1

INTRODUCTION
The hypercar design concept combines an ultralight, ultra-aerodynamic autobody with a hybrid-electric drive system. This combination would allow dramatic improvements in fuel efficiency and emissions. Computer models predict that near-term hypercars of the same size and performance of todays typical 4 ! passenger family cars would get three times better fuel economy . "n the long run, this factor could surpass five, even approaching ten. #missions, depending on the power plant, or $%&, would drop between one and three orders of magnitude, enough to 'ualify as an (e'uivalent) zero emission vehicles *#+#,-. "n all, hypercars fuel efficiency, low emissions, recyclability, and durability should ma.e them very friendly to the environment. /owever, environmental friendliness is currently not a feature that consumers particularly loo. for when purchasing a car. Consumers value affordability, safety, durability, performance, and convenience much more. "f a vehicle can not meet these consumer desires as well as be profitable for its manufacturer, it will not succeed in the mar.etplace. 0imply put, mar.et acceptance is paramount. $s a result, hypercars principally strive to be more attractive than conventional cars to consumers, on consumers own terms, and 1ust as profitable to ma.e.

HISTORY
0ince 1221, 3oc.y 4ountain "nstitute, a 1!-year-old, 45-person independent non profit resource policy centre, has applied to cars its e6perience from advanced electric end-use efficiency. "n many technical systems, buildings, motors, lights, computers, etc., big electrical savings can often be made cheaper than small savings by achieving multiple benefits from single e6penditures. The marginal cost of savings at first rises more and more steeply *(diminishing returns)-, but then often (tunnels through the cost barrier) and drops down again, yielding even larger savings at lower cost. 34" hypothesized that the same might be possible in cars. 7y 1225, this concept had been established and published and by 122! it refined into papers advised by

8 hundreds of informants9 and by 122:, e6panded into a ma1or proprietary study emphasizing manufacturing techni'ues for high volume and low cost. 4ost big changes in modern cars were driven either by government mandate, subsidy, or ta6ation motivated by e6ternalities, or by random fluctuations in oil price. /owever, the more fundamental shift to hypercars can instead be driven by customers desire for superior cars and manufacturers 'uest for competitive advantage. Customers will buy hypercars because theyre better cars, not because they save fuel; 1ust as people buy compact discs instead of vinyl records. 4anufacturers, too, will gain advantage from hypercars potentially lower product cycle time, tooling and e'uipment investment, assembly space and effort, and body parts count. 0ince these features offer decisive competitive advantage to early adopters, 34" chose in 1225 not to patent and auction its intellectual property, but rather, li.e the open- software development model, to put most of it prominently into the public domain and ma6imize competition in e6ploiting it. "n late 1225, the concept won the <issan %rize at "0$T$ *the main #uropean car-technology conference-9 in 1224, it was the sub1ect of an "0$T$ =edicated Conference, and began attracting considerable attention. 7y late 122!, 34" was providing compartmentalized and none6clusive support, strategic and technical, to about a dozen automa.ers and a dozen intending automa.ers from other sectors *such as car parts, electronics, aerospace, polymers, and start-ups, including a number of alliances and virtual companies-.

PRINCIPLES OF HYPERCAR DESIGN

$fter a centurys devoted effort by e6cellent engineers, only >1! 8?@ of a modern cars fuel energy reaches the wheels, and 2!@ of that moves the car, not the driver, so only 1@ of fuel energy moves the driver. This is not very gratifying. "ts biggest cause is that cars are conventionally made of steel;a splendid material if mass is either unimportant or advantageous, but heavy enough to re'uire for bris. acceleration an engine so big that it uses only 4@ of its power in the city, 1:@ on the highway. This mismatch halves an Atto engines efficiency. 3ather than emphasizing incremental improvements to the driveline, the hypercar designer starts with platform physics,

5 because each unit of saved road load can save in turn >! B units of fuel that need no longer be burned in order to deliver that energy to the wheels. Thus the compounding losses in the driveline, when turned around bac.wards, become compounding savings. "n typical flat-city driving *Cig. 8-, road loads split fairly evenly between air resistance, rolling resistance, and bra.ing. /ypercars could have lower curb mass, lower aerodynamic drag, D lower rolling resistance, and lower accessory loads than conventional production platforms. "n a near-term hypercar, irrecoverable losses to air and road drag plummet. Eheel power is otherwise lost only to bra.ing, which is reduced in proportion to gross mass and largely regenerated by the wheel motors *B?@ recovery wheel-to-wheel has been demonstrated at modest speeds-. The hybrid decouples engine from wheels, eliminating the part-load penalty of the AttoFmechanical drive train system, so the savings multiplier is no longer ! B@ but only >8 5.!@. <onetheless, even counting potentially worse conditions in high-speed driving *because aero drag rises as the cube of speed and theres less recoverable bra.ing than in the city-, the straightforward parameters illustrated yield average economy >41 .mFl.B

