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2012 Anatomy & Physiology-Training Handout

Karen L. Lancour National Rules ommittee hairman ! Li"e #cience $%# LA%&'R - This presentation was prepared using draft rules. There may be some changes in the final copy of the rules. The rules which will be in your Coaches Manual and Student Manuals will be the official rules. BE SURE TO CHECK THE 2012 EVENT RULES for EVENT PA AMETE S and T!P"CS #! EAC$ C!MPET"T"!N %EVE% TRA%N%N( &AT'R%AL#) Training Po*er Point presents an o&er&iew of material in the training handout Training Handout presents introductory topic content information for the e&ent #am+le Tournament has sample problems with 'ey ',ent #u+er,isor (uide has e&ent preparation tips( setup needs and scoring tips %nternet Resource & Training &aterials are a&ailable on the Science !lympiad website at www.soinc.org under E&ent "nformation. A -iology-'arth #cience $ as well as the $i,ision - and $i,ision Test Pac.ets are a&ailable from S! store at www.soinc.org -A#% ANAT/&0 AN$ PH0#%/L/(0 espiratory System $igesti,e #ystem 1ne*2 '3cretory #ystem 1ne*2 Ma)or *iseases Treatment and pre&ention of diseases PR/ '## #K%LL# - o4ser,ations5 in"erences5 +redictions5 calculations5 data analysis5 and conclusions.

Res+iratory #ystem
67N T%/N#) Pro&ides o+ygen to the blood stream and remo&es carbon dio+ide Enables sound production or &ocali,ation as e+pired air passes o&er the &ocal chords. Enables protecti&e and refle+i&e non-breathing air mo&ements such as coughing and snee,ing( to 'eep the air passages clear Control of Acid-.ase balance and Control of blood p$ PR/ '##'#) a collecti&e term for the following processes/ Pulmonary ventilation - mo&ement of air into the lungs 0inspiration1 and mo&ement of air out of the lungs 0e+piration1 E ternal re!"iration - mo&ement of o+ygen from the lungs to the blood and mo&ement of carbon dio+ide from the blood to the lungs Tran!"ort o# re!"iratory $a!e! -Transport of o+ygen from the lungs to the tissues and transport of carbon dio+ide from the tissues to the lungs %nternal re!"iration - Mo&ement of o+ygen from blood to the tissue cells and mo&ement of carbon dio+ide from tissue cells to blood

PR%N %PAL /R(AN# /6 TH' R'#P%RAT/R0 #0#T'& Nose &un'tion! Pro&ides an airway for respiration Moistens and warms entering air #ilters and cleans inspired air esonating chamber for speech *etects odors in the airstream (natomi'al #eature! Vibrissae 0guard hairs1 3 stiff hairs that filter large particles from the air Nasal cilia 3 hair-li'e pro)ections that propel trapped particles towards the throat for digestion by digesti&e en,ymes Capillaries - rich supply of capillaries warm the inspired air Nasal conchae 3 folds in the mucous membrane that increase air turbulence and ensures that most air contacts the mucous membranes !lfactory mucosa 3 mucous membranes that contain smell receptors espiratory mucosa 3 pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium containing goblet cells that secrete mucus Mucus - Stic'iness traps inhaled particles and %yso,yme 'ills bacteria %ymphocytes and "gA antibodies - protect against bacteria Pharyn3 1throat2 T)ree re$ion! o# t)e ")aryn Nasopharyn+ 3 air passage 0pseudostratified columnar epithelium1 !ropharyn+ 3 passageway for air( food( and drin' 0stratified s4uamous epithelium1 %aryngopharyn+ 3 passageway for air( food( and drin' 0stratified s4uamous epithelium1 Laryn3 1,oice 4o32 &un'tion! 5eeps food and drin' out of the airway Sound production Acts as a sphincter during abdominal straining 0e+. *uring defecation and hea&y lifting1 (natomi'al #eature!) 6

