Recent Trends in Automobile Engineering

Recent Trends in Automobile Engineering 2013
Abstract
Since the invention of the internal combustion engine, automotive engineers, speed junkies and racecar designers have been searching for ways to boost its power. One way to add power is to build a bigger engine. But bigger engines, which weigh more and cost more to build and maintain, are not always better. Another way to add power is to make a normal-sized engine more efficient. Adding either a turbocharger or a supercharger is a great way to achieve forced air induction. Both superchargers and turbochargers pressurize the air intake to above atmospheric pressure. The difference between the two devices is their source of energy. Turbocharger is an exhaust gas driven compressor used in internalcombustion engines to increase the power output of the engine by increasing the mass of oxygen entering the engine. A key advantage of turbochargers is that they offer a considerable increase in engine power with only a slight increase in weight. Unlike turbochargers, which use the exhaust gases created by combustion to power the compressor, superchargers draw their power directly from the crankshaft. Superchargers increase intake by compressing air above atmospheric pressure, without creating a vacuum. This forces more air into the engine, providing a "boost." With the additional air in the boost, more fuel can be added to the charge, and the power of the engine is increased. There are three types of superchargers: roots, centrifugal, twin-screw. The main difference among them is how they move air to the intake manifold of the engine. Roots and twin-screw superchargers use different types of meshing lobes, and a centrifugal supercharger uses an impeller, which draws air in. Although all of these designs provide a boost, they differ considerably in their efficiency and sizes. The biggest advantage of having a supercharger is the increased horsepower. In this paper, the latest trends in automobile are discussed. The object of this paper is to provide an intermediate solution to the problem of limited fossil fuels. Hydrogen, electric-fuel cell and bio-diesel offer a better longer-term solution from imported petroleum. So, the intermediate solution to the problem of limited fossil fuels is HYBRIDS. Hybrids just prolong the time period in which gas runs out. Now, coming to the latest trends in automobiles is Gasoline + Electric power. The hybrid-powered cars operate in the combination of both gasoline & electric power.

The main advantage of these hybrid vehicles is that they have a provision for shutting off the gasoline engine when the car is stopped. So, fuel is not wasted while idling. The hybrid drive runs on both the gas and the electric motors to produce continuously variable output, a process the inventor calls torque amplification. The parts of automobile that transmit power from the engine to the driving wheels make up the power train. But the latest trend in automobile is hybrid power train which gains respect and is discussed below. The rapid development of electronic systems in automotive vehicles has been driven for decades by constantly growing requirements of legislation for environmental protection, as well as rising demands of the end-user to improve fuel economy, safety, driving comfort and driving excitement. The manufacturers of mobile work machines also see themselves increasingly confronted with these requirements. Can Robert Bosch GmbH use the technical experiences from automobiles also in this area to efficiently develop high-quality electronic systems.
INTRODUCTION
The word automobile is made up of two words I,e.auto and mobile. Auto is self propelled and mobile is vechicles Now a and days meaning the Indian of these automobile two words in is world self-propelled is in second vehicle. rank.
market
First the technology gap are being briged not only between India and world but also the present and future. Almost every player is introducing new engines which are smaller but powerful,lighyer but efficient.
1.
AUTOMOBILES,
FUEL
AND
CO2
IN
LONGER
TERM
PERSPECTIVE
Energy used and travel for transport purpose in wealthy countries is dominated by automobiles.while fuel economy improvement and some slowing of the risein ownership and use of automobile has lower the growth fuel use , these vehicles are account roufly for 9% of total energy used in oecd countries. Their share in total energy use in developing countries is smaller, but rising rapidly (2). Since most all fuel is from oil products or natural gas, automobiles also account for a significant amount of global release of carbon dioxide, the main greenhouse gas associated

with climate change. Hence the automobile and its energy use is a central focus of energy and environmental authorities in almost every country.
This paper focuses on automobile fuel economy, defined as fuel use per traveled of automobiles and household light trucks. By paying some attention to car ownership and use, as well as new vehicle characteristics like weight, power, and fuel, policy makers gain of understanding of what is causing total fuel use to rise, and what components of that rise might be changing towards restraint of fuel use.