Ultralow Drag
/ypercars would combine very low drag coefficient CD with compact pac.aging for low frontal area A. 0everal concept cars and G4s productionized #,-1 have achieved on-road CD ?.12 *vs. todays production average >?.55 and best production sedan ?.8!!, or 3umplers ?.8H in 1281-. Eith a longer platforms lesser rearend discontinuity9 Cords 12H?s %robe concept cars got wind-tunnel CD ?.1!8 with passive and ?.15B with active rear-end treatment. 0ome noted aerodynamicists believe I?.1, perhaps >?.?H, could be achieved with passive boundary-layer control analogous to the dimples on a golf-ball. 7etween that idealized but perhaps ultimately feasible goal and the 122: reality of ?.12 lie many lin.ed opportunities for further improvement without low clearance or e6cessively pointy profile.5, B Thin-profile recumbent solar race cars illustrate how well side wind response can be controlled, as in the 0pirit of 7iel """s on-trac. CD of ?.1? at ?J yaw angle but 1ust over ?.?H at 8?J.

4 %roduction cars have A I8.5 *&0 av.- to 1.H m8 *4-seat /onda =K-9 wellpac.aged 4-seat concept cars, 1.B1 *G4 &ltralite- to 1.:4 *3enault ,esta ""-. Cor full comfort, we assume 1.2 for 4 ! or 8.? for : *5L5- occupants. 3olling resistance is reduced proportionally to both gross mass and coefficient of rolling resistance r0. 0teel drum test values of r0 are ?.??:8 for the best mass produced radial tires, ?.??4H for the lowest made by 122? *Goodyear-, and the low ?.??4s for the state of the art. An pavement, with toe-in but not wheel-bearing friction, we assume the #,-1s empirical ?.??:8 *4ichelin-, which might be further reduced without sacrificing safety or handling. 0uch tires are typically hard and relatively narrow, increasing pressure over the contact patch to help compensate for the cars light mass. The wheel motors, being precise and ultra strong digitally controlled servos, could also be designed to provide all-wheel antislip traction and antiloc. bra.ing superior to those now available.

Ultralight Mass
Todays production platforms have curb mass mc >1.4B t *34"s simulations add 15: .g for &0#%$ test mass-. 0ome 12H?s concept cars made of light metal achieved mc M:!? .g *Toyota !-seat $K, diesel :42 .g, 3enault 4-seat ,esta "" 4B!, %eugeot 4-seat #CA 8??? 442-. 7ut advanced composites can do better, with carbon-fibre composites ac.nowledged by Cord and G4 e6perts to be capable of up to a :B@ body in- white *7"E- mc reduction from the 8B5-.g steel norm withoutF5B8 .g with closures;to >2?F185 .g, vs. the !- seat &ltra Night 0teel $uto 7odys 8?!F .g or the ! :- seat Cord $luminium-"ntensive ,ehicles 14HF12H .g. 34" assumes near-term advanced-composite 4 !-seat 7"Es not of 2?F185 .g but >15?F1!?.5,4 "n contrast, the 4seat #soro /5?1s 7"E weighed only B8F1!? *using lighter-than-original bumper and door designs for comparability- far below the carbon G4 &ltralites 14?F121, even though B!@ of the #soros fiber was glass, far heavier than carbon fibre.8 Af carbon-andaramid 7"Es, ,i.ing 85s *1224- weighed 25 .g with closures, while #soro composites e6pert %eter OPgis 12H2 8-seat A4#O3A<s weighed only 34 .g without closures. Though these e6amples differ in spaciousness and safety, they confirm carbon fibres impressive potential for 7"E mass reduction. $ 11!-line-item mass budget benchmar.ed to empirical component values indicates that a 15?F1!?-.g 7"E corresponds to mc >!81

! .g. <ear-term values for a full-sized 5L5 sedan range upwards to >B?? .g but can be reduced at least to >:?? .g with further refinement. $dvanced composites are used in /ypercars they offer the greatest potential for mass reduction. 3educing a vehicleQs mass ma.es it peppier andFor more fuel-efficient to drive, nimbler to handle, and easier to stop. #6perts from various &.0. and #uropean car companies have estimated that advanced composite auto bodies could be up to :B percent lighter than todayQs steel versions. "n comparison, aluminium is estimated to be able to achieve a !!-percent mass reduction, and optimized steel around 8!-5? percent. 0o for mass reduction and fuel economy, advanced composites loo. especially promising. Their superior mechanical properties allow them largely to decouple size from mass enabling cars to be roomy, safe, and ultralight.