Nine c-rings of hyaline cartilage form the framewor' of the laryn+ Muscular walls aid in &oice production and the swallowing refle+ 7lottis 3 the superior opening of the laryn+ Epiglottis 3 pre&ents food and drin' from entering airway when swallowing #alse &ocal cords 3 aid in closing the glottis when swallowing True &ocal cords 3 produce sound when air passes between them Note/ The shorter and thinner these membranes are( the faster air mo&es o&er them 3 produces high pitched sounds while the longer and thic'er these membranes are( the slower air mo&es o&er them 3 produces low pitched sounds Trachea 1*ind+i+e2 &un'tion! Air passageway Cleans( warms( and moistens incoming air (natomi'al #eature! ings of hyaline cartilage 3 reinforce the trachea and 'eep it from collapsing when you inhale Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium 3 traps inhaled debris and propels mucus up to the pharyn+ where it is swallowed -ronchi &un'tion Solely an air passageway (natomi'al #eature! %eft and right primary bronchi branch off from trachea !nce the left and right primary bronchi enter the lungs they are subdi&ided into smaller tubes/ Secondary bronchi 0one for each lobe1 8 tertiary bronchi 8 bronchioles 8 terminal bronchioles 8 respiratory bronchioles 8 al&eolar ducts 8 al&eolar sacs Al&eolar sacs are clusters of al&eoli the site of gas e+change Cell "o"ulation! "re!ent in alveoli Type " al&eolar cells 3 allow for diffusion of gases 0simple s4uamous epithelia1 Type "" al&eolar cells 3 secrete surfactant 0simple cuboidal epithelia1 *ust cells 3 al&eolar macrophages 0leu'ocytes1 Ot)er ti!!ue ty"e! "re!ent in t)e alveoli Smooth muscle rings aid in resistance to air flow Elastic connecti&e tissue fibers aid in e+pelling air from the lungs Lungs %eft %ung/ *i&ided into 6 lobes9 Smaller than the right lung because the cardiac notch accommodates the heart ight %ung/ *i&ided into : lobes Note) Each lobe is separated by connecti&e tissue and has its own arteries and &eins which allows for compartmentali,ation( esp. when portions of the lungs are diseased. Serous membranes co&er the entire surface of the lungs and produce pleural fluid which enables the lungs to e+pand and contract with minimal friction :

&' HAN%#& /6 P7L&%NAR0 8'NT%LAT%/N

T*o +hases o" Pulmonary 8entilation 3 in&ol&es diaphragm( "ntercostal muscles( Pectoralis minor mucscle and the gas laws. Physiology o" Pulmonary 8entilation & the (as La*s Airflow is go&erned by basic pressure( flow( and resistance principles Atmospheric pressure is the weight of the air is the force that mo&es air into the lungs. -oyle9s la* - at constant temperature( the pressure of a gi&en 4uantity of gas is in&ersely proportional to its &olume. harles9 La* - the &olume of a gi&en 4uantity of gas is directly proportional to its absolute temperature As the inhaled air is warmed( it e+pands and inflates the lungs. %n!"iration* or in)alation 3 a &ery acti,e process that re4uires input of energy Air flows into the lungs when the thoracic pressure falls below atmospheric pressure. The diaphragm mo&es downward and flattens( when stimulated by phrenic ner&es. E ternal +in!"iratory, intercostals muscles and thoracic muscles can be stimulated to contract and e+pand the thoracic ca&ity. E "iration* or e )alation 3 a +assi,e process that ta'es ad&antage of the recoil properties of elastic fibers Air is forced out of the lungs when the thoracic pressure rises abo&e atmospheric pressure. The diaphragm and e+piratory muscles rela+. The elasticity of the lungs and the thoracic cage allows them to return to their normal si,e and shape. To e+hale more than usual( internal 0e+piratory1 intercostals muscles and other muscles can be stimulated. Physical "actors in"luencing +ulmonary ,entilation esistance to airflow Pulmonary compliance 3 the ease at which lungs e+pand. Compliance can be reduced by degenerati&e lung disease( such as tuberculosis. *iameter of bronchioles 3 controlled by smooth muscle .ronchoconstriction 3 reduce airflow .ronchodialation - increase airflow Al&eolar surface tension 3 surfactant reduces the surface tension in the al&eoli and 'eep them from collapsing during e+piration. Neural control of pulmonary &entilation