This work updates a series of papers by Schipper and co-workers. Schipper et al. (3,4) set out some of the difficulties facing development of data and subsequent analysis of the components of automobile fuel use, particularly in countries like the United States, where actual fuel use is not surveyed and vehicle usage only inferred from infrequent travel surveys. Two motivators for the use of hydrogen as an energy carrier today are: 1. To provide a transition strategy from hydrocarbon fuels to a carbonless society. 2. To enable renewable energy sources. The motivation requires a little discussion while the second one is self-evident.
The most common and cost effective way to produce hydrogen today is the reformation of hydrocarbon fuels specifically natural gas.
Power train is one that transmits power from the engine to the driving wheels. This power train forms one of the parts of an automobile. These are the clutch, transmission, drive shaft and differential. In most of the cars, power is delivered to the rear wheels (rear-wheel drive). Increasing number of car engines however, transmit power to the front wheels (front-wheel drive).
The popular hybrid vehicles, which have been introduced officially by Lexus, are RX 400h and RX 330.The hybrid functioning is nothing but based on gasoline and electric power. Commonly in automobiles gasoline engine is dominant. The battery power is supplementary in Honda vehicles then the electric

motors come into play. Whereas in Toyota vehicles, it is quite opposite with a gasoline engine providing additional power.
The present trends in automobiles are nothing but these are running with battery and electric system. Electric automobile is a motor vehicle powered by rechargeable batteries without the use of other fuel. The advantage of these hybrid vehicles is: in both systems, the battery is recharged while driving. At times, when the car is coasting. Neither gasoline nor electric power is needed, they need not be plugged into an electrical outlet for charging. 2. HOW AN AUTOMOBILE CREATES ENERGY? When fuel mixes with air in the engine of an automobile, a very powerful chemical reaction takes place. Gasoline combines with oxygen to produce new gases and a great deal of heat. The gases expand violently inside the combustion chamber of the engine and turn the motor to propel the car.
Much of the chemical energy in the automobile is lost in the form of heat energy tha t doesnt work to move the car. Instead, parts of the vehicle absorb the heat. The hot gases push the pistons up and down.
This vertical motion is then changed to a rotary motion and causes the wheels to move.
Pistons move
up and down the cylinders several thousands times a minute. Fuel must be continually burned and exhaust gases removed to keep a car running.
2.1 Gasoline Perhaps, the most widely used product refined from petroleum is gasoline. Gasoline is burned in an internal-combustion engine to provide energy to power automobiles, airplanes, and other machinery. In some English speaking countries, such as the United Kingdom, gasoline is referred to as petrol. Gasoline is a complex mixture containing hundreds of different hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are

compounds comprised of the chemical elements hydrogen and carbon. Most of the hydrocarbons in gasoline contain 4 to 12 carbon atoms per molecule, but they differ widely in structure. Gasoline is used as an automobile fuel because it easily evaporates to a gas, or vaporizes, even at ordinary temperatures. When it is burned, it releases a great deal of energy. This energy of combustion can be contained within a system to do work such as drive an engine.
One such additive designed to improve the combustion of gasoline is tetraethyl lead (TEL). Gasoline to which TEL has been added is called ethyl gasoline. An internal-combustion engine runs best on a fuel that burns smoothly without exploding, or knocking. The addition of TEL causes gasoline to burn with less knocking. It has been determined, however, that the lead of TEL in ethyl gasoline produces poisonous lead oxide exhaust. Because of increased awareness of the problem of air pollution, automobiles are now manufactured to accept lead free gasoline.
2.2 Power Train The parts of the automobile that transmit power from the engine to the driving wheels makeup the power train. These are the clutch, transmission, drive shaft, and differential. Due to the power delivered to the rear wheels, transmission of power to the front wheels, which improves the traction because the engines weight is centered over the wheels that power the automobile. It also eliminates the drive shaft and the hump in the automobiles floor to accommodate it. This, in turn, increases interior legroom. An alternative with similar advantages is the rear-engine, rear-wheel, drive automobile. Four-wheel drive automobiles have been better traction and are generally used to travel rough country or to drive through snow.
2.3 Hybrid power trains The latest trends in gasoline + electric power Figure 1.
Figure 1. Detroit city
DETROIT-Hybrid-powered cars which operate on a combination of gasoline and battery power. Detroit, is a city placed in Michigan situated in Canada which is also near to the United States Of America named after this city to the Hybrid powered car.