Hybri !El"#tri# Dri$"

/ypercars build on the foundation of recent ma1or progress in electric propulsion, offering its advantages without the disadvantages of big batteries. 7atteries deliverable specific energy is so low *>1@ that of gasoline- that, as %.=. van der Ooogh notes, (7attery cars are cars for carrying mainly batteries ,but not very far and not very fast, or else theyd have to carry even more batteries.) This nicely captures the mass compounding snowballing of weight that limits battery cars, good though theyre becoming, to niches rather than to the general-purpose family-vehicle role that dominates at least <orth $merican mar.ets. "t is unimportant to this discussion whether /ypercars use series or parallel hybrids. 7oth approaches, and others, may offer advantages in particular mar.et segments. #ither way, an onboard au6iliary power unit *$%&- converts fuel into electricity as needed9 the $%& can be an internal- or e6ternal-combustion engine, fuel cell, miniature gas turbine, or other device. The electricity drives special wheel motors *conceivably hub motors, but at least in early models probably mounted inboard to manage sprungFunsprung mass ratios-. The motors may be direct drive or use a single gear, though some designs might benefit from two gear ratios. $ load-levelling device *NN=- buffers the $%&, temporarily stores recovered bra.ing energy, and augments the $%&s power for hill climbing and acceleration. The NN= can be a high

: specific- power battery, ultracapacitor, superflywheel, or combination, typically rated at >5? !? pea. .E. /igh bra.ing-energy recovery efficiency and reducing the $%& map nearly to a point re'uire high .EF.g plus e6cellent design and controls.

Cuel cells are also used as $%& because theyQre very efficient, produce zero or near-zero emissions *depending on the type and origin of the fuel used-, could be e6tremely reliable and durable *since they have almost no moving parts-, and could offer a high degree of pac.aging fle6ibility. Currently, however, theyQre very e6pensive because theyQre not produced in volume, and a widespread refuelling infrastructure doesnQt yet e6ist for some of the fuels considered for their use. Cuel cells generate electricity directly by chemically combining stored hydrogen with o6ygen from the air to produce electricity and water. The hydrogen can be either stored onboard or derived by RreformingR gasoline, methanol, or natural gas *methane-. 3eforming carbon-containing fuels generates more emissions than using hydrogen created directly with renewable energy, but these fuels are much more readily available and may be used as a transitional step until a hydrogen infrastructure develops. Cuel-cell technology has advanced significantly in the past few years, and a handful of automa.ers have shown prototype fuel-cell-powered vehicles. /owever, these prototypes have been 'uite heavy, re'uiring large *and therefore e6pensive- fuel-cell power plants, which have led some observers to predict that it may ta.e 1! to 8? years for fuel cells to become economical. Set /ypercarT vehicles could accelerate the adoption of fuel cells, because the /ypercarT vehicleQs much lower power re'uirements would re'uire far less fuel-cell capacity than a heavy, high-drag conventional car.

R"$ol%tio& #o&#"'t #ar "sig&

O$"r$i"w
The 3evolution fuel-cell concept vehicle was developed by /ypercar, "nc. in 8??? to demonstrate the technical feasibility and societal, consumer, and competitive benefits of holistic vehicle design focused on efficiency and lightweighting. "t was designed to have brea.through fuel economy and emissions, meet &0 and #uropean 4otor ,ehicle 0afety 0tandards, and meet a rigorous and complete set of product re'uirements for a sporty

B five-passenger 0&, crossover vehicle mar.et segment with technologies that could be in volume production within five years *Cigure 1-.

Fig( ) 3evolution concept car photo and layout The 3evolution combines lightweight, aerodynamic, and electrically and thermally efficient design with a hybridized fuel-cell propulsion system to deliver the following combination of features with H!B .g .erb mass, 8.5Hm8 effective frontal area, ?.8:C=, and ?.??BH r?U 0eats five adults in comfort, with a pac.age similar to the Ne6us 3K-5?? *:@ shorter overall and 1?@ lower than a 8??? Cord #6plorer but with slightly greater passenger space 1.2!-m5 cargo space with the rear seats folded flat 8.5H NF1??.m *22 miles per &0 gallon- e'uivalent, using a direct-hydrogen fuel cell, and simulated for realistic &0 driving behaviour !5?-.m range on 5.4 .g of hydrogen stored in commercially available 54!-bar tan.s +ero tailpipe emissions $ccelerates ?V1?? .mFh in H.5 seconds <o body damage in impacts up to 1? .mFh *crash simulations are described below$ll-wheel drive with digital traction and vehicle stability control Ground clearance ad1ustable from 15 to 8? cm through a semi-active suspension that adapts to load, speed, location of the vehicleQs centre of gravity, and terrain