ontrol centers in the 4rainstem espiratory control centers 3 found in the pons and the medulla oblongata Control breathing Ad)usts the rate and depth of breathing according to o+ygen and carbon dio+ide le&els Afferent connections to the brainstem $ypothalmus and limbic system send signals to respiratory control centers Chemoreceptors in the brainstem and arteries monitor p$( o+ygen( and carbon dio+ide le&els Vagus ner&e 0<1 transmits sensory signals to the respiratory centers when irritated by smo'e( dust( no+ious fumes( etc. "nflation refle+ 3 pre&ents the lungs from o&er-inflating Voluntary control 3 controlled by the motor corte+ of the cerebrum Very limited &oluntary control e+ists Patterns o" -reathing Apnea 3 temporary cessation of breathing 0one or more s'ipped breaths1 *yspnea 3 labored( gasping breathing9 shortness of breath Eupnea 3 Normal( rela+ed( 4uiet breathing $yperpnea 3 increased rate and depth of breathing in response to e+ercise( pain( or other conditions $yper&entilation 3 increased pulmonary &entilation in e+cess of metabolic demand $ypo&entilation 3 reduced pulmonary &entilation !rthopnea 3 *yspnea that occurs when a person is lying down espiratory arrest 3 permanent cessation of breathing Tachypnea 3 accelerated respiration &easures o" Pulmonary 8entilation Res+iratory 8olumes3 &alues determined by using a spirometer Ti-al Volume 1T82 3 amount of air inhaled or e+haled with each breath under resting conditions 1:00 mL2%n!"iratory Re!erve Volume 1%R82 ! amount of air that can be inhaled during forced breathing in addition to resting tidal &olume 1;000 to ;;00 mL2 E "iratory Re!erve Volume 1'R82 3 amount of air that can be e+haled during forced breathing in addition to tidal &olume 11000 to 1200 mL2 Re!i-ual Volume 3 1R82 - amount of air remaining in the lungs after a forced e+halation. 11200 mL2

Res+iratory a+acities 3 &alues determined by adding two or more of the respiratory &olumes Vital Ca"a'ity 18 2 3 ma+imum amount of air that can be e+pired after ta'ing the deepest breath possible 1<:00 to :000 mL2 8 = T8 > %R8 > 'R8 %n!"iratory Ca"a'ity 1% 2 3 ma+imum &olume of air that can be inhaled following e+halation of resting tidal &olume % = T8 > %R8 &un'tional Re!i-ual Ca"a'ity 16R 2 3 &olume of air remaining in the lungs following e+halation of resting &olume 6R = 'R8 > R8 Total Lun$ Ca"a'ity 1TL 2 - total &olume of air that the lungs can hold 0:?00 to @200 mL 1cm;2 "or adults and 2@A0 to ;@00 mL "or Bunior High 0outh2 TL = 8 > R8 Boyle! La.: P2V2 > P6 V6 P2 is initial pressure( V2 is initial &olume( P6 is final pressure( V6 is final &olume( Partial "re!!ure o# $a!e! ! the amount of pressure e+erted by each gas in a mi+ture. "t is e4ual to the total pressure + fractional composition of a gas in the mi+ture. "t affects the diffusion of o+ygen and carbon dio+ide. .ased on the original Torricelli barometer design( one atmosphere of pressure will force the column of mercury 1Hg2 in a mercury barometer to a height of ?@A millimeters. A pressure that causes the $g column to rise 2 millimeter is called a torr 0you may still see the term 2 mm $g used9 this has been replaced by the torr1. Partial Pre!!ure o# o y$en / Sea le&el atmospheric Pressure of ?@A torr or 0mm $g1 + 62B o+ygen > ?@A torr 0mm $g1 + .62 > 2@A mm $g (A# 'C HAN(' AN$ TRAN#P/RT om+osition o" Air Air is a mi+ture of gases( each of which contributes a share( called its partial pressure( to the total atmospheric pressure. $alton9s La* says that the total pressure of a gas mi+ture is the sum of the partial pressures of the indi&idual gases The Air-Dater %nter"ace Chen air and water are in contact with each other( gases diffuse down their concentration gradients until the partial pressure of each gas in the air is e4ual to its partial pressure in the water. "f a gas is more abundant in the water than the air( it diffuses into the air. At the air-water interface( 0Henry9s La*2 for a gi&en temperature( the amount of gas that dissol&es in the water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in the air. "n al&eoli( the greater the partial pressure of o+ygen in the al&eolar air( the more o+ygen the blood pic's up. Since the blood arri&ing at an al&eolus has a higher partial pressure of carbon dio+ide than air( the blood releases carbon dio+ide into the air.

