Chapter-6

Tissues
Part 2
Animal Tissues
You already know that tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and
a complete organism. Hence, a tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical,
but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then
formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.
Multicellular (large) organisms function more efficiently if cells become specialized for
specific functions.
There are four types of tissues found in animals: epithelial, connective, nerve, and
muscle tissue.
Sponges do not have tissues.

Epithelial Tissue:
Epithelial tissue covers the whole surface of the body. It is made up of cells that are closely packed and are
composed of one or more layers. This tissue is specialised to form the covering or lining of all internal and
external body surfaces. Epithelial tissue that occurs on surfaces on the interior of the body is known as
endothelium.
Properties:
• Epithelial cells are packed tightly together, with almost no intercellular spaces and only a small amount
of intercellular substance.
• Epithelial tissue, regardless of the type, is usually separated from the underlying tissue by a thin sheet
of extracellular and fibrous basement membrane. The basement membrane provides structural
support for the epithelium and also binds it to neighbouring structures.
Functions of Epithelial Tissue
• Protection: Epithelial cells from the skin protect underlying tissue from mechanical injury, harmful
chemicals, invading bacteria and from excessive loss of water.
• Secretion: In glands, epithelial tissue is specialised to secrete specific chemical substances such as
enzymes, hormones and lubricating fluids.
• Absorption: Certain epithelial cells lining the small intestine absorb nutrients from the digestion of food.
• Excretion: Epithelial tissues in the kidney excrete waste products from the body and reabsorb needed
materials from the urine. Sweat is also excreted from the body by epithelial cells in the sweat glands.
• Diffusion: Simple epithelium promotes the diffusion of gases, liquids and nutrients. Because they form
such a thin lining, they are ideal for the diffusion of gases (eg. walls of capillaries and lungs).
• Cleaning: Ciliated epithelium assists in removing dust particles and foreign bodies which have entered
the air passages.
• Reduces Friction: The smooth, tightly-interlocking, epithelial cells that line the entire circulatory system
reduce friction between the blood and the walls of the blood vessels.
Connective Tissue
It is an animal tissue that is characterized by the abundance of extracellular components (such as fibers and
intercellular substances). The tissue derives its name from its function in connecting, supporting, surrounding or
binding cells and tissues.
Connective tissue is composed of:
• cells
• extracellular matrix
Extracellular matrix is a special feature that distinguishes connective tissue from the other tissues of the body.
This matrix may be jelly-like, fluid, dense or rigid. The nature of matrix differs according to the function of that
particular connective tissue.
Type of
connective Matrix Type of cells Location and function
tissue
Blood Fluid Matrix called Plasma contains Location: Present all over the body in blood vessels.
(liquid Plasma RBC, WBC and Function: Transportation of gases, digested food,
connective Platelets hormones and waste materials to different parts of
tissue) the body.
Lymph Fluid Matrix Cells called Location: Present in lymph vessels, unidirectional
(liquid (white to pale lymphocytes flow
connective yellow) Function: immune system of the body, collects
tissue) extracellular fluid.
Bone Hard matrix Cells called Location: Forms endoskeleton of body,
composed of osteocytes Function: forms a framework that supports the body,
calcium and embedded in anchors the muscles and supports the main organs
phosphorous matrix , have
compounds slender
projections
Cartilage Flexible matrix Chondrocytes Location: ear, tip of nose, trachea, larynx,
due to the endoskeleton of fish like shark
presence of Function: smoothens the bone surfaces at joints,
proteins and forms the endoskeleton in some animals.
sugars
Tendons fibrous __ Location & Function: connects muscles to bones, not
very flexible, very strong

Ligaments fibrous __ Location & Function: connects bones to bones,

flexible and elastic, contain very little matrix, limited
strength
Areolar Tissue Fluid (semi-solid) Fibroblasts, Location & Function: Packing tissue, have collagen
plasma cells, fibres that give firmness to skin, fills space inside
macrophages, organs, supports internal organs, helps in repair of
mast cells etc. tissues
Adipose Fluid (semi-solid) Adipocytes Location: Present below skin and between the
Tissue (cells filled with internal organs
fat globules) Function: Insulation and protection