H 7ody stiffness and torsional rigidity !?@ or more higher than in premium sports sedans =esigned for a 5?? ???W-.m service life9 composite body not susceptible to rust or fatigue 4odular electronics and software architecture and customizable user interface %otential for the stic.er price to be competitive with the Ne6us 3K-5??, 4ercedes 458?, and 74E K! 5.?, with significantly lower lifecycle cost.

Lightw"ight "sig&
#very system within the 3evolution is significantly lighter than conventional systems to achieve an overall mass saving of !8@. Techni'ues used to minimize mass, discussed below, include integration, parts consolidation, and appropriate application of new technology and lightweight materials. <o single system or materials substitution could have achieved such overall mass savings without strong whole-car design integration. 4any new engineering issues arise with such a lightweight yet large vehicle. Ehile none are showstoppers, many re'uired new solutions that were not obvious and demanded a return to engineering fundamentals. Cor e6ample, conventional wheel and tyre systems are engineered with the assumption that large means heavy. The low mass, large size and high payload range relative to vehicle mass put unprecedented demands on the wheelFtyre system. /ypercar, "nc. collaborated with 4ichelin to design a solution that would meet these novel targets for traction and handling, design appeal, mass, and rolling resistance. $nother challenge in this unusual design space is vehicle dynamics with a gross mass to .erb mass ratio around 1.! *15?? .g gross massFH!B .g .erb mass-. To maintain consistent and predictable car-li.e driving behaviour re'uired an adaptive suspension. 4ost commercially available versions are heavy, energy-hungry, and costly. /ypercar, "nc. collaborated with $dvanced 4otion Technology, "nc. *$shton, 4=- to design a lightweight semi-active suspension system that could provide variable ride height, load levelling, spring rate, and damping without consuming e6cessive amounts of energy.

2 Ather uni'ue challenges addressed included crosswind stability, crashworthiness, sprungto-unsprung mass ratio, and acoustics.

E*t"rior styl" a& a"ro y&a+i#s

The 3evolution concept vehicle is designed as a mid-sized, entry-level lu6ury sportutility crossover vehicle *i.e., combining sport-utility with passenger car characteristics-. "ts design is contemporary and attractive but aerodynamic.

Fig( , $n #6ample Af $erodynamic $nalysis 0ome of the aerodynamic features includeU a smooth underbody that tapers up toward the rear to maintain neutral lift underbody features that limit flow out of the wheel wells tapered roofline and rear XwaistlineQ clean trailing edge rounded front corners and $-pillar gutter along roofline to trip crosswind airflow radiator inta.e at high-pressure zone on vehicle nose wheel arches designed to minimize wheel-induced turbulence aerodynamic door handles.

1?

"n addition to the Xfi6edQ design features, other systems also contribute to the 3evolutionQs aerodynamic performance. Cor e6ample, the suspension system lowers ride height during highway driving to minimize frontal area. $lso, the suspension and driveline components do not protrude significantly below the floor level9 this maintains smooth underbody airflow and minimizes frontal area. /aving the rear electric motors in the wheel hubs also eliminates the need for a driveshaft and differential under the vehicle.

Pow"rtrai&
The 3evolution powertrain design integrates a 5!.E ambient pressure fuel cell developed by &T Cuel Cells, 5!.E nic.el metal hydride *<i4/- buffer batteries, and four electric motors connected to the wheels with single-stage reduction gears. Three 54.!4%a internally regulated Type ", carbon-fibre tan.s store up to 5.4 .g of hydrogen in an internal volume of 15B N *Cig 5-. The fuel cell systemQs near- ambient inlet pressure replaces a costly and energy-intensive air compressor with a simpler and less energy-intensive blower, raising average fuel efficiency and lowering cost. The commercially available foil-wound <i4/ batteries provide e6tra power when needed and store energy captured by the electric motors during regenerative bra.ing. The Y5.Eh of stored energy is sufficient for several highway-speed passing manoeuvres at gross vehicle mass at grade, and can then gradually taper off available power until the batteries are depleted, leaving only fuel-cell power available for propulsion until the driving cycle permits recharging.

