ALINA BEATRICE CHEC

LIMBA ENGLEZ N DOMENIUL COMUNICRII Anul I

CONTENTS
CONTENTS...........................................................2 I. THE NOUN.........................................................4 1.1. Countable Nouns. Regular Nouns ............4 1.2. Irregular Nouns. Nouns of Latin and Gree Origin...................................................................! 1.". Singularia Tantu# Nouns ......................1$ 1.4. %luralia Tantu# Nouns...........................1" II. THE &'(ECTI)E.............................................."2 2.1. T*e 'egrees of Co#+arison. Regular &d,e-ti.es.........................................................."2 2.2. %*rases /it* &d,e-ti.es.........................."0 III. THE )ER1 2TENSES &N' 3OO'S4.................50 ".1. Tense and &s+e-t...................................50 ".2. %resent Tense Si#+le.............................50 ".". %resent Tense Continuous......................!$ ".4. %ast Tense Si#+le..................................!" ".5. %ast Tense Continuous...........................!4 ".!. %resent %erfe-t Si#+le...........................!!

".6. %resent %erfe-t Continuous....................!0 ".0. %ast %erfe-t Si#+le................................!7 ".7. %ast %erfe-t Continuous.........................61 ".1$. 8a9s of E:+ressing ;uturit9.................05 ".1$.1. ;uture Tenses..................................05 ".1$.2. Near ;uture.....................................71 ".11. T*e Se<uen-e of Tenses.........................1$" ". 12. Conditional 3ood...............................1"0 4. 8RITING ;OR3&L LETTERS..........................107 4.1. 8riting Curri-ulu# )itae......................107 4.2. Letters of Interest.................................2$$ 1ibliogra+*9....................................................21"

I. THE NOUN 1.1. Countable Noun . Re!ula" Noun

The countable nouns have two forms: a singular one and a plural one. The singular form is not marked: book, box, child. There are two forms of plural: A. Re!ula", when the plural is formed by adding the s! ending: book books B. I""e!ula"# when the plural is formed in other ways

"# $esinenta s se scrie s dupa ma%oritatea substantivelor, inclu&and substantivele terminate in e mut: book books, table tables. 2# 'xceptii: exista unele situatii care fac exceptie de la aceasta regula generala: a# (ubstantivele terminate in )s* &* x* ch* sh adauga e : bus ) buses* glass ) glasses* bu&& ) bu&&es* box ) boxes* watch ) watches* brush brushes* b# +a cateva dintre substantivele din acest grup se dublea&a consoana finala: fez fezzes, quiz quizzes. c# (ubstantivele terminate in $o: adauga desinenta $ : = cand $o e precedat de o vocala: cuckoos; kangaroos; radios; scenarios; studios; zoos;

= la substantivele proprii: Filipinos; Eskimos; Neros; Romeos; = in abrevieri: kilos -kilogrammes#, photos -photographs#, pros -professionals#* = la unele substantive straine: concertos, dunam, pianos, solos, sopranos. = au doua forme de plural: banjos banjoes; buffalos buffaloes; cargo cargoes; mementos mementoes; mottos mottoes; !olcanos !olcanoes; zeros zeroes etc.* d# substantivele terminate in $% precedat de o consoana transforma pe.. in & si adauga $e : cit" cities; factor" factories. Transformarea nu are loc: = dupa vocale: bo" bo"s; pla" pla"s; = in substantive proprii: the #enned"s; = in substantive compuse: stand b"s; e# literele, numeralele si abrevierele formea&a plural prin adaugarea unui a'o t"o( si $ : $%s; &'()%s; *+%s, -here are t.o $%s and three (%s in the number of that English car. -here are t.o *+%s in the lobb". .n engle&a contemporana exista tendinta ca numeralele si abrevierele sa forme&e pluralul si prin adaugarea doar a unui s la singular: in the &'/) *+ 0*ember of +arliament1 *+s; *t 0*outain1 *ts; !ol 0!olume1 !ols; lb. 0pound1 lbs; +2 0+ost 2ffice, +ostal 2rder1 +os. /orma de plural fara apostrof este mai frecvent folosita decat cea cu apostrof.

3# 1luralul substantivelor compuse a# 2a%oritatea substantivelor compuse adauga s la ultimul element: classroom classrooms; forget me not 0floare de nu ma uita1 forget me nots; gro.n up gro. ups; horse race 0cursa de cai1 horse races; race horse 0cal de curse1 race horses; merr" go round merr" go rounds 0calusei1; b# 3nele substantive compuse, de obicei cele alcatuite dintr un substantiv si o constructive prepo&itionala, adauga s la primul element: looker on lookers on; mother in la. mothers in la.; passer b" passers b"; c# (ubstantivele compuse in care primul element este man sau .oman transforma la plural ambele elemente: man singer men singers; .oman doctor .omen doctors.

1.). I""e!ula" Noun . Noun o( Lat&n an* G"ee+ O"&!&n

1luralul neregulat al substantivelor se formea&a in mai multe feluri: a# 4onsoana surda 5f6 sau 5s6 in care se termina substantivul se tranforma in perechea ei (onora: 56, 5v6 sau 5&6 -voicing# la unele substantive: th 56 7 ths 56: bath baths; mouth mouths; path paths; "outh "ouths; f0e1 3f4 5 !es 5v&6: calf ) calves* elf ) elves* half ) halves* knife ) knives* leaf ) leaves* loaf ) loaves* life ) lives* wife ) wives*

9tentie: 9cest fenomen de sonori&are a consoanei finale nu se produce la toate substantivele terminate in 56, 5f6 sau 5s6. 'xista si forme de plural regulat si oscilatie intre cele doua forme: 1lural regulat -"#: consoan; < th berth berths earth earths length lengths /orme duble -"#: 2ath oaths -ruth truths 1lural regulat -2#: 6elief 7hief 7liff +roof Roof 8afe /orme duble -2#: 9.arf :andkerchief beliefs chiefs cliffs proofs roofs safes d.ar!es handkerchie!es hoo!es scar!es .har!es >n alt; vocal; sau vocal; < th: cloth cloths death deaths faith faiths

d.arfs handkerchiefs :oof hoofs 8carf scarfs ;harf .harfs a# =ocala sau diftongul final se schimb;

diftong -mutation#: man men; .oman .omen; foot feet; goose geese; tooth teeth; mouse mice; louse lice.

4ompu@ii cu substantivul man au aceea@i pronunAie la singular @i plural, de@i ortografia difer;: a postman 34 t.o postmen 34, an Englishman 34 t.o Englishman 34. b# Trei substantive adaug; desinenAa en -cu sau f;r; mutaAie vocalic;#: o< o<en; child children; brother brethren. 6rother -frate# are plural regulat: brothers -fraAi#. 1luralul neregulat brethren este folosit doar cu sensul de membru al unei societ;Ai religioase!. c# 3nele substantive num;rabile au aceea@i form; la singular @i plural -primesc desinenAa &ero ) plural &ero#. (ubstantivele cu desinenAa &ero la plural se deosebesc de substantivele invariabile care au numai singular - music# sau numai plural -cattle# prin faptul c; se acord; atBt cu un verb la singular cBt @i cu un verb la plural: there is a stra" sheep on the road. ' o oaie r;t;cita pe drum. -here are some stra" sheep on the road. (unt cBteva oi r;t;cite pe drum. 1luralul &ero este folosit: 4u unele substantive s: barracks banca* headquarters sediu* means mi%loc* series ) serie* species ) specie* .orks u&ina: -his is an arm" barracks. -hese are arm" barracks.

-he bus, trolle"bus and the underground are modern means of transport. 9utobu&ul, troleibu&ul @i metroul sunt mi%loace moderne de transport. ,lu"ale t"-&ne .Foreign Plurals1. 'xist; mai multe

desinenAe de plural de origine str;in; care sunt folosite >n limba engle&;, mai ales >n limba% @tiinAific: u /&: stimulus stimuli; bacillus bacilli. u0 $a1 addendum addenda; datum data; $gendum agenda; erratum errata; 6acterium bacteria; stratum strata. / & $e 1 anal"sis anal"ses; ellipsis ellipses; $<is a<es; h"pothesis h"potheses; 6asis bases; 7risis crises; paral"sis paral"ses 9lte substantive de origine str;in; au dou; forme de plural: pluralul regulat cu s @i pluralul de origine str;in;: 7actus =enius cactuses geniuses cacti genii 0spirite, duhuri# -oameni de geniu# s"llabi termini antennae

8"llabus -erminus $ntenna

s"llabuses terminuses antennas

Formula >ertebra $quarium 7urriculum *edium 8anatorium 8"mposium $ppendi< ?nde<

formulas !ertebras aquariums curriculums mediums sanatoriums s"mposiums appendi<es 0>n anatomie# inde<es 0cuprinsuri# automatons bureaus plateaus

formulae !ertebrae aquaria curricula media sanatoria s"mposia appendices ->n c;rAi# ?ndices -indici) matematic;# automata bureau plateau

>n

$utomaton 6ureau +lateau

1.2. S&n!ula"&a Tantu0 Noun

.n limba engle&a fac parte din clasa substantivelor invariabile la singular unele substantive, care sunt numarabile sau invariabile la plural in limba romana: ad!ice, business, furniture, home.ork, income, information, kno.ledge, luggage, merchandise, mone", nonsense, produce 0 produse natural, agricole#, progress, strength, .ork. @ou must do "our home.ork carefull".

Trebuie sa iAi faci cu

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? need further information :is kno.ledge of English is poor ;here%s "our luggageA -he mone" is in "our .allet. @ou are talking nonsense. -his pupil is making fast progress in learning English. :e felt his strength .as falling.

9m nevoie de inform

4uno@tinAele lui de e

3nde Ai sunt baga%el =orbe@ti prostii.

Ganii sunt >n portofe

9cest elev face prog limbii engle&e.

(imAea c; l l;sa pute

4uantificarea substantivelor invariabile la singular se poate reali&a cu a%utorul unor cuvinte ca: a piece of, an item of, a bar of, a bag of, etc. (ubstantive concrete: 9 H piece B CsliceB $ CpieceB CloafB $ CpieceB ClumpB $ CpieceB CroastB of of of Csugar Ccoal Cmeat of of of C bacon Ccake Cbread

""

CpieceB Cbar4

of of of

Cchocolate Csoap chalk

CpieceB CstickB

CpieceB CstripB

of

land

$ $n $ $ $

CpieceB CarticleB CbitB CbladeB CpieceB CsheetB

of

furniture

of

grass

of

paper

(ubstantive abstracte: $ CpieceB of ad!ice C.ordB

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$ pieceB $n itemB $n itemB $ bit B

of

Cinformation Cne.s

of

business

$ pieceB $ bit B $ bitB $n amount

of

.ork

of

interest

Cluck $ piece of Ce!idence Cresearch $ .ord of abuse $ fit of passion $n attack of fe!er

1.3. ,lu"al&a Tantu0 Noun

(ubstantivele invariabile la plural

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(ubstantivele invariabile la plural au numai form; de plural @i se acord; de regul; cu un verb la plural: -he binoculars are on the table. Ginoclul este pe mas;. $in clasa substantivelor invariabile la plural fac parte: a# (ubstantivele care denumesc obiecte formate din dou; parAi egale. 9ceste substantive se numesc summation plurals >n limba engle&;. 'le denumesc: "# unelte formate din dou; p;rAi: binoculars, compasses, glasses, pincers, pliers, scales, scissors, spectacles, tongs. ;here are the 4& o" 5 3nde este foarfeceleF 2# articole de >mbr;c;minte: braces, clothes flannels, jeans, o!eralls, pants, p"jamas, shorts, trousers, -hese t"ou e" are too long for "ou. 9cesti pantaloni sunt prea lungi pentru tine. (ubstantivele pluralia tantum @i summation plurals se confund; uneori cu forma de plural a unor substantive num;rabile: $d!ice I sfaturi* pl. ad!ices $d!ices I >n@tiinA;ri, avi&e 6race D pereche de potErnichi; pl. braces ",

6races D bretele 7ontent D conFinut; pl. contents 7ontents D cuprins 7olour D culoare; pl. colours 7olours 0pl. tantum1 D drapel 7ompass D busolG; pl. compasses 7ompasses 0pl. tantum1 D compass 7ustom D obicei; pl. customs 7ustoms 0pl. tantum1 D !amG 9amage D a!arie; pl. damages 9amages 0pl. tantum1 D despGgubiri Effect D effect; pl. effects Effects 0pl. tantum1 D efecte, haine =lass D pahar; pl. glasses =lasses 0pl. tantum1 D ochelari =round D moti!, cauza; pl. grounds =rounds 0pl. tantum1 D zat, teren, parc Hn jurul unei clGdiri Ietter D scrisoare; pl. letters Ietters 0pl. tantum1 D literature, litere *anner D mod; pl. manners *anners 0pl. tantum1 D maniere, purtare *inute D minut; pl. minutes *inutes 0pl. tantum1 D process !erbal +ain D durere; pl. pains "0

+ains 0pl. tantum1 D ostenealG +remise D premise; pl. premises +remises 0pl. tantum1 D local, imobil Juarter D sfert, cartier; pl. quarters Juarters 0pl. tantum1 D locuinFG, cantonament Receipt D chitanFG; pl. receipts Receipts 0pl. tantum1 D HncasGri 8cale D gama muzicalG, solz; pl. scales 8cales 0pl. tantum1 D balanFG 8crap D bucGFicG, fragment; pl. scraps 8craps 0pl. tantum1 D resturi de mEncare, deKeuri de metal 8pectacle D spectacol; pl. spectacles 8pectacles 0pl. tantum1 D ochelari -erm D perioadG, termen, trimestru; pl. terms -erms 0pl. tantum1 D termini, relaFii, raporturi, condiFii 8pirit D spirit; pl. spirits 8pirits 0pl. tantum1 D bGuturi alcoolice, fantome.

(ubstantive nemarcate la plural. Jn clasa substantivelor invariabile la plural intr; @i unele substantive folosite numai la plural, dar nemarcate formal pentru acest num;r. 9ceste substantive sunt: cattle, clerg", gentr", people, police, !ermin, "outh,

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e.g. The cattle are in the field. =itele sunt pe cBmp. -here are a lot of people in the street. (unt mulAi oameni pe strad;. +eople @i "outh pot fi folosite @i c; substantive num;rabile variabile: e.g. -he peoples of the .orld are struggling for peace. 1opoarele lumii lupt; pentru pace. -hese youths sa. the accident happen. 9ce@ti tineri au v;&ut cum s a >ntBmplat accidentul. 9d%ectivele sau participiile personale substantivi&ate: the handicapped, the injured, the poor, the rich, the sick, the .ounded, e.g. The injured .ere taken to hospital. K;niAii au fost du@i la spital. Rea* an* t"an late t6e (ollo7&n! te8t1 THE 9I:E MA;OR MEDIA ?n order to influence bu"ers, ad!ertising must reach them. -his can be achie!ed through the media, .hose main features, for the fi!e major ones are the follo.ing, 1. The Press (or Print media) is the uni!ersal medium, .hich enables to address pri!ate persons as .ell as professionals or

"?

industrialists, .hich can reach broad targets but also !er" narro. ones since it can be highl" selecti!e. -he naFional dailies mainl" 6ucharest based ne.spapers in RomEnia, and their foreign counterparts 0-he ;ashington +ost, -he -imes, 9ie ;elt, 7orriere della 8erra, $sahi 8himbun...1 can carr" an" ad!ertising message. -he regional dailies ha!e but local readership, e!en if .e take LlocalL in an e<tended sense. Ne.s *agazines are mainl" for ad!ertising aimed at the general public. -he technical and professional press is a pri!ileged !ehicle to reach industrialists and professionals, .hate!er their field of acti!it". -he so called LgeneralL technical press is a channel for standard products supplied to !er" numerous firms in all sectors. -he LspecializedL technical press aims at much smaller targets, along the lines of sectorial specialization of professional branches 0transport, the building trades1, or along those of funcFional or technical specificit" 0.elding, cr"ogenics1. Free handouts, such as local ad!ertising sheets for the general public and classified ads, ha!e gro.n spectacularl" since their emergence in the M)Ns. -he L-> pressL probabl" justifies a separate mention, concen trating on -> programmes, it has an enormous

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circulation 0se!eral million copies in some cases1 and is an ideal channel for general ad!ertising. 2. Television. -he ideal medium for con!enience goods. Onlike the press, .hich is highl" selecti!e, tele!ision speads its message .ide, .ithout fear of splashing or e!en flooding, since it reaches simultaneousl" se!eral million people. -his is .h" this medium has s.allo.ed the bulk of ad!ertising accounts from big ad!ertisers .ho aim at the general public, men, .omen and kids all included, to the disma" of the other media and more particularl" the printed press. 3. Poster-advertising does not meet the needs of industrial and professional goods an" more than -> does. ?t is essentiall" geared to general public items, goods or ser!ices, durable or not, .hether it be instant mashed potatoes, insurance or air tra!el. . !adio-advertising. $lthough .ide in co!erage, it is more selecti!e than ->. -here are indeed man" stations, .ith !aried audiences, .hich besides, can change .ith the time of broadcasting. ". The cinema, a poor relation, the more so as mo!ei theatre attendance gets lo.er and lo.er .hile more and more films ma" be seen on -> .ithout e<tra charge. $d!ertisers and their agencies need the rele!ant information concerning those media to de!ise their communication polic" and to generate media planning accordingl". 8uch data are supplied b" a number of organizations. L*PdiamPtrieQ, a 6ig 6rother of sorts, calls the tune in audio!isual media thanks to t.o monitoring s"stems,

"D

 the radio panel, through (R) dail" phone inter!ie.s, studies the audience per units of &R minutes, the duration of listening periods, the profile of each station; the -> panel, based on (,/)) households, studies the e<posure to ad!ertising spots through the *ediamat s"stem, .hich has superseded the $udimat, each member of the household presses a button on the recording machine placed on the -> set e!er" time he or she is present in front of the screen. #ey$

%ele cinci mari mijloace de comunicare &n mas' +entru a influenFa cumpGrGtorii potenFiali, publicitatea trebuie sG ajungG la ei. $ceasta se poate realiza prin mass media. ?atG principalele caracteristici ale celor cinci mari mijloace de comunicare Hn masG, 1. Presa (sau Presa scris') este mijlocul de comunicare uni!ersal care ne permite sG ne adresGm atEt persoanelor fizice, cEt Ki profesioniKtilor Ki industriaKilor, Ki sG atingem Finte mari, dar Ki mici, datoritG caracterului sGu foarte selecti!. +resa cotidianG naFionalG, compusG Hn principal din titlurile bucureKtene din RomEnia Ki din omoloagele lor strGine 0-he ;ashington +ost, -he -imes, 9ie ;elt, 7orriere della 8erra, $sahi 8himbun...1, poate publica orice mesaj publicitar. +resa cotidianG regionalG nu are decEt audienFG localG, chiar dacG folosim termenul SlocalL Hntr o accepFiune foarte largG.

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Re!istele ser!esc Hn principal publicitGFii destinate marelui public. +resa tehnicG Ki profesionalG este un mijloc pri!ilegiat de a ajunge la industriaKi Ki la profesioniKti din toate domeniile de acti!itate. $Ka numita presG tehnicG SgeneralGQ este un canal de distribuFie pentru produsele standard furnizate foarte multor firme din toate sectoarele. +resa tehnicG SspecializatGQ !izeazG Finte mult mai mici, pe de o parte prin specializare pe sectoare sau ramuri de acti!itate 0transporturi, construcFii1, pe de altG parte, prin specializare funcFionalG sau tehnicG specificG 0sudare, criogenie1. +resa gratuitG, compusG din ziare locale de anunFuri pentru mica Ki marea publicitate, cunoaKte o foarte mare dez!oltare de la apariFia ei Hn anii M). S+resa ->Q justificG probabil o rubricG separatG, consacratG programelor de tele!iziune, ea are tiraje cu ade!Grat e<traordinare 0Hn unele cazuri, mai multe milioane de e<emplare1 Ki ser!eKte ca !ehicul ideal pentru publicitatea destinatG marelui public. 2. Televi(iunea regina mass media pentru produsele de larg consum. 8pre deosebire de presG, care este foarte selecti!G, tele!iziunea HKi transmite mesajele fGrG a face o selecFie, fGrG a se teme sG abordeze sau chiar sG debordeze publicul, de !reme ce ajunge Hn casele a cEtor!a milioane de persoane simultan. 9e aceea, acest mijloc de comunicare a acaparat ansamblul bugetelor tuturor marilor clienFi care se adreseazG marelui public, bGrbaFi, femei, inclusi! copii spre disperarea restului mass media Ki Hn special a presei scrise.

2"

3. )*i+ajul, ca Ki tele!iziunea, nu este nici el mai indicat pentru produsele industriale Ki profesionale. Este destinat Hn principal produselor de larg consum, bunuri sau ser!icii, fie ele de folosinFG HndelungatG sau nu, fie cG e !orba de piure instant, asigurGri sau transporturi aeriene. . !adioul. 9eKi are o arie mare de acoperire, este mai selecti! decEt tele!iziunea. E<istG, Hntr ade!Gr, multe posturi care nu au aceeaKi audienFG Ki, de altfel, aceasta se poate modifica pe parcursul emisiei. ". %inematogra*ul, ruda lor mai sGracG, Ki asta cu atEt mai mult cu cEt frec!entarea sGlilor de cinema scade din ce Hn ce mai mult, Hn timp ce tot mai multe filme pot fi !Gzute la tele!izor fGrG cheltuieli suplimentare. 7ei care Ki fac publicitate Ki agenFiile lor au ne!oie de informaFii referitoare la aceste mijloace de comunicare Ki suporturi publicitare pentru a Ki pune la punct atEt politica de comunicare, cEt Ki planificarea mijloacelor de reclamG corespunzGtoare. $ceste informaFii sunt furnizate de un anumit numGr de organizaFii. S*PdiamPtrieQ, un fel de 6ig 6rother mediatic, dG tonul Hn audio!izual prin douG sisteme de monitorizare, panelul radio studiazG, cu ajutorul a (R) de inter!iuri telefonice cotidiene, audienFa din sfert Hn sfert de orG, durata ascultGrii Ki profilul fiecGrui post; panelul de tele!iziune, bazat pe relaFia cu (./)) de cGmine, studiazG contractual cu spoturile publicitare cu ajutorul sistemului *ediamat, care a Hnlocuit $udimatul, fiecare membru al familiei apasG pe un buton al aparatului de

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Hnregistrare plasat pe tele!izor, ori de cEte ori se aflG Hn faFa ecranului.

A4t&<&t% 1 Translate the *ollo,ing sentences into -nglish$ ". Mtirile pe care le am primit pBn; acum nu sunt demne de incredere. 2. /iecare @tire despre activitatea savanAilor este asteptat; cu emoAie. 3. Gaga%ele au fost f;cute @i desf;cute timp de trei ore f;r; >ntrerupere. ,. Trebuie s; public;m toate informatiile care sunt necesare candidaAilor. 0. 2i am sp;lat salopeta pe care am folosit o in ultimele trei &ile, de@i nu era prea murdar;. 8. K;t;cisem drumul, asa ca aveam nevoie de un binoclu si o busola, dar nu am putut g;si. ?. 4uno@tinAele lui de fonetic; @i lingvistic; general; sunt remarcabile. C. 'ste indiscutabil un om de litere foarte apreciat in Nrientul 2i%lociu. D. /ostul pre@edinte nu a mai dat nici un interviu in ultima vreme. "E. Oici m;car in gand nu suporta e@ecul, singur;tatea,

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v;duvia, munca neinteresant;, persecuAia. "". 4um profesorul intrase de%a in clas;, el pur si simplu rBse drept scu&; @i se ase&; >n banc;. "2. 9r trebui sa i ap;r;m pe cei slabi si pe cei bolnavi. "3. N %um;tate are trei patrimi. ",. Trebuie s; declari totul la vam;, altfel ai putea avea probleme serioase. "0. Mtii foarte bine ca e nevoie de motive solide pentru un divorA. "8. $irectorul dore@te ca procesul verbal sa fie gata in %umatate de or;. "?. GalanAa pe care mi ai cump;rat o acum cateva &ile este pe biroul din sufragerie. "C. 1romit ca nu ma voi atinge niciodat; de bauturi alcoolice: "D. (faturile p;rintilor t;i sunt totdeauna foarte bune * ar fi ca&ul sa Aii cont de ele : 2E. =; rog, a@ dori dou; ciocolate, dou; s;punuri si trei pBini : 2". 9vocatul meu mi a oferit doua informaAii foarte importante pentru ca&. 22. 1robele pre&entate de procuror la procesul de s;pt;mBna trecut; sunt incriminatoare. 23. Jn anii P0E s au turnat unele din cele mai bune filme postbelice.

