 5.17 5.45
7 5.59 5.80 6.01
8 6.22 6.41 6.60
9 6.86 7.01 7.20
10 7.50 7.62 7.82
11 8.13 8.25 8.44
12 8.76 8.88 9.05
14 10.05 10.15 10.28
16 11.35 11.42 11.54
18 12.67 12.73 12.82
20 14.00 14.1 14.2
Comparison with Rayleigh-Ritz Formula
Equation (40) of Ref. 4 may be written in the following form, which is equivalent to (26)
Figure 2 contains values of (e/e
0
)
RR
as dotted lines. It is seen that the Rayleigh-Ritz solution agrees remarkably well with the differential equation solution for
sufficiently small values of H/h, practically up to values of H/h of about three. As H/h increases the error becomes larger, the percentage error approaching a finite
limiting value of from60 per cent to 25 per cent as v decreases from0.5 to 0.
5
Frequency Equation for Shell Segment with Free Edge
The boundary conditions for a free edge are
where M
r
, V
r
and N
r
are given in (4) to (6). To this are again added regularity conditions for r =0 which again mean that Eq. (15) must hold. We observe further
that (28) contains two relations involving W', W'' and W''' but neither W itself nor
Page529
Fig. 2.
Lowest frequency for shell segment with clamped edge, in units of corresponding
frequency for flat platewith zero Poisson's ratio.
] and its derivatives. This means that the frequency equation for the shell with free edge does not involve the constant C
5
in Eq. (13) for W. In other words the
admissible values of are the same as those for a flat plate with free edge.
The frequency equation for axially symmetric vibrations of a flat plate with free edge, according to Kirchhoff, is
Examples of the numerically smallest values of are v =0, =2.87; v =.3, =3.00; v =.5, =3.07. Having we obtain e by means of (10), (18) and (23) in
the form
Let
0
and e
0
be appropriate values for the flat plate and for v =0. We may then write, in analogy to the result (26) for the shell with clamped edge,
Equation (31) is the same as Eq. (26) except that for the shell with free edge the quantity is independent of the values of H/h while for the shell with clamped edge
Page530
Table3. Frequency of free-edgeshell in units of correspondingflat-plate
frequency for v =0, as function of v and H/h
e/e
0
v =0 v =.3 v =.5
0 1 1.148 1.315
.5 1.084 1.224 1.380
1.0 1.305 1.423 1.562
1.5 1.610 1.705 1.821
2.0 1.96 2.035 2.135
2.5 2.33 2.40 2.48
3.0 2.71 2.77 2.85
3.5 3.11 3.16 3.22
4.0 3.51 3.55 3.62
4.5 3.91 3.96 4.01
5 4.32 4.36 4.41
6 5.15 5.17 5.21
7 5.98 6.00 6.03
8 6.81 6.82 6.86
9 7.64 7.66 7.70
10 8.47 8.49 8.53
11 9.31 9.32 9.35
12 10.15 10.15 10.18
14 11.82 11.82 11.82
16 13.50 13.50 13.50
18 15.20 15.20 15.20
20 16.86 16.86 16.86
was found to be a function of H/h. Values of e/e
0
for the numerically smallest solution of (29) as function of H/h and v may be found in Table 3 and Figure 3.
We note that when H/h is greater than about 10, Eq. (30) may be simplified to e =2(E/)1/2(H/a2) which is the same limiting expression which was previously
obtained for the shell segment with clamped edge.
We further note that very probably for this problemof a shell with free edge the lowest frequency of axi-symmetrical free vibrations is higher than the frequencies of
certain non-symmetrical vibrations. This fact is concluded fromcorresponding known results for the special case of the flat plate.
6
Oscillating Point Load at Apex of Shell
The following conditions must be satisfied for an oscillating point load P exp (iet) at the apex of the shell
Page531
Fig. 3.
Lowest frequency of axi-symmetrical vibrations for shell segment with
freeedge, in units of correspondingfrequency for flat platewith
zero Poisson's ratio.
In view of (4), (5), (6), (7) these conditions assume the following formfor the solution functions W and ] as given by (13) and (14)
We begin by omitting terms fromthe solutions (13) and (14) which automatically satisfy the conditions (32') and (33') and retain the singular portion
Equations (34) and (35) are valid, with real values of the constants C
2
and C
4
, as long as is real. According to (10) this means as long as
When
Page532
the representations (34) and (35) are no longer convenient. It will, however, be shown that the results obtained in the range of frequencies (36a) are readily
transferred to the range (36b).
We note that the frequency which divides the ranges (36a) and (36b) is exactly that lowest frequency of free vibrations which occurs in the range of sufficiently large
values of H/h [see Eq. (26*)].
In order to determine the constants C
2
, C
4
and C
8
we observe the following relations in which use has been made of (11),
Equations (38) being valid when r <<1.
Introduction of (34), (35), (37) and (38) into the finiteness conditions (33') shows that these conditions are satisfied provided
The load condition (32') leads to the further relation
Introduction of C
2
, C
4
and C
8
from(39) into (34) and (35) leads to the following expressions for the singular solutions W
s
and ]
s
,
It will now be shown that (40) and (41) remain valid, but are conveniently written in different form, in the range of small e given by (36b). For values of e in the
range (36b) we write
and we introduce Kelvin functions through the following known relations
Page533
If (42) and (43) are introduced into (40) and (41) there follow as expressions for W
s
and ]
s
which are valid when e <R1(E/)1/2,
Equations (44) and (45) contain as special case, when e =0, the previously given formulas [3, Eq. (48)] for the corresponding problemof static deflection. Writing
=(hE/R2D)1/4 =[12(1 v2)]1/4(Rh)1/2 Eqs. (44) and (45) become for e =0
We finally note the following important fact. As long as the solution (44) applies, that is as long as e <(2H/a2)(E/)1/2, we have that the deflection amplitude W
decreases exponentially at large distances r fromthe point of load application. When e is larger than (2H/a2)(E/)1/2 so that the solution (40) applies then the
deflection amplitude W decreases as r1/2, that is, much more slowly than exponentially. In this latter case an important distinction can be made between standing wave
and travelling wave solutions.
7
Travelling Wave Solution for Effectively Unlimited Shell Segment
We inquire for a solution in which the deflection w =exp(iet)W(r) behaves for sufficiently large values of r as r1/2 exp[i(et r)]. For a solution with this type of
behavior we have that the wave produced by the pulsating point load travels outward, with energy being dissipated through radiation.
In view of the asymptotic behavior of the Hankel function of the second kind
an appropriate result is obtained by adding in (40) and (41) a suitable multiple of the non-singular solution J
0
(r) as follows,
We note that the solution (47) and (48) contains as a special case the corresponding result for a flat plate, as given by H. Cremer and L. Cremer [1]. The case of the
flat plate follows if we set R = in the expression for , making =(he2/D)1/4. We note further that while for the spherical shell the solution (47) and (48) is valid,
subject to the restriction that e >(E/)1/2R, this relation ceases to be a restriction for the case of the flat plate.
In order that the travelling wave solution (47) have a meaning it is necessary that the boundary r =a be sufficiently far removed fromthe point of load
Page534
application. Let us assume that sufficiently far means
Equation (49) may be written as a restriction on frequencies as follows
8
Two Formulas of Acoustical Significance
We consider the ratio of velocity at the point of load application to the force causing this velocity, (cw/ct)
r=0
/P exp(iet). According to Eq. (47)
Since J
0
(0) =1 and, according to (38), lim
r
0[1/2tY
0
(r) +K
0
(r)] =0 there follows,
For H =0, Eq. (50a) reduces to a result in Ref. 1. We note that a ratio which is independent of frequency for the flat plate is a function of frequency for the shallow
spherical shell. In the range of applicability of (50a), which is given by (49'), this ratio decreases with increasing frequency towards a limiting value which is the
constant flat plate value.
When e <(2H/a2)(E/)1/2 so that Eq. (44) applies we have instead of (50a)
In view of the fact that kei(0) =1/4t and with defined in (42) this may be written in the following form
We finally observe, on the basis of (50a) and (50b), that the following result holds for the work of the force P exp (iet) per cycle
It is recalled that Eq. (51) is derived without consideration of damping sources other than radiation damping. In addition to this, while formally the second part of Eq.
Page535
(51) holds for all e greater than (2H/a2)(E/)1/2, for the solution to have physical meaning the stronger restriction (49') actually applies.
References
1. H. and L. Cremer, Theorie der Entstehung des Klopfschalls, Z. f. Schwingungs-und Schwachstromtechnik 2, 6172 (1948).
2. K. Federhofer, Zur Berechnung der Eigenschwingungen der Kugelschale, Sitzber. Akad. Wiss. Wien 146, 5769 (1937).
3. E. Reissner, Stresses and small displacements of shallow spherical shells, J. Math. and Phys. 25, 8085, 279300 (1945); 27, 240 (1948).
4. E. Reissner, On vibrations of shallow spherical shells, J. Appl. Phys. 17, 10381042 (1946).
5. E. Reissner, On transverse vibrations of thin shallow elastic shells, Q. Appl. Math. 13, 169176 (1955).
Page537
AERODYNAMICS
I owe my involvement with aerodynamics to the friendship shown to me during my graduate student days at M.I.T. by two young Associate Professors, Heinz Peters
and Manfred Rauscher.
At the suggestion of Peters I studied G. I. Taylor's papers on the statistical theory of turbulence, in order to report on themin his aerodynamics course. As one
consequence of this we jointly wrote a brief note on the spatial decay of turbulence generated at the boundary of a half space [11]. The other consequence combined
what I had learned fromG. I. Taylor and fromNorbert Wiener's Fourier Analysis course, for a rigorous solution of a linear ''model" problemconcerning the decay of
homogeneous isotropic turbulence [16].
At the suggestion of Rauscher I later studied the problemof an oscillating lifting surface, in order to help with his aero-elastic concern with finite-span corrections for
the two-dimensional Glauert-Theodorsen flutter coefficients. I found this problemto be very difficult but managed to derive anapproximate one-dimensional integral
equation for obtaining such corrections, as a generalization of Prandtl's lifting line equation for the corresponding steady state problem[34]. This result was
subsequently extended, simplified and applied [47,49] with the cooperation of Maxwell Hunter and John Stevens, who were two outstanding M.I.T. graduate
students, both destined to become highly successful aerospace engineers.
In preparation for this work Francis Hildebrand and I had undertaken to analyze the aerodynamic span effect for the limiting-case problemof torsional divergence
[32]. This in complementation of my father's pioneering solution, in 1926, in which two-dimensional aerodynamic coefficients had been used.
After some attempts to extend our work into the subsonic range [65,71,72] I ended my concern with problems of lifting surfaces in non-uniformmotion with the
formulation of the more general problemof an impenetrable deformable surface in space, set in motion in a perfect fluid of infinite extent [62]. With this surface
representing a discontinuity of pressure and tangential velocity it was then assumed, as a generalized Kutta condition, that there would be a trailing surface of
tangential velocity discontinuities, in such a way that the fluid velocity at the trailing edge of the impenetrable surface would not become infinite. I proceeded fromthis
to a linearized version of the problemwhich then was specialized to the case of a plane impenetrable surface. This in turn served as a starting point for a review of the
contents of [34,47,49].
It remains to mention three results for steady state problems, which I believe have remained significant. The first of these was to show that the Prandtl-Glauert
compressibility correction for two-dimensional flow and the Goethert correction for axi-symmetrical flow would both be contained as limiting cases in the solu-
Page538
tion of the problemof axi-symmetrical flow along a circumferentially corrugated cylinder [55].
The second was to use the two-dimensional integral equation for the pressure distribution over a rectangular surface with given downwash distribution as a starting
point for a quite simple derivation of Weissinger's refinement of Prandtl's lifting line equation, and also for the derivation of a systemof two simultaneous one-
dimensional integral equations for the spanwise variation of lift and section moment [61].
The third result concerned the derivation of a one-dimensional integral equation for the chordwise distribution of pressure for an infinite lifting strip, on the basis of
assuming a spanwise sinusoidal distribution of downwash. The formof this one-dimensional integral equation allowed the deduction of some not previously known
details concerning the nature of aspect ratio effects for wings of finite span [70].
Page539
A Contribution to the Theory of Turbulence*
[J. Aeron. Sc. 4, 384385, 1937]
Studies of the problemof Wind-Tunnel Turbulence have recently been published by Taylor, 1 von Krmn,2 and Dryden.3 These studies are concerned with the
decay of homogeneous isotropic turbulence. The scale and intensity of the turbulence is assumed to be known at a given instant throughout the fluid and the decay
with respect to time is asked for.