11

3evolution Component %ac.aging The front two electric motors and bra.es are mounted inboard, connected to the wheels via carbon-fibre half shafts. This minimizes the unsprung mass of the front wheels and saves mass via shared housing and hardpoint attachments for the motors and bra.es. The front motors are permanent magnet machines, each pea.-rated at 81.E. The rear witched reluctance motors are each 1? pea. .E, so theyQre light enough to mount within the wheel hubs without an unacceptable sprungFunsprung mass ratio. /ubmotors also allow a low floor in the rear, and improve underbody aerodynamics by eliminating driveshaft, differential, and a6les. The switched reluctance motors also have low inertia rotors and no electromagnetic loss when freewheeling, improving overall fuel economy especially at high speed. 4ore efficient four-wheel regenerative bra.ing is also possible with this system, further increasing fuel economy. %roprietary innovations within the 3evolution manage and distribute power among the drive system components. %owertrain electronics are currently e6pensive, and typical fuel cell systems re'uire e6tensive power conditioning *using a =C -- =C converter- to maintain a consistent voltage, since at full power, the stac. voltage drops to appro6imately !?@ of its open circuit voltage. /ypercar, "nc. developed a power electronics control methodology that simplifies power conditioning while optimally allocating power flows under all conditions. This cuts the size of the fuel cell =C -- =C converter by about H4@, reducing system cost, and improves power distribution efficiency, increasing fuel economy. The normal doubling of radiator size for a fuel cell vehicle doesnQt handicap the 3evolution because its tractive load, hence stac. size, are reduced more than that by superior platform physics. The 3evolutionQs cooling system efficiently regulates the temperature of each powertrain component without resorting to multiple cooling circuits, which would add weight and cost. The common-rail cooling has a branch for each main powertrain component and a small secondary loop for passenger compartment heating. This loop also includes a small hydrogen-burning heater to supply e6tra start-up heat for the passengers when

18 re'uired *though this need is minimized by other aspects of thermal design-. The variable-speed coolant pump, larger-diameter common rail circuit, and electrically actuated thermostatic valves ensure sufficient cooling for all components without e6cessive pumping energy. The 3evolutionQs fuel economy was modelled using a second-by-second vehicle physics model developed by Corschungsgesellschaft Oraftfahrwesen mb/ $achen *XCO$Q-, $achen, Germany. $ll fuel-economy analyses were based on the &0 #%$ highway and urban driving cycles, but with all speeds increased by 5?@ to emulate real-world driving conditions. #ach driving cycle was run three times in succession to minimize any effect of the initial NN= state of charge on the fuel economy estimate. "n addition to fuel economy, /ypercar, "nc. simulated how well the %owertrain would meet such load conditions as start-off at grade at gross vehicle mass, acceleration at both test and gross vehicle mass, and other variations to ensure that the vehicle would perform well in diverse driving conditions. "llustrating the teamQs close integration to achieve the whole-vehicle design targets, the powertrain team wor.ed closely with the chassis team to e6ploit the bra.ing and steering capabilities allowed by all-wheel electric drive to create redundancy in these safety-critical applications. The powertrain, pac.aging, and chassis teams also wor.ed closely together to distribute the mass of the %owertrain components throughout the vehicle in order to balance the vehicle and .eep its centre of gravity low.

Str%#t%r"
Aluminium and composite front end
The front end of the 3evolution body combines aluminium with advanced composites using each to do what it does best *Cig 4-. The front bumper beam and upper energy-absorbing rail are made from advanced composite. The rest of the front-end structure is aluminium, with two main rolesU to attach all the front-end %owertrain and chassis components, and as the primary energy-absorbing member for frontal collisions greater than 84 .mFh. $luminium could do both tas.s with low mass, low fabrication cost *simple e6trusions and panels 1oined by welding and bonding-, and avoidance of the more comple6 provision of numerous hardpoints in the composite structure.

15

$luminium $nd Composite Cront #nd

Composite safety cell

The overarching challenge to using lightweight materials is cost-effectiveness. 0ince polymers and carbon fibre cost more per .ilogram and per unit stiffness than steel, their structural design and manufacturing methods must provide offsetting cost reductions. /ypercar, "nc.Qs design strategy minimized the total amount of material by optimal selection and efficient use9 simplified and minimized assembly, tooling, parts handling, inventory, scrap, and processing costs9 integrated multipurpose functionality into the structure wherever practical9 and employed a novel manufacturing system for fabricating the individual parts.