2,

He"e %ou 6a<e 4olu0n 1

o0e I*&o0 . T"% to 0at46 t6e t7o a# a strike breaker b# a person who helps children cross the road c# a disloyal person d# a former sweetheart e# a shy person without a partner f# a person who is too keen on his %ob g# a person who lives in his own wonderful world h# a person who always gets up early i# a person who en%oys staying up late %# a person who talks a lot k# a policeman

". a workaholic 2. a night owl 3. a night owl ,. a chatterbox 0. a day dreamer 8. a blackleg ?. an old flame

C. a turncoat

D. a bobby "E. a lollipop man Q lady

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A4t&<&t% ) ". a workaholic 2. a night owl 3. a night owl ,. a chatterbox 0. a day dreamer 8. a blackleg ?. an old flame C. a turncoat a# a strike breaker b# a person who helps children cross the road c# a disloyal person d# a former sweetheart e# a shy person without a partner f# a person who is too keen on his %ob g# a person who lives in his own wonderful world h# a person who always gets up early i# a person who en%oys staying up late %# a person who talks a lot k# a policeman

D. a bobby "E. a lollipop man Q lady

28

A4t&<&t% 2 ". (he was sitting on the fence 2. (he was playing it by ear 3. (he was caught red handed ,. (he went back on her word. 0. (he was pulling his leg 8. (he took someone for a ride ?. (he lived on a shoestring C. (he played truant D. (he painted the town red "E. (he put her foot down a# %oking b# speaking and acting firmly c# discovered in the act of thieving d# living on little e# not taking sides f# not making plans ahead g# deceiving people h# not going to school i# not keeping her promise %# drinking and making a lot of noise

Sel(/e<aluat&on te t 1. 9&ll &n t6e (ollo7&n! blan+ 1

G+94R G+3' SK''O K'$ (49K+'T TU.T' V'++NT

2?

". Then (arah saw (ueWs new boyfriend she was XXXX. with envy. 2. X. meat is considered to be healthier than beef, lamb or other types of XX meat. 3. The ... 1ages has all the necessary information for you. ,. . spent three weeks in hospital when . had ... fever. 0. This sort of thing happens only once in a ... moon. 8. (arah and Sraham had a traditional... wedding in Tales. ?. 9fter falling in the street he had a ... eye for weeks. C. Tould you like your coffee ... or with some milk and sugarF D. . remember that my mother had ... fingers to her last day. "E.Te are seriously in the ... . this month ). 9&ll &n t6e (ollo7&n! blan+ 1 G94R 'V' /94' /.OS'K U9O$ (TN294U

2N3TU O'K=' TNOS3' TNNTU

". 2ust you have aQn........................in every pieF 2. Yust shout if you need a Q n........................: 3. The answer is right on the tip of my......................... ,. . feel . canWt...................listening to any more lies.

2C

5. The

countryside

is

truly

romantic valuable

near

the

of the $anube. 6. Ratie has aQn.......................for TNOS3' 7. $onWt break your.....................working so hard all the time. 8. .n our family everyone has a sweet.......................... 9. Vou canWt read the numbers on the ............................... the old clock, and the minute XXX is also broken. 10. . 2. 9&ll &n t6e (ollo7&n! blan+ 1
G.K$ G3TT'K/+V 492'+ 49T $NS /.(U +.NO 1.S K9T

paintings.

of

9fter his exam, that student had the XXXX.. to

complain about his teacher.

1. Gefore my driving test . had.......................in my stomach. 2. .tWs been raining.....................and................for days. 3. 1eter got the share of the money they inherited. 4. Then . travelled to the country last 2onday . was killing two XXXX.. with one stone, doing business and visiting an old friend. 0. Reep my secret, please. . donWt want to let the out bag yet. 8. 'ven if the food is good, donWt make a Q n ............................. ..of yourself at the wedding. of the

2D

7. 9 lot of people are already fed up with the XXXX.. race of modern life. 8. .tWs the last straw tha% broke the.........................back. D. The riot broke out because prisoners were treated like.......... "E. 9re you.................for complimentsF 3. 9&ll &n t6e (ollo7&n! blan+ 1 911+' GK'9$ G3TT'K 4K'92 'SS Y3.4' 2.+R (9+T (3S9K (1.4' 1. Tho is the................... winner in your familyF 2. These young physicists are the smartest people in Komania, the XXXX of their generation. 3. . canWt tell you what caused what. .t is a typical chicken and. situation. ,. Then . met her for the first time, she gave me a sweet......... smile that . found most unnatural. 0. $onWt believe everything you have read. The reports have to be taken with a pinch of X. 8. $onWt feel sorry for him. Ue always knows which side his ... is XXX on. ?. =ariety is the XXXXX of life.

3E

C. . wish we could XXXX. the pill for you, but this is the truth. D. (he had her last baby at ,0. Oo wonder, he was the XXXXX. of her eye. "E. . have %ust heard a Q n XXXX story about the neighbours.

3"

II. THE AD;ECTI:E ).1. T6e De!"ee o( Co0'a"& on. Re!ula" A*=e4t&<e
9d%ectivul este de dou; feluri: descriptiv arat; calit;Aile unui obiect, fiinAe etc.-important, cle!er, "oung, red, small # @i restrictiv exprim; modific;ri ale distanAei, cantit;Aii etc. -this, much, m"#. e.g. *" sister is tall. slim and beauti*ul. 9d%ectivul se plasea&; de obicei >naintea substantivului pe care >l determin;: ) red car. ) smart la."er. $ ban/ account. This contract. Jn limba engle&; ad%ectivul nu se acord; cu substantivul >n gen, num;r @i ca&. 'l are exact aceia@i form; pentru singular @i plural. e.g. ) beauti*ul girl. -.o beauti*ul girls. Oumele de A;ri, naAionalitatea, limba vorbit; >ntr o anumit; regiune se scriu >ntotdeauna cu ma%uscule:

32

e.g. ? am a !omanian citizen, but, as ?%m .orking in the banking s"stem, ? can speak -nglish !er" .ell. Nrdinea ad%ectivelor este urm;toarea: 9# 1entru obiecte: num;rul* calit;Aile* vechimea* forma* culoarea* originea* materialul* ing* <substantivu l e.g. T,o beauti*ul. old. round. blac/. 0erman tables. G# 1entru fiinAe: num;rul* calit;Aile* m;rimea* vBrsta* originea* <substantivul e.g. Three beauti*ul. tall. young. !omanian girls. A*=e4t&<ele au t"e& !"a*e *e 4o0'a"a>&e : +oziti! atunci cBnd este descris un obiect sau un set de obiecte 0long, small, good, beautiful1. 7omparati! atunci cBnd compar;m calit;Aile unui obiect sau set de obiecte cu cele ale unui alt obiect sau set de obiecte 0longer, smaller. better, more

33

beautiful1 @i 8uperlati! 0the longest, the smallest, the best, the most beautiful1. Jn funcAie de modul >n care ad%ectivele formea&; gradele de comparaAie ele sunt >mp;rAite >n adjecti!e neregulate @i adjecti!e regulate, acestea din urm; fiind la rBndul lor >mp;rAite >n ad%ective scurte -ad%ectivele monosilabice @i ad%ectivele bisilabice terminate >n y, precum @i cBteva alte ad%ective de origine germanic; terminate >n ow, er, le, etc. -happ", "ello., gentle, cle!er, common, handsome, narro., pleasant, quiet, simple, stupid1 @i ad%ective lungi -plurisilabice#. 'xist; cBteva ad%ective care nu au grade de comparaAie, cum ar fi: 8uperior, unique, e<ceptional, glorious, great, mar!ellous, splendid, supreme, .onderful, ultramodern, matchless, absent, equal, left, opposite, right, single, etc. /ormarea comparativului @i superlativului unui ad%ectiv urmea&; aceste reguli: 9# 9$Y'4T.='+' (43KT' 1NZ.T.= $9T I2N= :$++@ 4N219K9T.= $9T -! 0-:$N1 I2N=-! 0-:$N1 :$++?-! 0-:$N1 (31'K+9T.= -:E $9T -1T -:E I2N=-1T -:E :$++?-1T

G# 9$Y'4T.='+' +3OS.

3,

1NZ.T.= $9T 6E$O-?FOI EU+EN8?>E

4N219K9T.= 23!- $9T 0-:$N1 23!0-:$N1 23!0-:$N1 6E$O-?FOI EU+EN8?>E

(31'K+9T.= -:E 231T $9T -:E 231T 6E$O-?FOI -:E 231T EU+EN8?>E

.at; >n cele ce urmea&; schema integral; a comparaAiei ad%ectivelor: P345T56 good @ou are happy beauti*ul %32P)!)T56 &4 'e inferioritate @ou are as7so 14 'e egalitate @ou are as good happy beauti*ul as "our sister not good happy beauti*ul as "our sister

30

C4 'e su+erioritate @ou are 18P-!9)T56 &4 Relati. @ou are the best happiest more beauti*ul 61 $bsolut @ou are very The .rregular 9d%ectives ,OZITI: 0ood 0bun, bunG,buni, bune1 :ad 0rGu1 2uch 0mult, multG1 2any 0mulFi, multe1 9ittle 0puFin, puFinG1 COM,ARATI: SU,ERLATI: good happy :eauti*ul girl in .orld the better happier more beauti*ul than "our sister

:etter 0mai bun1 The best 0cel mai bun1 ;orse 0mai rGu1 The ,orst 0cel mai rGu1 2ore 0mai mult1 The most 0cel mai mult1 2ore 0mai mulFi1 The most 0cei mai 9ess 0mai puFin1 mulFi1 The least 0cel mai puFin1

38

3ld 0bGtrEn, !echi1

3lder 0mai The oldest 0cel mai !echi,mai bGtrEn1 !echi, cel mai bGtrEn1 -lder 0mai Hn !ErstG, mai mare, referitor la persoane din aceeaKi familie fraFi, surori1 The eldest 0cel mai mare, cel mai bGtrEn, referitor la persoane din aceeaKi familie fraFi, surori1

Far 0depGrtat1

Farther 0mai The *arthest 0cel mai depGrtat pentru depGrtat ca distanFe1 distanFG1 Further 0mai The *urthest 0cel mai depGrtat pentru HndepGrtat folosit spaFiu Ki timp; mai ales temporal1 suplimentar, adiFional1

3?

9ate 0tErziu1

9ater 0mai tErziu1 The latter 0cel de al doilea, ultimul din doi, folosit mai ales Hn sintagma, The *ormer< the latter1

The latest 0cel mai tErziu, cel mai recent, cel mai nou1 The last 0ultimul final dupG el nu mai urmeazG nimic altce!a din aceeaKi serie1

=ear 0apropiat1

=earer 0mai apropiat1

The nearest 0cel mai apropiat1 The ne>t 0urmGtorul dintr o serie1

).). ,6"a e 7&t6 A*=e4t&<e

[ 'xpresia Lcu cEt....cu atEt? este exprimat; >n limba engle&; prin folosirea comparativelor de superioritate ale respectivelor ad%ective, precedate de prepo&iAia the, -he more, the merrier. @ 7u cat suntem mai multi, cu atat e mai !esel. -he longer the da"s are. the .armer the" become.D 7u cat sunt zilele mai lungi, cu atat de!in mai calde -he more beautiful, the better. D 7u cat sunt mai frumoase, cu atat e mai bine. [ 'xpresia Ldin ce Hn ce mai....L este redat; prin repetiAia comparativului de superioritate: 3C

@our results are better and better.D Rezultatele tale sunt din ce in ce mai bune. 8he becomes more and more beautiful.D Ea de!ine din ce in ce mai frumoasa. $s .inter comes, the .eather is colder and colder. D 7and !ine iarna, !remea e din ce in ce mai rece.

A4t&<&t% 1 1. %omplete the sentences ,ith adjectives *rom the bo>$ 1trong. e>pensive. cheap. much. short. many. busy. e>pensive. practical. adeAuate. per*ect. legal. *urther. latter. ". The rooms at the Kit& are very.... 2. Uow... airports are in Oew VorkF 3. . think . need some... information if you want me to help you. ,. Nf the two solutions he preferred the former to the... 0. Uer action was.... 8. +etWs eat here. . donWt have much money and itWs reallyX ?. Uer plan is very..., but his is %ust... C. Uow... does a hotel room cost F D. The hotel is very... "E.. lent him a... sum of money.

3D

"".Te can walk from here. .tWs only a... distance. "2.Uis measures were... "3./ather comes home late because he is a very... man.

2. Put the adjectives in brac/ets into the correct *orm$ ". These books are not... -expensive# as the other ones. 2. The -many#... people who have a problem with cash flow phone the bank and ask for an overdraft. 3. 9 personal loan is often a -good#... idea because the repayments are structured over a pre arranged period. ,. (tore cards are generally -expensive#... then other credit cards and can only be used in shops which offer them. 0. Vour homework is -bad#... than hers. 8. This hotel manager was the -polite#... we had ever met. ?. (ir Tinston 4hurchill was the -faimous#... 'nglishman in the Torld Tar ... C. \The more, the -merry#...\ says an 'nglish proverb. D. Gooks are... and... -expensive# nowadays. "E.+eviWs make the... -famous# trousers in the world. "".Vour... -old# sister is my... -old# friend. "2.4ertain regions produce... -much# petroleum than they consume, and others consume... -much# than they produce. "3.9frica produces more than twice what it consumes, and

,E

the 2iddle 'ast is the -big#... producer of all. ",.Uowever, those two regions are tied for consuming the... -small# amount. "0.'urope consumes about ?2] more than it produces. .t is one of the... -large# producers but it is also the -large# consumer of all the regions.

2. Fill in the blan/s ,ith the right ,ord. %hoose bet,een the *ollo,ing ,ords$ 0u46? 0an%? (e7? a (e7? l&ttle? a l&ttle1 ". Te have... friends here. 2. There arenWt... %obs for middle aged persons. 3. 2ike would like... milk in his tea. ,. 9s we didnWt have... time, we had to take a taxi. 0. Oowadays... people have servants in their houses. 8. (he didnWt spend... money on her holiday. ?. This text is rather difficult. (he has had to look up... new words in the dictionary. C. . donWt read... books because . donWt have... spare time. D. Ue couldnWt give me... information. "E.Vou must hurry. There is... time left. "".=ery... experiments have been done to find out the cause of that accident. "2.. have... friends that . can trust, but not....

,"

"3.. had... time to spare, so . browsed round a bookshop. ",..t didnWt cost... "0.Nnly... of the committee members went to the meeting. "8.3nfortunately, the solicitor has very... clients.

Rea* an* t"an late t6e (ollo7&n! te8t1 ?dentit" and solidarit" .dentity is one of the most important ingredients for the
cohesion of the human society. Uumans need to feel about themselves that they belong to the same group and that can be made only by discovering the same characteristics in their behavior, in the language, the knowledge and the culture, so that this identity creates the solidarity of the human group. Te can not draw the existence of human race, the civili&ation and the transformation from autonomous individuals or ha&ardous and random couples to a structured group and to a well established society, with human civili&ed institutions without the solidarity component. .dentity is the ingredient that makes humans recogni&e a responsibility towards the other individuals from their group, or the structured group as a whole, or the human society or, at the end, the solidarity with the entire humanity and mankind. Kesponsibility makes humans behave sympathetic with their neighbors.

?dentit" and so!ereignt" The identityWs role in bringing people together and creating
responsibility, coagulating human societies was politically

,2

speculated by group of interests who wanted the power and the legitimacy to rule. /irst, it was the animal behavior making the human to draw o territory and a group of friends who recogni&ed a certain authority, personali&ed by a specific individual.

9fter this civil and laic power, the human society needed t o
e x p r e s s the fears and to explain the things of life, so that a religious power appeared, organically connected to the human society. The historical fight between the two powers made the humanity establish the institution of sovereignty, with its divine origin. The soveieignty legitimated a political power with a divine force, including the infallibility of the leaders. (tep by step, the evolution of human society and institutions, the evolution of the state, led to many changcs in the composition ol the sovereignty institution, which became what it is today. This rule regarding the state sovereignty still represents a primary principle of the 3nited Oations and of the current organi&ation of the world.

?dentit" and nationalism Gut these religious and divine characteristics of sovereignty contain a great power, having the capacity of legitimating political re^uests. There have always been leaders or interest groups who wanted to take over the power. Thus, this makes them speculate the identity and the attributes of sovereignty for political reasons. Therefore, if a certain group of interests wants more power than it can be obtained through democratic system, it can very easily speculate the creation of a certain identity that legitimates the re^uest of a state, connected to a certain nation created over night. This is the case of every nationalism that sees in identity the differences between a certain privileged group and the rest of the population of an existing state. .t is very easy to demand more political rights and power when you are dealing with a state where the

,3

democratic laws are not well established and the democracy does not function, where some ethnic or minority groups are not included in the process of decision and the governance is ^uestionable. The result of such challenge of the current state government, under the above mentioned circumstances could lead to war, when the conflict masters are also involved with their own interests. -he e<perience of earl" .arning in identit" conflicts The experiences of Testern Galkans, of ethnic conflicts in the former (oviet 3nion and in 4aucasus make the experts establish many programs for solving ethnic conflicts, for preventing identity conflicts and establish a network of early warning The special purpose of these programs is to prevent every difference that can be speculated by political groups for destabili&ing an existing state, especially within the democ racies and economies in transition. The (tability 1act in (outh 'astern 'urope sustained by the 'uropean 3nion, the (''41 and other institutions, programs created by 3O$1 and the 414 of N(4' and a number of OSNWs are very efficient nowadays, leading to an important experience in dealing with this kind of problems. Those problems arc not solved yet, but a special reaction plan in dealing with emerging identity conflicts is being elaborated. The present study presents the main actions on an identity conflict agenda, a very profound radiography of the origin of identity conflicts mechanism and the phases of sovereignty in the history, that makes this institution so important, credible and indispensable as a tool in identity conflicts, a thorough overview on the types of nationalism that speculates identity

,,

differences for political reasons. Te have also focused on the current solutions to this problem: a presentation of the political, economic and social factors of confidence and stability building, the thesis on ethnic conflict prevention, the issue of refugees, the experiences of The 3O Uigh 4ommissioner for refugees and the N(4' Uigh 4ommissioner for Oational 2inorities and the role of non governmental organi&ations. +ast but not least, we present some results of the common pro%ect theory within the (tability 1act actions. A4t&<&t% ) 1. %hose the right *orm o* the personal pronouns given in brac/ets$ ". 2y husband and -.Qme# have %ust come back from the theatre. 2. . am writing a letter to -sheQher#. 3. .f you see Yane, please give -sheQher# my best regards. ,. . sent -theyQthem# a present for their wedding. 0. Tell -hisQhim# to come home as soon as possible. 8. $onWt ask -usQours# so many ^uestions, we are very tired now. ?. -TeQ3s#, the Komanians are very proud of our past. C. ThatWs very kind of -theyQthem#. D. 1ass -meQ.# the bread, please:

,0

"E.Te wanted to know where -theyQthem# lived.

2. Fill in the blan/s ,ith the corresponding Possessive Pronouns or )djectives$ ". .t seems that my secretary is more efficient thanX 2. (he offered... services. 3. Srannie canWt find... glasses. ,. . always pay... bills on time. 0. (he is typing... reports and we are typing.... 8. Ue has left... book here. ?. .s this... opinionF C. Vou should use... pencil. D. They show 2ary... toys. "E.. like... 'nglish teacher.

2. Put in the corresponding !e*le>ive or -mphatic Pronouns$ ". The princess used to spend long hours looking at... in the mirror. 2. Ue washes... every morning. 3. The light in the gate switches... off after two or three minutes. ,. 2y brother... withdrew the money from the Gank.

,8

0. 9s she was not hungry she had to force... to eat. 8. The first condition to be successful is that you should believe inX ?. Te were surprised when we saw... in that large mirror. C. Oobody helped me. . did it by... D. 4hildren should behave... when their parents have guests invited. "E.. feel very lonely when . have supper by...

. 8se the appropriate interrogative-pronouns or adjectives in the Auestions belo,$ ". 9t... time do you get up in the morningF 2. ... is that beautiful ladyF 3. ... is your favourite writerF ,. ... colour is his new tieF 0. ... does this car belong toF 8. ... of the tourists have visited Gritish 2useumF ?. ... car is thatF C. ... university is the best in your countryF D. ... did you go to the theater withF "E.... are you looking atF

". Fill in the blan/s ,ith the corresponding !elative

,?

Pronouns ,here necessary$ ". . donWt know... was this painting painted by. 2. 9lthough reliable enough, the partners... you are waiting for have not arrived yet. 3. .s this the man... sold you the 14F ,. Ue said that... frightened him was the appalling silence of the place. 0. The man... car was hit by that lorry is our manager. 8. The dog... is under that tree is very old. ?. . couldnWt remember the number of my own car... made the police suspicious. C. The woman... is crossing the street is our neighbour. D. The child to... you gave that toy was very happy. "E.This is the man... son won the contest. "".X rich you are you canPt buy happiness.

B. Fill in the blan/s ,ith the appropriate inde*inite pronouns or adjectives$ ". . have... sugar and my neighbour hasnWt either. 2. ... of us will be very pleased to help you. 3. $o you have... to addF ,. Ue must be... very important. 0. ... of us has ever heard such an interesting story.

,C

8. $onWt you reali&e that... detail is important in this caseF ?. ... passenger for this flight must have his belongings examined at the airport. C. . think thereWs... at the door. Tere you expecting... F D. . want to show you... interesting. "E.... can never say for sure what is right and what is wrong. "".Nne of my sisters is a lawyer,... is an accountant. "2.There are... apples left* you have eaten... of them. "3.Ue made two proposals, but... was accepted. ",.Oeither 2ike... his wife has an alibi*... of them might be the killer. "0.. have a very good wine. Tould you like... F "8.There are several books on the table*... of them are in 'nglish. "?.Yames asked me for... money but . couldnWt give him... "C.. canWt see my wallet*... must have taken it. "D..f you have no money, . can lend you... 2E.... hour they are getting closer to the end of the %ourney. 2".This time . canWt do... for you. 22.There isnWt... to be said regarding that matter as only... details are still unclear.

C. Fill in the blan/s ,ith the corresponding pronouns$

,D

". Te helped... with some hot tea and felt much better afterwards. 2. Ue lost his key and +aura lostX 3. 9fter getting up . dress... and rush to my office. ,. ThereWs a bed in the bedroom and... one in the guest room. 0. 2y friend... is a very experienced climber is now in an expedition in the 9lps. 8. 2y girl has made this cake all by... ?. Ue is... best friend. C. $o you think... will rain today F D. 2y brother has two girls: one is a teacher and the... is an economist. "E.The girl... skirt is short is my classmate. ""..f . were you .Wd give up both solutions*... is reasonable.

Sel(/e<aluat&on te t 1. Translate into -nglish$ ". 4heltuielile acestei companii au fost din ce >n ce mai sc;&ute >n ultimii ani. 2. 9ceast; companie a cheltuit anul trecut mai mult decBt >@i putea permite.

0E

3. 1rofitul de anul trecut al acestei firme a fost mai mare decBt cel de anul acesta. ,. 9nul acesta inflaAia a fost ceva mai mare decBt anul trecut. 0. _ie >Ai este mult mai fric; decBt ei c; preAurile vor deveni din ce >n ce mai mari. 8. 4ambia este una dintre cele mai vechi metode de plat;. ?. 1roducAia de anul acesta a companiei noastre este mult mai ridicat; decBt cea din anii precedenAi. C. Ganca 9ngliei este mult mai veche decBt Ganca OaAional; a KomBniei. D. 9nul acesta s au emis mai multe acAiuni decBt anul trecut. "E.9m nevoie de informaAii suplimentare >nainte s; plec mai departe. "".9m doi prieteni, 9ndrei @i .oan: cel dintBi este contabil, cel de al doilea este avocat. "2.'ra din ce >n ce mai speriat c; nu va putea s; termine anali&a financiar; la timp. "3.4u cBt sunt termenii mai avanta%o@i, cu atBt este mai greu de obAinut contractul. ",. /ratele meu cel mai mare este economist @i lucrea&; de doi ani >ntr o banc;. "0.Meful meu vine >ntotdeauna primul @i pleac; >ntotdeauna ultimul.

