Chapter 1 ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY: Foundations of Management

Learning Objectives
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. Identify the five types of managerial skills. Describe the major characteristics of the ideal bureaucracy. List the major schools of management thought. Write a short essay describing scientific management. Compare functional management and scientific management. Discuss the implications of the Hawthorne studies. List the five basic considerations when viewing management as a system. Define systems. Contrast POSDCORB and functional management. Identify the major properties of the contingency management model. List the key elements of community policing. Describe the role of the beat officer under community policing. Compare the ideal bureaucracy with community policing.

Since the creation of law enforcement agencies in this nation police administrators have selected varying approaches to managing and organizing police departments. The primary mechanisms of social control in contemporary society have come under increased scrutiny in the past decades and evidence of stress is noticeable in the management of law enforcement agencies. The police system is governments primary instrument of social control; therefore, the police who are highly visible have been the recipients of a veritable plethora of criticisms. The manifestations of deviant and disruptive behavior have called forth age-old repression v. anarchy discussions that are divorced from reason in their rhetoric and burdened with self-serving perceptions of reality and justice. While there is currently a downtrend in crime rates there is still a great deal of faultfinding directed toward the police. Hardly a day can go by without the police being subjected to tirades of those who have

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traditionally opposed the police as a social control entity. This is especially true for those who have a political agenda. The basic police responsibilities have traditionally required a face-to-face confrontation with complex social and behavioral issues as they have been forced to deal with the ills of society. The importance of a well-informed and systematic management of police agencies has never been more important. This is especially true as changes in our society occur at an increasingly rapid pace. Currently many police agencies are undergoing expeditious change in order to meet the need of society. Police organizations are becoming increasingly sensitive and responsive to the changes occurring in society. The problems of organizational communication and coordination in a changing environment and assimilation of technological advancements demands a unique arrangement of manpower and functions if police agencies are to continue to provide adequate public service. Integrated insight into behavioral sciences, organizational theory, and the dynamics of change can provide the theoretical framework for an action oriented management style that will meet the policing needs of a democratic society. If change and complex issues are to be dealt with properly, law enforcement management should reflect (methodically) innovative yet enlightened approaches. Models of law enforcement management must attempt a bridge between conceptual and street reality to move toward planned, sequential, and integrated strategies of goal-realization. To accomplish this, administrators must be well-trained in organizational theory the change process, management skills, and have an in-depth understanding of specific police activities. Managers need skills, a philosophical framework, functional knowledge, and a change-agent perspective. In addition, the law enforcement manager must give special attention to developing an awareness of organizational behavior with specific consideration of the cause and consequences of internal and external change-agents. Police executives are increasingly concerned with improving their own effectiveness. Managerial skills are essential to the fulfillment of this aspiration, accomplished only by: 1 An awareness of current management theories and their relationship to classical and neoclasscal management techniques. 1 An acknowledgment of the importance of the processes of management, consideration of conceptual aspects of organization with a commitment to administrative models. 1 Acquiring knowledge of the tactical and strategical considerations of resource utilization. 1 The application of management audit concepts to law enforcement agencies, and an awareness of the change process. The theoretical aspects of management provide a necessary frame of reference for an adequate understanding of the evolution of police management. Management theory is still in a transitional state, as noted by recent developments such as decision theory, operations research, systems management, and contingency management. Schol-

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ars have attempted to classify concepts into a varying number of categories. With these workable categories in mind, various authors and practitioners have made significant contributions in recent years, and in part, social scientists have led the way in the development of management theory. Developments in business management have had a great deal of influence on police management. The contemporary police manager should become familiar with the theorists who have had an impact on police administration. The early police writers were strongly influenced by these theorists. A thorough understanding of their contribution to management theory provides a theoretical framework for the study and analysis of management. In fact, each major development in behavioral sciences has soon found its way into the police literature. The major schools of management thought include the ideal bureaucracy, scientific management, functional management, human relations, systems, contingency, POSDCORB, and community policing (see figure 11). In many instances the schools are not mutually exclusive, but allow for the treatment of managements divergent points of view and belief systems. Figure 11 Management Theory Continuum
Ideal Bureaucracy Scientific Management Functional Management POSDCORB Human Relations Systems Contingency Community Policing

Ideal Bureaucracy
Max Weber is regarded as the founder of the systematic analysis of bureaucracy. His works on the subject have led to numerous studies that presented an in-depth analysis of this concept. Many authors who apply their skills to police administration have been negligent by not reviewing Webers vital contribution. The core of his bureaucratic theory (best illustrated by the concepts of administrative regulations, rational legal authority, and the criteria for individual office holders) has dominated the management of many of our police departments. Weber identified the characteristics of bureaucracy to include three essential attributes. First, the routine activities were distributed in the organization in a fixed way and were identified as official duties. Second, commensurate authority essential for the accomplishment of duties was to be distributed to officials. Lastly, provision was made for the regular and continuous fulfillment of these duties.1 In his study of
1. H.H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, from Max Weber: essays in Sociology, New York, Oxford University Press, p. 196.