O##%'a&t "&$iro&+"&t
The occupant environment typically accounts for 5?@ of the mass and cost of a new vehicle. 0ince it is also what users most intimately e6perience, automa.ers pay close attention to design for aesthetic appeal, ergonomics, and comfort. The 3evolution development team was challenged to provide a lightweight interior that would still meet aggressive safety, comfort, acoustic, thermal, and aesthetic re'uirements. The resultU much of the inner surface of the carbon-fibre safety cell is e6posed to the interior, and

14 energy-absorbing trim is applied only where needed to meet C4,00 re'uirements *Cig !-. The carbon fibre Xloo.Q is becoming increasingly popular in several automotive and non-automotive mar.ets, so this feature should meet all re'uirements *light weight, aesthetically appealing, low cost, and safe- though it may not fit the tastes of all mar.et segments. Ather interior safety features integrated into the 3evolution include front and side airbags, pretension seatbelts, and sidestic. control of steering, bra.ing, and acceleration. Ehile using a sidestic. to control automobiles may ta.e some time to gain wide consumer acceptance, its safety benefits are compelling. "t gets rid of the steering column and pedals -- the leading sources of in1ury in collisions because they are the first things that the driver hits. Eithout these obstacles, the seat belt and airbag system have more room to decelerate the driver more gently. This is especially important for short drivers who typically have to pull their seat far forward in order to reach the pedals, putting them dangerously close to the airbag in conventional vehicles.

3evolution "nterior

1!

3evolution "nterior "n the 3evolution, the seat does not ad1ust forward and bac., only vertically, so drivers of all sizes will be the same distance from the airbags, improving its deployment-speed calibration and increasing overall safety. 0idestic.s also improve accident avoidance. 0tudies have shown that after a short familiarization period, sidestic. drivers are much better at performing emergency evasive manoeuvres than are stic.-andpedal drivers, due to finer motor control in hands than in feet, and greater speed and ease of eye-hand than of eye-hand-foot coordination. Clearly, more wor. would be re'uired in this area for sidestic.s to be feasible, but for the purposes of this concept vehicle, the team could demonstrate sufficient safety benefits to .eep them in the final design. =aimlerChrysler, 74E, and CitroZ en appear to share this view. $nother user interface safety feature is the NC= screen that replaces numerous traditional gauges and displays. %lacing the screen at the base of the windshield, centred on the driverQs line of sight, allows the driver to change any vehicle settings via a common interface without greatly shifting the driverQs viewline or focal distance. The multi-function display and the software-rich design of the vehicle also add such non-safety benefits as the ability to customize the interface and add new softwarebased services without adding new hardware. To ad1ust settings, the driver or passenger would use voice commands or a small pod with four buttons and a 1ogwheel located in the centre console between the front seat occupants.

1:

Control %od Close up The buttons govern climate control, entertainment, navigation, and general settings, while the 1ogwheel is used to navigate menus and select options. The menu structure is simple and intuitive, with options for user control of distraction level and data privacy.

Climate control
The climate control strategy illustrated in the 3evolution design is intended to deliver superior passenger comfort using one-fourth or less of the power used in conventional vehicles. This re'uired a systematic approach to insulation, low thermal mass materials, airflow management, and an efficient air conditioning compressor system. The foamcore body, the lower-than-metal thermal mass of the composites, ambient venting, and spectrally selective glazings greatly reduce unwanted infrared gain, helping cooling re'uirements drop by a factor of roughly 4.!. %ower re'uired for cooling is then further reduced by heat-driven desiccant dehumidification and other improvements to the cooling-system and air-handling design. 0imilarly, the 3evolution was designed to ensure 'uic. warm up, controllability, and comfort in very cold climates. The heating system is similar to that of conventional vehicles, but augmented by radiant heaters, a small hydrogen burner for

1B 'uic. initial warm up if needed, and a nearly invisible heaterFdefroster element embedded in the windshield.

Chassis
The chassis system combines semi-active independent suspension at each corner of the vehicle, electrically actuated carbon-based disc bra.es, modular rear corner drivetrain hardware and suspension, electrically actuated steering, and a high- efficiency run-flat wheel and tyre system. This combination can provide e6cellent bra.ing, steering, cornering, and maneuverability throughout the vehicleQs payload range and in diverse driving conditions.