2. Translate into -nglish$

0"

". 2ai doriAi ni@te vinF $a, doar puAin v; rog. 2. 'ste mai cald a&i decBt a fost ieri. 3. $up; ce @i au luat r;mas bun unul de la cel;lalt, cei doi turi@ti @i au v;&ut de drum. ,. (e spune c; ea vorbe@te cinci limbi str;ine. 0. ' timpul s; >nAelegeAi astfel de lucruri. 8. 9veAi gri%; de voi, copii : ?. .oan >nsu@i Ai a scris @i Ai a expediat scrisoarea cu ceva timp >n urm;. C. =ine o vreme cBnd e bine s; lupAi @i s; obAii ceea ce vrei. D. 4e ai reu@it s; afli la poliAie F "E.4ele trei fete se a@teptau una pe cealalt; la ie@irea din @coal;. "".'u >nsumi am >ncercat s; o fac s; >nAeleag; c; nu are dreptate. "2.$up; ce s au uitat unul la altul cei doi copii au i&bucnit >n rBs. "3.9 cui este aceast; carteF

3. Translate into -nglish$ ". Tira%ele presei T= sunt de &ece ori mai ridicate >n /ranAa decBt cele ale marilor cotidiene naAionale.

02

2. Televi&iunea a dat o lovitur; foarte grea presei scrise deturnBnd >n folosul s;u grosul bugetelor pentru publicitatea destinat; marelui public. 3. +ocurile de afi@a% obi@nuite, pe care se percepe tax;, sunt adesea acoperite cu afi@e Lviolente\. ,. 1rocentul posesorilor de aparate radio -DD]# este mai mare decBt cel al deAin;torilor de televi&oare. 0. Keclama de la cinema se reAine de patru ori mai mult decBt cea de la televi&iune. 8. $e@i relativ ieftin; >n raport cu num;rul de persoane la care a%unge, publicitatea televi&at; este foarte scump; dac; privim din perspectiva sumei de bani necesare. ?. $oar marile firme >@i pot permite reclame televi&ate pentru a @i l;uda produsele. C. N anumit; parte a presei nu accept; ca difu&area sa s; fie m;surat; sau controlat;. D. Tinerii, or;@enii @i persoanele >nst;rite merg cel mai mult la cinema. "E.1entru unii manageri de canale T= contea&; numai audienAa. "".3nul dintre re&ultatele cele mai evidente este sc;derea calit;Aii programelor. "2.3n alt re&ultat este proliferarea %ocurilor televi&ate stupide @i abruti&ante.

. Translate into -nglish$

03

". Ou trebuie s; se confunde tira%ul cu difu&area. 2. Ou toate exemplarele tip;rite sunt >n mod obligatoriu vBndute. ". 4ostul spaAiului publicitar este costul care trebuie achitat pentru inserareaQdifu&area mesa%ului de c;tre orice mi%loc de comunicare >n mas;. 2. Kata de circulaAie, care este foarte sc;&ut; pentru cotidiene -mai puAin de dou;#, este, dimpotriv;, ridicat; pentru reviste -3, , sau mai multe#. 3. Kata este de asemenea foarte ridicat; >n mediile industriale @i studenAe@ti -biblioteci#. ,. 1resa scris; este singurul mi%loc de comunicare >n mas; care face posibil; argumentarea pe larg. 0. JntrucBt revistele sunt r;sfoite foarte frecvent, reclamele lor cB@tig; proporAional >n audienA;. 8. 9spectul calitativ al publicului este repre&entat de caracteristicile sale socio economice, socio demografice @i de obiceiurile sale de consum. ?. N combinaAie ideal; trebuie s; permit; punerea >n aplicaAie a unor suporturi publicitare care se bucur; de o mare credibilitate. "E.'a trebuie de asemenea s; m;reasc; la maximum acoperirea individual; a audienAei Aint;. "".(cara de eficienA; a unui astfel de suport publicitar este proporAia din Ainta atins; care aparAine audienAei totale @i care corespunde audienAei relevante.

0,

"2.4umularea audienAei indic; dup; cBte inserAii se consider; c; s a atins cel puAin o dat; audienAa total; a unui suport publicitar.

#ey (e>ercise 3)$ ". The circulation figures of the T= press are ten times as high in /rance as those of the ma%or naAional dailies. 2. T= has dealt the printed press a terrible blow by capturing the bulk of general public advertising. 3. Kegular posters, on which a charge is levied, are often pasted over with \wild\ posters. ,. The e^uipment rate for radio sets -DD]# is even higher than the one for T= sets. 0. The recall rate for cinema advertising is four times as high as for T= ads. 8. 9lthough relatively low priced in relation to the number of people reached, T= advertising is very expensive in terms of the amount of money needed. ?. Nnly large advertisers can afford T= ads to extol their products. C. (ome press media refuse to have their circulation monitored and measured. D. 4inema goers are to be found mainly among young people, urban dwellers and affluent citi&ens. "E./or some managers of T= channels, the number of viewers is all that counts.

00

"".Nne of the most obvious results is the downgrading of programmes. "2.9nother conse^uence is the boom of stupid and debasing T= games.

#ey (e>ercise )$ ". Nne should not confuse print run and circulation. 2. 9ll printed copies are not necessarily sold. ". The cost of advertising space is the price to be paid for the message to be inserted inQrun by any medium. 2. The pass on readership rate, which is very low for dailies -less than two# is on the contrary high for maga&ines -3, , or more#. 3. The rate is also very high in industry, and among students -libraries#. ,. The printed press is the only medium in which arguments can be developed at length. 0. 9s maga&ines are very fre^uently leafed through, their advertisements gain proportionate exposure. 8. The ^ualitative measurement of the audience is represented by its socio economic and socio demographic features, its consumption pattems. ?. 9n ideal combination should enable to feature media that en%oy high credibility.

08

"E..t should also maximi&e the individual coverage of the target audience. "".The efficiency scale of such a medium is the proportion of the target being reached that belongs to the overall audience and corresponds to the addressable audience. "2.9udience cumulation indicates after how many insertions one considers that the overall audience of a medium has been reached at least once.

0?

III. THE :ERB .TENSES AND MOODS@ 2.1. Ten e an* A 'e4t
.t is generally accepted that the word T.2' stands for the concept with which all mankind is familiar, divided into past, present and future. 9nd, one must also underline that it is something independent from language. Gy T'O(' we understand that correspondence between the form of the verb and our concept of time. 9(1'4T is the manner in which a verbal action is experienced or regarded. .f the action is complete, the simpleQcommonQindefinite aspect is used. .f it is in progress at a given moment, the continuousQprogressiveQexpanded aspect is used. .t must be shown that T.2' is not the only concept rendered by the tense of the verb. T'O(' may also express the completeness or incompleteness of an action which is or was still on its way.

2.). ,"e ent Ten e S&0'le

/NK2: $ffirmati!e, .QyouQweQthey read UeQsheQit reads ?nterrogati!e, $o .QyouQweQthey readF $oes heQsheQit readF

0C

Negati!e, .QyouQweQthey do not readQdonPt read UeQsheQit does notQdoesnPt read

3(': ". to express eternalQgeneral truths, or to make statements of general validity: e.g. The sun rises in the 'ast and sets in the Test. Tood floats on water. 2. to express repeatedQhabitualQpermanent actions. (uch actions are usually accompanied by the adverbs: e!er" da"V.eekVmonthV"ear, e!er, ne!er, al.a"s, often, sometimes, seldom, occasionall", usuall", t.ice a .eek, etc. e.g. The solicitor always helps a person who needs the assistance of a law for a certain problem. -9vocatul nepledant intotdeauna il a%uta pe cel ce are nevoie de asistenta %uridica pentru o anumita problema.# The exit polls suggest that the president faces a 4ongress with a narrow but hostile Kepublican ma%ority in both Uouse and (enate. -(onda%ul la urne arata ca presedintele se confrunta cu un 4ongres republican nema%oritar, dar ostil, in 4amera si in (enat.# 9t every trial, the %udge conducts the proceedings and points out the matters. -+a fiecare proces, %udecatorul conduce actiunea si punctea&a problemele.#

0D

. find it hard to believe that he does not want to appeal to the Uigh 4ourt of Yustice. -.mi vine greu sa cred ca nu vrea sa apele&e la .nalta 4urte de Yustitie. That do you think of this barristerF -4e cre&i despre acest avocet pledantF# 3. in step by step instructions or demonstrations: e.g. /irst, you listen to the prosecutor, then you cross examine the witnesses. -2ai intai, il asculti pe procurer, apoi audie&i martorii.#

2.2. ,"e ent Ten e Cont&nuou

/NK2: the verb to be! < ='KG <ing $ffirmati!e, . am reading ?nterrogati!e, 9m . readingF 9re youQweQthey readingF

VouQweQthey are reading UeQsheQit is reading Negati!e, . am notQ.Pm not reading

.s heQsheQit readingF

VouQweQthey are notQarenPt reading UeQsheQit is notQisnPt reading O8E, ". to express an action started before the present moment, which is in progress at the moment of speaking and which will terminate in the future. This form of the verb indicates

8E

that the duration of the action is limited. The feeling of immediate present is often emphasi&ed by %ust! and now!: e.g. Oow, we are learning for our advanced civil law exam. -9cum, noi invatam pentru examenul de drept civil aprofundat# 9t this moment, The 4ourt of 9ssi&es is considering the facts which have been presented. -.n acest moment, 4urtea cu Yuri anali&ea&a faptele ce au fost pre&entate.# 2. to express temporary actions: toda", this .eekVmonthV"ear e.g. This month she is taking legal action against two persons. -+una aceasta ea da in %udecata doua personae.# Te always watch ^ui& games, but this week we are watching variety shows. -Ooi intotdeauna privim %ocuri televi&ate, dar saptamana aceasta privim spectacole de varietati.# >erbs not used in their continuous aspect, ". =erbs of feeling:. feel, hear, notice, see, smell, taste e.g. The soup tastes delicious. . can see the plane now. This bar of soap smells wonderful. Uowever, the verbs to smell!, to taste!, to feel! may be found in the continuous aspect when they imply a voluntary action on the part of the sub%ect: e.g. . am smelling this bar of soap. (he is tasting the soup now.

8"

Gesides, the verb to see! may also be used in the continuous aspect, but with different meanings: to meet b" appointment, to !isit, to ha!e hallucinations. 2. =erbs of mental activity: to agree, distrust, doubt, find, foresee, forget, guess, imagine, kno., mean, mind, remember, recognize, recollect, regard, suppose, trust, understand, etc. 3. =erbs expressing wish: to desire, intend, .ant, .ish. ,. =erbs expressing attitudes, feelings, emotional states: to abhor, adore, detest, dislike, displease, like, lo!e, hate, please, prefer etc. 0. =erbs expressing possession: belong, ha!e, hold, keep, o.e, o.n, possess. 8. =erbs expressing a state, a condition: to appear, to be, consist of, contain, differ, deser!e, equal, e<ist, resemble, seem, suit, etc. ?. 2iscellaneous verbs: to compare, e<pect, matter, suffice .t is important to mention that the adverbs of fre^uency and indefinite time -al.a"s, often, seldom, generall", e!er, ne!er , etc.# may be used with the continuous aspect, denoting a modal charge, i.e. emotional charge -%oy, admiration, irritation#. Therefore, 2N$9+.TV is the attitude of the speaker towards the communication. e.g. Vou are always drinking and driving: - . am angry at that person# I .ntotdeauna conduci in stare de ebrietate: The Uome (ecretary is always buying old books and paintings: -2inistrul de .nterne intotdeauna cumpara carti si tablouri vechi:#

82

2.3. ,a t Ten e S&0'le

9ccording to the way in which they form the 1ast Tense and the 1ast 1articiple, 'nglish verbs are divided into "e!ula" and &""e!ula". Kegular verbs are all those verbs that make the 1ast Tense and the 1ast 1articiple by adding the suffix ed to their (hort .nfinitives. This ending may be pronounced either Q dV after vowels and QbQ, QgQ, QlQ, QmQ, QnQ, QvQ, Q&Q, or QtQ after QkQ, QpQ, QsQ, or QidQ after QtQ or QdQ. .rregular verbs are all those verbs that do not make the 1ast Tense and the 1ast 1articiple by adding the suffix ) ed, but have their own forms: to begin began begun* to gi!e ga!e gi!en* etc. /NK2: $ffirmati!e: .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey thought thinkF Negati!e, .QyouQheQshoeQitQweQthey did notQdidnPt think O8E, ". To express an action or state wholly completed at some moment or during some period in the past. .n fact, the (imple 1ast Tense is a narrative tense. .n this case, a past tense adverbial such as .hen, then, "esterda", last .eek, last month, last "ear, that da", the other da", once, in ())R, ago, etc. occurs in the sentence: .nterrogative: $id .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey

83

e.g. Vesterday, she told us about the hereditary peerage during the course. -.eri, la curs, ne a povestit despre aristocratia ereditara# The mission turned out to be more difficult than expected. -2isiunea s a dovedit a fi mai dificila decat ne asteptam# . read about this legislative body last year. -9nul trecut am citit despre acest organ legislativ.# $id you try to talk to the plaintiffF -9i incercat sa vorbesti cu reclamantulF .t is very important to point out that, if there is a past tense in the main clause, we have to use a past tense in the main clause, too: e.g. Uow did you know . .as hereF -4um ai stiut ca sunt aiciF# The 4ounsel for the 1rosecution tried to prove in court that the accused .as l"ing. -9vocatul acu&arii a incercat sa dovedeasca in fata curtii ca acu&atul minte.# 2. to express a past habit or a repeated action in the past* e.g. Sroups of neighbouring states often seemed to vote the same way. -Srupuri de satate invecinate pareau adesea ca votea&a in acelasi fel.#

2.A. ,a t Ten e Cont&nuou

/NK2: wasQwere < ='KG < ing $ffirmati!e, ?nterrogati!e,

8,

.QheQsheQit was thinking

Tas .QheQsheQit thinkingF

TeQyouQthey were thinking Tere weQyouQthey thinkingF Negati!e, .QheQsheQit was notQ wasnPt thinking VouQweQthey were notQ werenPt thinking O8E, ". To express an action in progress at a certain moment in the past: at this time "esterda"Vlast "ear, b" R o%clock "esterda", etc e.g. The 1resident of the Uouse of 4ommons was speaking in front of the 83E members at this time yesterday. -1resedintele 4amerei 4omunelor vorbea in fata celor 83E de membri ieri,pe vremea aceasta# Ue was hoping to be the first 9merican re elected president since the war. -(pera sa fie primul presedinte american reales de la ra&boi si pana acum.# 2. to indicate that an action was going on -like a background# at a time when something else, more important or more dramatic -the foreground# took place: e.g. Then . called her, she told me that she was talking to the defendant.-4and am sunat o, mi a spus ca vorbea cu inculpatul.# 3. to show that two or more actions were going on at the same time in the past: e.g. The 1ublic 1rosecutor was presenting the facts while the two detectives were listening very carefully. -1rocurorul

80

1ublic pre&enta faptele, in timp ce cei doi detectivi ascultau foarte atent.#

2.B. ,"e ent ,e"(e4t S&0'le

/NK2: haveQhas < 1ast 1articiple -the 3rd form of the verb# $ffirmati!e, ?nterrogati!e; Uave .QyouQweQthey thoughtF

.QyouQweQthey have thought UeQsheQit has thought Negati!e,

Uas heQsheQit thoughtF

.QyouQweQthey have notQhavenPt thought UeQsheQit has notQ hasnPt thought O8E, 9n action or state prior to the moment of speaking may be expressed both by the 1ast Tense and by the 1resent 1erfect. Gut, while the 1ast Tense presents the action without referring to the present moment, the 1resent 1erfect links that past action with the present. This means that when we have the 1ast Tense, we think of the time when something happened or we narrate a se^uence of events at a given time. Therefore, the 1resent 1erfect is used: ". when there is a resultQconse^uence into the present: e.g. . have not won the case and that is why . will not have too many clients from now on. -Ou am castigat ca&ul si de aceea nu voi avea prea multi clienti de acum inainte#

88

.t must be mentioned that the actions expressed by 1ast Tense (imple generally have no any conse^uence into the present. e.g. . did not win the case yesterday. -Ou am castigat ca&ul ieri# 2. when the action continues in the present and, perhaps, it will go on in the future: e.g. 2agistratesP 4ourts in 'ngland and Tales have had limited civil %urisdiction for many years. -4urtile 2agistratilor din 9nglia si Tara Salilor au %urisdictie limitata de multi ani.# 3. when we are not interested in the moment of the action, but in the action proper: e.g.The two voting systems in the 9merican presidential election have been alluded to. -( a facut alu&ie la cele doua sisteme de votare de la alegerile pre&identiale americane.# They have been at the 4laims $epartment. -9u fost la Giroul de Keclamatii.# Senerally, when the moment is mentioned, 1ast Tense (imple is used: e.g. They were at the 4laims $epartment .hen the" .orked at that compan". ,. with uncompleted .eekVmonthV"ear: periods of time: toda", this

e.g.The employer has filed a claim today. -9nga%atorul a depus o reclamatie asta&i#

8?

.t should be noted that 1ast Tense (imple always expresses completed periods of time: e.g. . always read many plays when . was a student. -.ntotdeauna am citit multe piese cand eram student# The adverbs used with The 1resent 1erfect (imple are: just, alread", al.a"s, "et, latel", recentl", up to no.Dso farDtill no.Duntil no., ho. long, toda", this .eekVmonth etc.

2.C. ,"e ent ,e"(e4t Cont&nuou

F2R*, $ffirmati!e, ?nterrogati!e, Uave .QyouQweQthey been

.QyouQweQthey have been writing writingF UeQsheQit has been writing Negati!e,

Uas heQsheQit been writingF

.QyouQweQthey have notQhavenPt been writing UeQsheQit has notQhasnPt been writing O8E, ". Thile the 1resent 1erfect (imple implies that the attention is focused on the repetition or on the completion of an action, the 1resent 1erfect 4ontinuous emphasi&es the duration, the continuity of the action in the present: e.g. The employee has been waiting for the manager since "E oPclock. -9nga%atul il asteapta pe patron de la ora "E.EE.#

8C

The Gosnian 2uslims have been operating inside (ara%evo for a few months. -2usulmanii bosniaci operea&a in interiorul (ara%evo ului de cateva luni.# 2. (ince the 1resent 1erfect 4ontinuous describes an action which is apparently uninterrupted, it will not be employed when we mention the number of times a thing has been done or the number of things that have been done: e.g. Ue has been talking about his creditworthiness since 2 oPclock. -=orbeste despre credibilitatea sa de la ora 2.EE.# 6ut, Ue has talked about his creditworthiness three times since 2 oPclock. - 9 vorbit despre credibilitatea sa de trei ori de la ora 2.EE#

2.D. ,a t ,e"(e4t S&0'le

&. F2R*, $ffirmati!e .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey had openedQseen Negati!e .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey had not openedQseen. .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey hadnPt openedQseen. ?nterrogati!e Uad .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey openedQseenF Negati!e ?nterrogati!e

8D

Uad .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey not openedQseenF UadnPt .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey openedQseenF (.O8E, ". to express a past action that took place before a past moment or before another action in the past. .n fact it is the past e^uivalent of the 1resent 1erfect. Oote the use of .hen, before, no. that, as soon as, and after in some of these sentences containing a 1ast 1erfect: The boy explained that he had seen somebody in the garden. Then father came home, $ick had done his homework. /ather came after $ick had done his homework. $ick had done his homework before father came home. 2. to express duration up to a certain moment in the past: 3. with just, alread", hardl"Vbarel"Vscarcel" and no sooner, to show that the last action was finished a little time before another past action: 2ary told us that her brother had %ust left. Te did not know that he had already repaired his car. . had hardlyQscarcely entered the room when somebody knocked at the door. .n the last case, another from may also occur, although it is considered to be obsolete: UardlyQscarcely had . entered the room when somebody knocked at the door.

?E

Oo sooner had she seen the photos than she remembered everything about the accident. ,. with since and for when the point of reference is past: .n "DCE . had been a teacher for ten years. . knew she had not seen him since 4hristmas. 0. in .ndirect (peech, to express a 1ast Tense or a 1resent 1erfect from $irect (peech: . sa. this film last week,! Oick said. Oick said he had seen that film a week before. . ha!e never !isited 2adrid,! the boy explained. The boy explained he had never !isited 2adrid.

2.E. ,a t ,e"(e4t Cont&nuou

&. F2R*, $ffirmati!e, .QyouQheQsheQitQweQtheyQhad been speaking Negati!e, .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey had not speaking .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey hadnPt been speaking ?nterrogati!e, Uad .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey been speakingF Negati!e ?nterrogati!e,

?"

Uad .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey not been speakingF UadnPt .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey been speakingF (. O8E, ". to underline the continuity of a past action up to a past moment or %ust before it: The pupils had been reading the lesson for five minutes when the school master entered the classroom. 2. in .ndirect (peech, to express a 1ast Tense 4ontinuous or a 1resent 1erfect 4ontinuous from $irect (peech: . .as .atching T= at seven oPclock,! Uarry explained to his mother. Uarry explained to his mother that he had been .atching T= at ? oPclock. Te ha!e been learning 'nglish for two years,! the children told me.

A4t&<&t% 1
Rea* an* t"an late t6e (ollo7&n! te8t 1 MAGNA CARTA 9n island on the Thames between (taines and Tindsor had been chosen as the place of conference: the Ring encamped on one bank, while the barons covered the marshy flat, still known by the name of Kunnymede, on the other. Their

?2

delegates met on the island between them, but the negotiations were a mere cloak to cover YohnWs purpose of unconditioned submission. The Sreat 4harter was discussed, agreed to and signed in a single day -"2"0, Yune "8#. Nne copy of it still remains in the Gritish 2useum, in%ured by age and fire, but with the royal seal still hanging on the brown, shrivelled parchment. .t is impossible to ga&e without reference on the earliest monument of 'nglish free dom which we can see with our own eyes and touch with our own hands, the Sreat 4harter to which from age to age patriots have looked back as the basis of 'nglish liberty. Gut in itself the 4harter was no novelty, nor did it to establish any new constitutional principles. The character of Uenry the /irst formed the basis of the whole and the additions to it are for the most part formal recognition of the %udicial and administrative changes introduced by Uenry the (econd. Gut the vague expressions of the other characters were now changed for precise and elaborate provisions. The bounds of unwritten custom, which the older grants did little more then recognise, had proved too weak to hold the 9ngevins* and the baronage now threw them aside for the restraints of written law. .t is in this way that the Sreat 4harter marks the transition from the age of traditional rights, preserved in the nationWs memory and officially declared by the 1rimate, to the age of written legislation, of parliaments and statues, which was soon to come. The church had shown its power of self defence in the struggle over the interdict, and the clause that recognised its rights alone retained the older and general

?3

form. Gut all vagueness ceases when the 4harter passes on to deal with the rights of 'nglishmen at large, their right to %ustice, to security of person, to good government. \Oo freeman\, run the memorable article that lies at the base of the whole %udicial 'nglish system, \shall be sei&ed or imprisoned, or dispossessed, or outlawed, or in any way brought to ruin: we will not go against any man nor send against him, save by legal %udgement of his peers or by the law of the land\. \To no man will we sell\, runs other, or \delay, right or %ustice\. -9dapted from \9 (hort Uistory of the 'nglish 1eople\ by YK. Sreen#

A4t&<&t% ) 1. Put the verbs in brac/ets in the Past Tense (1imple or %ontinuous)$ ". . -to go# to school yesterday when -to see# a house on fire. 2. .t -to snow# heavily when he -to wake# up. 3. Ue -to remember# that his friend -to come# for lunch and -to decide# to prepare the meal. ,. Ue -to meet# her as he -to cross# the bridge. 0. Ue -to run# in the street when he -to fall# and -to break# his leg.

?,

8. Then . -to get up# this morning it -to be# so late that the sun -to shine# high in the sky. ?. \ That you -to do# between D.EE and "E.EE yesterdayF\ -to ask# the detective. C. Then . -to reach# the house my brothers -to discuss# about the holidays. D. Ue -not to see# me as he -to read# a book when . -to come# into the room. "E. (omebody -to play# 1aganini and all of us -to stop# to listen. "". 9 traffic warden -to stick# a parking ticket to my wind screen when . -to come# back to the car. "2. Te -to have# lunch when the telephone -to ring#. "3. . -to learn# 'nglish when . -to live# in 3(9. ",. 2y cousins -to arrive# %ust as the train -to leave# the station. "0. +iam -to say# that he -to come# to see me the next day.