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organizations, Weber found that the principal hierarchical authority was evident in governmental, ecclesiastical and private enterprises. He also pointed out that authority was vested in the office (not the individual).2 Accordingly a bureaucracy needed a staff who prepared and maintained official records. Today these functions are performed by accountants, administrative assistants and staff experts. 3 Weber viewed training as an essential prerequisite to effective performance both in public as well as private structures. He felt that management was a full-time job and his postulation of this characteristic was in response to the practice of considering management as a secondary activity.4 He expressed the position that the reduction of office management to rules was deeply inherent in its nature. It presupposed the need for regulating matters abstractly. He viewed this process as being in sharp contrast to the bestowing of individual favors and privileges under patrimonialism. Unfortunately for many years police managers were political appointees and came and went with changes in political machines. Without question the political process and interference is still evident in a number of departments.5 The ideal type of bureaucracy, defined by Weber, had legal norms established by agreement based upon the rational values of the typical person occupying an office and the application of norms to a specific case. The bureaucracy followed legal precepts and principles within this context. Weber identified the following fundamental categories of rational legal authority: 1 A continuous organization of official functions circumscribed by rules. 1 A explicit sphere of competence. 1 The principle of hierarchy. 1 Rules may be technical or norms. 1 Administrative duties are separate from personal responsibilities. 1 A complete absence of appropriation for the incumbent of a managerial position. 1 Administrative acts, decisions, and rules formulated and recorded in writing. 1 Legal authority can be exercised in a wide variety of different forms.6
2. 3. 4. Ibid., 197. Ibid., p. 198. Ibid. 6. Max Weber, The Theory of Social and Economic Organization, translated by A. M. Hendeson and Talcott Parsons. Edited by Talcott Parsons. Copyright a 1947, copyright renewed 1975 by Talcott Parsons, Reprinted with permission of The Free Press,a Division of Simon & Schuster, Inc. 1947, pp. 1921.

5. Office of Justice Programs, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society: Looking Back Looking Forward, Washington, DC, 1997, pp. 1180.

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Weber emphasized that a rational, legal administrative staff could function in all kinds of situations and contexts. A staff exercising its legal authority was viewed as the most important mechanism in the administration of everyday affairs. In addition, he believed that the administrative staff should consist of appointed officials.7 In general, Max Weber was of the opinion that the ideal bureaucracy was technically capable of attaining the highest degree of efficiency. Such a monocratic type of bureaucracy was viewed as the most rational means of accomplishing imperative control of human beings. The superiority of bureaucratic administration was the result of the dominant role of technical knowledge. This is the feature that makes bureaucracy rational, and is the key characteristic of the ideal bureaucracy. Webers concepts of bureaucracy permeate the managerial style employed by many contemporary police managers. Most managers have risen from the ranks, consequently have spent most of their life in a bureaucratic organization.8 For the most part, few chiefs of police have had the benefit of modern executive development training, an innovative process that most certainly would introduce the police executive to behavioral and systems aspects of management. It is small wonder then, when one views the total police field, that the management of police agencies reflects Webers ideal bureaucracy. Police organizations hold sacred the concepts of rationality, hierarchy, specialization and positional authority, but this stranglehold is slowly loosening as an increasing number of police managers have become versed in behavioral aspects of management.

Scientific Management
In the study of management thought it is imperative that serious consideration be given to the works of Frederick Taylor. The father of scientific management, He was responsible for the unifying of the mechanisms of management and the creation of an underlying management philosophy that dominated American industry for many years.9 Scientific management has a philosophical foundation resulting in the combination of four fundamental principles of management: 1 The development of a true science. 1 Scientific selection of the worker. 1 Scientific education and development of workers. 1 Intimate friendly cooperation between management and personnel.10 Taylor identified task management or scientific management, as being in contradistinction to initiative and incentive management
7. Ibid., pp. 2122. 8. Tony L. Jones, Autocratic vs. PeopleMinded Supervisor, Law and Order, May 1998, Vol. 46, No. 5, pp. 32 36. 9. Frederick W. Taylor, Scientific Management, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1947, pp. 129130. 10. Ibid., p. 130.