Background: Detroit has been a city of industrial excitement ever since Henry Ford rolled his first rickety contraption out of his shed and onto the streets of the city back in 1896. Detroit, the nation's seventh largest city, is a land of immense industrial power, and it owes almost all of it to the automobile. In a real sense they make Detroit "America's muscle.

2.4 Luxury Hybrids At Detroits auto show in early January 2004,Lexus officially introduced a hybrid sport-utility vehicle based on the popular RX 330 (Figure.2), RX 400h will have a second generation version of Toyotas Hybrid synergy Drive that generates upto 270HP. Lexus general manager Denny Clements calls RX 400h The Worlds First Luxury Hybrid Vehicle and promises a driving range of more than 600 miles on one tank of gasoline.
Figure.2 A Back-View of RX 330.
Toyota also will offer a Hybrid SUV, using its Highlander as a foundation. With output of 270 HP, The Highlander Hybrid can accelerate to 60mph in less than 8 seconds, while yielding better fuel economy than a compact sedan.

2.5 Hybrid Accord This fall, Honda will make a Hybrid power train available for its top selling Accord V-6 sedan. Innovative Variable Cylinder Management Technology is supposed to give it a better performance than a regular V6 sedan, combined with four-cylinder fuel economy. Even Mercedes Benz got into the act in
Detroit, with an S-class sedan dubbed the worlds first rear-wheel-drive hybrid concept vehicle.
2.5.1. How They Work? Two different systems are used in todays models. In Honda vehicles, the gasoline engine is dominant. Battery power is supplementary. Electric motors come into play, augmenting the output of the gas engine, when extra energy is needed for accelerating, passing or merging.
Toyotas system is essentially opposite, with the gasoline engine providing additional power. For that reason, a Prius can run for a while on battery power alone. When you stop on the accelerator pedal, the gasoline engine switches on and the two power sources work in unison.
2.5.2. Go and Charge: In both systems, the battery is recharged while driving, at times when the car is coasting and when neither gasoline nor electric power is needed (temporarily). Hybrid automobiles never need to be plugged into an electrical outlet for charging. If driven under more demanding conditions, with little or no coasting, the gasoline engine will keep operating as long as needed until the battery is suitably charged.
Without sophisticated computer control, hybrids could not function at all. The computer must constantly analyze operating conditions to determine which power sources need to be active, and to what extent. The driver needs no action. Hybrid systems work transparently. The only evidence of their presence is a tiny jolt when the gasoline engine turns itself on or off.

Hybrid vehicles also have a provision for shutting off the gasoline engine when the car is stopped, so fuel is not wasted while idling. In Honda's hybrids, the gasoline engine starts up again when you push on the accelerator pedal, or move the manual shift lever into first gear. Toyotas can start off from a stoplight or stop sign under battery power alone. The gasoline engine kicks on when its additional energy is needed. 2.5.3. Miles of Appeal: Frugal gas mileage is the main attraction. According to EPA estimates, the 2004 Prius can get up to 60 miles per gallon in city driving and 51 mpg on the highway. Honda's Civic Hybrid earns an EPA estimate of 48-mpg city/ 47 mpg highway with manual shift, or 46/51 mpg with a continuously variable (clutchless) transmission. Because gasoline prices are still near their lowest point ever, compared to the overall cost of living, fuel savings alone aren't enough to offset the price of a hybrid automobile. Shoppers are turning to hybrids because they produce fewer emissions, and because they don't like to drive wasteful vehicles. In short, many buy hybrids because "it's the right thing to do," rather than for strict economic reasons. 2.5.4. Why hybrids are for today: Hybrids are an intermediate solution to the problem of limited fossil fuels. Hydrogen, electric, fuel cell (right) and biodiesel offer a better longer-term solution from imported petroleum. Hybrids just prolong the date in which gas runs out. In effect, the more fuel efficient we become, the slower the rate of rising gas prices and ergo buys us time to develop alternative fuels. Well all be using gas until an alternative technology ends up costing us less.
Figure.3 Hybrid Car (RX400h)
2.5.5. Performance factor: If all else performance, safety, reliability, etc. were equal, not many people would buy a hybrid. But they are not. The Escape and Accord and the RX400h are expected to offer better performance, for less gas due to their high-torque electric motor.