). Translate into -nglish$ ". (oarele str;lucea puternic, p;s;rile cBntau, era o &i superb; de prim;var;. 2. 4ifra de afaceri a acestei companii anul trecut a fost de dou; ori mai mare decBt cea din anul precedent. 3. 4ine era proprietarul fermei pe care aAi vi&itat oF

?0

,. .eri pe vremea aceasta m; duceam la birou. 0. 9 plouat mult anul trecut >n KomaniaF 8. 'ra singur; la ora aceea pentru c; fratele ei era la @coal;, mama ei f;cea cump;r;turile iar tat;l ei lucra >n gradin;. ?. 4u cine vorbeai la telefon ieri cBnd am intrat >n camer;F C. .eri a plouat toat; &iua a@a c; am stat acas; @i m am uitat la televi&or.

3. Put the verbs in brac/ets in the Present Per*ect (1imple or %ontinuous)$ l. Te -to walk# ten kilometres. 2. The police -to look# for Gilly for three months. 3. Te -to walk# for three hours. ,. Gilly -to eat# ten ice creams. 0.Ue -to sleep# since ten oWclock, . think itWs time for him to wake up. 8. . -to work# for him for ten years. ?. .t -to rain# for ten hours. . hope it will stop till everybody gets cra&y: C. Ue -to hope# for a rise in salary for six months but he -not to dare# to ask for it yet. D. . -to try# to open this door for half an hour. "E. 2y sister -to change# a lot lately. "". Te -to wait# for (usan since dawn, but she -not to come# ?8

home yet. "2. Ue -to sleep# for three hours. "3. . -not to see# her for ages. ",. Ue -to throw# stones at the wrong windows. Uis friend lives next door. "0. Ue -to be# in prison for a year. "8. Vou -to stare# at me for 0 minutes: "?. Ue is not home, he %ust -to leave#. "C. . never -to read# such a beautiful story. Vou should publish it: "D. 2y friend -to translate# legislation since "DDC. 2E. . -to try# to get in touch with him for a week.

3. Translate into -nglish$ 1lanificarea mi%loacelor de comunicare 1entru a face publicitate >n mod eficient, nu este suficient; creativitatea. 1entru susAinerea unei campanii trebuie de asemenea selectate @i planificate mi%loacele de comunicare corespun&;toare. 1entru aceasta, trebuie ca >n primul rBnd s; fie eliminate mi%loacele de comunicare inadecvate, apoi trebuie s; fie selecAionate acelea care vor fi utili&ate @i, >n cele din urm;, trebuie s; fie evaluate diversele combinaAii >ntre mi%locul de comunicare principal al campaniei @i celelalte, cu scopul de a stabili combinaAia final;. 1rima etap; este relativ simpl;: unele mi%loace de

??

comunicare nu sunt adecvate >n anumite ca&uri -televi&iunea sau posterele pentru o campanie industrial;# sau sunt inter&ise prin lege -televi&iunea pentru b;uturi alcoolice, tutun, c;rAi...#. 4ea de a doua este mai delicat;, necesitBnd o cunoa@tere aprofundat; a caracteristicilor @i posibilit;Ailor fiec;rui mi%loc de comunicare >n parte. 3n anumit num;r de criterii vor fi de a%utor >n procesul de selecAie: ` 4ompatibilitatea cu publicul vi&at: sunt indispensabile datele furni&ate de anchetele >ntocmite de organi&aAiile de specialitate asupra structurii cantitative @i calitative a publicului. ` 4ompatibilitatea cu produsul: fie pentru c; sunt adaptate la marele public -televi&iunea# sau, dimpotriv;, la o piaA; LconfidenAial;\ -superspeciali&at;#* fie pentru c; mesa%ul trebuie s; a%ung; la cump;r;tori la un anumit moment -emisiuni difu&ate la ore tBr&ii de noapte pentru noctambulii consumatori de alcool#. ` 4ompatibilitatea cu tipul de comerciali&are: afi@a%ul este foarte adecvat pentru distribuAia >n mas;. ` (tilul mesa%elor: dac; vrem s; transmitem un mesa% conotativ, s; suger;m o idee sau o stare de spirit, vom alege radioul, televi&iunea sau chiar @i afi@a%ul. $ac; vrem, dimpotriv;, s; convingem, s; i facem pe oameni s; gBndeasc;, vom opta pentru un mesa% denotativ >n presa scris;. ` Timpul de reacAie preconi&at: unele mi%loace de

?C

comunicare provoac; o reacAie mai rapid; decBt altele, dar rapiditatea rimea&; adesea cu efemerul. #ey (e>ercise )$ Me*&a/'lann&n! To advertise effectively, creativeness is not enough. To build up a campaign, it is also necesAsary to select and plan the appropiate media. 9ccordingly, one must f>rst eliminate irrelevant media, then select those one is going to use, and lastly assess the various combinations that can be achieved between the main campaign medium and the other media, so as to determine the final mix. The f>rst step is relatively easy: some media are not suitable in such or such a case -T=, posters for an industrial campaign#, or are legally banned -T= for alcoholic drinks, tobacco, books...#. The second is more delicate, and re^uires an in depth knowledge of each mediumWs features and performances. 4ertain criteria will help in the selection process: ` 4ompatibility with the target audience: the data obtained from surveys conducted by professional organi&ations on the ^uantitative and ^ualitative structure of the audience are indispensable. ` 4ompatibility with the product: either because they are geared to the general public -T=#, or on the contrary to a \confidenAial\ market -hyper speciali&ed market#* or because purchasers have to be reached at specific moments -night programmes for alcohol drinking night owls#.

?D

` 4ompatibility with the type of commerciali&ation: posters are eminently suitable for mass distribution. ` (tyle of messages: if one wants to express connotative notions, to suggest an idea or a mood one will select radio, the cinema, television or even posters. .f, on the contrary one wants to convince, to get people to think, one will opt for a denotative message in the printed press. ` E:+e-ted res+onse=ti#e> so#e #edia generate faster rea-tions t*an ot*ers? but fast is often s9non9#ous /it* s*ort=li.ed@

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Sel(/a e 0ent te t 1 1. Put the verbs in brac/ets in the Past Tense (1imple or %ontinuous) or Present Per*ect (1imple or %ontinuous)$ ". . -to leave# here since "D?3 since my parents -to buy# this house. 2. Ue -to live# in Gucharest for two years and then he -to go# to 2angalia. 3. (hakespeare -to write# a lot of plays. ,. 2y secretary -to type# letters since C oWclock this morning but she -to finish# only three of them so far. 0. 2y children -to go# to cinema three hours ago and they -not to come# back yet. 8. . -not to see# him for twenty years, since we -to be# children. ?. . canWt go home because . -not to finish# my work yet. C. Ue -not to play# football since he -to break# his leg. D. Vou -to see# the moon last night F "E. They -to arrive# late last night, so . -not to tell# them the truth yet. " l. The (econd Torld Tar -to last# for four years. "2. Uow long you -to know# your bossF "3. There else -to be# since you -to arrive# in GucharestF ",. . -to listen# to your speech on radio yesterday, and . have to confess that . never -to listen# to something like this in all my life.

C"

"0. Vou -to go# there last weekF

2. Translate into -nglish. using Present Tense 1imple and %ontinuous. Past Tense 1imple and %ontinuous and Present Per*ect 1imple and %ontinuous$ l. /irma lui a dat faliment @i el nu @i a g;sit >nc; un alt post de contabil. 2. 3nde ai fostF 3. $e cBnd e@ti aiciF ,. O am mai v;&ut o de trei ani. 0. Oumeroase sucursale ale b;ncilor comerciale s au deschis >n ultimii doi ani. 8. 4laudiu a venit de la @coal; la ora "2 @i de atunci vorbe@te la telefon cu colegul lui de banc;. ?. 2ama tocmai a plecat. C. 9m cump;rat ma@ina noastr; cea nou; acum trei ani, dar de atunci am tot reparat cBte ceva la ea. D. O am v;&ut niciodat; Yamaica. "E. .eri pe cBnd veneam acas; a >nceput s; plou; torenAial. "". .n cursul ultimului an profitul net al societ;Aii s a dublat. "2. =; cunoa@teAi F "3. 9m primit aceast; carte cBnd am >mplinit &ece ani.

C2

",. 9nul trecut ai vi&itat 9nglia, acum doi ani ai vi&itat /ranAa iar acum abia te ai >ntors din Sermania. O ai obosit s; te tot plimbi F . Put the verbs in brac/ets into the Past Per*ect %ontinuous$ ". . -to work# for that company for a year when they merge with 42G in "DDD. 2. They -to sail# for a fortnight when they finally saw an island. 3. Gy that time she -to play# the piano for two hours. ,. Then she reached the office, the Seneral manger and the 9merican team -to negotiate# for an hour without reaching an agreement. 0. 9fter we -to run# for an hour we felt terribly hungry. 8. . wondered what she -to do# all that time. ?. .n "DD0 they -to live# in Komania for three years. C. Ue -to watch# T= for an hour when you got home, hadnWt heF D. Vou -to sleep# for three hours when . came in. "E. The manager -to wait# for you for half an hour when you finally arrived.

A. Rea* an* t"an late t6e (ollo7&n! te8t1 $. *ohammed knocks at classroom door Fran $brams C3

Vusuf .slam, formerly the pop star 4at (tevens, has been trying for more than "E years to get state funding for the 2uslim school he founded. Oow, at last, he glimpses success. Tomorrow, architects from the official /unding 9gency for (chools visit the .slamia school in north +ondon, to check whether its buildings and facilities make it worthy of state support. .f the school is successful ) the final decision rests with Sillian (hephard, the (ecretary of (tate for 'ducation ) .slamia, with 3EE pupils and a waiting list of ",EEE, will be the first state supported 2uslim school, en%oying similar status to hundreds of 4hurch of 'ngland and Koman 4atholic schools. /or many 2uslim parents, the day when their right to such schools is accepted cannot come soon enough, their growing assertiveness over how their children are educated has stretched their relations with secular schools to breaking point. 9s the new year began, ",0EE 2uslims in Test Vorkshire refused to send their children to the 4hristian assemblies which the law demands. 9 few weeks later it was revealed that a Girmingham primary school was offering 2uslim religious education after the withdrawal of most of its pupils from the 4hristian dominated lessons. 4onflicts such as these are bound to multiply. Gritain has about ,EE,EEE 2uslim children of school age and, according to some estimates, there could be a million by 2EEE. TodayPs 2uslim parents are demanding that school adapt to accommodate their beliefs, and they are doing so with a force and a confidence that their own parents lacked.

C,

-he ?ndependent, /ebruary ""th, "DD8

2.1F. Ga% o( E8'"e &n! 9utu"&t%

2.1F.1. 9utu"e Ten e 9utu"e Ten e S&0'le There are several different ways of expressing future actions in 'nglish, the choice among them is on whether the action is planned, intended, scheduled, expected, imminent, etc ". /NK2: A((&"0at&<e1 .Qwe shall.Qwill go. .PllQwePll go. VouQheQsheQitQthey will go. VouPllQhePllQshePllQitPllQtheyPll go. Ne!at&<e1 .Qwe shall notQshanPt go. .Qwe will notQwonPt go. VouQheQsheQitQthey will not go. VouQheQsheQitQthey wonPt go.

Inte""o!at&<e1 C0

 (hallQwill .Qwe goF Till youQheQsheQitQthey goF Ne!at&<e/Inte""o!at&<e1 (hall .Qwe not goF (hanPt .Qwe goF Till . youQheQsheQitQweQthey not goF TonPt .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey goF 2. 3(': 9s a rule, shall is used with the first person -singular and plural# and with the second and the third person, this form being also called 1ure /uture or 3ncolored /uture. .t usually occurs in formal style, although in normal speech, the forms ?%ll and ;e%ll probably be used. a# a neutral! future event, a prediction about the future, without any value of volition, promise, etc.: . shall go on an interesting trip next week. 2y friend .ill see a good film in the afternoon. b# a future action in the main clause of conditional sentences: . shall read this book if she gives it to me. .f the rain stops, the boys .ill pla" in the garden. .n certain contexts, the interrogative forms 8hall iV.e WA 9nd ;ill "ou WA may have different meanings. (o, 8hall ?V.e open this windowsF

C8

has the meaning: Tould you like meQus to open this windowF and: ;ill you help me with this translationF has the meaning: 9re you willing toQwould you like to help me with this translationF

9utu"e Ten e Cont&nuou ". /NK2: A((&"0at&<e1 .Qwe shallQwill be walking VouQheQsheQitQthey will be walking Ne!at&<e1 .Qwe shall not be walking .Qwe shanPt be walking .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey will not be walking . youQheQsheQitQweQthey wonPt be walking Inte""o!at&<e1 (hallQwill .Qwe be walkingF Till youQheQsheQitQthey be walkingF Ne!at&<e/Inte""o!at&<e1

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(hall .Qwe not we be walkingF (hanPt .Qwe be walkingF Till .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey not be walkingF TonPt .QyouQheQsheQitQweQthey be walkingF 2. 3(': ". to express a future activity or state that will begin before and will continue after a certain moment in the future: This time tomorrow we shall be .atching T=. 2. to indicate that an activity or state will extend over a whole future period: +ucy .ill be .riting letters all day long. 3. to express future events that are planned: Te shall be spending our next holiday in the mountains.

9utu"e ,e"(e4t 9utu"e ,e"(e4t S&0'le ". /NK2: (hall Q will < have < 1ast 1articiple 2. 3(': The /uture 1erfect (imple is used to indicate: ". 9n action which will be finished before a certain moment or another action in the future. .n this case it is usually associated with the preposition b" in such constructions as b"

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*onda"Vb" that timeVb" the end ofV, etc.: .t is nine oPclock. .Pm sure my sister .ill ha!e .ritten her composition by eleven oPclock. 2. The duration up to a certain time in the future: Tomorrow we shall ha!e been on holiday for one month. 2ention must be made of the fact that the /uture 1erfect does not occur in time clause, in which case the 1resent 1erfect is used: Vou will be able to translate such a difficult text only whenQafter you ha!e learnt -not: .ill ha!e learnt# all the new words.

9utu"e ,e"(e4t Cont&nuou ". /NK2: shallQwill < have < been < 1resent 1articiple 2. 3(': The /uture 1erfect 4ontinuous is used to express the duration of an action up to a certain moment in the future: 9t 8 oPclock your sister .ill ha!e been sleeping for two hours.

9utu"e$&n$t6e$,a t ". /NK2: Tould < infinitive 2. 3(':

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/uture in the 1ast expresses actions subse^uent to a past action* therefore, in this case, the point of reference is the past. Ue asked me when . .ould return to the court. The %udge announced that the witnesses .ould be called to the bar.

A4t&<&t% 1

Translate the *ollo,ing sentences into -nglish$

"# l. Ooul pre@edinte al companiei urmea&; s; participe la o conferinA; de pres; >n urm;toarele cBteva minute. 2# 9m asigurat o pe mama c; nu voi >ntBr&ia la @coal;. 3# +a adunarea general; a acAionarilor vor fi pre&enAi toAi cei invitaAi. ,# Te voi anunAa care este hot;rBrea mea dup; ce >mi voi fi consultat avocatul. 0# 9nul viitor cifra de afaceri a firmei noastre se va dubla, a@a c; va trebui s; anga%;m un %urist @i un contabil. 8# 'l va fi economisit mai mult de 2 milioane pBn; la sfBr@itul acestei luni. ?# . a spus c; nu >i va putea m;ri salariul. C# 9vocatul le a atras atenAia c; vor trebui s; respecte cu

DE

mai mult; atenAie termenele de livrare. D# Ganca noastr; va deschide un acreditiv documentar >n favoarea dumneavoastr;. "E# Oe au spus c; domnul (mith va fi un partener pe care ne vom putea ba&a. ""# 4e ai de gBnd s; faci cu baniiF "2# 'ra sigur; c; fata ei o s; aib; succes. "3# +a anul pe vremea aceasta voi fi studiat de doi ani trei limbi str;ine deodat;, dar trebuie s; m;rturisesc c; nu voi @ti nici una la perfecAie. ",# +una viitoare aceast; banc; va mai deschide >nc; trei sucursale. 154 'a-A #ai -ontinuA sA -*eltuias-A astfel .a rA#Bne fArA bani +BnA -Bnd .a C#+lini "$ de ani.

2.1F.). Nea" 9utu"e TO BE GOING TO .A A:EA DE GAND S@

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". 3(': The going to ) construction is used to express: ". intention -the future fulfillment of present intention#: That is Yane going to tell usF There is a difference between the intention expressed by .ill and the one expressed by be going to. This is because the going to ) construction expresses not only intention, but also premeditation. Therefore, to be going to is not used where premeditation is not employed: 9: !Yohn cannot do this exercise.! G: !.Pll help him.! -not: .Pm going to help him.!# ". prediction ) when we know that something will take place in the future: 2y sister is going to graduate from the faculty in 2ay. Nr when we see that something is about to happen: .t is going to rain in a few minutes. 2. 1lanned actions: 2y 3ncle is going to buy a boat next year.

TO BE TO .A URMA S@ ". 3(':

D2

This expression of futurity has certain meanings: ". (omething that is destined to happen: The famous tennis player began the match in which he .as to break his arm. 2. 9n official plan or an arrangement: The president .as to arri!e at "E oPclock. (he is to see her dentist tomorrow. 3. The will of a person, different from the speaker: This bad news is to be gi!en to him after his exam. ,. $uty: That exercises are .e to doA 0. 1ossibility, probability: 1rices are to be much higher soon.

TO BE ABOUT TO .A 9I GATA S?A URMA S@ ". 3(': This construction is used to express something that will happen in the immediate future: e. g. Nur guests are about to leave. . am about to go to the seaside.

D3

TO BE ON THE :ERGE O9 H : H ING .A 9I ,E ,UNCTUL DE AI@ (he is on the !erge of revealing his secret. The witness is on the !erge of admitting that he was not there. A4t&<&t% 1 T"an late &nto En!l& 61 "# 4ompania noastr; va produce o gam; complet; de aparatur; electrocasnic;. 2# UoAul era pe punctul de a deschide seiful cBnd a au&it pa@i >n >nc;perea al;turat;. 3# 4entralista m a >ntrebat cu ce interior s; mi fac; leg;tura. ,# (per c; rata dobBn&ii va sc;dea cu timpul. 0# 4e faci mBine sear;F 8# (ecretara va munci de dou; ore cBnd managerul va a%unge la birou. ?# 1e data de 2, ale lunii acesteia se vor >mplini 0E de ani de cBnd sunt c;s;toriAi. C# Gancherul a hot;rBt c; va locui >n 9nglia >n urm;toarele cinci luni. D# =a trebui s; acceptaAi acest amendament ca f;cBnd parte din acreditiv. "E# 2Bine pe vremea asta voi &bura c;tre 2exic.

""# 4ontribuAia la asigur;rile sociale se va calcula >n

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conformitate cu salariul brut. "2# =eAi fi citit aceast; carte, cred, cBnd eraAi mici. "3# 1rofitul pe anul 2EEE va fi impo&itat >n urm;torul an financiar. 144 ;ir#a du#nea.oastrA .a fuDiona -u o altA fir#A sau .a fi +reluatA de un #are -on-ernE

Sel(/e<aluat&on te t Rea* an* t"an late t6e (olo7&n! te8t1 TU' (N3K4'( N/ TU' 'OS+.(U +9T -"# Gritish 4onstitution and Sovernment The 3nited Ringdom of Sreat Gritain and Oorthern .reland is a constitutional monarchy and a unitary state, which is made up of the island of Sreat Gritain -including 'ngland, (cotland and Tales# and of Oorthern .reland. 'nglish law and (cots law are very different from each other in form and substance. The separate evolution of the two legal systems, both before and after 3nion, has resulted in different principles, institutions and traditions. 9lthough in modern times (cots law has been greatly influenced by 'nglish law, it is still based upon principles of Koman and 4ivil law and upon rules of 4anon, feudal or customary law origin. .n spite D0

of the existence of a common parliament for 'ngland and (cotland for over 20E years there has been no assimilation of the legal system of the two countries. 9 fusion of law has, however, taken place between 'ngland and Tales, as a conse^uence of the sub%ugation of the latter country in the middle ages. The law of Oorthern .reland, although administered as a separate system, is similar in many essentials to 'nglish law. The constitutional principles, rules and practices of the 3nited Ringdom have never been codified* they derive from statute law, from common law, and from conventions of the constitution, which are not laws at all, but political practices which have become considered as indispensable to the smooth working of the machinery of government. T6e 0ona"46% is the most ancient secular institution in the 3nited Ringdom, with a continuous history stretching back over a thousand years. The monarchy is hereditary and the present title of the crown derives from provisions of the 9ct of (ettlement of "?E", which secured the 1rotestant succession. This succession cannot be altered, under a provision of the (tatute of Testminster, "D3", except by common consensus of the member states of the 4ommonwealth which owe allegiance to the 4rown. The monarchy in the 3nited Ringdom has evolved over the centuries from absolute personal authority to the present constitutional form by which the aueen reigns but does not rule. Uer 2a%estyWs government governs in the name of the aueen who must act on advice of her ministers.The aueen summons, prorogues -discontinue until the next session without dissolution# and dissolves 1arliament* she usually D8

opens new sessions of 1arliament with a speech from the throne in which the ma%or governmental policies are outlined. The monarch must give her Koyal 9ssent before a Gill which has passed all its stages in both houses of 1arliament can become a legal enactment -9ct of 1arliament#.The 2onarchWs consent and approval is re^uired before a 4abinet can be formed or a minister take up office. 9s Uead of (tate the 2onarch has the power to sign international agreements, to cede, annex or receive territory, to declare war or make peace and to recogni&e foreign states and governments. The 2onarch confers honors and formally appoints all important officeholders of state, including %udges, government ministers, officers in the armed forces, diplomats, and the leading positions -as bishops and some other senior clergy# in the 'stablished 4hurch. 9s the \fountain of %ustice\ she is also involved in pardoning people convicted of crimes* it is only the 2onarch who is able to remit all or part of the penalties imposed upon persons convicted of crimes through the exercise of the prerogative of mercy on the advice of the appropriate minister. The aueen confers peerages, knighthoods and other honors. Tith rare exceptions such as appointing the 1rime 2inister acts involving the use of Wroyal prerogativeW powers are nowadays performed by government ministers. The ministers are responsible to 1arliament and can be ^uestioned about particular policies. 1arliamentary authority is not re^uired for the exercise of these prerogative powers, although 1arliament may restrict ar abolish such rights. The aueen also holds 1rivy 4ouncil meetings, gives

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audiences to her ministers and officials in Gritain and overseas, receives accounts of 4abinet decisions, reads dispatches and signs state papers. 1rovision has been made to appoint a regent to perform these royal functions should the aueen be totally incapacitated. .n the event of her partial incapacity or absence abroad, the aueen may delegate certain royal functions to the 4ounselors of (tate, who are members of the royal family. The 1arliament is the legislative organ and is constitutionally composed of the 2onarch, the Uouse of +ords, and the Uouse of 4ommons. The three elements which make up the 1arliament are constituted on different principles. They meet together only on occasions of symbolic significance such as the state opening of the 1arliament, when the 4ommons are summoned by the aueen to the house of +ords. The agreement of all three elements is normally re^uired for legislation, but that of the aueen is given as a matter of course to Gills sent to her. 9s there are no legal restraints imposed by a written constitution, 1arliament may legislate as it pleases, sub%ect to GritainWs obligations as a member of the 'uropean 3nion. .t can make or change any law* and can overturn established conventions or turn them into law. .t can even prolong its own life beyond the normal period without consulting the electorate. .n practice, however, 1arliament does not assert its supremacy in this way. .ts members bear in mind the common law and normally act in accordance with precedent. The validity of an 9ct of 1arliament, once passed, cannot be disputed in the law

DC

courts. The Uouse of 4ommons is directly responsible to the electorate, and in this century the Uouse of +ords has recognised the supremacy of the elected chamber. The system of party government help to ensure that 1arliament legislates with its responsibility to the electorate in mind. The Uouse of +ords is for the most part still a hereditary body. .t consists of the +ords Temporal and the +ords (piritual. The +ords Temporal include hereditary peers and peeresses who have not disclaimed their peerages under the 1eerages 9ct, "D83: life peers and peeresses created by the 4rown under the +ife 1eerages 9ct, "D0C in recognition of public service* and the +ords of 9ppeal in Nrdinary. The Uouse of +ords is presided over by the +ord 4hancellor who is ex oficio chairman of the Uouse. The +ords (piritual include the 9rchbishops of 4anterbury and Vork, the Gishops of +ondon, $urham and Tinchester, and the 2" most senior diocesan bishops of the 4hurch of 'ngland. The Uouse of 4ommons is an elected and representative body* members -at present 80E# are elected by almost universal adult suffrage to represent the constituencies in 'ngland -023#, (cotland -?2#, Tales -3C# and Oorthern .reland -"?#. The law relating to parliamentary elections is contained in substance in the Kepresentation of 1eople 9ct, "D,D, as amended. 9ny Gritish sub%ect aged 2" or over, not otherwise dis^ualified -as for example, members of the Uouse of +ords, certain clergy, undischarged bankrupts, civil servants, holders of %udicial office, members of the regular armed services and the police forces# may be elected a member of 1arliament -21#. 2embers are paid a salary and an allowance for secretarial and office expenses* after a