Muscular Tissue
Muscles of the body are made up of elongated muscle cells also known as muscle fibre.
The movement of the body is brought about by the contraction and relaxation of
contractile protein present in muscle cells. These contractile proteins are actin and
myosin.
There are three types of muscle fibres
• Striated Muscles: also known as Skeletal muscle or "voluntary muscle"( since
their contraction is under the control of the will), it is anchored by tendons to bone
and is used to effect skeletal movement such as locomotion and in maintaining
posture. Striated muscle cells are long, cylindrical, unbranched and multinucleate.
These muscle fibres are found in the muscles of the limbs, body wall, face, neck
etc. The function of these muscles is to provide locomotion and all other voluntary
movements to the body.
 • Smooth muscle or "involuntary muscle" is found within the walls of organs and
structures such as the oesophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, urethra,
bladder, blood vessels, and the arrector pili in the skin (in which it controls
erection of body hair). Unlike skeletal muscle, smooth muscle is not under
conscious control. Each muscle fibre is a long, narrow, spindle shaped tapering
cell. The cell is uninucleate. These muscles are found in the walls of the alimentary
canal, and internal organs. In the alimentary canal they cause movement of the
food and in the blood vessels they help the blood to flow.
• Cardiac muscle is also an "involuntary muscle" but is more akin in structure to
skeletal muscle, and is found only in the heart. They show characteristics of both
striated and unstriated muscles. They are composed of non-tapering cells with
faint cross-striations. Each cell contains one or two nuclei. The cells are cylindrical
and branched. The function of the cardiac muscle is to rhythmically contract and
relax throughout life without fatigue and to pump the blood and distribute it to the
various parts of the body.

Nervous Tissue
All living cells have the ability to react to stimuli. Nervous tissue is specialised to
react to stimuli and to conduct impulses to various organs in the body which bring
about a response to the stimulus. Nerve tissue (as in the brain, spinal cord and
peripheral nerves that branch throughout the body) are all made up of specialised nerve
cells called neurons.

Neurons have many different shapes and sizes. However, a typical neuron
in a human consists of four major regions: a cell body, dendrites, an axon,
and synaptic terminals. Like all cells, the entire neuron is surrounded by a
cell membrane. The cell body is the enlarged portion of a neuron that most
closely resembles other cells. It contains the nucleus and other
organelles (for example, the mitochondria and endoplasmic
reticulum). The dendrites and axon are thin cytoplasmic extensions of
the neuron. The dendrites, which branch out in treelike fashion from the
cell body, are specialized to receive signals and transmit them toward the
cell body. The single long axon carries signals away from the cell body.
In humans, a single axon may be as long as 1 meter (about 3 feet). Some
neurons that have cell bodies in the spinal cord have axons that extend all
the way down to the toes.

Axons generally divide and redivide near their ends and each branch gives rise to a
specialized ending called a synaptic knob (synaptic terminal). It is the synaptic terminals
of a neuron that form connections either with the dendrites or cell body of another
neuron or with effector cells in muscles or glands. Once an electrical signal has arrived at
the end of an axon, the synaptic terminals release a chemical messenger called a
neurotransmitter, which relays the signal across the synapse to the next neuron or to the
effector cell.
Many nerve fibres bind together by connective tissue make up a nerve.
Muscles do not move on their own. They move only when they receive a nerve impulse.
When we decide to move, the brain sends a message to the muscles that must contract.
This message is in the form of an electrical impulse that travels along a nerve. Nerves
are bit like electrical wires. They run from the brain, along the spinal cord in the back,
and spread out all over the body. When a nerve impulse from the brain gets to a muscle,
chemicals are released that cause the muscle fibres to contract.