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which was prevalent at the turn of the century. The latter management style emphasized such financial plans as piecework, premium-pay and the bonus-plan. Task management as perceived by its founder required two to five years before it could be successfully implemented into a working environment. Taylor concluded that the essence of scientific management involved a complete mental revolution by both management and the worker. The employees had to revitalize their attitudes toward work, their fellow workers and their employers. Conversely management had to change their attitude toward duties, workers, fellow managers, and all of their daily problems. Without this comprehensive mental revolution, scientific management does not exist.11 Taylors major works Principles of Scientific Management was published in the first part of the twentieth century. It immediately became the subject of controversy. Organized labor viewed it as a sweat shop technique and was instrumental in generating congressional concern. In Taylors testimony before a Special House Committee at the beginning of the last century he presented his views on scientific management, that are best summarized as constituting: 1 Science, not rule of thumb. 1 Harmony not discords. 1 Cooperation not individualism. 1 Maximum output in place of restricted output. 1 The development of each man to his greatest efficiency and prosperity.12 Scientific management has been condemned as a mechanisticoriented management philosophy, but its detractors have ignored its awareness of and support for workers.13 In contrast to Webers emphasis on the ideal bureaucracy and Taylors on specific management techniques, the functional approach took an entirely different tact and expressed its concern for management concepts. The most prominent contributor in this area was Henri Fayol. He published a comprehensive theory of management and opened the door to the development of the functional school of thought and breathed clarity into the muddled thinking on the nature of top management.14

Functional Management
Fayol initially published a monograph in French in the early part of the last century, but it was not published in the United States until the middle of the last century.15 In analyzing activities that he believed
11. Ibid., p. 27. 12. Ibid., p. 140. 13. Ibid., p. 145. 14. Claude S. George, Jr., The History of Management Thought, Englewood Cliff, NJ, Prentice Hall, Inc., 1968, p. 106. 15. Leonard J. Kazmier, Principles of Management, Third Edition, New York, McGrawHill, 1974, p. 8.

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imperative accomplishments in all organizations, Fayol identified the most important activity as management. He pointed out that management activity consisted of the following five components: 1 Planning. 1 Organizing. 1 Commanding. 1 Coordination. 1 Controlling.16 Complementary to the above indicated management activities was the principles of management that are set forth in the following figure. Figure 12 Principles of Management
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Work is divided into component parts allowing for specialization. Authority should be balanced with responsibility Discipline includes obedience, application, energy and respect. Unity of command provides that subordinates should receive orders from one superior. Unity of direction requires that each objective should have only one plan. Subordination of Individual Interest to general interest. Remuneration of personnel on an equitable basis. One central point should have control over all of the parts. Unbroken chain of managers from top to bottom. A well-chosen place for everything and everything in its place. Equity should dominate and tempered with justice and fairness. Plans should be well thought out before they are executed. The group should work as a team and every member should work to accomplish organizational goals (esprit de corps).

Source: Gerald H. Graham, Management: The Individual, The Organization, The Process, First Edition, by a 1975. Reprinted with permission of SouthWestern College Publishing, a division of International Thompson Publishing.

Fayols contribution to management thought was most significant. It presented several revolutionary aspects considered important to the development of management thought. Consideration was initially given to the concept that management, as a unique body of knowledge, was definitely germane to all forms of group activity consequently it demonstrated the universality of management. At the same time it proved to be a comprehensive theory of management surpassing prior theories. The impact of functional management on police departments is readily apparent when one analyzes current management practices in a number of departments. The application of principles is especially evident in the early writings on police management by Leonard F. Fuld and Elmer D. Graper.17 Formal
16. George, op. cit., p. 108. 17. See such writers as: Leonard F. Fuld, Police Administration, New York,

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structural relationships, as depicted by the organizational chart, were viewed as a prerequisite to the attainment of organizational goals. The police executive accomplished his management task by performing such functions as planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling. The primary emphasis of functional management was on things and techniques rather than the human element. The principles of management were viewed as inviolable. If a manager applied the standards, then success would surely be attained as indicated in the following figure.

Figure 13 Functional Management: The Emphasis on Things and Techniques

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Fayol concerned himself with top management in an organization; later writers emphasized the individualthus giving rise to the human relations movement. This is especially noteworthy because it reinforced an increasing interest in a concern for the individual. Up to now the primary interest was in the organization and the attainment of organizational goals.