Al,eolar (as '3change 3 the loading of o+ygen and the unloading of carbon dio+ide in the lungs #actors affecting the efficiency of al&eolar gas e+change Concentration gradients of the gases Solubility of the gases 3 carbon is 6A times more soluble as o+ygen and diffuses more rapidly Membrane thic'ness 3 &ery thin( to facilitate diffusion Membrane area 3 refers to the al&eolar surface area Ventilation-perfusion coupling 3 the ability to match &entilation and perfusion to each other Poor &entilation of part of a lung( reduces the blood flow to that area 7ood &entilation increases the blood flow to that area Role o" #ur"actant) The surface of the al&eolar membrane is co&ered with a substance called sur"actant which reduces the surface tension in the fluid on the surface of the al&eoli( allowing them to e+pand at the first breath( and remain open. "f the sacs either fail to e+pand( or e+pand then collapse on e+piration( the result is labored breathing. (as Trans+ort !+ygen 3 most is bound to hemoglobin of red blood cells9 small amount dissol&ed in blood plasma Carbon dio+ide is transported in three forms ar4onic acid 3 DAB of carbon dio+ide reacts with water to form carbonic acid ar4oamino com+ounds 3 =B binds to plasma proteins and hemoglobin $issol,ed gas 3 =B carried in the blood as dissol&ed gas #ystemic (as '3change Carbon dio+ide loading -The Haldane e""ect 3 the lower the partial pressure of o+ygen and saturation of it in hemoglobin( the more carbon dio+ide can be carried in the blood !+ygen unloading from hemoglobin molecules #actors that ad)ust the rate of o+ygen unloading to metabolic rates of different tissues Am4ient P/2 3 low partial pressures in the air promote o+ygen unloading Tem+erature 3 high temperatures promote o+ygen unloading The -ohr e""ect 3 o+ygen unloading in response to low p$ -inding o" hydrogen ions reduces the affinity of hemoglobin for o+ygen -P( 3 bi-product of aerobic respiration in red blood cells9 increases in .P7 le&els promote o+ygen unloading -lood hemistry and the Res+iratory Rhythm $ydrogen ion concentrations strongly influence respiration Carbon dio+ide concentrations strongly influence respiration !+ygen concentrations ha&e little effect on respiration