DD

1arliament is dissolved all seats are sub%ect to a Seneral 'lection. Gy elections take place when a vacancy occurs during the life of a 1arliament, as when a member dies, is elevated to the Uouse of +ords or accepts an \office of profit\ under the 4rown. The (peaker of the Uouse of 4ommons is elected by the members from the members to preside over the Uouse immediately after each new 1arliament is formed. Ue is an impartial arbiter over parliamentary procedure and the traditional guardian of the rights and privileges of the Uouse of 4ommons. .n the 1arliament 9cts of "D"" and "D,D the 1arliament has provided that in certain circumstances a Gill may become law without the concurrence of all the component parts of 1arliament. These two 9cts have clarified the supremacy of the Uouse of 4ommons over the Uouse of +ords, which can only delay the passage of 1ublic Gills for a maximum period of one year and cannot delay at all the passage of 2oney Gills -financial measures#. The government consists of the ministers appointed directly by the 4rown on the recommendation of the 1rime 2inister, who is appointed directly by the 4rown and is the leader of the political party which for the time being has a ma%ority of seats in the Uouse of 4ommons. The 1rime 2inister is the Uead of the government and presides over meetings of the 4abinet* by convention he is always a member of the Uouse of 4ommons. Ue consults and advises the 2onarch on government business, supervises and to some extent coordinates the work of the various ministries and departments and is the principal spokesman for the "EE

government in the Uouse of 4ommon. The 4abinet is the nucleus of government* its members are represented by a small group of the most important ministers who are selected by the 1rime 2inister. The si&e of the 4abinet is today about 23 and its main function is to determine, control and integrate the policies of the government for submission to 1arliament. There are over "EE ministers of the 4rown at the present time* they include departmental ministers -e.g., the (ecretary of (tate for /oreign and 4ommonwealth 9ffairs, 4hancellor of the 'xche^uer -Treasury##* non departmental ministers* ministers of state, a.o. The +ord 4hancellor and the +aw Nfficers of the 4rown deserve special mention at this point. The +ord Uigh 4hancellor and the +aw Nfficers of Sreat Gritain presides over the Uouse of +ords both in legislative capacity and as a final court of appeal* he is a member of the 4abinet and also has departmental responsibilities in connection with the appointment of certain %udges. Ue advises on, and fre^uently initiates, law reform programs with the aid of the +aw 4ommissions, the +aw Keform 4ommittee and ad hoc committeesQThe four +aw officers of the 4rown include, for 'ngland and Tales, the 9ttorney Seneral and the (olicitor Seneral* for (cotland, the +ord 9dvocate and the (olicitor Seneral for (cotland. The 'nglish +aw Nfficers are usually members of the Uouse of 4ommons and the (cottish +aw Nfficers may be. They represent the 4rown in civil litigation, prosecute in certain exceptionally important criminal cases, and advise government on points of law. They may appear in proceedings before the .nternational 4ourt of Yustice, the "E"

'uropean 4ommission of Uuman Kights and 4ourt of Uuman Kights. They may also intervene generally in litigation in the 3nited Ringdom as representatives of the public interest. The 3nited Ringdom has no 2inistry of Yustice. Kesponsibility for the administration of the %udicial system in 'ngland and Tales is divided between the courts themselves, the +ord 4hancellor, and the Uome (ecretary. The +ord 4hancellor is concerned with the composition of the courts, with civil law, parts of criminal procedure and law reform in general* the Uome (ecretary is concerned with the prevention of criminal offences, the apprehension, trial and treatment of offenders, and with prison service.

"E2

2.11. T6e SeJuen4e o( Ten e

,a t Ten e &n t6e 0a&n 4lau e .n 'nglish there are very strict rules as far as the se^uence of tenses is concerned. Uere are the most important ones: Then there is a past tense in the main clause, in the subordinate clause we have the following cases: I( t6e a4t&on &n t6e ubo"*&nate 4lau e & &0ultaneou 7&t6 t6e one &n t6e 0a&n 4lau e# %ou 7&ll u e ,a t Ten e1 E.g., :e told me he .as ill. *i a spus cG este bolna!. :e told me he .as lea!ing the part". *i a spus cG pleacG de la petrecere. I( t6e a4t&on &n t6e ubo"*&nate 4lau e & '"e<&ou to t6e one &n t6e 0a&n 4lau e# %ou 7&ll u e ,a t ,e"(e4t1 E.g., ? didnNt kno. that "ou had alread" rung him. Nu Ktiam cG i ai telefonat deja. :e told me that he had been reading for three hours. spus cG citea de trei ore. *i a

I( t6e a4t&on &n t6e ubo"*&nate 4lau e & ub eJuent to t6e one &n t6e 0a&n 4lau e# %ou 7&ll u e 9utu"e/&n/t6e/,a t1 E.g., :e promised that he .ould .rite to me soon. promis cG Hmi !a scrie curEnd. 8he promised she .ould be going .ith me. !a merge cu mine. *i a

*i a promis cG

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,"e ent Ten e &n t6e 0a&n 4lau e Then there is a present tense in the main clause, in the subordinate clause you may use any tense, according to the message of the context, except time clauses and conditional clauses where it is forbidden to use a future tense. E.g. :e thinks 0that1, it had rained .hen .e arri!ed there it had been raining for three hours .hen .e arri!ed there it .as raining "esterda" bet.een ( and R it rained "esterda" it has been raining for t.o hours it has just rained it is raining it rains often in the autumn it is going to rain it .ill rain it .ill be raining .hen "ou arri!e there it .ill ha!e rained till ten oNclock it .ill ha!e been raining for t.o hours till ten o Nclock El crede cG plouase cEnd am ajuns acolo ploua de ( ore cEnd am ajuns acolo. a plouat ieri intre ( Ki R a plouat ieri plouG de douG ore tocmai a plouat plouG plouG adesea toamna urmeazG sG plouG !a ploua !a ploua cEnd !eFi ajunge acolo !a fi plouat pEnG la ora zece !a ploua de douG ore pEnG la

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9utu"e Ten e &n t6e 0a&n 4lau e Then there is a future tense in the main clause, you will use the following tenses in the subordinate clause:

Kou 0a% u e an% ten e# a44o"*&n! to t6e 0e a!e o( t6e te8t .e84e't t6e t&0e/4lau e an* t6e 4on*&t&onal 4lau e @ E.g. *ar" .ill e<plain that she .ill go to Iondon. *ar" !a e<plica cG !a pleca la Iondra.

9o" t&0e/4lau e 1 a. .f the action in the subordinate clause is simultaneous to the one in the main clause, you will use 1resent Tense '.g.: 2ary will tell us the truth when she knows it. 2ary ne va spune adev;rul atunci cBnd >l va @ti. . will be there whenever it is raining. oricBnd va ploua. 9m s; fiu acolo

b. .f the action in the subordinate clause is previous to the one in the main clause, you will use 1resent 1erfect Tense '.g. Yim will translate the lesson after he has learnt all the new words. Yim va traduce lecAia dup; ce va fi >nv;Aat toate cuvintele noi. '.g. .Pll do my homework after . have been watering the flowers. Jmi voi face tema dup; ce voi fi udat florile.

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A4t&<&t% 1 ". 9Q9n...................is a writ issued by a court of %ustice re^uiring a person to appear before the court at a specified time. a. invocation* b. order* c. subpoena* d. warrant. 2. 9Q9n...................is a written statement which is signed before a solicitor and which can then be used as evidence in court hearings. a. in%unction* b. affidavit* c. indictment* d. warrant. 3. The writ ordering a person to be brought before a court or %udge, so that the court may ascertain whether his detention is lawful is called...................................................... XX. a. certiorari* b. Uabeas 4orpus* c. capias* d. ratio legis. ,. The application of the writ of Uabeas 4orpus, also called "E8

the Sreat Trit: a. has never been suspended throughout 3nited (tates history* b. has been suspended during times of war -the 4ivil Tar# and national crisis* c. has been suspended whenever the newly elected president of the 3nited (tates so decided. 0. 9n amendment is............................... a. an official approval of something which then becomes legally binding* b. a formal proposal to be discussed and voted on in a debate or meeting* c. an addition, alteration or improvement to a motion or document* d. a decision made by a %udge or magistrate. 8. 9Q9n.......................is a written statement of the details of the crime with which someone is charged in the 4ourt. a. complaint* b. allegation* c. verdict* d. indictment. ?. 9s a general rule, with the exception of minors, mentally disordered persons and drunken persons, all natural persons have full contractual XXXXX...............................

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a. intention* b. consideration* c. capacity* d. acceptance. C. .n the 3(9, manufacturers fre^uently have to face XXXXX. suits. a. industrial* b. liability* c. unreliability* d. palimony. D. $avid /rank had to pay heavy XXXX.. to his former employer, plus additional legal costs. a. damage* b. remedy* c. charges* d. damages. "E.9 W..............contractW includes any contract enforceable under statutory or common law. a. good faith* b. lawful* c. witnessed* d. trustworthy. ""..n the sentence: No cruel punishments shall be inflicted

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upon the prisoners, the verb to inflict means: a. to cause something painful or unpleasant to be suffered by someone else* b. to cause extreme physical pain to someone in order to extract information* c. to harm someone without any reason. "2..n the sentence: -he rights presented in the 7onstitution shall not be construed. the verb to construe means: a. to comment upon the meaning of something* b. to misunderstand the meaning of something* c. to interpret the meaning of something. "3..n the sentence: -he ne.s about the N8$Ns eavesdropping programs..., the verb to ea!esdrop means: a. to let oneWs ears drop* b. to listen secretly to the private conversation of others* c. to whisper secrets to someoneWs ear. ",..n the sentence: -he federal go!ernment has vo,ed to prosecute..., the verb to <o7 means: a. to pledge, promise, or undertake solemnly* b. to pronounce a vowel* c. to take a solemn oath. "0..n the sentence: -he go!ernment must pro!e beyond any reasonable doubt that, the phrase beyond any reasonable doubt means:

"ED

a. giving someone the benefit of the doubt* b. beyond any suspicion of guilt* c. almost certain proof needed to convict a person in a criminal case. "8..n the phrase: obtaining information respecting the national defense, the 7o"* respecting means: a. regarding, concerning* b. obeying, not violating* c. showing or having respect for* c. showing or having respect for. "?..n the sentence: -o con!ict a person for disclosing classified information, the expression to disclose in*ormation means: a. to make information known* b. to receive money in exchange of information* c. to look for more information. "C..n the sentence: -he F78 .ill *or*eit the assets of those engaged in federal crimes, the verb to *or*eit means: a. to sell something at a lower price* b. to confiscate something as a penalty for an offence, breach of contract* c. to destroy or damage something by an act of vandalism. "D..n t6e sentence: *an" organizations de*raud the public and pri!ate health care s"stems, the verb to de*raud means:

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a. to destroy or damage something especially by secret means* b. to legally provide or obtain funds, capital, or credit for something* c. to illegally obtain money, rights, property -from someone# by fraud. 2E..n the sentence: -he --$9$ amended the fraud chapter of title &X of the Onited 8tates 7ode..., the verb to amend means, a. to alter or revise -legislation, a constitution, etc.# by formal procedure* b. to make someone pay a certain amount of money exacted as a penalty* c. to %udge -something# with disapproval* censure. 2"..n the sentence: ?dentit" fraud in!ol!es the misappropriation of another personNs personal identif"ing information..., the verb to misappropriate means: a. to have as oneWs propertyQto own* b. to appropriate for a wrong or dishonest useQto embe&&le or steal smth* c. to give -a person# wrong directions or instructions.

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Rea* an* t"an late t6e (ollo7&n! te8t1 Co0'o &t&on o( t6e !o<e"n0ent Uer 2a%estyWs Sovernment is the body of ministers responsible for the conduct of national affairs. The 1rime 2inister is appointed by the aueen, and all other ministers are appointed by the aueen on the recommendation of the 1rime 2inister. 2ost ministers are members of the 4ommons, although the Sovernment is also fully represented by ministers in the +ords. The +ords 4hancellor is always a member of the Uouse of +ords. ,"&0e M&n& te" The 1rime 2inister is also, by tradition, /irst +ord of the Treasury and 2inister for the 4ivil (ervice. The 1rime 2inisterWs uni^ue position of authority derives from ma%ority support in the Uouse of 4ommons and from the power to appoint and dismiss ministers. Gy modern convention, the 1rime 2inister always sits in the Uouse of 4ommons. The 1rime 2inister presides over the 4abinet, is responsible for the allocation of functions among ministers and informs the aueen at regular meetings of the general business of the Sovernment. The 1rime 2inisterWs other responsibilities include recommending a number of appointments to the aueen. These include: 4hurch of 'ngland archbishops, bishops and deans and other 4hurch appointments* (enior %udges, such as the +ord 4hief Yustice* 1rivy 4ounselors* ""2

+ord +ieutenants. The 1rime 2inisterWs Nffice at "E $owning (treet, the official residence in +ondon, has a staff of civil servants who assist the 1rime 2inister. The 1rime 2inister may also appoint special advisers to the Nffice to assist in the formation of policies. Lo"* C6an4ello" an* La7 O((&4e" The +ord 4hancellor holds a special position, as both a minister with departmental functions and the head of the %udiciary. The four +aw Nfficers of the 4rown are: for 'ngland and Tales, the 9ttorney Seneral and the (olicitor Seneral* and for (cotland, the +ord 9dvocate and (olicitor Seneral for (cotland. T6e Cab&net The 4abinet is composed of about 2E ministers, although the number can vary. They are chosen by the 1rime 2inister and may include departmental and non departmental ministers. The functions of the 4abinet are to initiate and decide on policy, the supreme control of government departments. The exercise of these functions is vitally affected by the fact that the 4abinet is a group of party representatives, depending upon ma%ority support in the Uouse of 4ommons. Cab&net Meet&n! The 4abinet meets in private and its proceedings are confidential. .ts members are bound by their oath as 1rivy 4ounselors not to disclose information about its proceedings, although after 3E years 4abinet papers may be made available for inspection.

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Oormally the 4abinet meets for a few hours each week during parliamentary sittings, and rather less often when 1arliament is not sitting.

M&n& te"&al "e 'on &b&l&t% \2inisterial responsibility\ refers both to the collective responsibility for government policy and actions, which ministers share, and to ministersW individual responsibility for their departmentsW work. The doctrine of collective responsibility means that the 4abinet acts unanimously even when 4abinet ministers do not all agree on a sub%ect. The policy of departmental ministers must be consistent with the policy of the Sovernment as a whole. Nnce the SovernmentWs policy on a matter has been decided, each minister is expected to support it or resign. Nr rare occasions, ministers have been allowed free votes in 1arliament on government policies involving important issues of principle. The individual responsibility of ministers for the work of their departments means that they are answerable to parliament for all their departmentsW activities. They bear the conse^uences of any failure in administration, any in%ustice to an individual or any aspect of policy which may be critici&ed in 1arliament, whether personally responsible or not. (ince most ministers are members of the Uouse of 4ommons, they must answer ^uestions and defend themselves against criticism in person. $epartmental ministers in the Uouse of +ords are represented in the 4ommons by someone ^ualified to speak on their behalf, usually a %unior minister. "",

$epartmental ministers normally decide all matters within their responsibility. 9 decision by a departmental minister binds the Sovernment as a whole. Nn assuming office ministers must resign directorships in private and public companies, and must ensure that there is no conflict between their public duties and private interest.

A4t&<&t% ) 2ultiple choice exercises: ". .n the sentence: 7riminals use this information to run up debts on another personNs account.. ., the expression to run up debts means: to get rid of oneWs debts by running* to pay back oneWs debts* to amassQaccumulate or incur debts. 2. .n the sentence: 7riminals use this information to ta/e over e<isting financial accounts., t6e expression to take over means: a# to cancel the validity ofQ abolish* b# to assume the control or management of* c# to examine Q investigate smth for accuracy. 3. .n the phrase: to pro!ide an appropriate penalt" for each offence..., the word penalt" means: a# a handicap awarded against a player or team for illegal

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play, such as a free shot at goal by the opposing team, loss of points, etc* b# loss, suffering, or other unfortunate result of oneWs own action, error* c# a legal or official punishment, such as a term of imprisonment. ,. .n the sentence: ?n e<change for kickbacks, some patients undergo un.arranted medical procedures, the word kickbacks means: a# money given to a person to ensure that something is kept secret* b# money to be paid as compensation to a person for in%ury, loss, etc* c# money or valuables used as a bribe* d# illegal commission paid to someone who helps in a business deal* 0. .n the sentence: ;ithout an indictment from a grand jur", prosecutors cannot bring charges against an indi!idual, the legal term indictment means: a# ac^uittal* b# an official written statement accusing someone of a crime or an offence* c# an informal statement saying that someone is guilty of a crime* d# allegation.

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8. .n the sentence: -he O.8. 8upreme 7ourt agreed to hear 6ranzburg Ns cases, the verb to hear means: a# to accidentally listen to what someone is saying* b# to listen to what the plaintiff has to say* c# to listen to all the facts in a case in a court of law in order to make a legal decision. ?. .n the sentence: Tudge :a"es states that the freedom of the press is not abo!e the la.. the phrase to be abo!e the la. means: a# not to have to obey the law* b# to obey the law* c# to critici&e the law* d# to enforce the law. C. .n the sentence: -he third la."er rebutted some of the allegations contained in the notice, the verb to rebut means: a# to prove that the statements are wrong, offering convincing arguments* b# to support the statements with convincing arguments* c# to deny the allegations, without offering convincing arguments. D. The synonymous term for the ad%ective 4ounte"(e&t b counterfeit documentsVnotes b is: a# forged* b# embe&&led*

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c# illegal* d# fraudulent. "E. 1.O is the abbreviation of............... a# 1ersonal .dentity Oame* b# 1ersonal .dentification Oumber* c# 1ersonal .nformation Oumber. "".4hoose the 'nglish e^uivalent for the +atin legal phrase nolleprosequi, a# Wdo not followW criminals: interdiction issued by the 4ourt to police officers* b# Wdo not pursueW: power used by the 9ttorney Seneral to stop a criminal trial* c# Wdo not release criminals from prisonW. "2.4hoose the 'nglish e^uivalent for the +atin legal phrase quid pro quo, a# Wone thing for anotherW: action done in return for something done or promised* b# with the authority ofQon behalf of* c# Wbecause of lack of careW: decision wrongly made by a court -which does not therefore set a precedent#. "3..n the sentence: -he ta<pa"er does not ha!e locus standi in this court, the +atin phrase locus standi means: a# Wplace to stayW: right to witness a trial in a court of law* b# Wplace of the sealW: used to show where to put the seal on

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a document* c# Wplace to standW: right to appear and be heard in a court. ",..n the sentence: -he same ratio legis is found in the la.s of continental European countries, the +atin phrase ratio legis means: a# Wreason for decidingW: main part of a court %udgment setting out the legal principles applicable to the case* b# Wreason of the lawW: the principle behind a law* c# Wreason of the courtW: the argument the court has for the final ruling in a case. "0..n the sentence: $ .rit ne e<eat regno can be issued to pre!ent the embezzler from lea!ing the countr", the +atin phrase ne e<eat regno means: a# Wdo not leave the countryW: interdiction addressed to a debtor that is being prosecuted* b# Wdo not pursueW: power used by the 9ttorney Seneral to stop a criminal trial* c# Wdo not leave the houseW: interdiction addressed to an offender placed under house arrest. "8..n the sentence: the secretar" signed per pro the manager, the +atin phrase per pro means: a# the person who signs at the foot of a document* b# with the authority of Qon behalf of* c# forging the signature of a superior in hisQher absence. "?..n the sentence: For further information, see the

""D

documents listed hereunder. The text Wreference wordW hereunder means: a# at the bottom of a document* b# under the signature of the person who signs the documents* c# under this heading or below this phrase. "C..n the sentence: -his case .ill henceforth be kno.n under the name of 8tate !s. Tohnson, the Wtext referenceW word henceforth means: a# from this time on* b# stated later in this document* c# according to this document. "D..n the sentence: -he case proceeded not.ithstanding the objections of the defendant, the Wtext referenceW word not.ithstanding means: a# conse^uently* b# in spite of* c# by whatever means. 2E..n the sentence: ?n criminal la., mens rea is usuall" one of the necessar" elements of a crime, the +atin term mens rea means: a# Wgood willW: a feeling of benevolence, approval, and kindly interest* b# Wwillful misconductW: behaviour which may harm someone and which is known to be 7"on!

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c# Wguilty mindW: mental state re^uired to be guilty of committing a crime. 2"..n the sentence: :e got an injunction pre!enting the compan" from selling his car. The legal term injunction means: a# act of bringing someone to court to answer a charge* b# ban or written court order, telling someone not to do something* c# court order compelling someone to stop doing something or not to do something. 22..n the sentence: ?f a contract is not signed b" both parties, is it legall" bindingA The legal term binding means: a# which legally forces someone to do something* b# which is acceptable because it is true* c# which is open to negotiation. 23.9mendment .= of the 4onstitution of the 3nited (tates of 9merica prohibits: a# the security of peopleWs lives, houses, papers and effects* b# any unauthori&ed searches and sei&ures without a valid warrant, legally issued for a specific purpose* c# peopleWs rights to offer resistance to having their houses searched without a valid warrant. 2,.9mendment = of the 4onstitution of the 3nited (tates of 9merica stipulates that: a# no person shall be held responsible for a crime without

"2"

the right to speak in front of the Srand Yury* b# no person shall be forced to answer for a crime in front of the Srand Yury* c# no person shall be kept in custody without an indictment of a Srand Yury. 20.9mendment $4 of the 4onstitution of the 3nited (tates of 9merica says that: a# the rights stipulated in the 4onstitution can be interpreted and applied as everyone pleases* b# the rights stipulated in the 4onstitution shall not be misconstrued so as to undermine others that people hold dear* c# the rights stipulated in the 4onstitution can always be amended in accordance with the old ones that people treasure. 28. .f participants ..................... any problems with the monitoring e^uipment, they must notify officers immediately. a# will experience* b# experience* c# experiences* d# would experience. 2?. .f the defendant has a prior criminal record, his sentence.................. harsher. a# will be*

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b# is* c# would be* d# should be. 2C. 9 grand %ury decides if there.......a probable cause to indict -accuse# individuals or corporations on criminal charges based upon the evidence presented. a# will be* b# has been* c# is* d# would be. 2D..f a person................... that heQshe has been wrongfully imprisoned, heQshe........... the right to challenge the legality of their confinement. a# believe, will have* b# will believe, may have* c# believes, may have* d# has believed, will have. 3E. .f the writ of habeas corpus......................., the prisoner will be brought into court. a# will be issued* b# is issued* c# had been issued* d# were issued.

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3". .f, after hearing both sides, the court..........that grounds for the confinement are illegal, the petitioner a# finds, is released* b# will find, is released* c# has found, had been released* d# found, will be released.

the

32. .f . had known what an open ended ^uestion is, ......................... my last exam. a# will pass* b# would pass* c# will have passed* d# would have passed. 33. .f you were such a good lawyer, your arguments........................ in the present situation. a# will hold up* b# would hold up* c# would held up would had held up. 3,. .f you...........the devilWs advocate and...........some exceptions to the lawyersW argument, 4ould have won our last case. a# have played, -have# found* b# play, find* c# would have played, -would have# found*

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d# had played, -had# found. 30. .f you...............%ournalists covering the (upreme 4ourt, what would you write in a murder case articleF a# are* b# were* c# had been* d# have been. 38. .f the defendant were found guilty, the %ury....................... the appropriate sentence, a life term or death. a# will then determine b# would then determine c# might then determine d# would then have determined 3?. .f the sentence of death for rape ..............the 9mendment, the rapist may receive a life sentence. a# violates* b# is violated* c# will violate* d# has violated. 3C. Yudges............the authority to hold %ournalists in contempt of court, if reporters to comply with an order to reveal the identity of unnamed sources. 'ighth

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a# had, refused* b# have, refuse* c# have, would refuse* d# have, will have refused. 3D. .f the grand %ury.................. its proceedings in secret, re^uiring a %ournalist to reveal confidential sources would have been considered prosecutorial abuse. a# had conducted* b# has conducted* c# conducted* d# would have conducted. ,E. .f a %ournalistWs source is engaged in illegal activities and that the %ournalist could be re^uired to identify himQher, the source............................................................................................ hesitant to talk. a# knew, would be* b# knows, will be* c# is known, will be* d4 /ill no/? /ill be.