Lets take the hybrid Honda for example, if you drive 15,000 miles a year and gas averages $2.50 a gallon, you could save $391 a year on fuel. Include the tax deduction, add additional interest for the extra $3,300 youll need to shell out, and in 5 years, you could still be $1,200 or more behind a norm al Accord. So ask yourself. Is the additional performance, and the earth-friendly glow of the digital dashboard worth the extra cash? You might decide yes, but certainly its not a bad thing to say no.
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Figure.4 Hybrid Car (RX400h Engine) 2.5.6. Hybrid successor? Or rival? The drive runs both gas and electric motors to produce continuously variable output, a process the inventor calls torque amplification. Many of the designs are similar to continuously variable transmissions (CVTs) used by such vehicles as the Toyota Prius, Ford Five Hundred/Mercury Montego (4WD), and the Nissan Murano. Because the drive uses electric motors, it resembles the Prius closely, though, according to Van Cor, the symbiotic drive would always be engaged unlike the Prius engine which switches to gasoline depending on driving conditions. 2.6. Electric Automobile
Figure5 Electric Car
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A motor vehicle powered by rechargeable batteries without the use of other fuel. The first electric automobiles were produced from the 1880s until the 1920s. Such cars had low speed and limited range but were quiet, with low maintenance costs. They were rendered unpopular by the advent of cars with powerful internal-combustion engines, which were also eventually cheaper to produce. Because of concern over petroleum scarcity and pollution, new experimental versions of electric cars emerged beginning in the 1960s. Their speed and range increased somewhat, but the cars showed no sign of catching on. In mid-1990, General Motors announced the creation of an electric car, Impact, which could reach a top speed of 75 miles (121 kilometers) per hour and could travel 120 miles (193 kilometers) on one charge, though it could not do both at the same time.
The inefficiency of the battery (one twentieth the fuel efficiency of gasoline-fueled cars) prohibits mass marketing, along with the cost of replacing the lead-acid battery. Several experimental, electrically powered automobiles were built in Europe during the 1880s. One of the first "electrics" in the United States was produced by William Morrison in 1891. About 54 United States manufacturers turned out almost 35,000 electric cars between 1896 and 1915--the period of their greatest popularity. The Columbia, the Baker, and the Riker were among the more famous makes.
The electric car ran smoothly and was simple to operate. However, it did not run efficiently at speeds of more than 20 miles per hour and could not travel more than 50 miles without having its batteries recharged.
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Figure.6 Electric Car (Phoenix)
At a solar and electric power exposition in Phoenix, Ariz., a man attends to an experimental electric car made by California Electric Cars.
3. RESULTS FOR ON ROAD FUEL ECONOMY Figure 1 shows on-road fuel economy for six countries: US, Japan, UK, France, Germany, and Italy, with Germany representing western Germany before 1995 and all Germany from 1991, leaving four overlapping years. Diesel and LPG are included at gasoline equivalents defined above. 4.NEW CAR FUEL ECONOMY New car fuel economy, as measured by tests and weighted by sales, is an important indicator of how onroad fuel economy will behave as the fleet is renewed. But a cautionary note is important. Ref. (5) and references therein have emphasized the enormous uncertainties in interpreting sales-weighted test values of vehicles. While such indicators are extremely important in determining the overall impact of
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technology and consumer choice, they are very difficult to translate into on-road values that can be matched derived from bottom up surveys or top-down analysis applied to the entire stock. Ref. (18) and other US EPA sources make some estimates of the approximate translation of CAF test values of each model year EPA sources make some estimates of the approximate translation of CAF test values of each model year into on-road that are remarkably realistic. For the 1996-2005 period, for example, (18) estimated on road MPG of the combined new car and light truck sales at 21.3+-0.2 MPG, remarkably close to the estimate that as not fluctuated very much. Were the real values for these cars that would be measured by surveys much different, the on road estimates would not have been so flat.