POSDCORB
A refinement of the concept of functional management occurred when Luther Gulick released a paper as part of a larger work (Papers on the Science of Administration).18 In the paper he presented the
G.P. Putnams Sons, 1909; and Elmer D. Graper, American Police Administration, New York, The Macmillian Co., 1921. 18. Luther Gulick, Notes on the Theory of Organization, cited in Lu-

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acronym POSDCORB that is set forth in the following figure. Figure 14 POSDCORB
P O S D CO R B PLANNING sets forth what needs to be accomplished and methods of achieving identifiable goals. ORGANIZING is the process of developing an authority structure. STAFFING refers t all of the personnel functions ranging from recruiting to training. DIRECTING is the process of decision-making, creation of policies, and providing leadership. COORDINATING is the process of providing for interaction between units. REPORTING requires keeping everyone informed through inspection, records, and research. BUDGETING involves every aspect of fiscal control.

Because of its simplicity POSDCORB won immediate acceptance in business and public administration. This was soon followed by law enforcement that saw in it a concise rendition of the essential element of the managerial process. It promptly held a conspicuous place in police training programs as well as police literature. It was offered as a partial panacea for the reformation of police administration and held a noticeable place in consulting reports recommending the reorganization of police departments.

Human Relations
Numerous individuals are identified with the human relations movement, but most management experts have selected Elton Mayo as the founder of this field. He was a consultant on the research project conducted at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric in the later part of the 1920s and the early 1930s. This was the initial use of a behavioral science approach to management problems.19 The Hawthorne Studies were inspired by experiments completed by company engineers who were attempting to determine the effects of differing levels of illumination on the performance of workers.20 Utilizing the scientific method of inquiry, both test and control groups were included in the research design. The test group was subjected to varying levels of lighting and it was found that production increased regardless of the level of illumination. At the same time the researchers
ther Gulick and L. Urwick, Editors, Papers on the Science of Administration, New York, Institute of Public Administration, Augustus M. Kelley, 1937, pp. 3241. Reprinted with permission of the publisher,1969. 19. Kazmier, op. cit., p. 11.

20. Henry L. Tossi and Stephen J. Carroll, Management: Contingencies, Structure, and Process, Chicago, St. Clair Press, 1976, p. 46.

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were amazed to find that production increased in the control group.21 The researchers were of the opinion that the important variable was not illumination, but the fact that the participants were enjoying human contact and attention. It seemed that the workers were responding in a way that the experimenters desiredenjoying being the center of attention.22 Thus, the term Hawthorne Effect has been used to describe such circumstances. Following this initial experimentation, a research team initiated the comprehensive Hawthorne Studies. This inquiry concentrated on employees who were members of the first relay assembly group. Work conditions were altered extensively to include changes in work breaks, length of workday, humidity and temperature. As each change was made, productivity was measured. The changes in the environment were instituted over a two-year period and extended to such variables as an incentive wage plan if the group production increased. The nature of supervision was such that it emphasized humanitarian aspects and undivided attention to employees. The hypotheses for the two-year study were drawn and accounted for an increase in productivity due to: (1) improved work methods, (2) reduction in fatigue with changes in rest periods and shorter hours, (3) reduction in monotony, (4) effect of wage incentives, and (5) effect of the method of supervision.23 The researchers rejected the hypotheses except for the two that related to wages and supervision, and these were subjected to further research.24 In the second phase of the study Elton Mayo and his associates tested the effects of wage incentives on a group of workers. Production increased by 13 percent. After a relatively short period of time the study was terminated because of the objections of other plant workers. The last hypothesis (concerned with supervision) was tested on a group of workers, but over an extended period of time, supervision was found to be an unimportant variable.25 The five hypotheses were rejected and the researchers concluded that employee behavior was a consequence of their reaction to a social system rather than any single factor. Mayo and his associates then interviewed workers over an extended period of time concluding: 1 Morale improves when an opportunity is provided for grievances. 1 Complaints cannot be considered as statements of fact. 1 Workers are influenced by factors external to the job. 1 Worker satisfaction is influenced by how a worker views his social status.26 The last major area of study was in the bank wiring observation room of the Hawthorne plant. This experiment lasted for 61/2 months
21. George, op. cit., p. 129. 22. Tossi and Carroll, op. cit., p. 47. 23. Ibid., p. 48. 24. George, op. cit., p. 129. 25. 26. Tossi and Carroll, op. cit. Ibid.

