E Vison2009

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Advisors Editorial
Dr. Rajendra Shrestha

Prof. Dr. Bhakta Bahadur Ale “…This effort that we put in is a continuation for the
Assoc. Prof. Ramchandra Sapkota milestone that our seniors set, and we hope that this
Assoc.Prof.Dr. Triratna Bajracharya journal will remain the powerful tool, that bridges the gap
between the teachers, working engineers, alumni and the
Editor-in-Chief students for years to come…” are the inspiring words we
would like to put forward reinforcing the editorial message
of the 3rd and 4th issues of E-VISION, published
Roma Gurung respectively by the 054 and 059 batch students of the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pulchowk
Editors Campus. Therein, we have added the words “working
engineers” and “alumni” in order to broaden the purpose
Anil Kunwar and implications of this praiseworthy work initiated by our
Bal Mukunda Kunwar inspiring seniors.
Bikash Shrestha
This 5th issue of E-VISION is put forward with optimism
Jatin Man Amatya that the glorious culture set up by our elders will be
Kundan Lal Das continued with several improvements and evolutions that
Nilesh Pradhan need to be addressed in order to meet the challenges and
Ravi Shah opportunities of time. As the publication of this journal has
Anil Maharjan not been so regular, we urge our juniors to give an
uninterrupted continuity to it as a living asset of the
Mechanical Engineering Department.
Management
In contrary to the era of the 20th century wherein easy
Ambish Kaji Shakya access and flow of the information used to be quite
Bipul Shrestha difficult, we are today surrounded with huge piles of
Nabin Shrestha technological information sources nowadays owing to the
globalization of information technology. So, the major
Prakash Aryal concern today is the selection of the right, purposeful and
Raj Kumar Chaulagain useful data and information from their bulk. A bunch of
Rudramani Ghimire information means nothing if it does not serve our purpose.
In this journal, focus is given to make the presented
Cover page design materials more useful as well as inspiring for further
exploration. All the same, the decisive evaluation is yours!
Sabin Singh
The ultimate impact of any engineering activity is
doubtlessly on the society. In our context, the quality of
Published by: engineering education and contributions of mechanical
engineers to the transformation of Nepalese society are the
061 Batch Students of Department of two important issues. Quality in our education can be
Mechanical Engineering enhanced by getting acquainted with the dynamism of
Pulchowk Campus today’s world and redefining our roles as per changing
Institute of Engineering (TU) scenarios. Challenges always surround us and solving them
efficiently reflects the quality. And, the engineers dedicated
in solving the challenges faced by national technology can
Printing in fact be of greater importance to this society.
Sigma-Carts Printing and Logistics Finally, we would like to express our heartfelt gratitude to
Chauni, Kathmandu all the teachers, students engineering professionals and our
seniors, who have provided their invaluable articles as well
as to the advertisers who have offered financial assistance.
Thanks are also due to all those whose direct or indirect
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contributions and support triumphantly enabled in
publishing the journal in this form.
TRIBHUVAN UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING
OFFICE OF DEAN
Date: 25th February 2009
MESSAGE FROM THE DEAN
It is a great pleasure to know about the publication of the annual Engineering Journal, E-Vision
from the Department of Mechanical Engineering of Pulchowk Campus.
With the rapidly changing technologies, it has become essential for the students to be updated
with the recent development in their respective field of interest. And this kind of Engineering
Journal provides the important information to the students and thus induces an enthusiasm to
move ahead utilizing that information for the development of the country.
Lastly, I would like to express my hearty congratulation to the E-Vision team for their excellent
work in publishing out this issue.
Associate Prof. Baburam Bhattrai
Dean
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Institute of Engineering
PULCHOWK CAMPUS
MESSAGE FROM THE CAMPUS CHIEF
I am very glad to know that the students of the Department of Mechanical Engineering are
publishing the new issue of the annual Engineering Journal, E-Vision. I would like to appreciate
the efforts of the students to publish this issue for their academic progress. This publication will
be a mode of developing a better understanding within the campus and thus unite the students for
the process of institutional development. I would like to express my hearty congratulations and
best wishes to the E-Vision team for this endeavor.
Dr. Durga Prasad Sangraula
Campus Chief
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PULCHOWK CAMPUS
ASSOCIATION OF TEACHERS
MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT OF TEACHERS’ASSOCIATION
It is a great pleasure to acknowledge that the students of the Department of Mechanical