In this note the authors investigate the turbulence produced at a constant rate in the boundary, and decaying in a direction normal to the surface of generation. This
problem, so far as the authors are aware, has not been treated before. The problembecomes especially simple if one considers a fluid in a semi-infinite space
bounded by a plane along which the turbulence is produced. The mean motion is assumed to be constant throughout and parallel to the plane.
This investigation is not only of theoretical interest but should be useful in the study of the behavior of turbulent boundary layers, and might be of help in the study of
the influence of surface roughness. The stated problemcan be treated by means of the equations of the statistical theory of turbulence recently proposed by von
Krmn. It furthermore might serve as the basis for an experiment in which the consequences of the theory can be tested.
The considered turbulent motion has statistically an isotropic character due to the absence of mean shear stresses, i.e., the correlations of the velocity components at
a certain point in the space with respect to a set of orthogonal axes are independent of the rotation of this system. The turbulence, however, is not homogeneous,
since the correlations are functions of the distance fromthe boundary.
Consider a space with the orthogonal axes x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, in which the fluid is bounded by the (x
1
,x
3
) plane and has a constant mean velocity U in the x
1
direction. The
components of the turbulent velocity u and vorticity e may be denoted by u
1
, u
2
, u
3
, and e
1
, e
2
, e
3
, respectively. The following equations for the dissipation of
energy and the dissipation of vorticity have been derived by von Krmn:
*With H. Peters.
1G. I. Taylor, Proceedings of theRoyal Society, London, Vol. 151, 1935.
2Th. von Krmn, The Fundamentals of the Statistical Theory of Turbulence, J ournal of theAeronautical Sciences, Vol. 4, 131138, 1937.
3Hugh L. Dryden, The Theory of Isotropic Turbulence, J ournal of theAeronautical Sciences, Vol. 4, 273280, 1937.
Page540
Neglecting with von Krmn the first terms on the right-hand side of Eqs. (1) and (2) as small compared with the other terms and substituting
where is a length characteristic for the scale of the turbulence, Eqs. (1) and (2) with
take on the form
where c
1
=2v2k
2
/k
4
, and c
2
=2v2k
3
/k
5
.
The solution of Eqs. (4) and (5) is determined if the following boundary conditions are prescribed:
It seems to be difficult to obtain the general solution of the non-linear systemEqs. (4) and (5). It is, however, possible to give a certain manifold of solutions which are
likely of importance. Furthermore, the general relation between and which must exist under the stated assumptions can be deduced fromEqs. (3) and (4).
To obtain a solution, assume
where A, B, n, and m are constants. This introduced into Eqs. (4) and (5) gives
Hence
In order to satisfy the assumption , it is necessary that m >2 and hence n <2.
If the assumed power law is correct the constants m and n can easily be determined experimentally. With known values for n and m the constants c
1
and c
2
can be
evaluated by means of Eqs. (5) and (6). If furthermore, the values of k
2
and k
3
are assumed to be known (for instance, equal to the values for isotropic homogeneous
turbulence) the ratio of the two mixing lengths l
1
and l
2
can be calculated.
Page541
Of interest is the relation between the "mixing length" and the distance fromthe wall, which can be obtained fromEq. (3).
It thus can be seen that in this case the "mixing length" is proportional to the distance fromthe wall.
The general relation between and is
which is obtained by subtracting Eq. (5) multiplied by 2 fromEq. (4), with this resulting in a differential equation of the first order for with coefficients depending
on and ' =d/dx
2
.
In the case of a flow along a flat plate with no pressure gradient, the above prescribed boundary conditions are approximately satisfied at the outer edge of the
turbulent boundary layer, due to the slow change of the layer thickness and of the scale and the intensity of the turbulence inthe boundary layer in this direction. A
rough experimental check on =f(x
2
)indicates that in this case the assumed power law is at least a good approximation. These tests have been carried out in a
recently completed wind tunnel for the study of the behavior of boundary layers.
Page542
Note on the Statistical Theory of Turbulence
[Proc. 5th Intern. Congr. Appl. Mech., pp. 359361, 1938]
Recent investigations by G. I. Taylor, Th. v. Krmn, H. L. Dryden and L. Prandtl have dealt in different ways with the problemof the decay of homogeneous
isotropic turbulence. In this problema viscous incompressible fluid is considered for which at time t =0 a statistically homogeneous and isotropic distribution of
velocity and pressure is given over all space. The initial distribution is characterized by two averages: the mean value of the kinetic energy per unit of volume, , and
a certain length , indicating the scale of the turbulence. By introducing assumptions of different kinds into certain averaged transformations of Navier-Stokes'
equations, results have been obtained concerning the change with time of the quantities and .
Now it would be possible to give a rigorous solution of the problemif its basic equations were linear. If one neglects the quadratic inertia terms in the equations of
motion one has such a linear problem. The values of and would then result in terms of the initial distribution of u and hence in terms of the initial values of
and without using assumed interrelations between these mean values.
In this note it will only be shown how the method works for the simplest "model" of the corresponding turbulence problem, whichhas already been considered by v.
Krmn (1937a).
The simplified problemconsists in finding a solution of the equation
which satisfies the initial condition
In order to carry through the analysis with the help of comparatively simple mathematics the assumption will be made that u
0
(x) =0 for |x| >x
0
. By an appropriate
limiting process x
0
this restriction will be removed in the results.1 For the sake of simplicity it will also be assumed that u
0
(x) is an even function that is u
0
(x) =u
0
(
x). By doing so the necessary calculations are shortened without essential loss of generality.
Equation (1) may be satisfied by
1Methods for mathematically rigorous solutions of such problems of analysis may befound in papers of N. Wiener.
Page543
A (o) is determined, in view of (2), from
Inversion of (4) gives
The correlation between simultaneous values of u at different points is expressed in the following form
With Eq. (3) one has
Integrating first with respect to x leads to
For the integration with respect to | one has to observe that for large values of x
0
only those values of the integrand contribute substantially for which either o~| or
o~|. Hence one may write
Since A(o) =A(o) and
I becomes
Introducing (7) into (6) results in
Page544
where A(o) is given in terms of u
0
and x
0
by Eq. (5). The mean square of u is then
and the "correlation function" R becomes
This expression is solution of the differential equation which v. Krmn (1937a) derived for R
For results
In Eqs. (9), (10) and (12) there are given the statistically significant quantities of the problemin terms of the initial values u
0
of u.
These expressions become simpler and clearer if one asks only for their behavior for sufficiently large values of t. In (9) only small values of o contribute appreciably
to the value of the integral if t is large. Therefore, one may write
and with (5)
Equation (14) shows how depends asymptotically on time t and on the initial values u
0
. It shows how important the randomness of the initial distribution of the
"velocity" u
0
is. For a periodic, and thus not random, initial distribution for instance follows from(14) that . The point is that for such an initial distribution the
preceeding analysis is not appropriate. Indeed when u
0
(x) =cos ax then cos ax and
To the same degree of accuracy as in (14), there follows from(10) for the correlation function R
This means simply that for increasing t the correlation curve flattens out more and more. In order to follow this process quantitatively the development of (10) has to
be carried at least one step further.
Page545
For 2 one obtains, taking into consideration that has its peak at o =(2vt)1/2 and that this peak becomes more pronounced with increasing t
It is noteworthy that in this linear problem is found to be asymptotically independent of the initial state of the systemand also not related to the value of .
In the same way many further results can be obtained. To mention one, in the three dimensional case
one derives
This is interesting in view of the fact that in this case the equation for the mean energy dissipation is identical with the equation for the decay of the kinetic energy in the
corresponding turbulence problem
Here one has
whereas Taylor derived in an entirely different way
and v. Krman
with an undetermined value of n.
2A check on this result (16) is obtained in thefollowingway: MultiplyingEq. (1) by u and takingmeans leads to . With from(16) this is and consequently =
const./ in accordancewith (14).
Page546
In summary the problemof the decay of homogeneous isotropic turbulence becomes explicitly solvable if the equations of motion are linearized. The velocity
correlations may be obtained as function of the initial conditions of the system. The analysis is here carried out for the simplest "model" of isotropic turbulence. The
mean square of the velocity, , and the scale length are asymptotically developable with respect to time t. The result is that is asymptotically independent of
the initial conditions and not related to the values of and that is asymptotically proportional to a certain integral over the initial values u
0
and to a certain
power of t. It is seen to be of primary importance for the decay law whether the initial distribution is at randomor not.
References
1. Dryden, H. L., 1937: J. Aero. Sc. 4, p. 273.
2. Krmn, Th. v., 1937a: Proc. Nat. Acad. Sc. Wash. 23, p. 98.
3. , 1937b: J. Aero. Sc. 4, p. 131.
4. Krmn, Th. v. and Howarth, L., 1938 Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 164, p. 190.
5. Prandtl, L., 1938: J. Appl. Mech. 5, p. 122.
6. Taylor, G. I., 1935: Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 151, p. 421.
7. , 1937: J. Aero. Sc. 4, p. 311.
8. , 1938a: Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 164, p. 164.
9. , 1938b: Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 164, p. 476.
Page547
On Compressibility Corrections for Subsonic Flow over Bodies of Revolution
[Nat. Adv. Comm. Aeron. TN No. 1815, 1949]
Introduction
The present paper is concerned with the formof the compressibility corrections for subsonic flow which follow fromlinear-perturbation theory. It is now well known
that there are essential differences between the compressibility corrections for two-dimensional flow and the corresponding corrections for flow about slender bodies
of revolution [1,2].
The analysis presented herein shows that the relation between two-dimensional and axisymmetrical flow can be clearly demonstrated in the solution for the flow past
an infinitely long corrugated cylinder. In fact, a solution is obtained which contains as limiting cases both the Prandtl-Glauert correction for two-dimensional flow and
the Gthert correction for flow past slender bodies of revolution. Although the results for these two limiting cases are already known, the result obtained in the present
paper shows the nature of the transition fromone limiting case to the other. The nature of this transition has been treated froma different point of view in [3], where
the bodies considered consisted of a family of ellipsoids ranging fromthe ellipsoid of revolution to the infinitely long elliptic cylinder. It is of interest that the present
example is a natural extension of the two-dimensional wavy wall treated by Ackeret in a classical paper [4].
It should be mentioned that the results presented herein were obtained in June 1948, while the author was associated with the National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia.
Axisymmetrical Linear-Perturbation Flow past a Corrugated Cylinder
Let u +U and v be components of fluid velocity in the axial and radial directions, respectively. Let |(x,r) be the perturbation velocity potential in terms of which
where x and r are the axial and radial directions, respectively. The linearized differential equation for | is
where M is the undisturbed streamMach number.
Let r =a +](x) be the equation of the meridian profile of the body of revolution such that |](x)| <<a and |]'(x)| <<1. The boundary condition at the
Page548
surface of the body of revolution is then of the following form:
Consider now the particular case of a ''ripple"
with q and l being amplitude and wave length of the ripple. An appropriate solution of equation (2) is
where I
0
and K
0
are modified Bessel functions of order zero and A and B are arbitrary constants. The following properties of I
0
and K
0
are needed
For the body of revolution in an unlimited air stream, the asymptotic behavior of the functions I
n
requires that the coefficient A vanish. Fromequations (5), (4), and
(3) then follows that the formof the perturbation potential caused by the ripple is
Equation (7) leads to the following expression for the axial velocity u at the surface of the body of revolution
The ratio of u(x, a) for compressible and for incompressible flow is then
It follows from(9) and (6) that when ,
and when ,
Page549
Equation (10a) is of the formof the Prandtl-Glauert correction while equation (10b) is of the formof the Gthert correction. The transition between the two is
supplied by equation (9). Figure 1 shows the relation between the results of equations (9) and (10) when the undisturbed streamMach number M has the value
0.866.
The validity of the foregoing formulas is governed by the restrictions that q <<a, as well as q <<l.
Fig. 1.
Comparison of compressibility corrections.
M =0.866.
Velocity Correction Formula for Cylinder with Bump
It is possible to deduce fromthe above corresponding results for a body of revolution having a meridian profile given by
in the form
Page550
The corresponding solution for incompressible flow is
A comparison of equations (13), (12), and (11) shows that
which is in accordance with the general results in [2] for this case. The velocity correction formula which follows fromequations (12) and (13) is of the form
Velocity Correction Formula for Ripple in the Presence of Tunnel Walls
If, again, a ripple of the formof equation (4) is taken with the boundary condition (3) at the surface of the body of revolution, there is now an additional condition at
the boundary of a tunnel of radius b
The function | as in (5) which satisfies the conditions (3) and (16) is
where o =t/l and .
When b , equation (17) reduces to equation (7). The axial perturbation velocity u at the surface of the body of revolution follows fromequation (17) in the form
where it remains to obtain numerical values of u
c
/u
i
in their dependence on a/l,(b a)/l and M .