$ead #+ace Anatomical dead space 3areas of the conducting ,one that contains air that ne&er contributes to the gas e+change in the al&eoli Al&eolar dead space 3 al&eoli that or collapsed or obstructed and are not able to participate in gas e+change Pulmonary 6unction Tests - enable obstructi&e pulmonary disorders to be distinguished from restricti&e disorders. !bstructi&e disorders 3 do not reduce respiratory &olumes( but the narrow the airway and interfere with airflow estricti&e disorders 3 disorders that stiffen the lungs and thus reduce compliance and &ital capacity $%#/R$'R# AN$ $%#'A#'# /6 TH' R'#P%RAT/R0 #0#T'& Chronic obstructi&e pulmonary diseases 0C!P*1 3 long-term obstruction of airflow and a substantial reduction in pulmonary &entilation Asthma 3 allergens trigger the release of histamine and other inflammatory chemicals that cause intense bronchoconstriction Emphysema 3 al&eolar walls brea' down and the surface area of the lungs is reduced Pneumonia 3 lower respiratory infection that causes fluid build up in the lungs Sleep apnea 3 Cessation of breathing for 2A seconds or longer during sleep Cystic #ibrosis 3 an inherited disorder that causes causes thic'( stic'y mucus to build up in the lungs Tuberculosis 3 pulmonary infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis9 reduces lung compliance Pulmonary edema 3 e+cess fluid in the lungs Pleurisy 3 inflammation of the pleura lining surrounding the lungs 3 &ery painful %ung cancer 3 malignancy of pulmonary tissue $ypo+ia 3 deficiency of o+ygen in a tissue or the inability to use o+ygen !+ygen to+icity 3 e+cess o+ygen( causing the build up of pero+ides and free radicals Chronic bronchitis 3 cilia are immobili,ed and reduced in number9 goblet cells increase their production of mucus 8 mucus clogs the airways and breeds infection Acute rhinitis 3 the common cold %aryngitis 3 inflammation of the &ocal folds

%NT'RA T%/N /6 R'#P%RAT/R0 AN$ &7# 7LAR #0#T'&#)


The "ntercostal Muscles and the *iaphram wor' together to allow breathing to occur.

'""ects o" '3ercise on Res+iratory


*uring e+ercise the muscle cells use up more o+ygen and produce increased amounts of carbon dio+ide. The lungs and heart ha&e to wor' harder to supply the e+tra o+ygen and remo&e the carbon dio+ide. Eour breathing rate increases and you breathe more deeply. $eart rate also increases in order to transport the o+ygenated blood to the muscles. Muscle cell respiration increases - more o+ygen is used up and le&els of carbon dio+ide rise. The brain detects increasing le&els of carbon dio+ide - a signal is sent to the lungs to increase breathing. .reathing rate and the &olume of air in each breath increase - This means that more gaseous e+change ta'es place. The brain also tells the heart to beat faster so that more blood is pumped to the lungs for gaseous e+change. &ore o3ygenated 4lood is gets to the muscles and more car4on dio3ide is remo,ed. F

The $igesti,e #ystem


Consists of the digesti&e tract 0the alimentary canal and the gastrointestinal tract1 and its accessory organs Continuous tube from mouth to anus consisting of/ Mouth Pharyn+ Esophagus Stomach Small "ntestine %arge "ntestines Accessory !rgans 3 Secrete fluids into digesti&e tract Sali&ary 7lands %i&er 7allbladder Pancreas

$igesti,e Process %n,ol,es/ %ngestion 3 inta'e of food $igestion 3 brea'down of food bit by bit into molecules small enough to be absorbed &echanical $igestion 3 physical brea'down of food hemical $igestion 3 chemical brea'down of macromolecules to monomers A4sor+tion 3 transport of productions into the blood 'limination 1$e"ecation2 - elimination of undigested waste &o,ement o" &aterials ! &ia peristalsis or alternating wa&es of contraction and rela+ation of smooth muscles that mo&e materials through the digesti&e tract D