Engineering are publishing the new issue of the annual Engineering Journal, E-Vision. The role
of such engineering journals is indeed vital in the academic progress of students and also it helps
to put forward the ideas and works of engineering students and professionals. I would like to
congratulate to the E-Vision team for this appreciable effort and wish them further success.
Prof.Dr. Shailendra Kumar Mishra
President
Teachers Association, Pulchowk Campus
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PULCHOWK CAMPUS
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
MESSAGE FROM THE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
I would like to congratulate batch 2061/BME of mechanical engineering department for

publishing E-Vision. The effort on publication of the journal is to become familiar with modern
technology. I wish for its success and the journal will be helpful for the students, researchers and
professionals.
Mechanical Engineering Department is offering bachelor in mechanical engineering, Master of

Science in renewable energy engineering and doctorate in mechanical engineering. We focus on
academic as well as professionalism of our graduates. Our graduates are involved in academic
and professional fields all over the nation and abroad.
I would like to thank all our wishers contributing for the publication.
Dr. Rajendra Shrestha
Head of the Department
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PULCHOWK CAMPUS
FREE STUDENTS’ UNION
Date: 27th March 2009
MESSAGE FROM THE FSU PRESIDENT
It gives us immense pride to acknowledge that the students of the Department of Mechanical
Engineering are publishing the new issue of the annual Engineering Journal, E-Vision. We would
like to appreciate the students of editorial board for publishing this issue which would help to
enhance the academic background of the students. We would like to congratulate to the E-Vision
team for this endeavor and wish them further success. We also want to express that FSU is
always supportive regarding such works.
Prakash Sapkota
President
Free Students Union
Pulchowk Campus
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CONTENTS:
1 Department of Mechanical Engineering: At Glance 7
2 Biomass Energy for Cooking in Nepal -Bhakta Bahadur Ale 9

3 Issues in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology -Ram Chandra Sapkota 14
Alternative Approach For Designing A Francis Turbine For - Hari Prasad Neopane,
4 Sand Laden Water Ole Gunnar Dahlhaug, 16
Tri Ratna Bajracharya
Electromechanical Micro Machining(EMM)
5 -A Promising Future Technique -Luza Shrestha 19
Wastewater Treatment in Nepal -Ajay Kumar Jha

6 21
Nawaraj Bhattarai
7 Flight Control Surface -Mahesh Kumar Marita 24
8 Just - in- Time (JIT) -Dhruba Panthi 26
9 Modal Vibration Mechanism in -Sanjeev Maharjan 29

Gear Housing Walls
10 Grease Trap -Naveen Kumar Mallik 32
- Alok Dhungana
11 Production of bio-diesel from waste oil Anirudh Prasad Sah 35
Mukesh Ghimire
12 Pioneers Of Flight - Ambish Kaji Shakya 40
- Dave Shrestha
13 Knowing Catia 58
-Jatin Man Amatya