New vehicle sales-weighted fuel economy gasoline equivalents for each year shown, using each country/regions testing procedures, from each countrys official publications. With this in mind, Figure 2 shows US, Japan, and a number of European Country averages for new vehicle fuel economy. For the US, the EPA light truck average is counted with cars, using 80% of the light truck sales as indicative of how many should be averaged with cars sold to give a combined value. Japanese values are chained from the 15-mode (and earlier 10mode) tests reported by ( 21). European values are given as weighted averages provided by EU (22) and before then the European Automakers Association (ACEA) as tabulated by the European Council of Ministers of Transport (S. Perkins, ECMT/OECD, priv., comm. Figure 3 then shows these values indexed to their 1995 values, the year from which EU authorities tabulated figures to gauge the progress of their voluntary agreement on lower CO2 emissions/fuel economy. Indexing eliminates misleading comparisons of countries with different test procedures. As noted above diesel is counted at its energy equivalent, which gives somewhat different values for France, Italy . Long term trends in new car sales-weighted fuel economy indexed to 1995. Source: Official national sources, EU What is clear from either portrayal is that there have been three periodsthe 1970s and early 1980s which saw a dramatic decline in new vehicle fuel intensity in the US and (from 1975/6, when data are available), more modest but still substantial declines in Japan and EU. In the mid 1980s to mid 1990s, EU new vehicle fuel intensities were stagnant while those in Japan and the US rose as SUVs in the US and larger cars in Japan became increasingly more important. After 1995, values in Japan and EU headed
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down again presumably as voluntary agreements came under discussion, while the US average fluctuated. While the E values through 2005, approximately 165 gm/km of CO2 in absolute terms, fall short of a path to the ultimate goal (140 gm/km) the improvements are still in stark contrast to developments in the US, where, ironically, the relative changes in fuel prices from higher crude prices have been much larger because so little of the price is taxation. 5. IMPACT OF DIESELS AMBIGUOUS Shifting from gasoline to diesel should save fuel and reduce CO2 emissions as well, goes the Brussels. In theory diesels are much more efficient, as matched pair analysis in Schipper et al 2002 showed. But the same analysis questioned the ultimate role of shifting to diesel if the goal is less fuel use or carbon emissions than otherwise. The analysis of data in the 2002 study was reviewed briefly and the same important surprises still hold. Recall that when account is taken of the greater energy density of diesel and the greater CO2 released per unit of energy in diesel fuel, diesel fuel economy values have to be increased by 12% in energy terms or 18% in CO2 terms before they can be compared with gasoline. This step cuts the apparent advantage 6. THE RACE FOR WEIGHT, POWER, AND SPEED Throughout this report we have avoided using the term efficiency for the indicators we have presented. The reason is clear real fuel efficiency, if expressed as energy required to move a given mass a given distanceor the energy required to provide a given level of power to an engine, or to extract a given amount of power from a given volume has risen markedly in the US and Europe. In simple terms, these efficiency improvements have more or less countered increased weight and power (as well as extras) in overwhelmed them in one period in Japan, but only taken back part of the improvements in true efficiency in Europe.
New car engine power (diesel and gasoline averaged). shows new vehicle weight, Figure 5 power in the US and selected European countries over time (7,17). The European countries bracket the averages for years where all countries data are available. Swedes buy the largest cars, Italians the smallest in Europe. These figures have been creeping up in both the US and Europe. In Japan, however, an indicator of a possible trend break trend is the percentage of minicars in overall new car purchases, up from the teens in the 1980s, the 20s in the 1990s, and the 30s after
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2000 (21). This represents a break in trends, motivated as much by the lack of space for parking and narrow streets .
Fuel consumption to power ratio for new cars When we divide fuel economy by weight or by power, we obtain indicators of efficiency in the narrow sense (Figs 6 and 7). The first reveals a big drop in fuel use required to move a vehicle. Since power to weight ratios increases in the US and Europe, this means acceleration and top speed have both increased. That is, the lower fuel-use to weight ratio signals greater efficiency, not declining performance, power/weight is up in all countries. The lower fuel use to power ratio says the engine itself is more efficient, providing potentially more power for a given average fuel consumption. In short efficiency has fed power
7.DRIVING FORCES The foregoing suggests that short of a low-carbon fuel that can be produce at a level of 20 million barrels per day for IEA countries, serious oil saving or reduction in GHG emissions say bringing automobiles back to their 1990 levels of emissions or fuel use --- cannot occur without both reductions in vehicle use and an end to the upward spiral of weight and power. What could drive this change?