References
1. Lees, Lester: A Discussion of the Application of the Prandtl-Glauert Method to Subsonic Compressible Flow over a Slender Body of Revolution. NACA TN No.
1127, 1946.
2. Sears, W. R.: A Second Note on Compressible Flow about Bodies of Revolution. Quarterly Appl. Math., 5, 1947, pp. 8991.
3. Hess, Rovert V., and Gardner, Clifford S.: Study by the Prandtl-Glauert Method of Compressibility Effects and Critical Mach number for Ellipsoids of Various
Aspect Ratios and Thickness Ratios. NACA TN No. 1792, 1949.
4. Ackeret, J.: ber Luftkrfte bei sehr grossen Geschwindigkeiten insbesondere bei ebenen Strmungen. Helvetica Physica Acta, 1, 1928, pp. 301322.
Page551
Note on the Theory of Lifting Surfaces
[Proc. Nat. Ac. Sc. 35, 208215, 1949]
1
Introduction
In this note we consider the problemof the steady motion of a rectangular lifting surface of finite span in incompressible flow. We are concerned with two separate
objects. One is an attempt to derive somewhat more clearly than in the original paper Weissinger's improvement of Prandtl's lifting-line theory [1]. The other is to
generalize the one-dimensional integral equation of lifting-line theory for the spanwise variation of lift intensity to two simultaneous equations for lift intensity and
moment intensity. In so doing, certain difficulties of lifting-line theory and of its improvements by Weissinger with reference to behavior at and near the tips of the wing
are substantially ameliorated.
While we restrict attention here to a rectangular surface and to incompressible flow, the extension to subsonic compressible flow is a simple matter, and also the
extension to tapered wings with or without sweep is feasible.
2
The Integral Equation of the Rectangular Lifting Surface
We consider a nearly plane wing with chord 2b and span 2sb. The integral equation of the linearized theory may be written in the following dimensionless form
In equation (1) w is proportional to the slope ch/cx of the lifting surface, and p is the pressure jump across the lifting surface. Of all singular integrals the Cauchy
principal value is to be taken. The function K is of the form
The problemof lifting surface theory consists in the solution of (1) for p(x, y) in the region (-1 s x s 1; -s s y s s) subject to the trailing edge condition that p(1, y)
remains finite.
3
Lifting-Line Theory
Lifting-line theory may be thought of as an approximate solution of (1), in the following sense. The termK in the integral equation is neglected, essentially on the basis
of the fact that for sufficiently large values of the aspect ratio s K behaves like 1/(y - q)|y - q| and is therefore small compared with 1/(y - q) over most of the range
of integration.
Page552
To obtain the lifting-line equation one may multiply the abbreviated equation (1) by a factor [(1 +x)/(1 - x)]1/2 and integrate as follows:
Let
and use the formula
Equation (3) then assumes the following form:
One disadvantage of this theory consists, for wings with finite tip chord, in the fact that, while the lift intensity assumes the correct values zero at the tips, the pressures
p(x, s) do not, in general, and the results of the theory will be of doubtful validity in regions adjacent to the tips, presumably up to distances inward fromthe tips of
the order of magnitude of the tip chord.
This behavior of the lifting-line theory may be seen by a consideration of the section moment m, defined as
It can be shown as follows that, in general, m(s) does not assume the value zero which it would have in the solution of the complete equation (1). We multiply the
abbreviated equation (1) by a factor (1 - x2)1/2 and integrate again across the chord,
With (7) and with the relation
Page553
we may write (8) in the form
Combination of (10) and (6) gives the following alternate expression for m,
In general the second and third terms in (11) do not cancel each other and consequently we have in general m(s) = 0. A known exception forms the case of
constant w(x, s) that is the case of a wing with uncambered tip chord.
4
Weissinger's Extension of the Lifting-Line Theory
This extension takes into account in an approximate manner the termwith K in equation (1). It may be derived in the following way. Corresponding to (6) and in the
same manner, the following exact relation is first obtained
The last termon the right of (12) is to be taken into account approximately only and this is done by stipulating that in it one may set
which is the exact solution when w is constant and the flow is two-dimensional. Taking as an abbreviation for the triple integral in (12) the symbol I we have then
Equations (12) and (14) are not yet Weissinger's results but rather, in principle, an improvement of his results for the rectangular plan-formwing.
Weissinger's first result, called the F-method, is obtained by introducing the following approximation
Page554
Note that equation (15) would be exact if K were a linear function of x. With (15) we have further
The function K
F
can be expressed in terms of elliptic integrals and has been tabulated by Weissinger.
Evidently, once the approximation (15) has been made it is only consistent to make a corresponding approximation in (16). This leads to the so-called L-
method which in Weissinger's paper is based on lifting-line considerations. The result is
Calculations have shown [1] that results based on either K
F
or K
L
are practically indistinguishable. One advantage of K
L
besides its simplicity is the fact that an
analogous result may be obtained without too much difficulty for wings with sweepback [1].
With the approximation (17) the integral equation (12) may be written in the following form
Equation (18) shows somewhat more clearly than the corresponding result in Weissinger's paper the relation between this theory and the original lifting-line theory. It
also shows, since [1 +(y - q)2]1/2 >|y - q|, that the improved theory leads to more pronounced aspect ratio effects than the original theory.
We may note that with
the integrals on the right are expressible in terms of elliptic integrals. It is questionable, however, whether to do so will be of computational advantage.
We remark finally that here also, as in the lifting-line equations (6) and (11), it can be shown that in general the tip moments m(s) do not vanish.
5
A System of Simultaneous Equations for Lift and Moment Distribution
We begin with the exact equation (12) and add to this the following exact equation which takes the place of the approximate equation (10)
We must now take into account approximately the triple integrals both in (12) and (20). As we wish to express these triple integrals both in terms of l and m we can
Page555
now no longer use the simple approximation (13) for p. Instead we set
With (21) we obtain from(12) and (20) the following two fundamental equations
The kernel functions K
ll
, etc., are seen to be of the form
The two functions K
ll
and K
lm
may be tabulated, just as the function K
F
of equation (16) has been tabulated and just as the function in (14) may be tabulated.
Once this has been done one may solve equations (22) and (23) by means of series of the form
where
Equations (22) and (23) then become systems of simultaneous equations for the coefficients l
k
and m
k
. For specific applications it will be necessary to tabulate the
functions
and corresponding expressions for K
lm
, for various values of k and s, whereupon the usual collocation procedure can be applied; or to tabulate the corresponding
quantities which occur in an application of the Multhop procedure to equations (22) and (23).
Page556
Considerable simplification is introduced into the foregoing results if again as in going from(15) to (16) and (17) use is made of the following formulae for
approximate numerical integration
Equations (24) and (25) then become
More accurate approximations to K
ll
and K
lm
may be obtained if instead of equations (34) the following approximate numerical integration formulae are used
While equations (34) are exact when ](x) is any linear function of x, equations (37) are exact when ](x) is any third-degree polynomial in x.
We will omit listing the approximations to K
ll
and K
lm
which replace (35) and (36) when (37) is used.
We may note that when m =-l/2, which would follow fromthe assumption that the (1 - x2)1/2-termin (21) is negligible, equation (22) contains the kernel [1/2(y - q)]
+K
ll
- 1/2K
lm
. As
equation (22) is then reduced to a combination of equations (12) and (14) of the Weissinger procedure, which is as it should be.
It is to be expected that the solution of equations (22) and (23) is nearer to the exact solution of lifting surface theory than is the solution of the combined equations
(12) and (14).
An example where the systemof two simultaneous equations will give a meaningful answer whereas the one-equation procedure will not is given by a wing formed
such that w =const.ch/cx =C(y)(1 - 2x), that is, a wing for which according to the two-dimensional theory every section has zero lift but non-zero moment.
Page557
The one-equation procedure predicts that the effect of finite span does not modify the zero lift property. It says nothing about the effect of finite span on the moment
distribution. The present two-equation procedure permits determination of the spanwise variation of moment distribution and indicates that the effect of finite span
modifies the zero lift properties which the two-dimensional theory predicts.
It is thought that the idea underlying the proposed two-equation procedure, which may be extended to an n-equation procedure, will also be useful in other problems
of lifting-surface theory.
Reference
1. Weissinger, J., "The Lift Distribution of Swept Back Wings," NACA T.M. No. 1120, March, 1947 (Translation of German ZWB F.B. 1553 (1942)).
Page558
Boundary Value Problems in Aerodynamics of Lifting Surfaces in Non-Uniform Motion*
[Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 55, 825850, 1949]
1
Introduction
In the present paper we propose to discuss certain aspects of the theory of lifting surfaces in non-uniformmotion. Briefly, lifting surface theory is concerned with the
motion of an impenetrable, deformable surface through an incompressible or compressible non-viscous fluid. In general the impenetrable surface is intended to
represent approximately an airplane wing, a tail surface, or a propeller. The adjective lifting indicates the nature of the interaction desired between the impenetrable
surface and the surrounding fluid.
The mathematical nature of the problems arising in this theory is that of boundary value problems of partial differential equations. Our principal object here is
formulation of these boundary value problems and presentation of some of the methods, exact or approximate, which have been used in the solution of some of these
problems. As may be seen fromthe list at the end of this paper the amount of work done in this field is considerable and the following account is restricted to those
aspects of the theory which have been of particular interest to the writer.
Lifting surface theory as developed may be designated as a perturbation theory in the following sense. Because of the assumption of no viscosity there are evidently
types of motion of an impenetrable surface which proceed without disturbing the surrounding fluid at all. One now asks for suchmotions which proceed nearly
without producing any disturbances and one uses the assumption of small disturbances to simplify the differential equations and boundary conditions of the theory. In
general this simplification leads to a linearized theory and it is this linearized theory which will here be discussed. The main reason for the considerable literature on the
subject is the fact that the range of applicability of the linearized theory has been found adequate for many problems arising in engineering, and in particular in
aeronautical engineering.
Evidently one may, if one wishes, consider separately problems of uniformand non-uniformmotion in lifting surface theory. Historically, uniform-motion theory, as
initiated by Prandtl, precedes non-uniformmotion theory by about ten years. Solution of problems of non-uniformmotion theory has turned out to be of considerably
greater mathematical complexity than solution of uniform-motion problems.
*An address delivered beforetheNew York Meetingof theSociety on February 28, 1948, by invitation of theCommitteeto Select Hour Speakers for Eastern Sectional Meetings.
Page559
In what follows we shall formulate the problems of non-uniformmotion in somewhat greater generality than has heretofore been done. After this we shall discuss in
some detail various aspects of the theory of nearly plane lifting surfaces in incompressible flow, and in particular the step fromtwo-dimensional to three-dimensional
theory.
2
The General Problem
The actual problemof linearized lifting surface theory will be considered as an approximation to the following nonlinear problem. An impenetrable, deformable surface
of given extent moves in a prescribed manner through a compressible perfect fluid. Frompart of the edge of the impenetrable surface emanates a surface of velocity
discontinuity in such a manner that the fluid velocity remains finite along this part of the edge,1 henceforth called the trailing edge. Along the remainder of the edge,
called leading edge, the fluid velocity will on account of the sharpness of the edge in general assume infinite values for an incompressible fluid. For a compressible
fluid the assumption of a sharp leading edge will in general make impossible a continuous solution in the region exterior to the surfaces of discontinuity. We need not
for the present purposes consider this difficulty as it disappears in the linearized formof the problem.
Let X, Y, Z be the axes of a fixed frame of reference and let x, y, z be the axes of a frame of reference moving with the impenetrable surface (Figure 1). Let U(t) be
the velocity of the origin of the moving systemwith reference to the fixed systemand let e(t) be the angular velocity of the moving systemwith reference to the fixed
system. Let u
r
be the velocity of a fluid particle relative to the moving systemand let u be the velocity of the same particle relative to the fixed system. The velocity
vector u may be written in the formu
0
+u
i
, where u
0
exists without being caused by the presence of the impenetrable surface and where u
i
is induced by the motion
of the impenetrable surface. Correspondingly we have a pressure p =p
0
+p
i
and a density =
0
+
i
.
We then have the following kinematical relations involving velocity u and acceleration a
The differential equations of the problemare of the following form
Equations (3) to (5) are to be solved in the space exterior to two surfaces F
L
=0 and F
T
=0, where F
L
represents the given surface of pressure and velocity
discontinuity and where F
T
represents a surface of velocity discontinuity, determination of which is part of the problem. On F
L
we have the condition of no relative
normal flow. On F
T
we have the two conditions that the normal velocities of points of the surface are
1This condition of finitetrailingedgevelocity, first introduced in two-dimensional airfoil theory by Kuttaand J oukovsky in order to obtain adefiniteliftingaction, was subsequently found to
represent rather well theeffect of viscosity of actual fluids in aperfect-fluid theory of airfoils. Thefact that in athree-dimensional theory enforcement of this condition necessitated introduction of
atrailingsurfaceof discontinuity was first observed by Prandtl.