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11

and involved a number of men especially chosen for the study. The participants were assured that information obtained from the study would not jeopardize them. All of the men were in their twenties and only one had some college education. Group piecework was the system of pay for the participants and each worker was paid an hourly rate plus a bonus based upon production. Observers found that behavior differed from job descriptions. For example, workers assisted each otherwhen someone fell behind in his work, a faster worker exchanged jobs with the slower worker. Numerous types of gambling occurred such as craps, pool and cards and the men shared food at lunch breaks. The observers found that the employees controlled the rate of production, as a group, and that they were well aware of what was an acceptable level of production.27 The researchers concluded that behavior at work could not be understood without considering the informal organization of the group and the relation of the informal organization to the total social organization.28 The men had adopted a definite code of good behavior, revealed by what the men said and, in different degrees, by what they did. Even the worker who did not live up to the code knew what it was. The code suggested that one should not turn out too much work. If you do, you are a rate-buster. The code also said that one should not turn out too little work. If you do, you are a chiseler. Another key element was that one should not tell a supervisor anything that would react to the detriment of an associate. If you do, you are a squealer. Additionally, one should not attempt to maintain social distance or act officious. If you are an inspector, for example, you should not act like one.29 With the Hawthorne studies, the foundation was laid for a strong emphasis on human relations. While these studies and others have had critics, it must be acknowledged that the emphasis on the work group dominated management research for several decades. It became accepted that a work culture existed and that the needs of the individual had to be considered as well as the need for productivity.

Systems
In recent years many administrative theorists have strived to apply systems concepts to management. C. West Churchman points out that in order for one to view management as a system, it is best to follow five basic considerations: 1 The total system objective and, more specifically, the performance measures of the whole system. 1 The systems environment i.e. the fixed constraints. 1 The resources of the system.
27. Tossi, ibid., p. 102. er, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1939, p. 551. 29. Ibid., p. 522.

28. F.J. Roethlisberger and William J. Dickson, Management and the Work-

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1 The components of the system, their activities, goals and measures of performance. 1 The management of the system.30 This series of thinking steps provides for a logical analysis of ones reasoning and is actually a process for checking and rechecking ones reasoning. The term system is subject to numerous definitions ranging from simple to complex. At the elementary level, it suggests a consideration of the whole rather than parts.31 The dictionary definition states that a system is an orderly combination or arrangement of parts, into a whole, especially, such combination according to some rational principle. More technical definitions abound in the literature typically: 1 A system in general can be defined as an established arrangement of components, which leads to the attainment of particular objectives according to plan.32 1 System is a network of related procedures developed according to an integrated scheme for performing major activity.33 For the sake of simplicity a system may be defined as a set of objects, either fixed, or mobile, and all relationships that may exist between the objects. All systems are composed of sub-systems and are members of a higher system.34 Notwithstanding the variance in definitions it is readily apparent that the common elements of the systems can readily be identified as input, throughput, and output. A simplified police system is illustrated in figure 15 where input is what occurs as illustrated by a law violation or a public safety occurrence requiring an agency response. Throughput is the operations, which prescribes how the agency will respond and lastly the output reflects the satisfactory accomplishment of the task that can range from the resolution of a crime to solving a problem involving quality of life.
30. C. West Churchman, The Systems Approach, New York, Dell Publishing Co., a Division of Random House, Inc. Copyright a 1968, 1979, pp. 2930, by C. West Churchman. Used by permission of Delacorte Press, a division of Random House, Inc. 31. Kazmier, op. cit., p. 478. 32. Ibid. 33. R.F. Neuschel, Management by System, New York, McGrawHill, Inc., 1960, p. 10. 34. Kenneth Heathington and Gustaue Rath, The Systems Approach In Traffic Engineering, Traffic Engineering, June 1967, p. 71. For additional discussions see: Charles Zwick, Systems Analysis and Urban Planning, Santa Monica, Rand Corporation, 1967; David I. Cleland and William R. King, Management: A Systems Approach, New York, McGrawHill, 1972, and Van Cort Hare, Systems Analysis: A Diagnostic Approach, New York, Harcourt Brace and World, 1967. Brett F. Woods, Systems Management: An Overview, Law and Order, Vol. 28 No. 9, September 1980.