8.CHANGING THE TRENDS? Johansson and Schippers (8) findings suggest economic forces fuel prices are a important determinant fuel use for cars. In the US, at least, the reaction to higher prices has been small (26,20). Yet comparing both new vehicle fuel economy and changes in the stock among the US, EU and Japan since 2000 show that improvements in the later two but not in the first. This occurred even though the relative price changes in the US were larger since the price of crude and refining represents a much larger share to consumers than US were larger since the price of crude and refining represents a much larger share to consumers than Japan and Europe, where taxes are 2-3 times higher. From this comparison it is difficult not to conclude that the Voluntary agreements in both regions affected new vehicle fuel economy. The issue remains: what will change the car buying preferences of Americans? In 2005 and 2006 the share of SUVs in the total number of light duty vehicles sold fell slightly, but average weight, engine size
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and horsepower of the combined fleet still increased and the stalemate of technology and car remained. In the EU, by contrast, efficiency factors improved more than car power or weight (EU 2006 leading to a real improvement in both new vehicle and fleet, on-road fuel intensity. In Japan the arrest increased car power and size and technology together led to fuel economy improvements.
TRENDS IN AC DRIVE APPLICATIONS
AC drives were traditionally first applied in process industries, such as cement, plastic, textile,etc. With development of various vector control methods, AC drives started also to replace DC drives in industries requiring high precision of speed control and good dynamic performance, such as machine tools, robotics, metal rollin g, paper mill finishing lines, etc. These are all applications which must have adjustable speed, by Induction motors are predominantly used, although at power below 10 KW, PM motors have been preferred in servo applications. That application has had spectacular growth over the last 20 years. For example, over that period, one manufacturer has approximately halved the time period for sale of each subsequent However, because AC drive penetration into these applications is almost 100%, (adjustable speed drives are provided to all applications where the speed has to be regulated), the future growth in this application segment is expected to essentially.
Fuel cell drive for bus
* Inverter package * Improve engine efficiency * The modern gasoline engine is nearing its peak efficiency, only small gains can be made by enhanced combustion and variable camshaft timing. * The diesel cycle engine may once again take over as the engine of choice. * A small turbodiesel / electric hybrid with a CVT and regenerative braking provides the most benefit, 40% to 80% gain. Rolling resistance
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Changing to tall and thin tires for reduced rolling resistance can add another 2 to 4% gain. * Mounted to Carbonfiber and magnesium wheels for low weight, another 2% gain. * Reducing vehicle load * The passive use of electronics provide multiple benefits: o Flat body panels can be constructed of photovoltaic materials to recharge the batteries and provide electricity to load devices. o This can provide up to 5 to 10% gain. Electronics can also be used for: o Brakes o Steering o Temperature control (heat pump) Engine support (coolant circulation
Vehicle Selection Choose the appropriate vehicle for the task. One passenger in a large sedan for a short commute is inefficient. 5 passengers in a small sedan for a long commute is also inefficient. The smaller vehicle will work harder to maintain road speeds and traffic conditions. Case: 1997 Chevy Malibu with 5 occupants, Austin to Dallas, 16 mpg loaded, 30 mpg with driver only Case: 1999 Ford Crown Victoria with 5 occupants, Austin to Dallas, 17 mpg loaded, 19 mpg with driver only. Lastly What about the 100 mpg car? To obtain 100 mpg in a modern auto, we need the following improvements: Improve aerodynamics (wind resistance increases to the square of the speed) Reduce weight Improve engine efficiency Reduce rolling resistance Dramatically increase the use of vehicle electronics
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CONCLUSIONS
On-road fuel economy is improving in Japan and Europe, but hardly at all in the US, at least through 2006. Fuel economy (miles/gallon) is higher in Europe and to some extent Japan than in the U.S. In 2005, on-road fuel economy in the U.S. was slightly above 11 l/100 km (above 21mpg. Japans average was 10.5 km/100 km (22 mpg), while Germany, the U.K. and France were 8 (29), 7.7 (31) and 7.5 (32) respectively. This real world on-road figures include diesel and other fuels. For the US, the figure includes the portion of light trucks that are household vehicles, such as SUVs, all of which are far less significant in countries.
Research and development in automobile manufacturing are centered on substituting fossil fuels. Hydrogen electric fuel cells, with hybrid accord are the current trend. Hydrogen is an abundant and productive fuel with many potential uses. Transition to Hydrogen Economy is on its way barriers do exist, can be broken with education environmental impacts of hydrogen energy are low. These facts make hydrogen the energy of the future.
5. Reference: 1. www.scholar.google.com 2. www.images.google.com 3. www.atlavista.com 4. Comptons encyclopedia
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