Page560
Fig. 1.
given by the corresponding velocities of the surrounding fluid and that the pressure is continuous across this surface. Thus
where the subscripts +and - distinguish the two sides of F
T
.
The surfaces F
L
and F
T
are connected along a line C
T
which is part of the edge of F
L
=0 and which is sufficiently described for the present purposes by the
designation ''trailing" edge. Along C
T
we have the additional condition that u remains finite.
In addition to the boundary condition (6) and (7) and the trailing edge conditions there are needed conditions at infinity. The formof these conditions will evidently
depend on the formof the motion and on whether the fluid is compressible or incompressible.
For incompressible flow these conditions are roughly vanishing of all disturbances at an infinite distance fromlifting surface and trailing surface. For compressible flow
no such general statement can be made. In some cases all that is required is to superimpose on the conditions for incompressible flow a condition stating that radiation
energy is not created or reflected at infinity. In other cases the disturbances caused by the motion of the lifting surface cannot be required to vanish at infinity. General
determination of these conditions is outside the scope of this report.
When the velocity distribution u
0
which exists without the presence of the surface F
L
is such that V u
0
=0, equations (3) to (5) may be reduced to one scalar
equation by means of the introduction of a velocity potential | which, for incompressible flow, satisfies the Laplace equation but which for compressible flow is of a
more general type.
Page561
We postpone here introduction of the velocity potential and first linearize the problem.
3
The Linearized Form of the General Problem
Basic assumption for a linearized theory is that the lifting surface moves through the fluid nearly without disturbing the fluid such that powers and products of the
quantities u
i
, p
i
and
i
and their derivatives may be neglected.
The equation of motion (3) becomes then
The equation of continuity (4) becomes
and the equation of change of state becomes
We shall in some of what follows write as abbreviations
The quantity a
0
is the velocity of sound at a point of the undisturbed medium.
Turning now to the boundary conditions (6) and (7) we begin by establishing the condition for the motion of a surface F
LP
=0 without any disturbance of the
surrounding fluid. Equation (6) indicates that this condition is as follows
We have chosen the subscript P to indicate this surface because we wish to refer to it henceforth as the projection of the lifting surface. As the actual lifting surface
must deviate only slightly fromthis projection in order to move nearly without causing disturbances we may write
where ]
L
is small in the same sense as u
i
,
i
, and p
i
are small. Then, considering (12), and except for quantities small of higher order, the boundary condition at the
lifting surface becomes
Note that in satisfying the boundary condition at the projection of the lifting surface rather than at the lifting surface itself we again depend on the perturbation
properties of the solution to be obtained.
The next step is the determination of the formof the trailing surface of discontinuity F
T
. As the equation of this surface is one of the unknowns of the problemwe
must, in order to have a linear problem, omit the termu
i
in (7) and the shape of F
T
is then such that the equation
Page562
is satisfied. In addition to this we have the condition that at the trailing edge C
T
the surface F
T
is connected to the surface F
LP
. The meaning of (15) is that within the
linearized theory the shape of the trailing surface of discontinuity is independent of the velocity distribution u
i
induced by the motion of the lifting surface.
Having the equation of F
T
we then obtain from(17) the two conditions of continuous normal velocity and pressure across the surface in the form
To the formulation of the problemas contained in equations (8) to (16) we must add the condition of finite u
i
along C
T
and appropriate conditions at infinity.
We remark that previous formulations of this problemof non-steady motion in their most general formare based on the assumptions u
0
=0, e =0, U =Ui. Under
this assumption, and under the additional assumptions that dU/dt =0 and cF
LP
/ct =0, Kuessner [44]2 has obtained an integral equation for the pressure distribution
at the lifting surface.
4
Velocity Potential Formulation of the Linearized Problem
In what follows we shall assume that the fluid is at rest except for the motion induced by the lifting surface, that is, we put
With these assumptions we have the existence of a velocity potential | in terms of which
Combination of (18), (17), and (8) gives for the pressure p
i
the following expression
Combination of (19), (11), (10), and (9) gives the following differential equation for |,
The boundary condition (14) becomes
The transition conditions (16) become
and the trailing edge condition is that along C
T
we have V| finite.
The problemfromhere on is the solution of the mixed boundary value problem(20) to (22), with appropriate conditions at infinity. The object of such solutions is
primarily the determination of the pressures p
i
on both sides of the lifting surface.
2Numbers in brackets refer to thereferences cited at theend of thepaper.
Page563
Solutions obtained so far are all for nearly plane lifting surfaces such that F
LP
z =0. Predominant among these are solutions for the two-dimensional problem, which
may be characterized by the requirement that c|/cy 0.
For two-dimensional incompressible flow essential contributions are due to H. Wagner [78], W. Birnbaum[3], H. Glauert [22], T. Theodorsen [73], H. G. Kuessner
[42], P. Cicala [7], and G. Ellenberger [14].
For two-dimensional subsonic compressible flow which is less completely solved than the problemof incompressible flow, one must mention the work of C. Possio
[53], R. Timman [75], D. Haskind [24], and that given in [60]. Various approximate methods for the solution of Possio's integral equation of the problemare
described in [39].
The corresponding problemin the supersonic range has been dealt with by Possio [52], S. von Borbely [6], H. A. John and G. Temple [72], I. E. Garrick and I.
Rubinov [19], and I. A. Panichkin [51].
The perturbation theory of non-steady two-dimensional transonic flow has recently been considered by C. C. Lin, H. S. Tsien and the writer [47].
In the three-dimensional theory one has the solution of Schade and Krienes [41, 62] for the lifting surface of circular plan-formin incompressible flow and, also for
incompressible flow, a number of developments for an approximate analysis of the three-dimensionality of the flow for surfaces whose span is appreciably greater
than their chord. We shall in what follows describe a particular approach to this problembased on earlier publications on this subject [56, 57]. A discussion of
various other methods of analysis for this problemby Cicala [8, 9], W. R. Sears [69], R. T. Jones [32, 33], and Kuessner [44] can be found in [56].
Finally, we mention work by Garrick and Rubinov [20] and by E. A. Krasilschikova [40] on three-dimensional supersonic flow and a forthcoming publication on
three-dimensional subsonic flow [59]. In both problems it appears that further work is required before all difficulties inherent in the problemare overcome.
5
Motion of Nearly Plane Lifting Surface in Incompressible Flow
Further discussion will be carried out for this subclass of the general problem. Our object is to indicate the particular nature of the boundary value problemin question
and to outline one of the possible methods of solution.
We assume that the projection of the lifting surface lies in the x, y-plane and that the motion of the lifting surface is in the direction of negative x. We further assume
incompressible flow. We have then
and, in accordance with (12) and (15),
We shall designate the region occupied by the projection of the lifting surface by R
L
and the region occupied by the trailing surface of discontinuity by R
T
(Figure 2).
From(20) follows that when a
0
= the differential equation is, for steady as well as for non-steady motion,
Page564
Fig. 2.
From(19) follows, for the pressure induced by the motion of the lifting surface,
If the instantaneous distance of a point of the lifting surface fromthe x, y-plane is designated by Z(x, y, t ) we have F
L
=F
L
+]
L
=z - Z(x, y, t ) =0. Consequently
the boundary condition (21) becomes
The transition conditions (22) become
To equations (27) and (28) is to be added the condition of finite trailing edge velocities
and conditions at infinity which for incompressible flow may be taken in the form
The above problemis to be understood as a boundary value problemfor the exterior of an infinitely thin semi-infinite tube surrounding the regions R
L
and R
T
, in the
sense that (27) holds for z =+0 and for z =-0. It may be recalled that the main object is the determination of p
i+
and p
i-
in R
L
, with p
i-
- p
i+
being the lift intensity
produced by the motion of the impenetrable surface F
L
.
The formof the boundary conditions (27) to (30) is such that the problemfor the exterior of the semi-infinite tube may be transformed by a symmetry consideration
into a mixed boundary-value problemfor one of the half spaces z >0 or z <0. This is done by observing that equations (27) and (30) are compatible with the
assumption that | is an odd function of z. If we define a region R
R
as the x, y-plane minus the regions R
L
and R
T
and take into account that | is continuous except
Page565
across R
L
and R
T
we may replace the boundary conditions (27) and (28) by the following systemof conditions at z =0:
We then must determine | in one of the half-spaces, say z >0, with the conditions (29) and (31) at the boundary z =0 and with equations (30) giving the conditions
at infinity.
Let us remark that explicit solutions of the problemthus formulated are possible in the two-dimensional case by the use of elliptic cylinder coordinates, while for the
circular plan formwing the use of spheroidal coordinates is appropriate [41, 62]. The problemwould be of a standard nature if the conditions in R
T
were the same as
in R
R
. The main difficulty of obtaining an explicit solution comes fromthe particular formof the boundary condition holding in R
T
inasmuch as all that can be said on
the basis of (31) about the values of | in R
T
is
where u is an arbitrary function of its two arguments. Compensating for this arbitrariness is, as will be seen, the finiteness condition (29).
6
Integral Equation Formulation of the Problem
As one is interested primarily in the values of p
i
in R
L
it suggests itself to derive an integral equation for this quantity. This procedure, adopted by Birnbaum[3],
Possio [53], Kuessner [42], and others at the suggestion of Prandtl, and known under the name acceleration potential method, has the advantage that it can be
developed without explicit introduction of the trailing surface of discontinuity. It does however have the disadvantage of leading to an integral equation with a distinctly
more complicated kernel than the corresponding integral equation for the values of c|/cx in R
L
which we propose to discuss here. The main advantage of the latter
formulation is that it permits immediate recognition of the explicit solvability of the problemof non-steady motion in terms of the solution of the corresponding problem
of steady motion.
Setting as an abbreviation
we have the following representation for c|/cx in terms of the boundary values ,
where
Page566
Equation (34) may be converted into an expression for c|/cz, by appropriate differentiation and integration, of the following form
Note that when c/cq =0 which corresponds to the assumption of two-dimensional flow the q-integration in (36) can be carried out with the result that
which equation can of course be obtained directly in a simpler manner.
To separate two-dimensional fromthree-dimensional effects the following transformation is useful. We write (omitting for brevity the t in )
Appropriate integration by parts then gives the following relation
We must now in equation (38) let z tend to zero and substitute the boundary conditions (31). It is advantageous that (38) is in such a formthat, as can be proved, the
two limiting processes of integration and of letting z tend to zero can be interchanged, provided the integrals are defined where appropriate as Cauchy principal
values. Thus from(31) and (38)
In (39) x
L
and x
T
indicate the coordinates of the leading and trailing edge,
T
is still to be determined as far as possible fromthe boundary conditions and K is of the
following form
We shall fromnow on assume for simplicity's sake that the region R
L
is the rectangle |x|s b, |y|s sb and that the velocity U which occurs in (31) is constant.
Page567
We further introduce dimensionless variables,
and a dimensionless parameter k of the form
For the case of simple harmonic motion k is referred to as the "reduced frequency" of the motion. We may again for simplicity's sake omit in what follows the primes
designating the dimensionless variables.
We then have from(32) that
Furthermore on account of the finiteness condition (29)
Then
and with
we have from(43)
We introduce (46) and (47) into (39) and obtain the following formof the integral equation of the problem
For uniformmotion we have cI/ct =0 and the second and fourth integrals in (48) are absent. The formof equation (48) indicates clearly the manner in which for
non-uniformmotion the values of the solution (x, y, t ) depend on the past history of the motion through the cumulative effect of successive changes of
The quantity I is one-half of what is usually referred to as the circulation intensity at a station y =const. of the lifting surface.
Equation (48) is now to be solved for , in terms of w
L
and I. Once this is done I is found by integration in terms of w
L
and therewith is expressed in terms of w
L
Page568
only. The pressure p
i
at the lifting surface is then, according to (26), of the form
The advantage of (48) compared with the corresponding equation for the values of p
i
lies in the formof the kernel 1/(x - ) in the first term. This permits solution of
(48) in a manner analogous to what is done for the problemof uniformmotion.
7
Solution of the Two-Dimensional Problem
In what follows we wish to describe briefly one of the possible methods of solution of this problem, namely that by L. Schwarz [67]. We shall subsequently indicate
how to utilize this method for an approximate solution of the three-dimensional problem.