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Figure 15 Simplified Police System

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The systems approach directs its attention to inter-relationship and the hierarchy of sub-systems. It is a rational structure for complex problem solving and views both the micro and macro aspects of an organization. Systems analysis is a tool for the creation of a conceptual model and the following steps (see figure 16) should be followed: 1 Define the desired goals. 1 Develop alternative means for realizing the goals. 1 Develop resource requirements for each alternative. 1 Design a model for determining outputs of each alternative. 1 Establish measurements of effectiveness for evaluating alternatives.35 These steps provide a comprehensive process for viewing police organizations. It allows for an emphasis on the sub-systems and the inter-relationship of each unit. It is a theoretical framework for organizational analysis. Systems theory is still evolving, but as pointed out by Kast and Rosensweig, it provides a relief from the limitations of more mechanistic approaches and a rationale for rejecting principles based on relatively closed-system thinking.36
35. Ernst K. Nillsson, Systems Analysis Applied to Law Enforcement, Allocations of Resources in the Chicago Police Department, Washington, Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, March 1972, p. 6. 36. Fremont E. Kast and James E. Rosenzweig, General Systems Theory: Applications for Organization and Management, Academy of Management Journal, December 1972, p. 447.

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Figure 16 A Systems Concept Model

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The departure from closed systems analysis is relatively unique in police management. For many years police managers viewed the police enterprise as essentially a closed system. In terms of rationalizing professionalization, the executive limited interchange between the organization and the environment. This is not to suggest that the police were a totally closed system, but by limiting input and the acquisition of total system energy, the police system suffered a limited input from other sub-systems within criminal justice and from other elements of the larger society. Systems management presents itself as a challenge of the future and an acknowledgment of the inter-dependence of all systems in our environment. Systems management is not a panacea for the police administrator, but it is a frame of reference for viewing the complexity of police organizations.

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15

Contingency
An integrative framework for management theory evolved in the middle of the last century as a result of a number of studies in England and later in this country. During that era, the management field was sharply divided between supporters of one of the previously discussed management theories. The administrative advocates argued that the behaviorists were ivory tower theorists and ignored reality. Critics of the principles approach postulated that the individual and group dynamics were being ignored and there were many ways to manage successfully.37 Two experts fittingly summarized this new approach by pointing out that rather than searching for the one best way to do something, theorists have moved to examining organizational functions, the needs of employees, and the nature of confronting external pressures. This process became known as the contingency theory of organization.38 The contingency approach is, in actuality, a blend of different approaches. Fundamental to this method is the fact that there is no one best way for analyzing a job or organization, managing people in a variety of different kinds of organizations, or achieving change in an organization.39 The number and kind of managerial responses vary considerably and it is only after the situation has been comprehensively analyzed that a responding process can be implemented. A contingency model includes the following four major properties: 1 Environmental. 1 Individual. 1 Organizational. 1 Group.40 An awareness of the patterns of relationships between the above areas permits a manager to design an organization and/or a motivational program in such a way that it will be most effective in a given situation. The thrust of the contingency approach is such that the behavior of individuals and groups becomes a known quantity. Environmental properties are readily identified resulting in the development of managerial practices and organizational responses to specific situations (see figure 17).
37. Tossi and Carroll, op. cit. 39. Don Hellriegel and John W. Slocum, Jr., Organizational Behavior Contingency Views, St. Paul, West Publishing Co., 1976, p. 5. 40. Ibid., p. 7.

38. Jay W. Lorsch and Paul R. Lawrence, editors, Studies in Organizational Design, Homewood, Illinois, Irwin and Dorsey Press, 1970, p. 1.

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Figure 17 Major Properties of the Contingency Model

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Community
A prominent theory being invoked is community policing It is more than a programit is an operational philosophy permeating every facet of a police organization.41 It is more than a style of policing. It is a means of managing a police department based on underlying value statements. These statements provide a foundation on which the department can respond to the needs of the community.42 It is a process that has profoundly altered the idea of professional policing. In place of a finely honed military operation, or a top-heavy bureaucracy, the new ideal police agency works at the community level to affect crime and disorder, seeks cooperation with local citizens, and provides
41. Jerome H. Skolnick and David H. Bayley, Community Policing: Issues and Answers Around the World, Washington, D.C., National Institute of Justice, 1988, p. 16. 42. Jerald R. Vaughn, Community Oriented Policing You Can Make it Happen, Law and Order, June 1991, Vol. 39, No. 6, p. 35.