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A4t&<&t% 2 Rea* an* t"an late t6e (ollo7&n! te8t1 THE SOURCES O9 THE ENGLISH LAG .)@ /rom the aspect of their sources, laws are traditionally divided into two main categories according to the solemnity of the form in which they are made. They may be .ritten or un.ritten. These traditional terms are misleading, because the expression \written\ law signifies any law that is formally enacted, whether reduced to writing or not, and the expression \unwritten\ law signifies all unacted law. (ince the fashion was set by the 7ode Napoleon many continental countries have codified much of their law, public or private* on the 4ontinent the volume of written law tends to preponderate over the volume of unwritten. Gut in 'ngland unwritten law is predominant, for more of their law derives from %udicial precedents than from legislative enactment. 'ven if the 1arliament casts an increasing number of statutes upon its population, they have not adopted the system of wholesale codification which prevails in many continental countries. Two principal and two subsidiary sources of law are worth being mentioned. The principal sources are +egislation and Yudicial 1recedent* the subsidiary sources are 4ustom and Gooks of 9uthority. Le!& lat&on is enacted law and will be studied in the chapter

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about the 4onstitutional +aw. The starting point from which to explain the 'nglish doctrine of '"e4e*ent is the principle of %ustice that like cases should be decided alike. This principle is enforced in 'nglish law by the rule of stare decisis -keep to what has been decided previously# and this rule has a peculiarly coercive or binding nature in the 'nglish system. 'nglish law is, to a large extent, based on case law. The rules of common law have been evolved inducti!el" from decision to decision involving similar facts, so that they are firmly grounded upon the actualities of litigation and the reality of human conduct. 9nd new cases lead onwards to reach forward new rules. .ts principles are open ended* they are not firm and inflexible decrees. .n contrast, the 'uropean civil law supposes the task of the courts to be deducti!e, to subsume the present case to under the mantle of the generalised and codified rule. (o a distinctive feature of the 'nglish system is that, because the 'nglish %udge has through precedent power to make new law, his position in the legal system is central. The %udge may simply be obliged to consider the former decision as part of the material on which his present decision could be based, or he may be obliged to decide it in the same way as that in which the previous case was decided. .n the latter case the precedent is said to be \binding\. (o, another salient feature of the 'nglish system is the doctrine of the binding case. Gy this doctrine the authority of the courts is hierarchycal* a court which is inferior in authority to another court is obliged to follow

"2C

-\bound by\# a court of superior authority if called upon to decide upon facts similar to facts already tried by the superior court. Nn the criminal side of the 4ourt of 9ppeal the 4ourt could depart from its previous decisions Win the interest of %ustice". Nn the civil side of that court the position is much more restricted. .t may depart from its previous decisions in only three narrow situations: where there are two earlier conflicting decisions* where the 4ourtWs earlier decisions cannot stand with a subse^uent decision of The Uouse of +ords* and when the 4ourtWs earlier decision was given per incuriam -through negligence or oversight#. These ^ualifications and exceptions to the rule of stare decisis underline the fact that although the rules of precedent are important in 'nglish law they are not as important as the %udgeWs obligation to have regard to case law. /urther, even today cases of Wfirst impresion " sometimes arise* cases arising upon facts which bear no resemblance to the facts of any previous case. Then the %udge rules in such a case he legislates, because future courts must usually WfollowW him. 9 remark which leads to the comment that in WdistinguishingW between previous decisions and WfollowingW one rather than another %udge, though appearing only to apply existing law, in fact exercises a ^uasi legislative discretion: a fact which the system of WbindingW precedent serves to conceal. (o the administration of %ustice is not a simple process of matching precedents. The %udges have a field of choice in making their decisions. Gut they do not exercises their discretion in an arbitrary way* they rest their %udgments

"2D

upon the general principles in case law as a whole. 4ase law does not consist of a blind series of decisions, W9 will succeedW, or WG will failW, but of reasoned %udgments based upon rational principles. These principles have been evolved by the courts through the centuries: and, building precedent upon precedent, they have framed them with two ends in view. /irst, they have sought so to formulate them that their application may be capable of effecting substantial %ustice in particular cases* second, they have sought to make them sufficiently general in scope to serve as guides to lawyers faced with the task of giving advice in future legal disputes. Thus in a sense the history of the common law -as opposed to statute law for statutes are sometimes arbitrary and they have often wrought in%ustice# is the story of the evolution of the %udgesW conception of %ustice -a kind of natural law see above# reali&ed in the form of rules of law intended to be general in their application and as easily ascertainable as possible. 4ustoms are social habits, patterns of behaviour, which all societies seem to evolve without express formulation or conscious creation. 4ustom is not solely important as a source of la., for even today some customary rules are observed in their own right and they command almost as much obedience as rules of law in that their observance is not enforced by the organs of the (tate. Gut in modern times most general customs have either fallen into desuetude or become absorbed in rules of law. /or example many of the early rules of the common law were general customs which the courts adopted, and by this very act of adoption made into law. 9lso many of the rules

"3E

of the law relating to the sale of goods originated as customs, were adopted by the courts, and eventually moulded into a statutory code by the (ale of Soods 9ct "CD3. Nn the 4ontinent the writings of legal authors form an important source of law. .n 'ngland, in accordance with our tradition that the law is to be sought in judicial decisions, their writings have in the past been treated with comparatively little respect. They have been cited in court, if cited at all, rather by way of evidence of what the law is than as independent sources from which it may be derived.

Sel(/e<aluat&on te t 4hoose the right variant: ". .f reporters to identify their confidential sources before a grand %ury, the press will not truly be free. a# will be forced* b# must be forced* c# are forced* d# can be forced.

2. 3nless you things out, we shall have to go to court. a# donWt work*

"3"

b# work* c# will work* d# wonWt work. 3. .f the pedestrian...............................by a policeman, the former should have made a complaint to the nearest police station. a# had been assaulted* b# is assaulted* c# will be assaulted* d# is to be assaulted.

,. .f the %ournalistWs story....................criminal would have reported it. a# has involved* b# involves* c# had involved* d# will involve.

activity,

he

0. .f a prosecutor............................... a grand %ury investigation in bad faith, %ournalists might have a right to refuse to reveal their sources. a# were conducting* b# is conducting*

"32

c# had been conducting* d# will be conducting.

8. .f the students hadnWt been enrolled in the Yournalism .. class, they... articles about divorce and teenage pregnancy some years ago. a# wonWt write* b# wouldnWt write* c# wouldnWt written* d# wouldnWt have written.

?. .f the teacher the articles from being published in the paper, the students wouldnWt have brought suit to the 3.(. $istrict 4ourt for the 'astern $istrict of 2issouri. a# hadnWt prohibited* b# hasnWt prohibited* c# wouldnWt have brought* d# prohibited. C. Tom will be prosecuted if they.........XXXX evidence against him. a# find* b# will find* c# will have found* hard

"33

d# finds.

D. Tom wouldnWt have hidden the murder weapon if he XXXX.. innocent. a# would have been* b# had been* c# has been* d# would be.

"E. Vou a chance to en%oy your freedom if your previous conduct had been better. a# might have had* b# might had* c# might had had* d# might has.

"". Vou could have served your sentence in less than three weeks if you to "EE hour community work: a# have been sentenced* b# had been sentenced* c# would be sentenced* d# were sentenced.

"3,

"2XXXXdifferent if the school newspaper were written by members of an extracurricular clubF a# The ruling in that case would have been XXXX* b# Tould the ruling in that case have been XXXX* c# Till the ruling in that case have been XXXXX* d# The ruling in that case will have been XXXX..

"3. Tom will be released to the community if the 4ourt XXXX that he is eligible for the home confinement program. a# will decide* b# decide* c# decides* d# would decide.

",. The press cannot truly be free unless it...XXXX.. at liberty to report on stories of public interest, i.e. the drug crisis. a# is not* b# is* c# will be* d# will not be.

"30

"0. .f reporters have to identify their confidential sources before a grand %ury, they XXXX. stories of public interest. a# will not be able to publish* b# will be able not to publish* c# wouldnWt have been able to publish* d# would have been able not to publish.

"8. .f a reporter is forced to reveal his sources, law enforcement XXXX. a few criminals. a# may be able to apprehended* b# may be to apprehend* c# may be able to apprehend* d# be able to apprehend.

"?........ certiorari... by a higher court, it means that the %ustices have decided to let the lower courtWs decision stand. a# .f... is denied* b# 3nless... is denied* c# .f... is not denied* d# 3nless... is not denied.

"C. Vou had better..................your crimes right now, when you still have a chance.

"38

a# to confess* b# confessing* c# confess* d# confessed. "D. . would rather.........the rest of my life in %ail than confess to a crime . did not commit. a# spend* b# to spend* c# spending* d# spent.

2E. Ue made me.............all my charges, threatening me with a gun. a# to drop* b# drop* c# dropping* d# to have dropped.

2". Ue let me situation. a# decide* b# deciding* c# to decide*

which option was the best for my difficult

"3?

2. 1). Con*&t&onal Moo*

,"e ent 4on*&t&onal 9ffirmative sentence , C

(G < shouldQ (G < shouldQwould < be would < vb. < vb ing. E<emple, . shouldQwould take. Vou would take. UeQsheQit would take. Te take. shouldQwould . shouldQwould taking. be

Vou would be taking. UeQsheQit taking. would be

Vou would take. They would take.

Te shouldQwould be taking. Vou would be taking. They would be taking.

.nterrogative sentence , C

Tould < (G < Tould < (G < be < vb. F vb ing. F E<ample, Tould . take F Tould . be taking F

"3C

Tould you take F Tould take F heQsheQit

Tould taking F

you

be

Tould we take F Tould you take F Tould they take F

Tould heQshe it be taking F Tould we be taking F Tould taking F Tould taking F you they be be

Oegative sentence , C

(G < shouldQ (G < shouldQwould < would < not < vb. not < be < vb ing. E<ample, . shouldQwould not . shouldQwould not be take. taking. Vou take. would not Vou would not be taking.

UeQsheQit would not UeQsheQit would not take. be taking. Te shouldQwould Te shouldQwould not not take. be taking. Vou take. would not Vou would not be taking.

"3D

They take. ,e"(e4t 4on*&t&onal 9ffirmative sentence ,

would

not They would not be taking.

(G < shouldQ (G < shouldQwould < would < have < have < been < vb ing. 1ast 1articiple E<ample, . shouldQwould . shouldQwould have have taken. been taking. Vou would taken. UeQsheQit have taken. have Vou would have been taking. would UeQsheQit would have been taking.

Te shouldQwould Te shouldQwould have taken. have been taking. Vou would taken. have Vou would have been taking. have

They would have They would taken. been taking. .nterrogative sentence , C

Tould < (G < have Tould < (G < have <

",E

< forma a treia a been < vb ing. F verbului F E<ample, Tould taken F . have Tould . have been taking F have Tould you have been taking F

Tould you taken F

Tould heQsheQit Tould heQshe it have have taken F been taking F Tould taken F we have Tould we have been taking F have Tould you have been taking F

Tould you taken F

Tould they have Tould they have been taken F taking F Oegative sentence , C

(G < shouldQ (G < shouldQwould < would < not < not < have < been < vb have < forma a ing. treia a verbului E<ample, . shouldQwould not . shouldQwould not have taken. have been taking. Vou would not have Vou would not have taken. ","

UeQsheQit would not been taking. have taken. UeQsheQit would not Te shouldQwould have been taking. not have taken. Te shouldQwould not Vou would not have have been taking. taken. Vou would not have They would not been taking. have taken. They would not have been taking.

A4t&<&t% ) Kead and translate the following texts. The cases presented here realty happened. Try to discuss them, using the 4onditional: if the old lad" hadnNt been carr"ing her shopping....#.

THE SOURCES O9 THE ENGLISH LAG .2@ 4rime and punishment are, respectively, the intentional commission of an act usually deemed socially as harmful or dangerous and specifically defined, prohibited, and punishable under the criminal law* and the infliction of some kind of pain or loss upon a person found guilty of committing such a misdeed. 2ost countries have enacted a criminal code in which all of the criminal law can be found, although 'nglish lawbthe source of many other criminal law systems remains

",2

uncodified. The definitions of particular crimes contained in a code must be interpreted in the light of many principles, some of which are not expressed in the code itself. The most important of these are related to the mental state of the accused person at the time of the act that is alleged to constitute a crime. 4rimes are classified by most legal systems for purposes such as determining which court has authority to deal with the case. (ocial changes often result in the adoption of new criminal laws and the obsolescence of older ones. The purpose of punishing offenders has been debated for centuries. 9 variety of often conflicting theories are held, and in practice each is followed to some extent. 1rison is not the most common penalty for crime punishment may take other forms varying from capital punishment, flogging, and mutilation of the body to community service, fines, and even deferred sentences that come into operation only if an offense is repeated within a specified time. Yuveniles are usually dealt with by courts set aside exclusively for the prosecution of young offenders. The prison systems of most countries are sub%ect to many problems, especially overcrowding, but the recognition by some legal systems that prisoners have rights that the courts can enforce has led to some improvements. The death penalty is now rare in Testern countries, although it has been reinstated in some parts of the 3nited (tates after a period of disuse.

Ca e tu*&e 1 ". .n "D?C (ussex police was trying to find a \six foot, dark

",3

haired youth of about 2E years\ who failed to mug a five foot, ?, years old grandmother. Ue tried to mug the old lady but, surprisingly, when she grabbed the muggerWs wrist, he cried \Nh, Sod: Nh, no: (top:\ 'ncouraged by his pleas, she put him in an arm lock at which the mugger cried \Nh no, Nh 4hrist:\ and ran away. \.f . hadnWt been carrying my shopping, . would really have put him on his back\ declared 2rs. Test who took a course in %udo when younger. 2. 9 1arisian burglar broke into a house at the village of +achelle in "D8,. Nnce inside he thought that he would like to eat something, so he started to look for the refrigerator. There, he found his favourite cheese which it would have been a shame not to try, some Gath Nliver biscuits and three bottles of champagne, 9fter a while he began to feel sleepy and decided to lie down and digest his meal in comfort. Ue was arrested next morning fast asleep in the spare bedroom. FO*....er9 /ellF? *e said? and sat do/n again.

T6e T6"ee T%'e o( Con*&t&onal Senten4e T%'e I ) .t refers to a future hypothetical action. Ma&ne/4lau e Se4on*a"% Clau e ,"e ent Ten e

,"e ent? 9utu"e Ten e I9

",,

'.g.: ? .ill go there

if

"ou come .ith me vei veni cu mine.

=oi merge acolo dac;

T%'e II .t expresses a present hypothetical Q unreal action. ,e"(e4t 4on*&t&onal I9 ,e"(e4t ub=un4t&<e .,a t Ten e@

'.g.: ? .ould go there if "ou came .ith me. 9@ merge acolo dac; ai veni cu mine.

9lthough you use the so called 1ast Tense form -which is actually a 1resent (ub%unctive#, the translation into Komanian is made by using condiDional-optativ pre(entE.

T%'e III action.

.t expresses a past hypothetical -actually unreal# I9 ,e"(e4t ub=un4t&<e .,a t

,e"(e4t 4on*&t&onal ,e"(e4t@

'.g.: ? .ould ha!e gone there if "ou had come .ith me. 9@ fi venit acolo dac; ai fi venit cu mine.

T6e o0& &on o( L&(M1 Type .: 8hould . pass the exam, . will go on a trip. I (a iau examenul Q de voi lua examenul, voi pleca intr o excursie. (hould I modal verb which expresses supposition. Type ..: 8hould . pass the exam, . would go on a trip. I (a iau examenul Q de as lua examenul, as pleca intr o excursie.

",0

Type ...: :ad . passed the exam, . would have gone on a trip. I (a fi luat examenul Q de as fi luat examenul, as fi plecat intr o excursie. .n negative sentences, \if not\ is replaced by \unless\: E.g., 8he .ill not understand the lesson unless she learns the ne. .ords. Ea nu !a HnFelege lecFia dacG nu !a Hn!GFa cu!intele noi.

A4t&<&t% ) Put the verbs in brac/ets into the right *orm (First type o* Fi*E clauses)$ "# .f . lend you c"E when you -to repay# meF 2# (he will catch the train if she -to hurry#. 3# .f you -to read# the book, you will like it. ,# The police -to arrest# him if they catch him. 0# .f you kindly sit down, . -to make# the en^uiries for you. 8# .f you -to need# a car you can borrow mine. ?# 3nless Seorge -to sell# more he wonWt get a commission. C# The boys will not go up the mountain tomorrow if it -to be# foggy. D# The manager will be absolutely furious if he -to hear# about this.

",8

"E# .f you -not to go# .Wll send for the police.

Put the verbs in brac/ets into the right *orm (1econd type o* Fi*E clauses)$ "# Ue -to buy# shares in your company if he had some money. 2# .f . -to be# you . would go there at once. 3# Ue wouldnWt start work on pro%ect unless his manager -to agree# to the plan. ,# .f she were sent to prison, you -to visit# herF 0# lf . -to pass# the exam . would take a long holiday. 8# Yim -to be # ruined if he bought his wife everything she asked for. ?# (he wouldnWt accept that %ob even if the manager -to offer# it to her. C# .f . were you . -to be# more careful. D# 2ary could get a %ob easily in the banking system if she -to have# a degree. "E# .f Yerry -to play# for lower stakes he wouldnWt lose so much.

Put the verbs in brac/ets into the right *orm (Third type o* Fi*E clauses)$ "# .f you had told me she had never paid her debts . -not

",?

to lend# her the money. 2# .f father had been at home, he -to answer# the phone. 3# They -not to be# angry with her if they had known the truth. ,# Ue would have forced his way into the house if . -not to call# for help. 0# .f Tom hadnWt hurt his leg yesterday morning he could -to play# in the match last night. 8# The burglar would have been arrested if he -to try# to leave the country. ?# .f . had known that you were in hospital . -to visit# you. C# .f you -to be# more attentive you wouldnWt have asked that ^uestion. D# .f . -to reali&e# that the traffic lights were red . would have stopped. "E# 2ike wouldnWt have believed it if he -not to see# it with his own eyes. ""# Vou would have got the %ob if you -to know# to speak two foreign languages.

Put the verbs in brac/ets into the right *orm (F5*E mi>ed types)$ "# . -not to buy# things on the installment system if . were you.

",C

2# .f 2rs. (mith -to drive# more carefully she wouldnWt have had the accident. 3# 2ary -to learn# 'nglish if only she had the time. ,# .f Seorge -to have# a university degree, he wouldnWt have to work as a mechanic now. 0# 'ven if . -to know# the truth, . would have still loved him dearly. 8# .f . -to be# you . would try to understand her. ?# .f anyone attacked me, my dog -to %ump# at his throat. C# 9n interpreter -to help# you if you cannot understand the 4ustoms officer. D# Vou -not to improve# your 'nglish unless you work harder. "E# "E.That will you say if she -to ask# you for some more moneyF ""# Uis father decided that he -study# law. "2# . wouldnWt do that even if she -to give# me a lot of money. "3# Ue wouldnWt have acted differently even if he -to know# the real situation. ",# . would have bought tickets even if . -to have# to stand in the ^ueue for hours. "0# . would finish my work much earlier if you -to help# me. "8# The man would have died if the doctor -not to arrive#

",D

in time. "?# These photographs -to be# better if you had been more careful. "C# 2other -to help# you if you asked her. "D# (he will catch the train if she -to hurry#. 2E# They -to be# very surprised if they see us here.

Sel(/a e 0ent te t 1 I. Re'6"a e t6e (ollo7&n! enten4e 1 enten4e u &n! 4on*&t&onal

". .n your position . would re%ect the offer. .f .....

2. Thank you so much. . would never have managed without your help. .f you....

3. .Wd rather you didnWt go to that party tonight. .Wd be more....

,. .f he happens to come any time today, please give him this

"0E

parcel. (hould he....

0. . damaged my car because . was driving too fast. .f .....

8. $o you think . might have escaped if my tyres hadnWt been so oldF 4ould .....

?. . prefer buying some apples to eating tinned fruit. .Wd rather....

C. They might send him to prison for drug trafficking. Ue might....

D. .t is lucky he was not found guilty. Oormally, drug dealers are given a prison sentence. .f he....

"E.Vou feel so weak because you donWt get enough exercise. Vou wouldnWt....

"0"

"".Te would never have found the way without the old manWs help. .f the old man....

"2.Vou will never pass the exam if you donWt work much harder. 3nless you....

"3.The patient smoked for over 3E years, thatWs why he had that very bad cough. .f the patient hadnWt....

",.. would be so happy if . had a sports car. . wish....

"0.Te should have moved to a nicer district years ago. . wish....

"8..f someone were to ask you about the refugees, say you donWt know anything about them. .f you happen....

"02

"?.. would be so happy with less noise coming from the neighbours. . wish the neighbours....

"C..f they had interrogated me, . would never have told them the truth. Uad .X

"D..Wd much sooner do the cleaning than the ironing. . prefer....

2E..n case of failure, you should try the exam again. .f youX

2.12. Mo*al :e"b

Mean&n! an* U e o( t6e En!l& 6 Mo*al Mean&n! an* <alue o( Ma% an* M&!6t 9. 'pistemically, may is the typical modal to express that the possibilit" of something being the case is as great as that of not being the case .t may or may not be true. -(e# poate sa fie sau -poate# sa nu fie adevarat.

"03

1oate ca este sau poate ca nu este adevarat. The past marked dmightd indicates a more tenuous possibility and for this reason it is often used instead of may to state an option -more# modestly, cautiously, politely, e.g. The matter might, . should think, be left to his %udgment. 4hestiunea ar putea, cred, fi lasata in seama lui. Ootice that Komanian uses da putead in the present conditionalQpotential to express a lower degree of possibility or hypothesis, which makes the statement appear more tentative, modest, deferent. 9lthough usually regarded as a past tense form, might rarely points to the past. Uowever, when the time sphere of the potential situation is past, might is employed, regardless of whether dmayd or dmightd is used when the time sphere of the utterance is present, e.g. a. . think . mayQmight be late for the ceremony. b. Ue thought he might be late for the ceremony. a. 4redea ca poate sa intar&ie la ceremonie. b. (e gandea ca s ar putea sa intar&ie la ceremonie. /ears were entertained for the secrecy of their plan* 2ichael might be a spy for a rival company. (e temeau pentru secretul planului lor* 2ichael e poate ca era e putea sa fie e s ar fi putut sa fie

"0,

spionul unei companii rivale. G. ) Tith its deontic meaning, may indicates permission, which is a mild form of expression of the speaker or someone elsePs will, or the suspension of a previous constraint* may is used performatively when the speaker is associated with the dsourced and the sub%ect of the modal with the dgoald of the permission, e.g. Vou may go now, youPve done all . wanted. 1oti pleca acum, ai facut tot ce am vrut -sa faci#. .n other cases dmayd is not used performatively and the speaker is only reporting the modality whose source is some other dauthorityd an other person or an inanimate cause, the speaker may or may not go along with the permission, e.g. VouQhe may smoke, the hostess doesnPt mind . do . donPt either 1otiQpoate fuma, ga&da nu se supara e dar eu da e si nici eu UerePs the brochure which tells you what employees may or may not do. .ata brosura care spune ce faca anga%atii. poate e pot si ce nu pot sa e se poate si ce nu se e but e and

"00

e au voie si ce nu au voie e le este permis si ce nu le este permis anga%atilor b# 2ay is fairly common in asking permission* co occurrence with the past marker -might# carries an indication of greater uncertainty about the answer and else of tentativeness, modesty, e.g. 2ayQmight . use your phoneF 1otQas puteaQse poate .mi permitetiQdati voie la dvsF e sa dau un telefon de

The shade of meaning implied by might is conveyed in Komanian by the use of the present conditional of da putead. 9lso, the formal style suggested by the use of mayQmight would normally call for the use of the verbs a permite, a da voie in the deferential second person plural. 2ight is very fre^uently used in expressions of disapproval, irritation, annoyance, reproof, complaint etc. 9. (he has a beautiful figure. G. Ves, but she might have a little more flesh* shePs all bones. 9. 9re o silueta frumoasa. G. $a, dar ar putea sa X

"08

Vou might have warned us that the dog was vicious. 1uteaiQai fi putut sa ne previi ca e caine rau. suggestions 2ightnPt you slip a sedative in her milkF O ai putea sa i strecori un sedative in paharul cu lapteF advice Vou might look higher, . think, than be a professional football player X 9i putea tinti mai sus, cred, decat X offers 2ay . offer you some of this cherry pieF 1ot sa ti ofer niste placinta cu visineF expressions of wish, hope, faith, 2ay you have a good time: I 1etrecere frumoasa : 2ay . never see such a sight again: $e n as mai vedeaQsper sa nu mai vad in viata mea asa ceva:

Mean&n! an* <alue o( Can an* Coul* 9. The use of dcand with the meaning of epistemic possibility is very often considered exceptionable, may being esteemed the proper word for this king of modality. d4and is more common in rhetorical ^uestions to indicate uncertainty or, in wh ^uestions, intense bewilderment* in the case of could these

"0?

are mixed with some other emotions such as tentativeness, modesty, diffidence etc. 4an may also appear in positive declaratives by syntactic back formation from ^uestions, e.g. 4an 2ichael be busy, . wonderF 1ossibly he can be. 'steQo fi oare ocupat 2ichaelF -(e prea# 1oate sa fie. Tho could this man be who sends her flowers every dayF

4ine e o

e poatee e fi barbatul care i trimite flori in fiecare &iF

e sa fie e .n negative possibility, uncertainty, canQcould are generally used to the exclusion of dmayd -when dpossibled dmayd is followed by not, it is not the modal which is negated but the complement verb#, e.g. Ue could not be a bad man whose wife and children love-d# him so. Ou e poate e fi e putea e si copii. e -se# poate sa fi fost .n many cases fcanP indicates a special kind of possibility or fextrinsicP -external# ability deriving from circumstances, or someonePs legal or social position* in other words circumstances or position permit, enable, give one the right or om rau cel ce e-ra# asa iubit de sotie

"0C

power or simply make it possible for g to do V. The following sentences illustrate this use: . can give you the money tomorrow* itPs pay day. 1ot sa ti dau banii maine* e &i de salariu. Vou can go there by car or bus but not by train* there are no trains. Te poti duce cu masina sau autobu&ul dar nu cu trenul. Ou exista trenuri. Nnly the 1resident can pardon this offense. Oumai 1resedintele e poateQare dreptul e Qare autoritatea sa acorde iertareQsa scuteasca de pedeapsa pentru aceasta infractiune. G. f4anP is often used to denote frecurrencyP, the fact that a tendency in a person or thing is apt to manifest itself occasionally. This use correspons to Goyd and ThornePs fsporadicP and to 1almerPs characteristic fcanP. 4onsider the following sentences: 4uriosity can kill. 4urio&itatea poate ucide. /rance&ii pot fi

/renchmen can be very arrogant. foarte aroganti.