$igesti,e Tract /rgans &outh/ !pens to outside to facilitate feeding Aids in preparation of food for digestion - foods are bro'en down mechanically into a bolus by chewing with sali&a is added as a lubricant from the au+iliary sali&a glands. Sali&a contains amylase( an en,yme that digests starch Ser&es as an organ for speech and pleasure "ncludes chee.s 3 form lateral walls of the oral ca&ity li+s 3 help determine temperature and te+ture of food tongue 3 aid in mi+ing food( help to manipulate food by pushing food to teeth and mo&ing food to pharyn+ for swallowing( ha&e taste buds to sense chemical stimuli in food +alate 3 forms roof of the oral ca&ity teeth 3 two sets of teeth/ primary 0baby teeth1 and secondary 0adult teeth1 Types of teeth/ %n'i!or! +0, 3 for biting food Canine! +1, - for grasping and tearing food Bi'u!"i-! +0, 3 for grinding and crushing food 2olar! +12, 3 for grinding food

'so+hagus/ a simple tube between the mouth and stomach 3 peristalsis aides in swallowing the bolus of food from the mouth

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#tomach

En,ymatic digestion of proteins initiated and foods reduced to li4uid form. Call of stomach is lined with millions of gastric glands 3 secrete ;AA to FAA ml of gastric )uice per meal Se&eral 'inds of cells located in gastric glands with different functions Parietal 'ell! 3 produce hydrochloric acid 0acti&e transport is used to increase concentration of $G ions in gastric )uice1 and intrinsic factor0 binds &itamin .26 so it can be absorbed by the small intestine1 C)ie# 'ell! 3 produce and secrete +e+sinogen the precursor to the en,yme +e+sin 2u'u! !e'retin$ 'ell! 3 form mucus which protects stomach lining from hydrochloric acid Hormone !e'retin$ 'ell! 3 produce hormone gastrin when food arri&es Absorption from the stomach 3 &ery little absorption occurs in the stomach 3 some water( ethanol 04uic' effects of alcohol consumption1( drugs as aspirin 04uic' pain relief1( and certain ions are absorbed

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#mall %ntestine/ most of chemical en,ymatic digestion occur almost all nutrients are absorbed Accessory glands 3 li&er( gall bladder( and pancreas pro&ide secretions to assist with chemical en,ymatic digestion

Large %ntestine/ Colon3 li4uid residue 3 mainly water with undigested materal water is absorbed( bacterial fermentation ta'es place feces are formed.

Re'tum/ collects undigested waste (nu!/ e+pels undigested waste 3 muscles to control e+it and pre&ent lea'age.

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Accessory /rgans
#ali,ary (lands - secretes sali&ary amylase in sali&a into the mouth for brea'down of starch Li,er/ - pro&ides bile salts to the small intestine( which are critical for digestion and absorption of fats.

(all4ladder 3 stores bile

Pancreas/ - pro&ides digesti&e en,ymes to the small intestine which are critical for digestion of fats( carbohydrates and protein.

2:

hemical $igestion

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$%#/R$'R# AN$ $%#'A#'# /6 TH' $%('#T%8' #0#T'& #tomach and duodenal ulcers ! open sores or lesions found in the stomach or duodenal lining most ulcers 0FA percent of gastric ulcers and DA percent of duodenal ulcers1 de&elop as a result of infection with a bacterium called Helico4acter +ylori 1H. +ylori2. ancers o" the digesti,e system ! cancers that occur in &arious areas of the digesti&e system $iarrhea ! loose( watery( and fre4uent stools or bowl mo&ements 3 prolonged it can cause dehydration Lactose %ntolerance - the inability to digest and metaboli,e lactose( a sugar found in mil' caused by a lac' of the en,yme lactase in the digesti&e system He+atitis ! inflammation of the li&er commonly caused by three &iruses ! hepatitis A( .( and C A++endicitis ! inflammation of the appendi+ rohn9s disease 0National1 3 inflammation of parts of the digesti&e tract caused by ulcers which cause pain and diarrhea ('R$ 0National1 3 gastroesophageal reflu+ disease 3 lower esophageal sphincter opens spontaneously or does not close properly allowing gastric )uices to rise into esophagus $i,erticular $isease 0National1 eliac disease 1National1 3 an immune disease where people canHt eat gluten 0a protein found in wheat( rye( and barly1.