Introducing the (unessential) restriction of simple harmonic motion we set
where the barred quantities are functions of the space coordinates at most. Equation (48) can then be written in the following form
Equation (52) is solved by means of a pair of inversion formulas of the form
which may be considered as a result of two-dimensional potential theory, as discussed most fully by H. Shngen.3
Application of (53) to (52) leads to the following expression for
The main difficulty fromhere on is the calculation of the pressure which according to (50) is given by
Before listing the result of this lengthy and somewhat devious calculation we may indicate the nature of the equation for which occurs in (54). If we integrate both
sides of (54) as follows:
3Math. Zeit. vol. 45 (1939) pp. 245264.
Page569
and take account of the formulas
then equation (56) can be written in one of the forms
It is at this stage that a combination of Bessel functions makes its appearance in the theory. The integral in the denominator of (59) is expressible in terms of Hankel
functions, as follows:
In view of (60) can be written in the alternate form
Our purpose in outlining in some detail the steps leading from(52) to (61) has been to indicate the nature of some of the more simple transformations in the
calculation of the pressure distribution on oscillating airfoils. Considerable care is necessary to arrange the analysis in such a manner that advantage is taken of all
possible simplifications. In this way there is found the following expression for of equation (55)
In (62) the function A is given by
and the function C, first introduced by Theodorsen [73], is of the form
Page570
The results outlined in this section find their main application in the analysis of airplane flutter.4 For this purpose explicit expressions have been obtained by Cicala [7],
Kuessner [42], Theodorsen [73], and others for lift and moment amplitudes and defined by
and for control-surface hinge moments defined by
for various appropriate forms of .
Plots of representative pressure distributions for various values of the reduced frequency k and for some of the more important forms of w
L
may be found in a recent
paper by Postel and Leppert [55].
We may conclude this section with some remarks concerning the solution of the problemfor non-oscillatory motion.
It may readily be seen that the results for simple harmonic motion may be used for Laplace transformanalysis by replacing wherever it occurs ik by -q, whereupon
equations (61) and (62) become relations between Laplace transforms. For applications of the Laplace transformmethod in this field reference may be made to work
by I. E. Garrick [17, 18] and W. R. Sears [70].
Another formof the results consists in integro-differential equations for I, L and M
a
, without any assumption concerning the formof the solution. The nature of these
results may be seen fromthe simplest of them, the equation determining I. Omitting all but the first two of the integrals on the right of (48) we may obtain the
following relation
After evaluating the inner integrals on the right of (66) we are left with an equation of the form
A formal solution of (67) by Fourier series or Laplace transformmethods is again readily obtained. A special case of such a solution is given by (61). Practical
applications, especially of the Laplace transformsolution, are however not a simple matter, the reason for this being the occurrence of Hankel function combinations
in the denominator of the transforms to be evaluated, and the possibility of solving (67) directly by machine methods would be of considerable advantage.
4Briefly, theproblemof flutter is thedetermination of thoseflight speeds at which self-sustained oscillations of acomponent of theairplanebecomepossibledueto theaerodynamic forces
produced by an oscillatory motion of this component.
Page571
8
Remarks on the Problem of Tunnel Wall Interference in the Two-Dimensional Theory
A further problemof some interest concerning the two-dimensional theory of oscillating airfoils is the effect of tunnel walls on the pressure distribution . For a wing
of chord 2b located at the center of a tunnel of height 2h one finds, using the method of images, that (52) is replaced by the following equation [58]
where the parameter is given by
Equation (69) may be transformed into an equation of the form(61) by means of the following substitutions5
The result is of the form
The solution of (71), which involves elliptic integrals, has not yet been given. An approximate solution, valid for sufficiently small values of , has been obtained in the
following way [58]. We set in the interval ||s 1
The limits of integration in the second integral on the right of (68) preclude the direct use of (72). This difficulty is overcome by writing
and by splitting the second integral on the right of (73) into two integrals as follows, . The integral leads to the function
which has been tabulated. In the integral one may introduce the approximation (72). In this way the following approximate equation, which takes the place of (68),
is obtained:
5This transformation has been used in astudy of thecorrespondingproblemof steady flow, wherethesecond integral on theright of (68) is absent, by L. Lees and H. S. Tsien, J ournal of the
Aeronautical Sciences vol. 12 (1945) pp. 173187, 202.
Page572
It is of some interest to observe that the effect of the presence of tunnel walls may, for moderate values of k, be appreciably larger than the corresponding effect in the
steady-state solution for which k =0. It was found in one representative example that when k =0.25 the wall effect was twice what it was when k =0. This increase
of the wall effect will occur when at the same time k is (1) large enough for the trailing surface of discontinuity to be of importance and (2) small enough for the
characteristic wavelength in the trailing surface of discontinuity to be appreciably greater than the wing chord.
9
Approximate Theory for Lifting Surfaces of Finite Span
We now propose to discuss a method of approximate solution of the integral equation (48) for three-dimensional flow fromthe following point of view. Our object is
to reduce (48), which contains double integrals, to such a formthat a solution of single integral equations only is required. We shall show that this is possible,
provided the ''aspect ratio" s is sufficiently large, in such a way that what remains to be found is the solution of a problemof the kind encountered in the two-
dimensional theory and the solution of a problemof the kind encountered in the determination of the spanwise lift distributionfor a wing in uniformmotion according
to Prandtl's lifting-line theory. In this analysis we shall restrict attention to the case of simple harmonic motion in the sense of (51). Equation (48) then assumes the
following form
Our first step is to observe that the function K as given by equation (40) behaves, for |(x - )/(y - q)| <<1, like 2-1(x - )/|y - q|(y - q) and is therewith in this region
small compared with the remaining part of the kernel, 1/(y - q). If it is now assumed that 1 <<s, then K is small compared with 1/(y - q) over most of the region of
integration and may over this part of the region be disregarded. There remains the immediate neighborhood of the line q =y where this order of magnitude relation
does not hold. In order to disregard the contribution due to K in this region it is observed that K is an odd function of y - q and that we expect to be a slowly
varying function of q. In view of this we expect the contribution due to both K and 1/(y - q) to be negligible. We thus assume that
and assume that the approximation is justified for "sufficiently" large values of s.
Obviously the above argument is not very satisfactory, froma mathematical point of view, but no more rigorous argument has yet been given to justify this froma
practical standpoint rather satisfactory result. Possibly, equation (77) represents the first step in an asymptotic development in powers of 1/s but this has not yet been
proved.
Page573
The argument leading to (77) cannot directly be applied to the last integral in (76) since in this integral we do not have the fact that |(x - )/(y - q)| is small compared
to 1 over most of the region of integration. We proceed instead as follows. Write, with - x =,
In the second integral on the right we can again neglect the contribution due to K, and thus we may write
In view of (79) we now define a function F by the relation
and combine (77), (79), and (80) in order to obtain from(76) the following approximate integral equation of the problem:
Equation (81) is the result which it was intended to obtain. The solution of (81) proceeds as follows. One first obtains , just as in the two-dimensional theory
except that now also depends on . One then obtains, by integration of , an equation for the determination of which is, as was previously stated, of the
type of the equation for the determination of the spanwise lift-distribution for a wing in uniformmotion according to the lifting-line theory. Finally, just as in the two-
dimensional theory, an expression is obtained for the pressure distribution p
i
.
It is readily shown, for instance by the procedure leading from(66) to (67), that the equation for is of the following form:
Page574
where is the value of according to the two-dimensional theory as given by (61) and where the function is defined by
An equation corresponding to (82) had been obtained by Cicala [9] on the basis of entirely different considerations involving the effect of lifting lines and horseshoe
vortices. Equation (82) as it stands is different fromCicala's to the extent of a difference in the expression for . It turns out that Cicala's result can be obtained from
(81) by omitting the factor e-ikx in front of the last integral in (81). In aerodynamical language this means that "the downwash induced by the spanwise variation of
circulation" is assumed uniformacross the chord. This is indeed correct, as has long been known, for the case of uniformmotion for which k =0. Evidently lifting line
considerations do not permit us to determine the chordwise variation of downwash referred to above and in this respect the integral equation method as outlined goes
further.
Further work along the lines indicated leads to the result that the effect of three-dimensionality of the flow as determined by the foregoing approximate theory may be
incorporated into equation (62) for the pressure distribution p
i
of the two-dimensional theory by merely changing the function C(k) into C(k) +o. The termo
depends on the data of a given problemin the following manner:
The foregoing theory, up to equation (83) and including expressions for lift and moment as defined by (65a, b), is essentially that of [56]. In this reference
there are also included discussions of earlier work of a related nature by R. T. Jones [33], Kuessner [44], von Borbely [5], and Sears [69]. Extension of the theory
to surfaces of non-rectangular plan formand modification of p
i
by means of the function o was first presented in [57]. Prior to this M. W. Hunter had established that
the results of [56] permitted incorporation of the effect of finite span into the expressions for , , and by means of the function o [26].
A considerable simplification of the present developments as compared with those in [56] and [57] is due to the fact that the basic integral equation of the problemis
here taken in the form(76), which is a direct consequence of (38), rather than in that formwhich corresponds to equation (36).
Methods of analysis and numerical examples of application of this theory may be found in [61]. It may further be mentioned that the analogue of equation (81), for
subsonic compressible flow, has recently been obtained [59].
A shortcoming of the approximate theory as discussed is the following. One would expect froman exact solution of the problemthat the pressure p
i
tends to zero,
and therewith also circulation I, lift L, and moments M, as the tip sections are approached. This is indeed the case for lifting surfaces with zero tip chord, such as the
elliptical surface. For lifting surfaces with finite tip chord, such as the rectangular surface, one finds however that only I
tip
vanishes as it should whereas L
tip
and M
tip
,
Page575
while smaller than according to the two-dimensional theory, can not in general be made to vanish. The reason for this difficulty is to be found in the formof the
approximate equation (81) in which the effect of spanwise variation of appears solely by way of the average of . A more refined approximate theory
undoubtedly requires inclusion of the effects of weighted averages of as well, such as and , in the integral equation of the problem. With such a
refined theory one has reason to expect that tip conditions can be satisfied to a greater degree of approximation than by the present theory. In particular, it will be
possible to ensure that L
tip
and M
tip
vanish, as shown for the problemof uniform motion in Proc. Nat. Ac. Sc. vol. 35 (1949) pp. 208215.
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Page578
74. T. Theodorsen and I. E. Garrick, Non-stationary flow about a wing-aileron tab combination including aerodynamic balance, NACA T.R. No. 732
(1942).
75. R. Timman, Beschouwingen over de luchtkrachten op trillende vliegtuigvleugels, Dissertation, Technische Hogeschool Delft, 1946, 154 pp.
76. O. (Taussky) Todd, On some boundary value problems in the theory of the non-uniform supersonic motion of an aerofoil , British A.R.C., R. and M. No.
2141.
77. , A boundary value problem for a hyperbolic differential equation arising in the theory of the non-uniform supersonic motion of an aerofoil , Courant
Anniversary Volume, 1948, pp. 421435.
78. H. Wagner, ber die Entstehung des dynamischen Auftriebs von Tragflgeln, Zeitschrift fr Angewandte Mathematik und Mechanik vol. 5 (1925) pp.
1735.
Page579
Note on the Relation of Lifting-Line Theory to Lifting-Surface Theory
[J. Aeron. Sc. 18, 212213, 1951]
The following is concerned with linearized lifting-surface theory for the pressure distribution on wings in subsonic motion and its relation to lifting-line theory for the
spanwise variation of lift. It is shown that in certain cases lifting-line theory may be obtained by means of systematic developments with regard to aspect ratio from
lifting-surface theory. It is also indicated by means of a typical example that such developments are not possible in all cases where lifting-line theory is considered to
furnish an approximation to the results of lifting-surface theory.
Consider a lifting-surface of infinite span, of uniformchord 2b, moving with subsonic velocity U in a fluid of undisturbed density . The integral equation of the
linearized theory for this problemmay be written in the form
where
The dimensionless coordinates x and y are related to the physical coordinates X and Y in the form
and the dimensionless downwash function w is expressed in terms of the local lifting-surface slope o(X, Y) by
The function p gives the pressure jump across the lifting surface, M is the Mach Number corresponding to the velocity U, and principal values are to be taken of the
integrals in Eq. (1).
Assume a downwash function w of the form
The aspect ratio of a portion of the lifting surface between consecutive nodal lines of the downwash distribution follows fromEqs. (5) and (1) as
Page580
The double integral equation [Eq. (1)] may be reduced to a single integral equation by setting
Combining Eqs. (7) and (1) requires evaluation of two infinite integrals with respect to q. With a new variable of integration ,, defined by y - q =s,, these integrals
may be written as follows:
Setting as an abbreviation
the resultant one-dimensional integral equation becomes
The function F may be expressed in terms of tabulated functions. From
follows by appropriate differentiation and integration by parts, for z >0,
In Eq. (13) K
0
is a modified Bessel function of the second kind. Fromthis there is obtained, by integration and by making use of some properties of the modified
Bessel functions, the representation
For sufficiently small values of z, this implies the approximation
which is based on the leading terms in the power series expansions for K
0
and K
1
.