(he could be stern, when honour and dignity were involved. 1utea fi aspra cand erau in %oc cinstea si demnitatea.

"0D

4. f4an is the typical verb to express the sub%ectPs -intrinsic# physical, mental or moral ability to do a certain action or to get into a certain state. 4onsider the following

(he can swin and ski. innoate si sa skie&e. Ue can read and write. citeasca. . can see without glasses. ochelari. . can understand what he is saying. spune. e .nteleg e vad e 1ot vedea

(tie

sa

(tie sa scrie si sa

-si#

fara

e 1ot intelege

ce

9 man who can break the laws of hospitality is not worthy to be your friend. 3n om care poateQeste e in stare sa calce

e capabil legile ospitalitatii nu este demn sa ti fie prieten.

Ootice that the Komanian e^uivalents of fabilityP fcanP vary with the context and the particular type of -cap#ability involved. .n some cases the fabilityP model fa puteaP or one of the alternative forms fa fi in stareQcapabilP is used* in others, the verb fa stiP I fknow howP corresponds to the ability fcanP* in still others, no overt expression of ability is used in Komanian.

"8E

The cases where can is complemented by a verb of physical or mental perception as in -83# and -8,# can receive an interpretation other than with be able to.

Coul* Tith could, as with most of the past marked forms, there are two areas of meaning to be considered: a# all the meanings conveyed by fcanP and b# the meanings of the past marking itself. Thus could may express possibility, potentiality, ability, permission. The past marking adds of these familiar senses two kinds of fremotenessP which it is capable of indicating* first, fremotenessP from the reality immediately perceptible -irrealis# and second, remoteness in time from the moment of coding or a point of reference in the narrative -past#. Nne type of fremotenessP that fcouldP may indicate is a weakening of the original modal meaning, tentativeness, hypothesis* for example, fcouldP can express ob%ective possibility based on some past information as well as a more tenuous possibility: 2ichael could do something like that, . know him. 2ichael poateQe capabil de asa ceva, il cunosc eu. +ittle (ue could grow up to have children -but . certainly doubt it#. 2icuta (ue ar putea creste si sa aiba copii ( ar putea ca micuta (ue sa creasca si sa aiba copii, dar tare ma indoiesc. f4ouldP may also indicate a fhypotheticalP ability, potentiality, permission:

"8"

Ue could lift "EEkg -if he tried#. 9r putea ridica "EE kg, cred -daca ar incerca#. Uis car could do "0E m p.h., . suppose. 2asina lui ar putea merge cu "0E mile pe ora, cred. Vou could borrow my car, if you need-ed# one. 1otiQai putea lua masina mea, daca ai nevoie. Ootice that the present conditional of fa puteaP is the usual form in Komanian for these weakened modalities, tentativeness, hypothesis. The past marked fcouldP can also indicate a different type of unreality namely counterfactual situations, as in: .f looks could kill, the man would have been dead. $aca privirile ar -putea# ucide, ar fi fost un om mort. That corresponds in Komanian to this use of could is the present conditional form of the verb corresponding to the 'nglish complement verb, or, more rarely, of the modal a putea. Then could is followed by a perfect infinitive, the perfect marker indicates past time, thus permitting the modal to carry only fcontrary to factP ness. 4ould may be counterfactual in several different ways: a# when we do not know whether the action was performed or not -some people regard this use as not exactly counterfactual#, e.g. 2ichael could have sent a message home, but .Pm not sure. e ca a trimis

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poate e sa fi trimis 2ichael s ar putea sa fi trimis un mesa% acasa, dar nu sunt sigur. s ar fi putut e sa trimita e sa fi trimis To express this situation Komanian has several forms available: the adverb fpoate-ca#P < a clause with a verb in the fperfectual compusP tense or perfect con%unctive* the present or perfect conditional of the modal fa-se# puteaP followed by the complement verb in the perfect con%unctive* b# a second type of fcounter to factP ness that could may express is non performed action in the past, e.g.

2ichael could have sent a message -when we stopped at the 1ost Nffice, but he didnPt#. 2ichael ar fi putut sa trimita

putea sa fi trimis un mesa% -cand ne am oprit la posta, dar n a trimis#. 4an and could are among the most conventionali&ed froms used to perform all kinds of indirect speech acts. /or example, they may occur in: a mild, casual command or a strong imperative Vou can turn the T= off now. 'i, acum poti sa inchi&i televi&orul.

"83

4anPt you shut up: Ou poti sa ti tii guraF impolite - imperative#. re^uests

rather

4an you give me a dime, pleaseF 1oti sa mi dai o fisa, te rogF 4ould . have a drinkF 9s putea sa beau -si eu# cevaF 4ouldnPt you have a little earlierF O ai putea veni ceva mai devremeF invitations 4ould you have dinner with us (undayF 1utetiQati putea veni la masa la noi duminicaF offers . canQcould baby sit for you this week end, if you wish. 1otQas putea sta eu cu copiii in week end, daca vrei. 4anQcould . be of any helpF 1otQas putea sa te a%ut cu cevaF suggestions, hints, advice 4anQcanPt you talk with your wife firstF O ai putea vorbi mai intai cu sotiaF Q couldnPt a desire, inclination, impulse . could smack his face: .mi vineQvenea sa l plesnesc sa nu se vada.

"8,

. could cry for %oy. .mi veneaQvine sa plang de bucurie. -Ou mai puteam de bucurie.#

. could have wept. .mi venea sa plang. -or#: 4u greu e ma abtineam

e m am abtinut sa nu plang. $e abia e imi tineam plansul.

e mi am putut tine e mi am tinut

doubt, uncertainty, perplexity, bewilderment, disbelief, which in the case of could are blended with some other emotion such as modesty, diffidence etc. Sood Sracious: Uow could my daughter have been involved in all thisF $oamne sfinte: 4um e se poate ca fiica mea amestecata in asa cevaF e sa poata e sa fi fost e sa fie

Mean&n! an* <alue o( Mu t 9. The epistemic sense of must ranks high on the probability scale and occurs in utterances that have been described as necessary statements, logical conclusions, inferences, deductions etc. . must be dreaming. Trebuie Q probabil ca vise&.

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. feel terrible* . must have caught cold or something. 2a simt ingro&itor* trebuie Q probabil ca am racit 2ust occurs chiefly as a present which is accountable for by the fact that epistemic modalities are oriented to fspeaker nowP* it may appear with past time reference, usually in subordinate clauses, only if the time sphere of the inference is simultaneous with that of the past state of affairs referred to in the utterance Then she became aware that the man must be their new neighbour. 9tunci si a dat seama ca omul vecin. 'ven when followed by a perfect infinitive must is still a present, indicating the conclusions arrived at by the speaker at the time of speaking, e.g. (he surely must have arrived by this time. Trebuie, desigur, sa fi a%uns eca a a%uns pana acum. The perfect marker functions as past time indicator of the action denoted by the complement verb. Ootice that in most cases, corresponding to the epistemic use of must, Komanian uses the present -and sometimes in past contexts the imperfect# of epistemic fa trebuiP. .n some cases it is attended by freinforcingP adverbs such as: desigur, cu siguranta, negresit, neaparat, inevitabil. trebuie ca era trebuie sa fie noul lor

"88

Two roles, again, are important in the deontic use of must: the imposer or originator and the goal or receiver of the constraint or obligation. The former is the logical sub%ect of must, the latter is usually its surface sub%ect. The constraint imposed upon the sub%ect may originate from various sources such as the will of the speaker or some other authority, the sub%ectPs own will or keen desire, lawe, regulations, circumstances, a power beyond the sub%ectPs control etc. .n many cases the source of the constraint is not specified. $eontic must is used performatively when the speaker himself imposes the obligation, e.g. .f 2ichael comes in after midnight, he must come in ^uietly* Ue e woke me up last night. $aca e vii e vine acasa dupa mie&ul noptii, trebuie incet The sub%ectPs obligation or the constraint may derive from other sources or fauthoritiesP such as: a power beyond the sub%ectPs control -rules, regulations, a social law, a code of honour etc.#, e.g. Tomen must cover their heads in church. /emeile trebuie sa aiba capul acoperit in biserica. 1assengers must cross the lines by the footbridge. 4alatori: Traversati liniile numai pe pasarela. e sa intri e sa intre

"8?

Traversarea liniilor -este# permisa numai pe pasarela. the natural or inevitable conse^uence of a certain event or of inexorable circumstances Vou have made your bed, end you must lie upon it. 4um ti ai asternut asa e vei dormi e va trebui sa dormi the necessity that a condition be fulfilled in order that a certain state of affairs may be possible, e.g. . must work hard if . mean to be an 9 student. Trebuie sa muncesc serios daca vreau sa fiu student de "E. a strong moral obligation or an urgent advisability That . have promised . must do. 4eea ce am promis trebuie sa fac. Vou must ^uit smoking if you want to live. Trebuie sa te lasi de fumat daca vrei sa traiesti. .t is worth nothing that deontic must < perfect infinitive cannot be used to describe an event that has actually occurred* have to or one of the other approximately e^uivalent phrases are used instead, e.g. . was told that he must have handed in his resignation. (ome of the deontic functions of must are shared by have to which may represent a person under the constraint of: a task or official duty

"8C

The duties of a 1resident are very demanding* he has to devote all his time and energies to his country. .ndatoririle unui 1resedinte il solicita foarte mult* trebuia sa si dedice tot timpul si energia tarii sale. .n the service you have to obey the orders of your superiors. .n armata trebuie sa indeplinesti ordinele superiorilor. a power beyond the sub%ectPs control such as a law of nature, an overmastering emotion The expedition got off in 2ay but it had to make its way against adverse weather. 'xpeditia a pornit in mai, dar a e trebuit sa infrunte e avut de infruntat e vreme potrivnica. . saw she had to bite her lips not to burst into tears. 9m va&ut c a trebuit sa si muste bu&ele ca sa nu i&bucneasca in plans. the necessity of a condition being fulfilled that a certain action or state be possible .f you want to catch the bus, youPll have to run for it. 2ust is ^uite often used to perform casual invitations or make excuses, which are conventionally polite but of ^uestionable sincerity, at least in certain circumstances Vou must come and see us one of these days. Trebuie sa vii sa ne ve&i intr una din &ile. . must be leaving now. Trebuie sa plec. "8D

2ust is very common for suggestions, recommendations, emphatic advice* these are meant as fshouldP statements regarding an action that is in the interest of the sub%ect rather than in the interest of the speaker, e.g. Vou years. e Trebuie -neaparat# sa ve&i e Ou trebuie sa pier&i e e filmul acesta* este X.. e must see e mustnPt miss this movie* itPs the best .Pve seen in

f2ustP sometimes becomes sharp and emphatic and is used for strong advice, reprimands, orders Vou mustnPt play with matches. Ou trebuie sa te %ociQ nu te %uca cu chibriturile. Vou mustnPt speak like this to your mother. Ou trebuieQse cade sa vorbesti asa cu mama ta. Vou must leave immediately: Trebuie sa pleciQpleaca imediat: These speech acts are performed by someone who believes he has the authority -in many cases institutionali&ed# or circumstantial power to control the behaviour of the addressee and he expects to be obeyed. Nrders, like reprimands and emphatic advice, are generally given by military commanders, employers, parents, teachers and other such bullies. 2ust is often used as a casual, conventionali&ed way of expressing an intention, e.g.

"?E

. must tell you about a dream . had last night. Trebuie sa ti povestesc ce am visat a&i noapte. Te must have a party to celebrate your graduation. Trebuie sa dam o petrecere sa ti sarbatorim absolvirea. Mean&n! an* <alue o( G&ll an* Goul* G&ll is used: a# to state that, given certain circumstances, an action or state regularly and fre^uently takes place, as the conse^uence of a natural tendency or inclination of a person or thing. This fwillP occurs in general statements about what has been observed at all times and the sub%ect is usually a -pro#noun in the third person Goys will be boys. Gaietii s baieti* asa s baietii* baietii tot baieti. 9 cat will often play with a mouse before she kills it. 1isica adeseori se %oaca cu soarecele inainte de a l ucide. =ern, as a man will, was watching with interest the performance of the girls. =ern, ca orice barbat, urmarea cu interes demonstratia fetelor. Till is often absent in cases like those described above. Ootice that this is exactly the situation obtaining in Komanian in all cases discussed under-a#, where fwillP does not have a similar e^uivalent, the generic present tense being used instead. 4onsider the following sentences where fwillP is absent although it would fit in excellently, e.g.

"?"

/ools rush in where angels fear to tread. Oebunii se reped -dau navala# acolo unde ingerii se tem sa calce -puna piciorul#. The ma%or s^uared himself, as military men do. 2aiorul lua po&itia de drepti, asa cum fac militarii. b# to describe a particular virtue or defect in a person or thing These watches will last a life time. 4easurile acestea durea&a o viata. c# to represent an action or state of a particular person or thing as customary, habitual or prevalent -similar to cases under a#, especially under certain circumstances, e.g. .f you ask a woman about her age, she will reply with a ^uestion: Tell, how old do you think . amF! $aca intrebi o femeie cati ani are, iti va raspunde cu o intrebare: 4ati ani cre&i ca amF! The notion of weak volition expressed in intentions and that of willingness can be strengthened into determination and resolution, which is strongest form of volition. $etermination may be interpreted as the intention to perform or bring about a state of affairs much desired by the speaker. Then indicating this, will is uttered with strong stress . will survive, no matter what . may have to go through. =oi supravietuiQsunt decis sa supravietuiesc, indiferent de ce voi avea de indurat.

"?2

. will see her, . will not be turned down. . must speak to her. 9m s o vad, sunt decis* nu voi accepta sa fiu refu&at. Trebuie sa . vorbesc. This must and will be done. -9ceasta# Trebuie sa fie si va fi indeplinita. $etermination is also expressed by a variety of phrases such as fto be determinedP, fto be bent onP, fto se onePs heart onP etc.* fa fi decisQhotaratP* fa si pune in minte saP etc.

GOULD is traditionally regarded as the past e^uivalent of will, but it is a modal verb in its own right, with epistemic and deontic values and which may convey many shades of meaning different from those expressed by the unmarked fwillP. 9s noted before, the past tense morpheme may signal various things, past time, tentativeness, hypothesis, counterfactuality. Thus the past marked would may be the past e^uivalent of epistemic will in reported or past time sphere statements, indicating the three types of inference: ) a prediction about the future made from a past moment .t was announced that the 1resident would make a public statement the next day. ( a anuntat ca 1resedintele va face o declaratie publica a doua &i. Ue knew he would be late for his appointment. (tia ca va a%unge cu intar&iere.

"?3

Tould may also be the past counterpart of deontic will in reported and past time sphere contexts to denote: a# an intention Te heard the telephone ring and he said hePd get it. b# willingness, readiness or the reverse Ue thought he would marry her right away if she would have him. Ue said -that# he wouldnPt lend me a penny. Ootice that whereas would is restricted to subordinate clauses as in the sentences above, wouldnPt used for negative intentions or unwillingness can stand alone, e.g. Ue wouldnPt help me yesterday I he refused to X -cf. he wonPt help me -today##. Tould cannot be used in this way. To put a sentence such as f. will help him todayP into the past we will have to replace fwillP by an other verb* f. wantedQintendedQwas willingQoffered etc. to help himP.

c# determination an resolution - with strong stress# (he vowed e resolvede she would survive no matter what she might have to go through. Till and would are probably the modals most fre^uently used to perform all kinds of speech acts than the direct ones performed with their literal meanings. They are very common

"?,

and highly conventionali&ed in making polite offers, invitations, re^uests, in promising, pledging, issuing orders etc.* would is felt softer and more polite. offers and invitations TillQwould you like Tould you care for putin ceaiF e vreti e some teaF I =rei e doriti e

TillQwonPtQwould you step in a minuteF =reiQvreti Ou vreiQvreti re^uest TillQwould you -please# wait for meF e =rei -te rog# e =reti -va rog# e sa ma asteptatiF TonPtQwouldnPt you please call her to meF e O ai vrea, te rog e O ati vrea va rog e e sa i telefone&i din partea meaF e e sa intrati o clipaF

Tould you mind not smoking in hereF =reti -va rog# sa fiti amabil sa nu fumati aiciF re^uests for permission Tould e you mind it be all right 9s putea sa plec e if . left early todayF e

"?0

= ar deran%a daca as pleca

e mai devreme a&iF

Vou wouldnPt mind if . took the day off, would youF Ou va deran%ea&aQ suparati daca iau o &i libera, nuF orders, commands Vou will remove your clothes. =a rog sa va de&bracati. Vou would better turn the T= off. 9i face bine sa inchi&i televi&orul. 4ome here, willQwould youF -not very polite except when used between people who know each other well#. =ino incoace. -te rog#. Vou will stay here until . come back I emphatic command. =ei sta aici (a nu te misti de aici promise $onPt worry, honey. . will be home before the guests start coming, . promise. /ii fara gri%a, draga mea. =oi fi acasa inainte de a incepe musafirii sa soseasca, promit. Mean&n! an* <alue o( S6all an* S6oul* S6all appears with its deontic meaning when it implies a certain constraint, obligation or necessity as a result of the will or volition of an authority. The source of the constraint is very often the speaker himself* but while with deontic fwillP e pana ce ma intorc.

"?8

the goal of the obligation is the surface sub%ect of the sentence, with fshallP, irrespective of the surface sub%ect, the obligation seems to be undertaken by the sub%ect himself. .n other words the speakerPs will is so strong that he takes it upon himself to bring about the state of affairs described in the sentence. This meaning of fshallP can be paraphrased as: f. guarantee that XP, f. make myself responsible for XP, f. commit myself to bring about XP. $eontic fshallP with the speaker as both origin and goal of the constraint may express: his determination or resolution to perform a certain action or to see that it happens -to secure a certain end#, e.g. . shall not give up my faith even for you. Ou voi renunta la credinta mea nici macar pentru tine. .t seems that first person resolutions expressed by will are usually such that are formed under the impression of the moment, while shall is used for resolutions that are the result of deliberation or deeply rooted feeling. Tith second and third person sub%ects, shall represents the speaker as determined to bring something about or prevent it

Oo, my dear, you shall no longer spend so lavishly. Ou, draga mea, de acum incolo nu vei mai cheltui cu atata larghete. The children shanPt hear any more of your nonsense. 4opiii nu vor mai asculta la prostiile tale, te asigur. The sub%ect is under the will of the speaker who commands him "??

9: . wonPt do it. G: Ves, you shall.

Ou vreau sa fac asta. Ga o vei faceQai s o faci :

promises him -or vows, or guarantees#

Vour service shall be rewarded. =ei fi rasplatit pentru acest serviciu. Vou shall have my full support. =eiQva avea tot spri%inul meu. threatens him VouQhe shall pay for that. =eiQva plati pentru asta.

S6oul* appears with its epistemic meaning in sentences where the speaker expresses an inference, an anticipation of a probable occurrence, an expectation, as in: 2r.Tolfe is not here but he should be in any minute now. $l.Tolfe nu este aici dar trebuie sa soseasca dintr o clipa in alta. This should be the house unless my memory fails me. 9sta ar trebui sa fie casa, daca nu ma inseala memoria. Then the inference refers to a past circumstance, should is followed by the complement verb in the perfect infinitive, for past time reference

"?C

The man was young looking but he should have been very strong for he finished the %ob in half an hour. Garbatul parea tanar dar trebuie e sa fi fost e ca era foarte viguros pentru ca termina treaba in %umatate de ora.

This should has been described as a fweakenedP epistemic must and the two modals often assumed to be semantic e^uivalents, but the synonymy is only partial, the concept of probability is present in both but they are not interchangeable* $eontic should may represent someone as under the constraint of an obligation that is prescribed by the moral code or social norms: duty, civility, propriety, what is thought of as good, correct, right, %ust, sensible, reasonable etc. and therefore advisable 'verybody should obey the laws. Toata lumea ar trebui sa respecte legeaQse cadeQe de dorit X Goys should not be rude to girls and vice versa. e (e cadeQse cuvine e

e ' de doritQtrebuiee ca baietii sa nu fie necuvinciosi cu fetele si invers. They shouldnPt allow children to play in the streers* itPs too dangerous. e O ar trebui e 9r fi - ca&ul#

"?D

- de dorit # e sa -nu# se permita copiilor sa se %oace pe strada* este prea periculos. Nld friends should keep in touch and help each other. =echii prieteni e trebuie e ar trebui e sa pastre&e legatura si sa se a%ute. (hould is also used with: recommandations, advice Vou should give up smoking and exercise more. 9r trebui sa te lasi de fumat si sa faci mai multa miscare. orders and commands Sovernment official shall wear black ties for the reception. 1ersoanele oficiale vor purta cravat neagra la receptive. . desire that you should do it: .ti cer sa faci asta: disapproval, reproof, reprimands Vou shouldnPt use such dirty language: ( ar cadeaQcuveni sa nu vorbesti asa de urat O ar trebui sa vorbesti asa urat.

expressions of doubt, uncertainty, perplexity, e.g. 4ould it be possible that his old friend should hide the truth from himF N fiQsa fie -oare# posibil ca vechiul lui prieten sa i ascunda adevarulF

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expressions of surprise or disbelief Uow strange e surprisinge that we should meet here of all places: 4e surpri&a sa ne intalnim tocmai aici: Nh, my Sod: That this should be the reward for all my love for him: N, $umne&eule: (a mi fie asta rasplata pentru toata dragostea ce i portF: A4t&<&t% 1

A. An 7e" t6e (ollo7&n! Jue t&on 1

". That is the relation between development and

disarmamentF

2. That is the relation between civil and political

rights and economic, social and cultural rightsF B. T"an late &nto En!l& 61

". 4olonialismul,

neo colonialismul, rasismul, discriminarea rasial; sub orice form;, apartheidul, intervenAia @i ocupaAia str;in;, agresiunea, discriminarea @i dominarea constituie tot atBtea obstacole >n deplin; reali&are a drepturilor omului.

2. Keali&area dreptului la de&voltare a%ut; la

promovarea culturale. drepturilor economice, sociale @i

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3. 9supra bog;Aiilor @i resurselor sale naturale,

fiecare stat are un drept suveran.