Role o" 6i4er in $igestion


#iber is found mostly in plant sources li'e fruits( &egetables( grains and legumes There are two types 3 insoluble fiber and soluble fiber %nsolu4le "i4er is a type of fiber which cannot be dissol&ed in water "nsoluble fiber draws water to the intestine( increasing the bul' and softness of waste products Soluble fiber which can be dissol&ed in water #olu4le "i4er can be digested slowly and it slows the digesti&e process and 'eeps the stomach fuller longer lea&ing the body feeling full for a longer period of time 2=

*igestion and absorption of carbohydrates are slower so that glucose 0sugar1 in food enters the bloodstream more slowly( which 'eeps blood sugar on a more e&en le&el The slow absorption of sugar gi&es the body an opportunity to regulate blood sugar le&els

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'C R'T/R0 #0#T'& 6unctions) E+crete to+ins and nitrogenous waste egulate le&els of many chemicals in blood Maintain water balance $elps regulate blood pressure

/rgans o" the '3cretory #ystem Kidney ! filters blood and forms urine- recei&es 6A-6= B of arterial blood Homeo!tati' -evi'e 3 regulates composition of the blood &iltration 3 remo&es waste 7reter ! carries urine to the urinary bladder Muscles contract and rela+ to mo&e urine out of 'idneys e&ery 2A to 2= seconds to pre&ent infection 7rinary -ladder ! holds urine 3 it can hold up to 2@ o, of urine for 6-= hours 7rethra ! releases urine from the body by rela+ing the sphincter muscle 0circular muscle around the bladder opening to 'eep it from lea'ing1 at bottom of bladder and contracting the bladder muscles

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6unctions o" the .idney


2. "iltration 3 fluid pressure forces water and dissol&ed substances out of blood 6. rea4sor+tion 3 returns useful items as blood cells( plasma protein( glucose( amino acids( some salts and some water to the blood Some urea and other salts are also reabsorbed. :. secretion 3 involves active transport - remo&es residues from to+ins drugs( more urea and uric acid into urine( e+cess potassium ions( and regulates p$ of blood

Ne+hron ! 4asic unit o" .idney

2F

Ne+hron 6unction)

2D

om+osition o" 7rine

Normal 7# > 26= m%Imin or ?.= lIhr or 2FA lIday 4&R5 amount o" "iltrate "ormed +er minute in all ne+hrons o" 4oth .idneys J The amount of fluid filtered from the glomeruli into .owmanKs space per unit of time. J enal capillaries are much more permeable than others. J The flow rate is 2FA %Iday 026= mlImin1 compared to ; %Iday in the other capillaries. J The entire plasma &olume is filtered about @A times a dayL Most is reabsorbedL J (6R = 78 = 7rine concentration 3 Rate o" 7rine 6lo* = gEml 3 mlEmin = mlEmin P -lood Plasma oncentration g Note) Cranberry )uice acidifies the urine which can help pre&ent bacterial growth and some types of 'idney stones. "t also reduces the adherence of bacteria onto the walls of the urinary tract reducing the ris' of urinary tract infections. $%#/R$'R# AN$ $%#'A#'# /6 TH' 'C R'T/R0 #0#T'& /4structi,e $isorders ! flow of urine is bloc'ed causing it to bac' up and in)ure one or both 'idneys 7T%9s 17rinary Tract %n"ections2 ! infections of the urinary tract ! can be in 'idneys( ureters( bladder or urethra (lomerular $isorders ! disorders that affect 'idney function by attac'ing the glomeruli Renal "ailure ! partial or complete failure of 'idneys to function %ncontinence 1National2 ! loss of bladder control Prostatitis 1National2 ! swelling and inflammation of the prostate gland -PH 1-enign Prostyatic Hy+ertro+hy2 1National2 ! enlarged prostate gland

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