MAGNETISM

The origin of magnetic field is moving charge or current element. The magnets found in nature have irregular shapes and possess feeble magnetism. By using basic idea that magnetism may be caused by current elements, now-a-days powerful electromagnets of iron, cobalt, nickel are manufactured in any desired form. The magnet in the form of a rod having small cross-sectional area is called a bar magnet. A few properties of magnet are: (i) A magnet attracts iron. For ease of calculations a magnet is supposed to have north-south poles at its ends. (ii) A freely suspended magnet stays in north-south direction. (iii) Like poles repel and unlike poles attract. (iv) An isolated magnetic pole does not exist. (v) An iron bar placed near a powerful magnet is magnetised in opposite sense and the iron bar begins to behave as a magnet. The induction of magnetism in iron bar due to more presence of powerful magnet is called magnetic induction.

Current loop as a magnetic dipole

The magnetic moment of a bar magnet is where is pole strength and 2l is length of magnet. Its

direction is from A current carrying solenoid when suspended freely stays in north-south direction and attracts bits of iron. This shows that a current loop behaves as a magnetic dipole. The dipole moment of current loop is where N = number of turns in loop, A = area of loop, I = current in the loop.

Magnetic Dipole Moment of a Revolving Electron

A revolving electron is equivalent to a current loop; the equivalent current being

where T = time period If r = radius of loop and v the speed of electron, then

Angular momentum of revolving electron,

where mass of electron. Dividing (4) by (5), we get

Magnetic Field Intensity due to a Magnetic Dipole

Magnetic field intensity at a general point having polar coordinates to a short magnet is given by due

Special Cases : (i) At axial point

(ii) At equatorial point

Torque on a Magnetic Dipole in a Uniform Magnetic Field

Consider a short magnetic dipole (or bar magnet) of length 2l placed in a uniform a magnetic field of strength that its magnetic dipole moment direction of are The magnetic dipole moment Its direction is from S pole to N-pole. Force : The force on N-pole is in such a way with the

makes an angle

The pole strength of magnetic south and north poles respectively.

The force on S-pole is

Obviously, the forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, hence net force on magnetic dipole in uniform magnetic field is

Torque : The lines of action of both forces are different, therefore, these two forces form a couple (or torque) which tends to rotate the magnet along the direction of magnetic field strength. This couple is called the restoring couple (or torque) and is denoted by

= magnitude of one force perpendicular distance between the lines of action of forces

Clearly, the magnitude of torque depends on orientation Torque

of magnet with respect to magnetic field.

is a vector quantity whose direction is perpendicular to both

Thus, if a magnetic dipole (or a bar magnet) is placed in a uniform magnetic field in oblique orientation, it experiences no force but experiences a torque. This torque tends to align the dipole moment along the direction of magnetic field. Remark : If the magnetic dipole is placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, it experiences a force and torque both.

Bar Magnet as an Equivalent Solenoid

When a current carrying solenoid is suspended freely, it stays along north-south direction. Similarly when two current carrying solenoids are brought closer, they either attract or repel. These experiments show that a current carrying solenoid behaves like a bar magnet and possesses north and south poles. The polarity of ends, of current carrying solenoid depends on the direction of current flowing and is given by clock-rule. When an end of solenoid is seen from the front side and if the current flowing appears anticlockwise, then this end will be north pole (N-pole) and the other end will be south pole (Spole); but if the current is clockwise, then this end will be south pole (S-pole) and the other end will be north pole (N-pole). When the north (or south) ends of two solenoids face each other, they experience repulsive force; but if the north pole of one solenoid faces the south pole of the other solenoid, then they experience attractive force. To confirm the analogy of a solenoid and a bar magnet, we proceed analytically. For this we calculate the axial magnetic field due to a current carrying solenoid at large distance and compare it with the magnetic field at the same distance due to a bar magnet. Consider a solenoid of length 2l, radius a and carrying a current I and having n turns per unit length. Consider a point P at a distance r from the centre O of solenoid. Consider an element of solenoid of length dx at a distance x from its centre. This element is a circular current loop having (ndx) turns. The magnetic field at axial point P due to this current loop is

The total magnetic field due to entire solenoid is

The magnetic moment of solenoid m (= NIA)

This magnetic field is exactly the same as that of a bar magnet of magnetic moment m at far off axial point. Thus, the bar magnet and current carrying solenoid produce similar magnetic field. Thus, we see that the magnetic behaviour of current carrying solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet.