For large values of z one has the limiting relation
Table 1 contains numerical values of F and F
a
.
Page581
Table1
s 0 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
F 0 0.196 0.32 0.58 0.84 1.11 1.23 1.31 1.35
F
a 0 0.196 0.32 0.58 0.81 0.92
It may be noted that the approximation (15) is certainly adequate as long as z is less than 1, and this means that as long as |x - |/s is less than 1; or, since |x - |s 2,
as long as A.R. , the integral equation [Eq. (11)] may be written in the form
Equation (17) is a special case of a class of integral equations which Eichler [1] has shown to be explicitly solvable.
The following observations may be made: Omission of the last of the three integrals on the right of Eq. (17) leaves an equationthe solution of which corresponds to
Prandtl's lifting-line theory.
A development of the solution of the complete equation [Eq. (17)] for sufficiently large values of s will be of the form
The termP
0
is the exact solution of the two-dimensional theory. The termP
1
is correctly taken account of by lifting-line theory. The termP
2
is not taken account of
by lifting-line theory, since this theory does not introduce logarithmic terms in s.
In order to obtain a result corresponding to Weissinger's improvement of lifting-line theory [2, 3] we may proceed as follows: Write
and integrate Eq. (11) in the form
In Eq. (20)
Page582
and in the termmultiplied with F the function P is approximated by
There remains a double integral over F which is approximated as follows [3]:
Equation (20) now reads
In view of Eq. (15) we have, for sufficiently large values of s,
and thus, in this improvement of lifting-line theory, we do have a logarithmic termin s, as in the solution of the lifting-surface theory problem. However, it may be
observed that the numerical coefficient of the In s-termin Eq. (25) will not, in general, agree with the corresponding coefficient following fromlifting-surface theory,
since in lifting-surface theory as formulated in Eq. (17) the value of L depends on the function W(x) in a less simple manner than predicted by Eq. (24). In this regard,
an improved approximation will be obtained by using as in reference 3, instead of one equation for L, two simultaneous equations for L and
The result (25) for sufficiently large values of s may be contrasted to the result for small values of s. In view of Eq. (16), we have, in this case,
and, consequently, the value of L in this case is one-half of what it is according to the original lifting-line theory. This result is in accordance with a recent observation
by Lawrence [4].
If we denote the value of L according to lifting-line theory by L
p
, we have, for the ratio of L of Eq. (24) to L
p
,
Table 2 contains numerical values of the ratio L/L
p
as function of s and, in view of Eq. (6), as function of A.R. and M.
While it is seen to be possible to obtain lifting-line theory for the infinite lifting surface with spanwise periodic downwash distribution by means of systematic
developments in terms of the aspect ratio parameter s, it may also be seen that a corresponding procedure is not possible for a finite lifting-surface with finite tip
chord. We need only consider the semi-infinite lifting surface of constant chord, with
Page583
Table2
s 0 0.2 0.25 0.33 0.5 1.0 2.0 5.0 10.0
L/L
p 0.5 0.565 0.58 0.605 0.65 0.755 0.86 0.955 0.985 1.0
constant downwash function w(x, y) for y > 0. In this case the aspect ratio is infinite. Lifting-line theory may be used to obtain an approximate result for the lift
distribution that is zero at the tip y =0 and approaches a finite limiting value for increasing values of y. This distribution will, however, be different fromthe distribution
obtained by solving the double integral equation [Eq. (1)] with the integral replaced by the integral .
References
1. Eichler, M., Mathematische Zeitscrift, 48, 503526, 19421943.
2. Weissinger, J., Mathematische Nachrichten, 2, 45106, 1949.
3. Reissner, E., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (U.S.A.), 35, 208215, 1949.
4. Lawrence, H. R., Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory Report No. AF-673-A-1, August, 1950.
Page584
A Problem of the Theory of Oscillating Airfoils
[Proc. 1st Nat. Congr. Appl. Mech. pp. 923925, 1952]
1
Introduction
We consider an airfoil of infinite span and uniformchord in the path of an incompressible fluid flowing with velocity U. The airfoil deforms periodically, both in time
and in the direction of the span. To be determined are the spanwise variation of lift and moment as a function of the frequency of oscillation and of the wavelength of
the deformations in the direction of the span of the airfoil.
W. R. Sears has presented an approximate solution of this problemduring the Vth International Congress of Applied Mechanics [1]. We here present another
approximate solution of the problem, based on general results for the oscillations of airfoils of finite span which were obtained previously [2]. In these earlier general
results the problemof the oscillating airfoil of finite span is reduced to an integral equation for the spanwise variation of circulation. The solution of this integral
equation furnishes a three-dimensional correction to the basic function C(k) of the two-dimensional theory of oscillating airfoils.
In view of the difficulties of solution of most problems in the theory of airfoils of finite span it is worthy of note that the solution of the present problemcan be given
explicitly on the basis of the general theory of reference 2, in terms of relatively simple elementary functions.
2
Formulation of the Problem
Let the chord of the airfoil be denoted by 2b and the frequency of oscillation by e. Let y be a spanwise coordinate and let I(y) be the amplitude of the circulation
intensity at the station y of the airfoil.
According to reference 2 the integral equation for I is of the form
where I(2) is the value of I according to the two-dimensional theory and where the functions and F are defined as follows
The function F, which was first introduced by Cicala into the theory of oscillating airfoils of finite span, and the function are both tabulated [2]. The
Page585
parameter k is defined by the relation
Three-dimensional corrections of this theory for lift and moment distribution of the two-dimensional theory consist in a modification of the function C(k) of the two-
dimensional theory to C(k) +o, where o is given by the expression
A table of values of the function in the first bracket may be found in ref. 3.
3
Solution of the Integral Equation for Spanwise Periodic Circulation Distribution
If we assume that the amplitude of deformation of the airfoil is of the form](x)(cos ty/2bs) then the circulation distribution of the two-dimensional theory is of the
form
The distance between two successive nodal lines of I(2) is equal to 2bs and since 2b equals the chord of the airfoil the value of s is the aspect ratio of a portion of the
airfoil bounded by the successive nodal lines.
It is readily seen that when I(2) is given by (6) a solution of the integral equation (1) is of the form
Introduction of (6) and (7) into (1) after some slight transformations gives the following equation for the amplitude constant I
0
,
In an appendix to this note it is shown that the infinite integral in (8) can be expressed in terms of elementary functions and we obtain the formula
With the help of equation (9) we have calculated I/I(2), o and C +o for various values of aspect ratio s and reduced frequency k and the results are listed in Table
1. It may be noted that the behavior of the function C +o is very similar to the behavior of this function for the elliptical plan formwing, as calculated previously [3,
Figure 22]. As expected, the effect of finite aspect ratio becomes progressively less important as the value of the frequency parameter k increases. The data may,
Page586
Table1
o C(k) +o
k s =3 s =6 s =3 s =6 s =3 s =6 C(k)
0 .549 .709 -.451 -.291 .549 .709 1
.04 .584+.072i .754+.073i -.379+.106i -.221+.092i .548-.010i .706-.025i .926-.116i
.06 .601+.097i .776+.091i -.344+.131i -.189+.107i .548-.012i .703-.036i .892-.143i
.10 .637+.126i .816+.111i -.286+.149i -.139+.115i .546-.024i .693-.057i .832-.172i
.20 .716+.166i .890+.118i -.186+.150i -.066+.096i .542-.039i .661-.092i .728-.189i
.30 .781+.175i .931+.103i -.136+.119i -.041+.068i .530-.060i .624-.111i .665-.179i
.40 .829+.168i .954+.086i -.105+.093i -0.29+.049i .520-.072i .596-.116i .625-.165i
.50 .865+.154i .967+.0.71i -.086+.070i -.024+.035i .512-.081i .534-.116i .598-.151i
.75 .917+.116i .982+.046i -.061+.030i -.018+.015i .498-.091i .541-.106i .559-.121i
1.00 .943+.084i .987+.031i -.045+.006i -.014+.005i .494-.095i .525-.095i .539-.101i
1.50 .966+.047i .992+.016i -.019-.015i -.007-.004i .502-.089i .514-.077i .521-.074i
2.00 .979+.027i .995+.009i -.002-.015i -.001-.005i .511-.073i .512-.062i .513-.058i
however, also be interpreted in still another way, namely as follows. For wings with finite aspect ratio the circulatory components of lift and moment are much less
dependent on the value of the reduced frequency k than is predicted by the two-dimensional theory of oscillating airfoils.
4
Appendix. Evaluation of an Integral
In order to go fromequation (8) to (9) we must evaluate the integral
The value of the imaginary part of this double integral follows directly if use is made of the basic property of the sine transform. The complete integral may be
evaluated as follows. We introduce in the inner integral a new variable of integration , defined by =z/x,. This changes (10) into
We now consider as a complex variable and integrate (assuming x positive) instead of along the real -axis along a straight line enclosing a small negative angle o
with the real -axis. This changes the value of the integral by an amount proportional to the value of the small angle o Since now Im{ix,} <0 we may interchange
the order of integration in (11) and this gives us
Page587
We now let o tend to zero and go around the singularity at =1/x along the semicircle =x-1 +ei
|
, where -ts|s 0 and where tends to zero. This gives us
the symbol indicating that the Cauchy principal value of the integral is to be taken. The remaining integral in (13) can be evaluated by elementary means and we
have then for positive values of x,
Introduction of (14) into equation (8) leads to the result (9) of this note.
References
1. W. R. Sears, ''A Contribution to Airfoil Theory for Non-uniformMotion", Proceedings of the Fifth International Congress of Applied Mechanics, 1938, pp.
483487.
2. E. Reissner, "Effect of Finite Span on the Airload Distributions for Oscillating Wings I," NACA T.N. No. 1194 (1947).
3. E. Reissner and J. E. Stevens, "Effect of Finite Span on the Airload Distributions for Oscillating Wings II," NACgvfgtgA T.N. No. 1195 (1947).