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substantial discretion to local officers who are responsible for identifying problems and solving them.43 In the Tucson Police Department operating under a geo-based patrol plan the average officer had at least 266 hours annually to problem solving as a benefit to the community through designed policing activities.44 Fundamental to community policing is the creation of the values of policing. Citizens are involved in the decision-making process as the value statements develop from joint discussions. At this stage the discussions revolve around the quality of neighborhood life with an emphasis on safety factors. Another key element of community policing is an emphasis on results. Problem solving permeates the process based on the techniques of problem identification, problem analysis and finally problem resolution. This element requires a rethinking of the departments approach to the crime problem and public safety (see figure 18). Figure 18 Key Elements of Community Policing
Problem Solving Orientation Value Statements Accountability Decentralization Power Sharing Beat Revision Empowerment of Beat Officers Empowerment of Citizens

Central to the transition from traditional policing models to the community policing model is the sharing of power. This requires the police to share power to the point that a real partnership is created. Active citizen participation is essential and police officers and citizens must work together to solve community problems.45 Quiescent public involvement inhibits the process, and every possible effort must be made to maximize citizen contribution. The rallying point is teamwork. The police and citizens must work together to attain specified goals.46 Accountability under community policing is dual in nature. Officers are accountable not only to the police department, but also to the public. They must keep abreast of neighborhood needs by being continuously involved in the identification of neighborhood concerns, desires,
43. Office of Justice Programs, op. cit. 148. 44. City of Tucson, Adopted Budget Operating Detail, Fiscal Year 1989 1999, Volume II, Tucson, AZ, Tucson Police Department, 19981999, p. 158. 45. Lee P. Brown, Community Policing: A Practical Guide For Police Officials, Washington, D.C., National Institute of Justice, 1989, pp. 57. 46. Lee P. Brown, Policing in the 90s: Trends, Issues and Concerns, The Police Chief, March 1989, Vol. LVIII, No. 3, p. 21.

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and priorities. Two-way communications, between the police and the community, coupled with the identification of problems will lead to eventual problem resolution. As understanding evolves, officers and members of the community begin to work as a real team to solve community problems. An additional element of community policing is the need for the police department to become more decentralized. It calls for a change in the traditional bureaucratic view of management with an emphasis on flattening the organization. Additionally, there is an encouragement of horizontal and vertical interaction and a definitive decentralization of authority. 47At some point knowledge, instead of rank, proves to be the catalyst for problem solving. Roles change as problems change as participation in the decision-making process grows.48 Organizational rigidity will become a thing of the past as the underlying elements of community policing are applied and permeate every corner of the organization. Another fundamental element of community policing is redesigning beat boundaries. Natural neighborhood boundaries become the guiding criteria, not boundaries meeting the arbitrary needs of the police department. Again it has to be pointed out that the public participates in the identification of neighborhood boundaries. Each identifiable neighborhood becomes a beat.49 The role of the beat officer is unique under the theory of community policing Officers shift their focus from the dual roles of patrolling the streets and report taking to a role requiring work with neighborhood citizens to solve community problems. The beat officer becomes a manager not just a responder to bureaucratic demands of the police department. Beat officers become involved in the decision-making process. Problem identification done jointly with members of the community leads to the development of programs to resolve problems. The beat officer becomes a real part of the community and works to improve the quality of life in the neighborhood. Permanently assigned to a beat, the officer becomes familiar with local citizens placing them in an excellent position to identify resources that can be used to resolve problems.50 Management theory is not an entity unto itself. It is dynamic in nature and the organization conditions and reconditions it, along with the members of the organization, the community it serves, and the political process. Community policing is a new approach to dealing with the crime problem and the wellness of the community. It is not completely defined, but it is being increasingly adopted by all sizes of police departments and in all parts of the United States. Over time it
47. Jihong Zhao, Why Organizations Change: A Study of CommunityOriented Policing, Washington, DC, Police Executive Research Forum, 1996, p. 7. 48. 49. Brown, op. cit. 1989, p. 5. Op. cit. 50. Timothy N. Oettmeir and Lee P. Brown, Developing a Neighborhood Oriented Policing Style, in Jack R. Greene and Stephen D. Mastrofski, Editors, Community Policing: Rhetoric or Reality, New York, Praeger, 1988, p. 129.

Ch. 1

FOR FURTHER READING

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will be refined to the point where the public will be better served, and the police will integrate the community into the department.