Magnetic Field Lines

A magnetic field line is a curve such that the tangent to it at any point gives the direction of magnetic field at that point. Every magnetic field is mapped by the magnetic field lines. The magnetic field lines are always in the form of closed curves. The magnetic field lines appear to emerge from north pole and enter the south pole, continuously running from south to north pole within the magnet. The magnetic field lines due to a bar magnet and a current carrying solenoid are shown in fig. (a) and (b). It is clear that the magnetic field lines of a bar magnet and a solenoid are similar. Two magnetic field lines never intersect; because if they do so, there will be two directions of magnetic field at the point of intersection which is impossible.

Earths Magnetism
Earth behaves as a magnet. Its magnetism is assumed due to interaction of charged particles of earths atmosphere and rotation of earth about its axis. The earths magnetic field may be approximated by a magnetic dipole lying at the centre of earth such that the magnetic north pole near geographical north pole is near geographical south pole and its magnetic south pole is

This magnetic dipole is aligned slightly with earths rotation axis. The

magnitude of earth's magnetic field at earths surface is about

Elements of Earths Magnetic Field

Earths magnetic field may be specified completely by three quantities called the elements of earths magnetic field. These quantities are (i) Angle of declination magnetic meridian planes. (ii) Angle of dip : It is the angle between geographical and with

: It is the angle made by resultant magnetic field

the horizontal. The angle of dip is poles.

at magnetic equator and 90 at magnetic

(iii) Horizontal component of earths magnetic field

Important Terms in Magnetism

(i) Magnetic permeability it. It is the ability of a material to allow magnetic lines of force to pass through

The relative magnetic permeability where is magnetic field strength in vacuum. It is defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume of a

(ii) Intensity of Magnetisation magnetised material

(iii) Magnetising field : It is the magnetic field used for magnetisation of a material. If I is current in solenoid, then magnetising field H = nI where n = number of turns per metre. Its unit is ampere metre. (iv) Magnetic susceptibility : It is defined as the intensity of magnetisation per unit magnetising field, i.e., It has no unit.

Dia, Para and Ferormagnetic Substances

Magnetic materials may be classified into three categories : (i) Diamagnetic substances: These are the substances in which feeble magnetism is produced in a direction opposite to the applied magnetic field. These substances have small negative values of magnetism and susceptibility and positive low value of relative permeability

The examples of diamagnetic substances are Bismuth, antimony, copper, lead, water, nitrogen (at STP) and sodium chloride.

(ii) Paramagnetic substances : These are the substances in which feeble magnetism is induced in the same direction as the applied magnetic field. These substances have small positive values of M and and relative permeability greater than 1, i.e.,

is a small positive number. The examples of paramagnetic substances are platinum, aluminium, calcium, manganese, oxygen (at S.T.P.) and copper chloride. (iii) Ferromagnetic substances : These are the substances in which a strong magnetism is produced in the same direction as the applied magnetic field. These substances are characterised by large positive values of M and much greater than 1, i.e.,

Curie Law
It states that the magnetic susceptibility of paramagnetic substances is inversely proportional to absolute temperature, i.e.,

Curie temperature
When temperature is increased continuously, the magnetic susceptibility of ferromagnetic substances decreases and at a stage the substance changes to paramagnetic. The temperature of transition at which a ferromagnetic substance changes to paramagnetic is called Curie temperature. It is denoted by different for different materials. In paramagnetic phase the susceptibility is given by It is

Diamagnetism is universal properties of all substances but it is weak in para and ferromagnetic substances and hence difficult to detect.

Electromagnets and Permanent Magnets

Electromagnets are made of soft iron which is characterised by high retentivity and low coercivity. Permanent magnets are made of steel which is characterised by high retentivity and high coercivity.