Suspension
The 3evolutionQs suspension system combines lightweight aluminium and advanced-composite members with four pneumaticFelectromagnetic linear-ram suspension struts developed by $dvanced 4otion Technology, a pneumatically variable transverse lin. at each a6le, and a digital control system lin.ed to other vehicle subsystems *Cigure B-. The linear rams comprise a variable air spring and variable electromagnetic damper. The pressure in the air spring can be increased or decreased to change the static strut length under load and to ad1ust the spring rate. The resistance in the damper can be varied in less than one millisecond, or up to 1??? times per vertical cycle of the strut piston. The overall suspension system ta.es advantage of the widely and, in the case of damping, rapidly tunable characteristics of these components. Thus the same vehicle can pass terrain that re'uires high ground clearance, but also ride lower at highway speeds to improve aerodynamics and drop the center of mass.

1H

3evolution Chasis 0ystem #ach strut is lin.ed transversely *across the vehicle- to counter body roll . The lin. itself is isolated so that a failure that might compromise anti-roll stiffness would not compromise the pneumatic springs. /ydraulic elements connect the variable pneumatic element at the center of the transverse lin. to the left and right struts. The stiffness of the transverse lin. is ad1usted by varying the pressure in the isolated pneumatic segment. Aversized diaphragms reduce the pressure re'uired in the variable pneumatic portion of the roll-control lin. *normally at about 414 - H8H .%a-, minimizing the energy re'uired to tune the anti-roll characteristics. The anti-roll system wor.s in close coordination with the individual electromagnetic struts to control fast transients in body roll and pitch during acceleration, bra.ing, cornering, and aerodynamic inputs. 4any technologies can provide semi-active suspension, but the linear rams best fit the 3evolutionQs energy efficiency needs by regenerating modest amounts of power when damping.

Brakes
The 3evolutionQs bra.es combine electrical actuation with carbonFcarbon bra.e pads and rotors to achieve high durability and bra.ing performance at low mass. The front bra.es are mounted inboard to reduce unsprung mass. CarbonFcarbon bra.esQ non-linear friction properties depending on moisture and temperature are compensated by the electronic bra.ing control, because the caliper pressure is not physically connected to

12 the driverQs bra.e pedal, so any nonlinearities between caliper pressure and stopping force are automatically corrected. #lectrical actuation also eliminates several hydraulic components, which saves weight, potentially improves reliability, and allows very fast actuation of anti-loc. bra.ing and stability control. The bra.e calipers and rotors should last as long as the car.

Steering
The 3evolutionQs steer-by-wire system has no mechanical lin. between the driver and the steered wheels. "nstead, dual electric motors apply steering force to the wheels through low-cost, lightweight bell cran.s and tubular composite mechanical lin.s. This design permits continuously ad1ustable steering dynamics and maintains $c.erman angle over a range of vehicle ride heights, in a modular, energy-efficient, and relatively low cost pac.age.

0teer by Eire 0ystem

8?

Wheel and tyre system

/ypercar collaborated closely with 4ichelin on the design of the wheel and tyre system for the 3evolution. The %$K1 run-flat tyre system reduces rolling resistance by 1!@, improves safety and security *all four tyres can go flat, yet the vehicle will still be driveable at highway speeds-, and improves pac.aging *no need for a spare-. The %$K technology is slightly heavier per corner than conventional wheelFtyre systems, but eliminating the spare tyre reduces total net mass.

Pow"r istrib%tio&- "l"#tro&i#s- a& #o&trol syst"+s

The 3evolutionQs electrical and electronic systems are networ.- and busbased, reducing mass, cost, comple6ity, failure modes, and diagnostic problems compared with traditional dedicated point-to-point signal and power wiring and specialized connectors. The new architecture also permits almost infinite fle6ibility for customer and aftermar.et provider upgrades by adding or changing software. "n effect, the 3evolution is designed not as a car with chips but as a computer with wheels.

Control system architecture and software

The vehicle control system architecture relies on distributed integrated control. "ntelligent devices *nodes- perform real-time control of local hardware and communicate via multiple6ed communications data lin.s. <odes are functionally grouped to communicate with a specific host controller and other devices using well- developed controller-area-networ. *C$<- or time-triggered networ. protocols. *The latter includes redundant hardware and deterministic signal latencies to ensure accurate and timely control of such safety-critical functions as steering, bra.ing, and airbag deployment.#ach host controller manages the ob1ectives of the devices lin.ed to it. /ost controllers of different functional groups are mounted together in a modular rac.ing system and communicate via a high-speed data bac.plane. This modular, three-level architecture provides local autonomous real-time control, data aggregation, centralized control of component ob1ectives, centralized diagnostics, and high reliability and resilience. The central controller runs additional services and applications related to the operation of the vehicle entertainment systems and data communications. "t also provides a seamless graphical user interface to all systems on the vehicle for operation and diagnostics.