Page589
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Page590
20. The influence of Taper on the Efficiency of Wide-Flanged Box Beams
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Phil. Mag. Ser. 7, 30, pp. 418427, 1941
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NACA Techn. Note No. 791, 1941 (with J. S. Newell)
*24. Least Work Solutions of Shear Lag Problems
J. Aeronautical Sciences 8, pp. 284291, 1941
25. On a Class of Singular Integral Equations
J. Math. and Phys. 20, pp. 219223, 1941
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Aviation 40, pp. 4849, 140, 1941
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Proc. 15th Semi-Annual Eastern Photo-elasticity Conference pp. 2331, 1942
31. Least-Work Analysis of the Problemof Shear Lag in Box Beams
NACA Techn. Note No. 893, 1943 (with F. B. Hildebrand)
32. The Influence of the Aerodynamic Span Effect on the Magnitude of the Torsional-Divergence Velocity and on the Shape of the Corresponding Deflection Mode
NACA Techn. Note No. 926, 1944 (with F. B. Hildebrand)
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Page591
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NACA Techn. Note No. 1194, 1947
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Quart. of Appl. Math. 5, pp. 5568, 1947
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*56. On the Theory of Thin Elastic Shells
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74. Bending of Curved Tubes
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Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs. 78, pp. 12131221, 1956 (with J. Lubkin)
*102. A Note on Membrane and Bending Stresses in Spherical Shells
J. Soc. Indus. and Appl. Math. 4, pp. 230240, 1956
103. A Derivation of the Equations of Shell Theory for General Orthogonal Coordinates
J. Math. and Phys. 35, pp. 351358, 1956 (with J. K. Knowles)
104. Bounds on Influence Coefficients for Circular Cylindrical Shells
J. Math. and Phys. 36, pp. 119, 1957 (with M. B. Sledd)
105. Finite Twisting and Bending of Thin Rectangular Elastic Plates
J. Appl. Mech. 24, pp. 391396, 1957
106. Pure Bending of Pretwisted Rectangular Plates
J. Mech. and Phys. of Solids 5, pp. 261266, 1957 (with L. Maunder)
107. On Transverse Vibrations of Shallow Spherical Shells
Quart. Appl. Math. 15, pp. 367380, 1957 (with M. W. Johnson)
108. On Torsional Vibrations of a Beamwith a Small Amount of Pretwist
J. Japan Soc. Aeronautic Eng. 5, pp. 330335, 1957 (with K. Washizu)
*109. On Stressses and Deformations of Ellipsoidal Shells Subject to Internal Pressure
J. Mech. and Phys. of Solids 6, pp. 6370, 1958 (with R. A. Clark)
110. Symmetric Bending of Shallow Shells of Revolution
J. Math. and Mech. 7, pp. 121140, 1958
111. A Note on Deflections of Plates on a Visco-Elastic Foundation
J. Appl. Mech. 25, pp. 144145, 1958
112. On Variational Principles in Elasticity
Proc. Symp. Appl. Math. 8, pp. 16, 1958
113. The Effect of an Internal Compressible Fluid Column on the Breathing Vibrations of a Thin Pressurized Cylindrical Shell
J. Aeronautical Sci. 25, pp. 288294, 1958 (with J. G. Berry)
114. Contributions to the Theory of Thin Elastic Shells
Proc. 9th Int'l Congr. Appl. Mech. (1956), pp. 290296, 1958
Page594
115. Rotationally Symmetric Problems in the Theory of Thin Elastic Shells
Proc. 3rd Nat'l Congr. Appl. Mech. , pp. 5169, 1958
116. Note on Stress Strain Relations for Thin Elastic Shells
J. Math. and Phys. 37, pp. 269282, 1958 (with J. K. Knowles)
*117. On the Foundations of the Theory of Thin Elastic Shells
J. Math. and Phys. 37, pp. 375392, 1958 (with M. W. Johnson)
118. On Influence Coefficients and Nonlinearity for Thin Elastic Shells
J. Appl. Mech. 26, pp. 6972, 1959
119. Upper and Lower Bounds for the Stiffness of Transversely Bent Circular Plates
J. Appl. Mech. 26, pp. 142143, 1959
120. On the Determination of Stresses and Displacements for Unsymmetrical Deformations of Shallow Spherical Shells
J. Math. and Phys. 38, pp. 1635, 1959
*121. The Edge Effect in Symmetric Bending of Shallow Shells of Revolution
Comm. Pure Appl. Math. 12, pp. 385398, 1959
122. On Torsion of Thin Cylindrical Shells
J. Mech. and Phys. of Solids 7, pp. 157162, 1959
123. On Finite Bending of Pressurized Tubes
J. Appl. Mech. 26, pp. 386392, 1959
124. On the Solution of a Class of Problems in Membrane Theory of Thin Shells
J. Mech. and Phys. of Solids 7, pp. 242246, 1959
125. Torsion and Extension of Helicoidal Shells
Quart. Appl. Math. 17, pp. 409422, 1959 (with J. K. Knowles)
126. On Stress Strain Relations and Strain Energy Expressions in the Theory of Thin Elastic Shells
J. Appl. Mech. 27, pp. 104106, 1960 (with J. K. Knowles)
127. On Some Problems in Shell Theory
Proc. First Symp. Naval Structural Mech. (1958), pp. 74114, 1960
128. Parametric Expansions for a Class of Boundary Value Problems of Partial Differential Equations
J. Soc. Indus. Appl. Math. 8, pp. 389396, 1960, (with M. W. Johnson)
129. On Twisting and Stretching of Helicoidal Shells
Proc. IUTAM Symp. on Thin Shell Theory (1959), pp. 434466, 1960
130. Three-Dimensional Theory of Elastic Plates with Transverse Inextensibility
J. Math. and Phys. 39, pp. 161181, 1960 (with J. L. Boal)
131. On Some Variational Theorems in Elasticity
Problems of Continuum Mechanics (Muskhelishvili Anniversary Volume), pp. 370381, 1961
*132. On Finite Pure Bending of Cylindrical Tubes
sterreichisches Ingenieur Arch. 15, pp. 165172, 1961
133. Bending and Stretching of Certain Types of Heterogeneous Aeolotropic Elastic Plates
J. Appl. Mech. 28, pp. 402408, 1961 (with Y. Stavsky)
134. Elementary Differential Equations, 2nd Edition
Addison-Wesley Publ. Co., Inc. XIII +331 pp., 1961 (with W. T. Martin)
135. Note on Finite Inextensional Deformation of Shallow Elastic Shells
J. Math. and Phys. 40, pp. 253259, 1961
136. Variational Considerations for Elastic Beams and Shells
Proc. Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs. 8 (EM), pp. 2357, 1962
137. Note on Axially Symmetric Stress Distributions in Helicoidal Shells
Miszellaneen der Angewandten Mechanik (Tollmien Anniversary Volume), pp. 257266, Akademie Verlag, 1962
*138. Finite Pure Bending of Circular Cylindrical Tubes
Quart. Appl. Math. 20, pp. 305319, 1962 (with H. J. Weinitschke)
Page595
139. On Pure Bending of Pressurized Toroidal Membranes
J. Math. and Phys. 42, pp. 3846, 1963
140. A Problemof Shearing and Transverse Bending of Shallow Hyperbolic Paraboloidal Shells
J. Appl. Mech. 30, pp. 295296, 1963 (with D. P. O'Mathuna)
*141. On the Equations for Finite Symmetrical Deflections of Thin Shells of Revolution
Progress in Applied Mechanics (Prager Anniversary Volume) pp. 171178, Macmillan Publishing Co., 1963
142. On Stresses and Deformations in Toroidal Shells of Circular Cross Section which are Acted upon by UniformNormal Pressure
Quart. Appl. Math. 21, pp. 177188, 1963
143. On the Derivation of Boundary Conditions for Plate Theory
Proc. Royal Society, A, 276, pp. 178186, 1963
144. On the Derivation of the Theory of Thin Elastic Shells
J. Math. and Phys. 42, pp. 263277, 1963
145. Note on the Problemof St. Venant Flexure
J. Appl. Math. and Phys. (ZAMP) 15, pp. 198200, 1964
146. On the Formof Variationally Derived Shell Equations
J. Appl. Mech. 31, pp. 233238, 1964
147. On Asymptotic Expansions for Circular Cylindrical Shells
J. Appl. Mech. 31, pp. 245252, 1964
148. On Asymptotic Solutions for Nonsymmetric Deformations of Shallow Shells of Revolution
Int. J. Engrg. Sci. 2, pp. 2743, 1964
*149. A Note on Variational Principles in Elasticity
Int. J. Solids Structures 1, pp. 9395, 1965
*150. Rotating Shallow Elastic Shells of Revolution
J. Soc. Indus. Appl. Math. 13, pp. 333352, 1965 (with F. Y. M. Wan)
151. A Note on Stress Functions and Compatibility Equations in Shell Theory
Topics in Applied Mechanics (Schwerin Memorial Volume) pp. 2332, Elsevier Co., 1965
152. Application of a Variational Theoremfor Boundary Values in Shell Theory
J. Strain Analysis 1, pp. 8385, 1965 (with T. J. Lardner)
153. On the Foundations of the Theory of Elastic Shells
Proc. 11th Int. Congr. Applied Mechanics (1964), pp. 2030, 1966
154. Asymptotic Solutions of Boundary Value Problems for Elastic Semi-Infinite Circular Cylindrical Shells
J. Math. and Phys. 44, pp. 122, 1966 (with J. G. Simmonds)
*155. A Note on Stress Strain Relations of the Linear Theory of Shells
J. Appl. Math. and Phys. (ZAMP) 17, pp. 676681, 1966 (with F. Y. M. Wan)
156. Symmetrical Deformations of Circular Cylindrical Shells of Rapidly Varying Thickness
Donnell 70th Anniversary Volume, pp. 4773, University of Houston, 1967 (with T. J. Lardner)
*157. Small Strain Large Deformation Shell Theory
Development in Mechanics 3 (Proc. 9th Midwestern Mechanics Conference, Madison, Wisconsin, 1965), pp. 5558, 1967
158. On Stress Strain Relations and Strain Displacement Relations of the Linear Theory of Shells
The Folke-Odqvist Volume, pp. 487500, 1967 (with F. Y. M. Wan)
159. On the Nonlinear Theory of Thin Plates
Proc. 3rd Southeastern Conference on Theor. and Appl. Mech. (Columbia, South Carolina, 1966), pp. 165175, 1967
Page596
160. A Note on the Formulation of the Problemof the Plate on an Elastic Foundation
Acta Mechanica 4, pp. 8891, 1967
161. On Axial Extension and Torsion of Helicoidal Shells
J. Math. and Phys. 47, pp. 131, 1968 (with F. Y. M. Wan)
*162. Finite Inextensional Pure Bending and Twisting of Thin Shells of Revolution
Quart. J. Mech. and Appl. Math. 21, pp. 293306, 1968
*163. A Note on Gnther's Analysis of Couple Stress
Mechanics of Generalized Continua, IUTAM Symposium, Freudenstadt-Stuttgart, 1967, pp. 8386, 1968 (with F. Y. M. Wan)
164. On St. Venant Flexure Including Moment Stresses
Prikl. Mat. i Mekh. 32, pp. 923929, 1968
165. On the Foundations of Generalized Linear Shell Theory
Theory of Thin Shells, Proc. IUTAM Symposium, Copenhagen, 1967, pp. 1530, 1969
166. Rotationally Symmetric Stress and Strain in Shells of Revolution
Studies in Appl. Math. 48, pp. 117, 1969 (with F. Y. M. Wan)
167. On Generalized Two-Dimensional Plate Theory-I
Int. J. Solids Structures 5, pp. 525532, 1969
168. On the Equations of Linear Shallow Shell Theory
Studies in Appl. Math. 48, pp. 133145, 1969 (with F. Y. M. Wan)
169. On the Equations of Non-Linear Shallow Shell Theory
Studies in Appl. Math. 48, pp. 171175, 1969
170. On Finite Symmetrical Deflections of Thin Shells of Revolution
J. Appl. Mech. 36, pp. 267270, 1969
171. On Generalized Two-Dimensional Plate Theory-II
Int. J. Solids Structures 5, pp. 629637, 1969
172. On Axially UniformStress and Strain in Axially Homogeneous Cylindrical Shells
Int. J. Solids Structures 6, pp. 133138, 1970
*173. On Postbuckling Behavior and Imperfection Sensitivity of Thin Elastic Plates on a Non-Linear Elastic Foundation
Studies in Appl. Math. 49, pp. 4557, 1970
174. A Note on Postbuckling Behavior of Pressurized Shallow Spherical Shells
J. Appl. Mech. 37, pp. 533534, 1970
175. On Oblique Coordinates and Shallowness in Shell Theory
Advanc. Math. 3, pp. 264276, 1970
176. Variational Methods and Boundary Conditions in Shell Theory
Studies in Optimization 1, pp. 7894, 1970
177. On the Derivation of Two-Dimensional Shell Equations fromThree-Dimensional Elasticity Theory
Studies in Appl. Math. 49, pp. 205224, 1970
178. A Note on Pure Bending and Flexure in Plane Stress Including the Effect of Moment Stresses
Ingenieur-Archiv 39, pp. 369374, 1970
179. On Stretching, Twisting, Pure Bending and Flexure of Pretwisted Elastic Plates
Int. J. Solids Structures 7, pp. 625637, 1971 (with F. Y. M. Wan)
180. A Note on Imperfection Sensitivity of Thin Plates on a Non-linear Elastic Foundation
IUTAM Symposium Herrenalb, 1969, pp. 1518, Springer Verlag, Berlin, 1971
*181. On Consistent First Approximations in the General Linear Theory of Thin Elastic Shells
Ingenieur-Archiv 40, pp. 402419, 1971
182. On Rotationally Symmetric Stress and Strain in Anisotropic Shells of Revolution
Studies in Appl. Math. 50, pp. 391394, 1971 (with F. Y. M. Wan)
183. Pure Bending, Stretching, and Twisting of Anisotropic Cylindrical Shells
J. Appl. Mech. 39, pp. 148154, 1972 (with W. T. Tsai)
Page597
184. A Consistent Treatment of Transverse Shear Deformations in Laminated Anisotropic Plates
AIAA J. 10, pp. 716718, 1972
185. On Reduction of the Differential Equations for Circular Cylindrical Shells