Case Study Chief Sandra C. Thompson

Chief Thompson has recently been appointed to head the Lima Police Department having received an appointment after a nationwide search and given a five-year contract. She has been in office less than a month and she is still in the process of conceptualizing the charge that she was given when she was appointed. The department has been very traditional in its approach to crime and emphasized response time and answering calls for service. The para-military model prevails and the organization is top heavy. Additionally, a number of sworn personnel perform clerical activities and only 52 percent of the officers are assigned to patrol activities. This is well below the national average wherein 63.7 percent of full-time sworn personnel are assigned to patrol and respond to calls for service. One of the charges that have been given to the new chief is to move toward the concept of community policing and to restructure the department. Another charge is to place more officers on the street. The city has a community relations division with five officers assigned to it and supervised by a deputy chief. This unit was created at a time when community relations was in vogue. Additionally, the chief had been charged with developing a fiveyear plan to meet these objectives. The community has a population of 242,000 and there are 266 sworn police officers and 63 civilians in the police department. The city is adjacent to a large metropolitan area on the West Coast. The community has four major shopping areas and extensive light industry. In the department 74.2 percent of the officers are White, 8.2 percent are African American, 14.3 percent are Hispanic, and 3.3 percent are Asian. The ethnicity of the department is similar to that of the community. Additionally 92.1 percent of the officers are male and the remainder female. The crime rate is similar to that in cities of the same relative size.

If you were Chief Thompson what would you do first to change from a bureaucratic organization to one that stresses community policing? Why? What would you do to restructure the department? In order to fulfill your mission what would you put into your five-year plan? Why?

For Further Reading

John Bizzack, Management for the 1990s: A Practitioners Road Map, Second Edition, Springfield, IL, Charles C. Thomas, 1995, pp. 133.

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FOUNDATIONS OF MANAGEMENT

Ch. 1

Presents a number of forecasts for the 21st century regarding their impact on law enforcement. The author believes that there is a possibility that law enforcement might be overwhelmed by sophisticated crimes and that investigator might not have the technical skills needed to cope with high-tech crime. He suggests that by 2005 economic depression will be identified as the major factor in the incident of traditional crime. He forecasts that by 2025 the majority of law enforcement executives will have a leadership style that has an proactive goal orientation. He suggests that the police will not be professionalized until the year 20050. Jean Johnson, Americans Views on Crime and Law Enforcement, National Institute of Justice Journal, Washington, DC, National Institute of Justice, September 1997, pp. 914. Discusses the publics concerns about crime and the fact that they seem to be somewhat independent of the actual crime rate. There are deeply held public fears developed over decades that may be slow to dissipate even in the best of circumstances. Reviews opinion research that strongly suggests that the public is concerned about protecting the rights of the accused and redressing wrongs done to victims and society. Reviews public opinion polls about confidence in the police. Office of Justice Programs, The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society: Looking Back and Looking Forward, Washington, DC, U.S. Department of Justice, 1997,pp. 1180. Thirty years ago the Presidents Commission released a report that heralded an era of attention to crime and criminal justice identifies accomplishment of the Commission administration to include an increased professionalism in various criminal justice occupations, improved collection of information and data on the justice system, and a better understanding of the justice system. Suggests that insufficient attention has been paid to prevention and too much emphasis on prison construction. Cicero Wilson, Economic Shifts That Will Impact Crime Control and Community Revitalization, What Can the Federal Government Do To Decrease Crime and Revitalize Communities? Washington, DC, Office of Justice Programs and Executive Office for Weed and Seed, 1998, pp. 1105. Reviews three general trends that will influence the American economic landscape in the 21st century and will have a special impact on crime rates and the success of efforts to revitalize distressed communities. The trends include increases in populations with higher than average risk of participating in crime, increases in the number of high-poverty communities, and the continued reliance on ineffective programs and policies to promote family self-efficiency and revitalize distressed communities.

Chapter 2 POLITICS AND MANAGEMENT: Dynamic Interaction

Learning Objectives
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Discuss why it is important to oppose federalization of the American police. Describe the impact of patronage on law enforcement. Write a short essay describing how federal law enforcement influences local departments. Compare the mayor-council and commission types of local government. Identify the elements of a city manager plan. List ten members of the community you would interview when assessing local corruption. Describe the importance of service organizations to the political process. Write a short essay describing business and trade groups that function as an interest group. List ten issues that can be included in a memorandum of understanding (MOU). Discuss the evolution of collective bargaining in the police field. Describe the relationship between the police and the media. List five minority groups who can influence a law enforcement agency. Compare left-winged and right-winged domestic militant groups. Describe the nature of politics in the justice system.

Police administration operates in a political environment. As one of the principal line agencies of government, it must be located at some point in the organizational structure of government (either at the federal, state or local level). The nature of the controls exercised over the police differs with the level of government. In a democratic society the question of control assumes considerable importance and can serve as a barometer of public attitude toward the police. Earlier efforts to divorce the police from politics isolated the police from the community and it can be readily suggested that this eventually resulted in a rift that lead to less effective enforcement of the laws and the failure to

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