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This system, developed in collaboration with 0un 4icrosystems and 0T4icro-electronics has many advantages. Cirst, networ.ing allows data to be shared between components and aggregated to create .nowledge about the carQs behaviour and its local environment and to create new functions in the vehicle. <etwor.ing also reduces the weight, cost, failure modes, and comple6ity of wiring harnessesU for e6ample, a typical vehicle has appro6imately 8! wires routed to the driverQs-side door, while the 3evolution uses four. The central controller and user interface and the user communications are all handled by a [ava embedded server developed by 0un 4icrosystems and conforming to the Apen 0ervices Gateway "nitiative *A0G"- standard. This networ.-centric approach provides high security, resilience, and reliability. $dding approved hardware devices or certified applets is simple and robust, with automatic installation and upgrading during continuous operation. The 3evolutionQs specific software design contains many useful, innovative, and valuable features.

Power distribution
$ll non-traction power is delivered via a 48-volt ring-architecture power bus, providing fault-tolerant power throughout the vehicle. Components are connected to the ring main via 1unction bo6es distributed throughout the vehicle, via either a sub- ring *to maintain fault-tolerance to the device- or a simple branch line for non-fault- tolerant devices. The 1unction bo6es are fused so that power can be supplied to the branches from either leg of the ring main. The benefits of this system include low mass, high energy efficiency, fault-tolerance, simplicity, and cost-effectiveness.

Cost a&alysis
Given the many new technologies in the 3evolution, one might wonder how much such a vehicle might cost to produce. $nswering this 'uestion was one of the main goals of the 3evolution development programme, which was e6plicitly designed around cost criteria. The engineering team estimated the vehicleQs production cost at a nominal volume of !? ??? units per year, using e6tensive anonymous supplier price 'uotations *for H8@ of the components-, plus some in-house and independent consultantsQ

88 bottom-up cost modelling for technologies not yet in production. $s designed, the vehicle could be sold profitably at standard mar.-ups for &0\ 4? -- 4! ??? retail. Eith further development, /ypercar, "nc. estimates that this price could be reduced to appro6imately &0\5!??? competitive with e6isting vehicles of similar performance, features, size, and amenity but lac.ing 3evolutionQs e6citing features and 'uintupled fuel economy. This cost estimate is directly related to the starting point the product re'uirements. %art of /ypercar, "nc.Qs reason for designing a vehicle for the entry-level lu6ury sport utility segment was that its price point would ma.e many of the advanced features affordable. "f the product re'uirements were instead for a small economy car, it would be designed differently to meet those re'uirements, it may not include all the features of the 3evolution, and cost reduction re'uirements could become more stringent.

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CONCLUSION
The automobile industry is on the threshold of potentially dramatic change in its materials use and platform design. &ltralight-hybrid hypercars, using advanced composites for the auto body, may be more attractive to the consumer, 1ust as profitable to the producer, and much friendlier to the environment than conventional cars. Eith careful design and the industrialization of recycling technologies, hypercars may even increase the recyclability of cars in the future. /ypercars reduced power re'uirements could ma.e the drivesystem smaller and simpler, enabling components to be modular for easy removal and upgrading. /ypercars using fuel cells are very heavy and very e6pensive nowadays. Therefore using composite materials for body parts may not reduce the mass of the body to the desirable e6tent. Set /ypercar vehicles could adopt the fuel cells, because their much lower power re'uirements would re'uire far less fuel-cell capacity than a heavy, high-drag conventional car.

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REFERENCES
). Novins, $.7. *122!- XHypercars: the next industrial revolution', 1225 $silomar 0ummer 0tudy on 0trategies for 0ustainable Transportation B!-2!, $merican Council for an #nergy-#fficient #conomy, Eashington =C, %ubl. ]T2!-5?. ,. Novins, $.7. and Novins, N./. *122!- XReinventing the heels', $tlantic 8B!*1-U B!-H: *[an.-, and XNettersQ, id. 8B!*4-U 1:-1H *$pr.-, submitted in 1225, both available as %ubl. ]T24-82, www.rmi.orgFimagesFotherF/C-3einventEheels.pdf /. Cramer, =.3. and 7rylaws.i, 4.4. *122:- X!ltralight"hy#rid vehicles design: implications $or the recycling industry', 0ociety of %lastics #ngineers 3ecycling =ivision, %roceedings 5rd $nnual 3ecycling Conference, Chicago, "N, B-H <ov., %ubl. ]T2:-14, www.rmi.orgFimagesFotherF/C-&/,=-3ecycle.pdf 0. EebsiteU www.rmi.org, www.hypercar.com.