Ingenieur-Archiv 41, pp. 291296, 1972
186. On Sandwich-Type Plates with Cores Capable of Supporting Moment Stresses
Acta Mechanics 14, pp. 4351, 1972
*187. Considerations on the Centres of Shear and of Twist in the Theory of Beams
Continuum Mechanics and Related Problems of Analysis (Muskelisvili 80th Anniversary Volume), pp. 403408, 1972 (with W. T. Tsail)
188. On the Determination of the Centers of Twist and of Shear of Cylindrical Shell Beams
J. Appl. Mech. 39, pp. 10981102, 1972 (with W. T. Tsai)
189. On Finite Symmetrical Strain in Thin Shells of Revolution
J. Appl. Mech. 39, pp. 11371138, 1972
*190. On One-Dimensional Finite-Strain BeamTheory: the Plane Problem
J. Appl. Math. and Phys. (ZAMP) 23, pp. 795804, 1972
*191. On One-Dimensional Large-Displacement Finite-Strain BeamTheory
Studies in Appl. Math. 52, pp. 8795, 1973
192. On Kinematics and Statics of Finite-Strain Force and Moment Stress Elasticity
Studies in Appl. Math. 52, pp. 97101, 1973
193. A History of the Center-of-Shear ConceptMaillart's Work and Ramifications
Proceedings 2nd National Conference on Civil Engineering: History, Heritage and the Humanities , Princeton University, pp. 7796, September 1973
*194. Upper and Lower Bounds for Deflections of Laminated Cantilever Beams Including the Effect of Transverse Shear Deformation
J. Appl. Mech. 40, pp. 988991, 1973
*195. On Pure Bending and Stretching of Orthotropic Laminated Cylindrical Shells
J. Appl. Mech. 41, pp. 168172, 1974 (with W. T. Tsai)
*196. Linear and Nonlinear Theory of Shells
Thin Shell Structures, Prentice-Hall, Inc., pp. 2944, 1974
197. An Improved Lower Bound for Deflections of Laminated Cantilever Beams Including the Effect of Transverse Shear Deformation
J. Appl. Math. and Phys. (ZAMP) 25, pp. 8998, 1974 (with S. Nair)
198. On Transverse Bending of Plates, Including the Effect of Transverse Shear Deformation
Int. J. Solids Structures 11, pp. 569573, 1975
199. Note on the Equations of Finite-Strain Force and Moment Stress Elasticity
Studies in Appl. Math. 54, pp. 18, 1975
*200. Improved Upper and Lower Bounds for Deflections of Orthotropic Cantilever Beams
Int. J. Solids Structures 11, pp. 961971, 1975 (with S. Nair)
*201. Note on a Problemof BeamBuckling
J. Appl. Math. and Phys. (ZAMP) 26, pp. 839841, 1975 (with G. E. Lee)
202. On the Determination of Stresses and Deflections for Anisotropic Homogeneous Cantilever Beams
J. Appl. Mech. 43, pp. 7580, 1976 (with S. Nair)
203. Transverse Bending of Laminated Anisotropic Plates
J. Engg. Mech. Div. (ASCE) 102, EM3, pp. 559563, 1976
204. On the Theory of Transverse Bending of Elastic Plates
Int. J. Solids Structures 12, pp. 545554, 1976
205. On Stretching, Bending, Twisting and Flexure of Cylindrical Shells
Int. J. Solids Structures 12, pp. 853866, 1976
206. On Asymptotic Expansions and Error Bounds in the Derivation of Two-Dimensional Shell Theory
Studies in Appl. Math. 56, pp. 189217, 1977 (with S. Nair)
Page598
207. A Note on Generating Generalized Two-Dimensional Plate and Shell Theories
J. Appl. & Phys. (ZAMP) 28, pp. 633642, 1977
*208. On Small Bending and Stretching of Sandwich-Type Shells
Int. J. Solids Structures 13, pp. 12931300, 1977
209. Hans Reissner, Engineer, Physicist and Engineering Scientist
The Engineering Science Perspective 2, pp. 97105, 1977
210. On Bounds for the Torsional Stiffness of Shafts of Varying Circular Cross Section
J. Elasticity 8, pp. 221225, 1978
211. A Note on Finite Deflections of Circular Ring Plates
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 29, pp. 698703, 1978
212. Two and Three-Dimensional Results for Rotationally Symmetric Deformations of Circular Cylindrical Shells
Int. J. Solids Structures 14, pp. 905924, 1978 (with S. Nair)
213. Some Considerations on the Problemof Torsion and Flexure of Prismatical Beams
Int. J. Solids Structures 15, pp. 4153, 1979
*214. On Lateral Buckling of End-loaded Cantilever Beams
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 30, pp. 3140, 1979
215. Note on a Nontrivial Simple Example of Higher-Order One-Dimensional BeamTheory
J. Appl. Mech. 46, pp. 337340, 1979
216. Note on the Effect of Transverse Shear Deformation in Laminated Anisotropic Plates
Computer Meth. Appl. Mech. & Eng. 20, pp. 203209, 1979
*217. On the Transverse Twisting of Shallow Spherical Ring Caps
J. Appl. Mech. 47, pp. 101105, 1980
*218. On the Effect of a Small Circular Hole on States of UniformMembrane Shear in Spherical Shells
J. Appl. Mech. 47, pp. 430431, 1980
219. On the Influence of a Rigid Circular Inclusion on the Twisting and Shearing of a Shallow Spherical Shell
J. Appl. Mech. 47, pp. 586588, 1980
220. On Torsion and Transverse Flexure of Orthotropic Elastic Plates
J. Appl. Mech. 47, pp. 855860, 1980
*221. On the Analysis of First- and Second-Order Shear Deformation Effects for Isotropic Elastic Plates
J. Appl. Mech. 47, pp. 959961, 1980
222. On the Effect of Shear Center Locations on the Values of Axial and Lateral Cantilever Buckling Loads for Singly Symmetric Cross-Section Beams
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 32, pp. 182188, 1981
223. On Finite Pure Bending of Curved Tubes
Int. J. Solids Structures 17, pp. 839844, 1981
224. On a One-Dimensional Theory of Finite Torsion and Flexure of Anisotropic Elastic Plates
J. Appl. Mech. 48, pp. 601605, 1981
*225. On Finite Deformations of Space-Curved Beams
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 32, pp. 734744, 1981
226. A Note on Bending of Plates Including the Effects of Transverse Shearing and Normal Strains
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 32, pp. 764767, 1981
227. On the Derivation of Two-Dimensional Strain Displacement Relations For Small Finite Deformations of Shear-Deformable Plates
J. Appl. Mech. 49, pp. 232234, 1982
228. Effects of a Rigid Circular Inclusion on States of Twisting and Shearing in Shallow Spherical Shells
J. Appl. Mech. 49, pp. 442443, 1982 (with J. E. Reissner)
Page599
*229. A Note on the Linear Theory of Shallow Sheardeformable Shells
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 33, pp. 425427, 1982 (with F. Y. M. Wan)
230. On Lateral BeamBuckling and Finite-Deflection Plate Theory
Proc. IUTAM Symposium, Numbrecht 1981, pp. 2334, 1982
231. Some Remarks on the Problemof Column Buckling
Ingenieur-Archiv 52, pp. 115119, 1982
*232. A Note on Two-Dimensional Finite-Deformation Theories of Shells
Int. J. Non-Linear Mechanics 17, pp. 217221, 1982
233. Stress Couple Concentrations for Cylindrically Bent Plates with Holes or Rigid Inclusions
J. Appl. Mech. 49, pp. 8587, 1983
234. On a One-Dimensional Formulation of the Problemof Torsion and Flexure of Shear-Deformable Plates
J. Appl. Mech. 49, pp. 225227, 1983
235. Further Considerations on the Problemof Torsion and Flexure of Prismatical Beams
Int. J. Solids Structures 19, pp. 385392, 1983
236. A Twelfth Order Theory of Transverse Bending of Transversely Isotropic Plates
Z.f. ang. Math. & Mech. 63, pp. 285289, 1983
*237. On Axial and Lateral Buckling of End-Loaded Anisotropic Cantilever Beams
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 34, pp. 450457, 1983 (with J. E. Reissner)
238. On a Simple Variational Analysis of Small Finite Deformations of Prismatical Beams
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 34, pp. 642648, 1983
239. On Some Problems of Buckling of Prismatical Beams under the Influence of Axial and Transverse Loads
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 34, pp. 649667, 1983
240. On a Variational Analysis of Finite Deformations of Prismatical Beams and on the Effect of Warping Stiffness on Buckling Loads
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 35, pp. 247251, 1984
*241. On a Certain Mixed Variational Principle and a Proposed Application
Int. J. Num. Meth. Eng. 20, pp. 13661368, 1984
*242. On a Variational Principle for Elastic Displacements and Pressure
J. Appl. Mech. 51, pp. 444445, 1984
243. On the Formulation of Variational Theorems in Geometrically Non-linear Elasticity
ASCE J. Eng. Mech. 110, pp. 13771390, 1984
244. On the Derivation of the Differential Equations of Linear Shallow Shell Theory
Flexible Shells, Euromech-Colloquium No. 165, pp. 1221, Springer Verlag, 1984
*245. A Tenth-Order Theory of Stretching of Transversely Isotropic Sheets
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 35, pp. 883889, 1984 (with R. A. Clark)
246. A Problemof Unsymmetrical Bending of Shear-Deformable Circular Ring Platess
Ingenieur-Archiv 55, pp. 5765, 1985 (with J. E. Reissner)
*247. A Variational Analysis of Small Finite Deformations of Pretwisted Elastic Beams
Int. J. Solids Structures 21, pp. 773779, 1985
*248. On Mixed Variational Formulations in Finite Elasticity
Acta Mechanica 56, pp. 117125, 1985
249. Reflections on the Theory of Elastic Plates
Applied Mechanics Reviews 38, pp. 14531464, 1985
250. On a Mixed Variational Theoremand on Sheardeformable Plate Theory
Intern. J. Num. Meth. Eng. 23, pp. 193198, 1986
251. Some Problems of Shearing and Twisting of Shallow Spherical Shells
Proc. Intern. Conf. Computational Mech. (ICCM86-Tokyo) pp. I-3I-12, Springer Verlag 1986
*252. Some Aspects of the Variational Principles Problemin Elasticity
Computational Mechanics 1, pp. 39, 1986
Page600
253. On the Effect of a Small Circular Hole in Twisted or Sheared Shallow Sheardeformable Spherical Shells
J. Appl. Mech. 53, pp. 597601, 1986 (with F. Y. M. Wan)
254. On Small Finite Deflections of Shear-Deformable Elastic Plates
Computer Methods in Appl. Mech. & Eng. 59, pp. 227233, 1986
255. On Finite Deflections of Anisotropic Laminated Elastic Plates
Intern. J. Solids Structures 22, pp. 11071115, 1986
*256. On a Certain Mixed Variational Theoremand on Laminated Shell Theory
Refined Dynamical Theories of Beams, Plates and Shells Proc. Euromech-Colloquium No. 219, pp. 1727, Springer Verlag, 1987
257. A Note on the Derivation of Higher Order Two-Dimensional Theories of Transverse Bending of Elastic Plates
Proc. Euromech-Colloquium No. 219, pp. 2831, 1987
258. Variational Principles in Elasticity
Finite Element Handbook, pp. 2.32.19, McGraw Hill Book Co., 1987
259. On Lateral Buckling of End-Loaded Cantilever Beams Including the Effect of Warping Stiffness
Computational Mechanics 2, pp. 137147, 1987 (with J. E. Reissner and F. Y. M. Wan)
260. On a Generalization and on the Meaning of Some Exact Formulas of the Theory of ''Moderately Thick" Elastic Plates
Intern. J. Solids Structures 23, pp. 711717, 1987
261. A Further Note on Finite-Strain Force and Moment Stress Elasticity
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 38, pp. 665673, 1987
*262. On Finite Axi-Symmetrical Deformations of Thin Elastic Shells of Revolution
Computational Mechanics 4, pp. 387400, 1989
263. The Center of Shear as a Problemof the Theory of Plates of Variable Thickness
Ingenieur-Archiv 59, pp. 325332, 1989
264. Asymptotic Considerations for Transverse Bending of Orthotropic Sheardeformable Plates
J. Appl. Math. & Phys. (ZAMP) 40, pp. 543557, 1989
265. Lateral Buckling of Beams
Computers and Structures 33, pp. 12891306, 1989
*266. On the Formulation of Variational Theorems Involving Volume Constraints
Computational Mechanics 5, pp. 337344, 1989 (with S. N. Atluri)
267. On a One-Dimensional Theory of Finite Bending and Stretching of Elastic Plates
Computers and Structures 35, pp. 417424, 1990
268. On Buckling of Crosswise Rigid Elastic Plates
Acta Mechanica 82, pp. 175184, 1990
269. A Note on the Boundary Layer in the Sixth-Order Theory of Transverse Bending of Anisotropic Sheardeformable Elastic Plates
Communications in Appl. Num. Meth. 6, pp. 519524, 1990
*270. On Asymptotic Expansions for the Sixth-Order Linear Theory Problemof Transverse Bending of Orthotropic Elastic Plates
Computer Methods in Appl. Mechs. & Eng. 85, pp. 7588, 1991
271. A Mixed Variational Equation for a Twelfth-Order Theory of Bending of Nonhomogeneous Transversely Isotropic Plates
Computational Mechanics 7, pp. 255260, 1991
272. Approximate Determinations of the Center of Shear by Use of the St. Venant Solution for the Flexure Problemof Plates of Variable Thickness
Arch. Appl. Mech. 61, pp. 555566, 1991
273. Some Ramifications of the Center of Shear Problem
Z.f. ang. Math. & Mech. 72, pp. 315319, 1992