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A4t&<&t% )

1. Fill in the blan/s ,ith can. could or be able to. 1ometimes you have more than one possibility$ 1. Vour sister... play the piano well. 2. They took his passport so that he... not leave the country. 3. Te have been looking for Yohn for two hours, but we... not find him. 4. Thenever 4athy learns the lesson, she ... give very good answers. 5. ... . see your bicycleF 6. Ue... be at home now. 7. ... you lend me c0F Oo, .... not. 8. ... you tell me the entire 4ommercial 4odeF ....when . was at school but .... not now. 9. ... . speak to 2r. /ranklin, pleaseF "E.Ue was very strong* he... work all day and study all night. "".The police were suspicious at first but .... convince them that we were innocent.

2. Fill in the blan/s ,ith may. might or be allo,ed to. 1ometimes you have more than one possibility$

"C3

". Vou... attend this lecture. 2. Ue said it... rain. 3. The pupils... not talk during the test. ,. 4andidates... not bring textbooks into the examination room. 0. (he... visit him whenever she wants. 8. Vou ought to buy now* prices... go up. ?. The boy... be playing football now. C. The police... ask a driver to take a breath test. D. The children... not... go out and play until they had finished their homework. "E.Ue said we... use his office whenever we liked. "".Vou... not take that book home unless you fill in a special form.

3. Fill in the blan/s ,ith must or to have to. must not. need not or donGt have to. 1ometimes you have more than one possibility$ l. Yane sees very badly* she... wear glasses all the time. 2. Vou... read this book. .tWs really excellent. 3. Te still have plenty of time so we... hurry. ,. 1eople... walk on the grass. 0. .f you want to get a good mark, you... work hard.

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8. Vou... cross the street till the traffic light is green. ?. Think it over. Vou... decide now. C. .Wll lend you the money and you.,. pay me back till next week. D. Vou... ring the bell* . have a key. "E. .t isnWt raining any longer, so you... take your umbrella. "". . know your son doesnWt like going to school, but he.... "2. Vou... talk to other candidates during the exam. "3. 9ll dogs... be kept on leads. ",. 9s the manager was ill, we... postpone our meeting. "0. Vou... interrupt when . am speaking: "8. Vou... turn on the light* . can see very well. "?. .n +ondon . got lost and... ask a policeman the way. . Translate into -nglish$ ". =orbe@te mai tare, nu te aud. 2. $e@i o carte de credit este util; prefer s; mi pl;tesc avocatul >n numerar. 3. 9@ fi venit mai devreme dac; a@ fi putut. ,. 4onsilierul nostru %uridic consider; c; acest litigiu ar putea fi re&olvat prin >nAelegere amiabil;. 0. 9r trebui s; cump;raAi casa, s ar putea ca preAurile s; urce. 8. Ou trebuie s; Ai iei umbrela, nu este nici un nor pe cer.

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?. ( ar cuveni s; ne spuneAi ce comision luaAi pentru re&ervarea de bilete pentru avion. C. Mtiam c; m; pot ba&a pe tine: D. 1uteAi retrage pBn; la o mie de dolari pe lun; cu condiAia s; aveAi destui bani >n cont. "E. /u&iunile @i prelu;rile unor firme pot avea repercusiuni asupra Gursei. "". Te provoc s; >nnot;m pBn; acolo: "2. ' nevoie s; ar;t legitimaAia de servici ori de cBte ori vin la aceast; instituAieF "3. 9r fi mai bine s; pleci acum ca s; te poAi >ntoarce mai devreme disear;. ",. $ac; un anga%at intr; >n grev; patronul s;u >l poate concedia f;r; preavi&F "0. (e poate ca fratele t;u s; fi a%uns de%a la gar;. "8. Ou era nevoie s; le mai dau @i eu sfaturi, a@a c; m am abAinut. "?. 4um >ndr;&ne@ti s; m; deran%e&i ia ora aceastaF "C. $ac; nu ne veAi pl;ti >ntr un termen de dou; s;pt;mBni vom fi nevoiAi s; >ncepem procedurile legale pentru recuperarea sumei datorate. "D. 9@ prefera s; nu ie@im disear; >n ora@. 9m foarte mult de lucru. 2E. 9r fi trebuit s; fii mai atent cu el, este unul dintre cei mai importanAi clienAi ai no@tri.

"C8

Sel(/e<aluat&on te t 1. Fill in the blan/s ,ith shall. ,ill. should. ,ould or ought to. 1ometimes you have more than one possibility$ l. . think you... lose weight. 2.... . call a doctorF 3. Sirls... be girls. ,.... you like some teaF 0. Uold the door open for me,... youF 8. The train... be very crowded, .Wm afraid. ?. (he... talk for hours about clothes and films. C. 9 dog... obey his master. D... tell him the truth if . were you. "E. Nur guests... be home by now. "". .f mother were here she... know what to do. "2.... you come to dinner tomorrowF "3. They... have heard about this till now. ",. Vou... obey my orders: "0.... . help youF

"C?

"8. Vou... phone your parents at once.

2. Fill in the blan/s ,ith a suitable modal verb$ l. Ue ... read the text now because he has %ust found out his glasses. 2.... . smoke in the loungeF 3. .... say 2ike... win the competition. ,. . canWt find my identity card. .... have left it at home. 0. Yimmy, how... you tell your mother such a lieF 8. .t... rain. ?. .... go to the bank to make a deposit... you come with meF C. Ue... be at the swimming pool. D. There... be dome mistake, .Wm innocent: "E.... we leave a messageF "". .tWs cold and cloudy. .t... rain soon. "2. Vou... pay out the bill "3.... . borrow your pen, pleaseF ",. Vou... smoke in a hospital: "0. Ue... not have heard the news on the radio because he is really deaf: "8. Vou... copy from others during an examination.

"CC

3. GRITING 9ORMAL LETTERS 3.1. G"&t&n! Cu""&4ulu0 :&tae

1'K(NO9+ .O/NK29T.NO: Name, $ddress, -elephone, E mail, Nationalit", 9ate of birth, 1KN/'((.NO9+ 'g1'K.'O4': '$349T.NO: 1'K(NO9+ 9G.+.T.'( 9O$ 4N21'T'O4'(: *other -ongue: Foreign Ianguages: 8ocial abilities and competences, -echnical abilities and competences,

9o" a bette" un*e" tan*&n!1 'xamples of 4=

"CD

DANIEL MEHEDINTI

Mob&le '6one1 FF3 FC3FI.

G dul $acia nr. 0 Gucuresti, Komania

Nver twenty years of experience at both the research and managerial levels in the development of computer codes for applications in heat transfer and metal processing. 'xperience gained through activities in large national research center, private consulting and young, fast growing enterprise. EN,ERIENCE D&"e4to" o( t6e :&4to"&a B"an46 o( DOMI In t&tute ` 2anage and coordinate DE engineers and administrative staff of "0* ` 4ontract with private industry for the development of speciali&ed scientific or technical software* ` 'xpanded activities in =ictoria branch, leading to the creation of 3 new agencies* ` .ncreased turnover from "DD0 to "DDC from c ,,EEE,EEE to c ,E,EEE,EEE.

Con ultant to &n*u t"% ` 9dvise KomaniaWs largest producer of aluminum products on the development of speciali&ed software for electrolysis and moulding in aluminum processing* ` 9dvise KN2T'+'4N2 on future commercial

"DE

developments involving the Oational Kesearch Oetwork.

Me0be" o( a*<& o"% 4o00&ttee /or the Oational 4enter for (cientific Kesearch and the 2inistry of Kesearch in the fields of 4omputational /luid $ynamics 1olymer 1rocessing 2etal 1rocessing

Ion Du0&t"e 4u (tr. 9ndrei 2ure@anu, nr. 20, Gra@ov, tel. E8C""02"D

SUMMARK1 (trong ^ualities in communications, leadership and reliability allowed me to rise to rank of captain in the Komanian army. 3pon return to civilian life, . took a four year course in business management and have continued to apply these same ^ualities to the business world. EN,ERIENCE "DD0 "DDD 9dministrative and financial director of a small company -0E employees# that bottles and commerciali&es a luxury li^ueur. 4oordinate all aspects of companyPs activities, working in close collaboration with heads of each department: production, purchasing, export, accounting, personnel, "D"

maintenance. (upervised moderni&ation increasing efficiency. of plant,

(et up more efficient purchasing process. .nitiated more aggressive marketing. .ncreased turnover over a four year period by 2E]. "DD" "DD0 (tore manager for large sporting goods chain. (upervised operations for store opening in west of Komania. 2anager of store in south of Komania. "DC0 "DCD Nfficer in the Komanian army. Keached rank of captain. Nrgani&ed radar operations -staff of 0E#. EDUCATION "DCD "DD3 "DC2 "DC, "D?C "DC2 .nstitute of 'conomic (tudies, Gra@ov, four year program in business management Komanian army, Nfficer Training (chool 3niversity of 1olitechnics, Gucharest, four year technical program in electronics

SOCIAL ACTI:ITIES =olunteer fireman for small community: answer emergency calls, capable of giving first aid treatment, do all

"D2

bookkeeping and accounting for fire fightersP association. 2ember of teacher parent association for local %unior high school.

Ma"&u SA:A (tr. $e&robirii, bl. "8, ap. 02 =atra $ornei, %ud. (uceava ,RO9ESSIONAL EN,ERIENCE "DC? present to $irector of financial department and head accountant at a leading university (upervise immediate staff of "8 working in close collaboration with accounting divisions of each college -2E additional staff members# duties include: preparing and executing budget, managing financial accounts and research contracts, supervising payroll for contractual and temporary personnel oversee financial investments and negotiate terms directly with banking establishments ? ha!e been gi!en e<ceptional responsabilities for the management of the treasur" and entrusted .ith decision making po.ers for financial in!estments b" the uni!ersit"

"D3

board of adminisreation. "D?3 "DC? Uead of tax collection office sector representing 2E,EEE inhabitants, 8 towns. supervised staff which grew from 3 to D during my tenure directed tax collection activities inspected finances establishments. of local public

?n Romania, this is a position in!ol!ing a hea!" .ork load and a high degree of responsibilit". -he director is personall" responsible for the correct management of public finances. "D?2 "D?3 9ssistant to director, tax collection office. RELATED ACTI:ITIES teach courses in finance and accounting for candidates for civil service exams leading to careers in administration chair admissions committees for civil service exams secretary of the association of 3niversity 9ccountants. Tork in collaboration with the 2inistry of 'ducation COMMUNITK ACTI:ITIES 1resident of local football club -3EE members# 1resident of community association to provide youth activities -sports, cultural events, leisure activities# -hrough m" professional and communit" acti!ities, ? ha!e de!eloped a number of communications skills.

"D,

 the organization and chairing of meetings for purposes of informing, coordinating, or training the .riting of clear and concise reports

EDUCATION 4ertificate: .nspector for the $epartment of the Treasury Mcoala OaAional; de servicii a Tre&oreriei Theoretical and practical courses in law, economics, accounting, administrative procedures 9dmitted to corps of university administrators and to corps of L9ttachhs of 1refectura! -division in Komanian administration# through nationwide competitive examination L+icence! in public law -three year university program e^uivalent to G.9. degree#

"D0

A4t&<&t% 2 Translate the following 4= into 'nglish: Anto&ne OERRIAN 8, rue de la Kavinelle ??DC3 1ont des 1onts Tel: -33# ?? D2 C? 88 OBIECTI:1 N po&iAie competitiv; >n planificarea @i monitori&area activit;Aii ->n termen mediu# >n cercetarea @i de&voltarea unei teme strategice pentru aplicarea ulterioar; a acesteia >n domeniul industrial.

EN,ERIENPA ,RO9ESIONAL1 "DCD ) pBn; >n $irector, fondator al $ee9, pre&ent grup economic finanAat atBt de sectorul public, cBt @i de cel privat -C pers an, "2 anga%aAi, // 0,3 2#. Kesponsabilit;Aile mele au constat >n: proiectarea structurii supravegherea punerii practic; a proiectului constituire a $ee9* definirea @i >n de

principalelor

"D8

sectoare de activitate* constituirea de echipe omogene @i eficiente pentru fiecare sector de activitate* >n pre&ent coordone& activitatea fiec;rei echipe. "DC? "DCD .nginer cercet;tor >n domeniul >ntrerup;toarelor electrice la +'S', una dintre cele mai mari fabrici de echipamente electrice din /ranAa. Jn acest domeniu m am ocupat de: definirea @tiinAifice de ba&;* orient;rilor

elaborarea unei strategii tehnice pentru de&voltarea industrial;* iniAierea @i coordonarea a dou; lucr;ri -de doctorat# >n colaborare cu /acultatea de TelecomunicaAii. "DC, "DC? 4a doctorand m am ocupat de: coordonarea activit;Ailor de cercetare >n optoelectronic; >n patru centre de cercetare. STUDII1

"D?

"DC?

$octorat >n optoelectronic;, .nstitutul OaAional 1olitehnic din Srenoble (tudii postuniversitare domeniul instrumentelor >n

"DD, "DC2

$iplom; de inginer, .nstitutul OaAional de Jnv;A;mBnt (uperior de /i&ic; din Srenoble 2.(. >n inginerie electric;, 3niversitatea 4alifornia din (an $iego, (39

DOMENII DE CERCETARE1 combinarea de , unde, teoria semi conductoarelor, fi&ica solidului* detecAia magnetic; pasiv;* optoelectronica ba&at; pe compu@i ai siliciului* >ntrerup;toare statice, sen&ori optici de curent. LUCRRI ,UBLICATE1 martie "DC8 ) Tournal of =uided 2ptics -vol. ?0E, pag.D2 D,#, L1olarimetru cu siliciu integrat!.

"DC

 .unie "DC? ) +ucr;rile celei de a = a 7onferinFe Europene de 2pticG -pag. 30 38#, L4omponente optice @i microelectronice integrate: integrarea pe un singur chip de siliciu! februarie "DCD ) Re!ista de electricitate -=ol. "2E, pag. 0, 0C#, L(en&ori cu fibr; optic; cu modulaAie de fa&;! ->n colaborare cu Kogers @i 4aron#. ASOCIAPII ,RO9ESIONALE1 (ocietatea /i&ic; /rance&; de de

9sociaAia inginerilor instrumente foto

"DD

3.). Lette" o( Inte"e t

*a", the &)th ())X 9ear 8ir, .ntroduction ? ha!e recentl" read about the Fello.ship in Ia. granted b" "our Oni!ersit" and ? .ould be !er" interested in it, especiall" since m" studies and preocupations seem to perfectl" match "our requirements. ?t .ould allo. me to achie!e research on 8trategic +lanning, .rite m" graduation paper and later de!elop the thesis for an *$ in +enal Ia.. ? am a fourth "ear undergraduate at Y9anubiusY Oni!ersit" of =alati, ? am specializing in Ia. and ha!e e!en .orked in a la."er%s office as a part time secretar" since Tanuar" ())Z. ? belie!e that the possibilit" of continuing m" studies abroad .ill pro!e beneficient for building on pre!ious e<perience and acquiring the latest kno.ledge in the field, so

2otivation

9ims

aualifications

'xperience

2EE

that ? ma" finall" be able to become a prosecutor as ? intend to. .nterests ? am looking for.ard to recei!ing "our ans.er.

@ours respectfull", IIIIIIIIIII..

2E"

Oovember ",th, 2EE? (tr. Gara%ului nr. "E 080E 1iatra OeamA Komania

$r. Y. 9lvare& $ivision of nephrology (tanford 3niversity (chool of 2edicine (tanford, 4a. D,3E0 0",,

$ear $r. 9lvare&: . am a fifth year student in medicine at the 3niversity of .asi. 9s part of the re^uirements of the fifth year of medical studies in Komania, . must complete a three month clerkship in a university teaching hospital. . would like to take advantage of this clerkship to develop my medical knowledge and, at the same time, learn about medicine as it is practiced abroad. . am particularly interested in discovering medical practices in the 3nited (tates. $r. 2arian 1opescu, Uead of the Oephrology $epartment at the 3niversity of .asi, has encouraged me to write to you about the possibility of carrying out a clerkship in your establishment. . am especially attracted by nephrology or internal medicine, either of which would be a good complement to the practical training . have received to date. . will be available from Yuly " to 2E2

(eptember 3E "Dxx. .n addition, . will be in 4alifornia for two weeks in /ebruary "Dxx and would be happy to meet with you then. . have enclosed my resume and a copy of my transcripts. Thank you in advance for any help you may be able to give me.

(incerely yours, 9na .onescu

2E3

9ndrei (tancu (tr. Gara%ului nr. "E 080E 1iatra Oeamt 9ugust Dth, 2EEC 2r Yohn 9nderson $ickenson 2etals 00 4arriage (treet +ondon

$ear 2r 9nderson, .n a recent discussion, $avid Gailey mentioned $ickensonWs intention to expand its activities in aluminum packaging and develop a separate division. . would like you to consider my application for the position of manager of this division. 9s my enclosed resume points out, . have a rare combination of scientific competence in the field of heat transfer as applied to aluminum processing and proven managerial skills. 9nd even rarer, my managerial experience has not been to the detriment of my scientific competence. . have kept my knowledge of advances and innovations in heat transfer up to date through consulting and by serving on advisory committees to some of the KomaniaWs largest research agencies. $ickensonWs innovations in metal processing are a model for the industry at large. The speed with which it adapts and applies new techni^ues speaks for its commitment to continuing

2E,

research. . would like to be a part of $ickenson and contribute to its continuing success story. . am anxious to examine my potential contributions in depth. . will be in +ondon from (eptember 2C to Nctober ". 2ay . call you and make an appointment to meet with you thenF

(incerely yours, 9ndrei (tancu

2E0

A4t&<&t% ) ". .magine you intend to obtain a %ob Q fellowship. 9 form has been sent to you. 9 letter of application is needed. Try writing one down. 2. /ill in the missing words in the %ob offer below. 3se the phrases under G: 23KK9V i (NO( +td. Oewcastle upon Tyne invites applications for -"# XXXXX.applicants should have -2# XXXXXXXX andQor, -3# XXXXXXXRnowledge of and experience in -,# XXXXXXXXXX.. is also re^uested. 9pplicants are expected to be experienced in -0#........................ XXXXX.. and -8# XXX........... +etters of -?#XXXXX.. should be sent to the (ecretary, 2r 2atthew Y. Gruccoli, 23KK9V i (NO( +td. ", Sordon (^uare, Oewcastle upon Tyne. 23KK9V i (NO( +td. is an e^ually opportunity employer and specifically invites and encourages applications from -C# and -D# XXXXXX........... -"E# XXXXXX.. for applications will be Nct. ?,"DDD. The appointment will be -""# X..XXX.. from (eptember 2EEE. 9 -"2# XXXXXX ofl 2C,EEE per annum -"3#X.. XX. B - is offered - closing date

2E8

- a university degree in business management... economics - computer processing and maintenance

initially five years

interest with 4=

- a senior position in the - pensionable salary (ales $epartment - women... minorities - the management of people, systems, property... finance

2E?

3.2.

Bu &ne

Lette"

MERIDIEN S.A. ) Jua& *e C"enelle# 1EDAB BORDEAUN# 9"an4e Tel. DB.3C.)E Tele8 AAD 22F

(wiftwaves 2anufacturing 2 (eahorse Koad 1NKT(2N3TU 1E"0 3nited Ringdom "2th of Yuly 2EEC

9ear 8irs

;e ha!e seen ad!ertisements in the 6ritish trade press for the N6ount"N life raft, .hich is manufactured b" "our compan". ;e suppl" a .ide range of goods, including safet" equipment, to the o.ners of leisure craft and finishing boats based in the 8outh of France and .e are interested in recei!ing further information about the N6ount"N life raft. ;e .ould like to kno. if *s product is a!ailable for e<port and, if so, to ha!e details of "our trade and quantit" discounts ;e look for.ard to hearing from "ou.

2EC

@ours faithfull" *ichel Iebeau< 7ommercial *anager

A4t&<&t% 2 Trite a reply to the letter, knowing that: there are /rench versions of the brochure with the full technical details of the WGountyW life raft, video cassette and price list for the different models.

2ED

5.4. Letters of Co#+laint (ometimes people feel embarrassed, frustrated, or annoyed either by other people or by circumstances in different situations and they want to settle things in a correct manner. 4onse^uently, they feel bound to address a superior to complain about their special situation, and they sometimes do this by means of a letter. This type of letter, due to its purpose is called letter of complaint.

$ear (ir Q2adam, . am writing to complain about a radio set that . bought from your shop last week, on the 0th of Nctober 2EEC. Then . returned home and took it out of its box, . was not very pleased to find one of the knobs missing and the plug broken. Therefore, l am sure you will understand why . feel so frustrated by the situation. . look forward to hearing from you in the very near future, either to offer me a complete refund or to exchange the original radio set for one which is actually in a decent condition.

Vours faithfully, Kobert Yackson

2"E

A4t&<&t% 3 4onsider the following situation: Vou have %ust had an unsatisfactory meal at an expensive restaurant. Then you tried to complain, the waiter was rude to you. Vou re^uested to speak to the manager, but the waiter prevented you from doing so. Trite a letter to the manager of the restaurant to complain about the waiterWs behaviour. Vou may use some of the formulas in the letter above.

Sel(/e<aluat&on te t 1 ". Trite a letter of complaint to the hotel manager to let him know about the discrepancy you discovered between the room described in the advertising brochure and the room given to you. Vou were surprised to see that there was no view of the sea, no bath, only a shower, and the sheets on me bed did not appear to have been changed since the last guest. Vou told all that to the receptionist, but since you had no answer you decided to let the manager know about it, hoping that in the future situations of this kind will be avoided. 2. Trite a letter of interest re^uesting the search of a book. Vou will find the following outline useful:

2""

2ention the author, title of fee book. 9sk about the search fee. 9sk about payment and delivery conditions.

2"2

B&bl&o!"a'6%
Grookes, 2ichael, Uorner, '., 6usiness English. Engleza pentru afaceri, Gucure@ti, 'ditura Teora, 2EE2* Grookes, 2ichael, Engleza pentru juriKti, 'ditura Teora, Gucure@ti, 2EE3* 4hir;lescu, 2., 1aidos 4., +roficienc" in English, .nstitutul 'uropean, 2EE0* 4ook, Y., Sethin, 9., $ Ne. ;a" to +roficienc" in English, Nxford, "DD0* $ayan, 9., +indsay, T.U., Engleza pentru marketing Ki publicitate, Gucure@ti, 'ditura Teora, 2EEE* $elgiudice, +uminiAa, Fift" Oseful -ests in English, Gucure@ti, 'ditura 9ramis, "DDD* $ema&et, Gertrand, Engleza comerFului e<terior# Gucure@ti, 'ditura Teora, "DDD* S;l;Aeanu /Brnoag;, S., Iimba englezG Hn con!ersaFie, Gucure@ti, 'ditura MtiinAific; @i 'nciclopedic;, 2EEE* Sheorghitoiu, 9ndreea, 9icFionar englez roman de !erbe cu particulG ad!erbialG, Gucure@ti, 'ditura Teora, "DDC* Uanga, =ladimir, 9icFionar juridic englez romEn, Gucure@ti, 'ditura +umina +ex, 2EE3*

2"3

Uealth, K.G., ?mpact $ssignments in English, +ongman, +ondon, 2EE2* Uulban, U., English for @ou, .a@i, 'ditura K;&e@u, "DD?* +e $ivenach, 'loi, Engleza Hn presG, Gucure@ti, 'ditura Teora, 2EE0* +upuleasa, K., Read" for E<ams, Gucure@ti, 'ditura 1olirom, 2EE,* 2arie 4laude, Koland, 7> Hn limba englezG. On pas spre angajare, Gucure@ti, 'ditura Teora, 2EEE* 2artin, 2. 4ombe, Iistening and 7omprehending, Gucure@ti, 'ditura 2acmillan, 2EEE* 2ih;escu, 9lexandra, =ramatica limbii engleze, Gucure@ti, 'ditura Oiculescu, 2EE?* 2olnar, Nprea, Oicoleta, 7urs de limba englezG pentru studenFii facultGFilor cu profil juridic , Gucure@ti, 'ditura 9ll 'ducational, 2EEE* Nprescu, (imona, Engleza pentru juriKti, Gucure@ti, 'ditura Nscar 1rint, "DDD* 1eters, Yo 9nn, Iet%s Iearn English. *etodG Iarousse de Hn!GFare a limbii engleze, Gucure@ti, 'ditura Teora, 2EE,* Kusu, +iliana, Iimba engleza pentru studenFii facultGFii de drept, Gucure@ti, 'ditura (ylvi, 2EE"* Turcu, /ulvia, Engleza de afaceri. 7urs intensi!, Gucure@ti, 'ditura 3ranus, "DC?. 2",