14 Moonbuggy: An Introduction 61
Ujjuma Shrestha
15 Carbon Nanotube In Nanotechnology - Kundan Lal Das 62
16 Material Selection : Sitka Spruce For Violin - Roma Gurung 65
- Anil Kunwar
17 Computational Fluid Dynamics: An Introduction 67
18 Underground Tunnel And Tunneling Methods - Rajkumar Chaulagain 69
Why And Why Not Of Trolley Bus
19 - Rudramani Ghimire 71
Service In Kathmandu Valley
20 Small Scale Orthodox Tea Drying With Gasifier - Bal Mukunda Kunwar 73
21 Landfill Gas: Waste To Energy - Bikash Shrestha 75
Space Solar Power: Energy Unlimited
22 - Bipul Shrestha 77
From Fiction To Future
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Hydrogen Fuel Cell: A Technology
23 - Prakash Aryal 79
For Future Energy Generation
-Nabin Shrestha
24 Canteen Quality Survey 80
Prabha Sharma
- Ravi Shah
25 Deming’s Way 81
26 Students’ Profile 82
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING: AT A GLANCE
Brief history:
Department of Mechanical Engineering was established in the year 1975 with the provision of Certificate Level Program in
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning under International Labour Organization funded project. However, at that time it co-existed
under administrative unit named ERA (Electronics, Radio-electronics and Air Conditioning and Refrigeration). The three
'Section', as were called at that period, offered only certificate level courses of two years duration. The programs were later
reviewed and upgraded to Diploma status with the addition of one more academic year. The Diploma programs continued for
some time under the same administrative structure of ERA till the three sections grew into the Electrical, Electronics, and
Mechanical departments.
As the expertise, confidence, and international exposure of the faculty and staff grew, the focus shifted naturally to the
establishment of the Bachelors Program. The Department of Mechanical Engineering started the Bachelors program in the year
1995 at the central campus, the Pulchowk Campus, in Kathmandu Valley. The department moved to its own building, the D-
Block, on the north side of the Campus in 1998. With the new facilities, modern equipment suitable for training and research,
experienced faculty members, and increased autonomy to handle Training, Research and Consulting works, the department is
poised to make its presence felt within and outside of the country. The Department currently runs Bachelor of Mechanical
Engineering, Masters of Science in Renewable Energy Engineering, Doctorate education and planning to launch Masters of
Engineering Management in short future.
Facilities
The department has well equipped workshop and a number of laboratories equipped with modern state of the art machines
procured through global tender. The department has Fluid Mechanics, Hydraulic Machines, Heat Engines, Thermodynamics,
Heat Transfer, Instrumentation and Control, Mechanisms and Machine Dynamics, Metallurgy, Pollution Control, Renewable
Energy, Strength of Materials, and Mechanics of Solids laboratories. Most of theequipment is of the latest design with digital
display console. Some of the equipments are interfaced with PCs.

Apart from that, the department has its own setup of twenty-four
PCs interconnected through local area network with e-mail and
Internet facilities. The laboratories are suitable not only for
teaching, but are equally for research and consulting works. The
department is capable of undertaking a variety of consultancy
projects for industries in Nepal.
Furthermore Robotics Club at IOE under the supervision of

Department of Mechanical Engineering has been promoting
robotics and automation. With the year 2002, Robotics Club
representing Nepal participated in first Asia Pacific Robot Contest
in Tokyo, Japan and has been participating every year in this
contest. The achievements are as follows
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Additionally in the history of aviation of Nepal, the aircraft, Ultra light aircraft (Danfe), designed and fabricated by the students’
team of 059 and 060 batches from this department as their final Events Achievements
year project, successfully accomplished a flight of 5 minutes
Participated first time at the
for 4 test flights ( in 2008). ABU Robocon2002, Tokyo
contest
Became only team to reach
ABU Robocon2003, Thailand
quarter final from south Asia
ABU Robocon2004,China Won Mabuchi motor award
Looking into the future the Department of Mechanical ABU Robocon2005,Korea Participated in the event
Engineering would like to encourage, support and facilitate
ABU Robocon2006,Malaysia Won Toyota award
innovative projects and research works put forward by the
students and teachers of the department. ABU Robocon2007,Vietnam Participated in the competition
Won the best autonomous
ABU Robocon2008,India
machine award
Faculty Members
S. Name Qualification Post Area of expertise

1N. Dr. Rajendra Shrestha Ph. D.(Japan) Lecturer Fluid Mechanics, Micro-Hydropower
2 Dr. B. B. Ale Ph. D.(Canada) Professor Combustion, IC Engines, Vehicle Pollution, Renewable
3 Dr. C. B. Joshi Ph. D.(India) Professor Energy
Energy, Rural Technology, Fluid Machinery
4 Mr. R.N Bhattarai M. Sc.(USA) Professor Refrigeration, HVAC, Pollution Control
5 Mr. A. N. Nakarmi M. Sc.(Canada) Professor Engineering Management
6 Mr. N. P. Shrestha M. Sc.(USSR) Assoc. Professor IC engine, Building Services, Refrigeration and A/C
7 Mr. S. S. Adiga M. Sc.(UK) Assoc. Professor Machine Design
8 Mr. R. C. Sapkota M. Sc.(USSR) Assoc. Professor Automobile Maintenance and Repair, Physical Metallurgy
9 Mr. Susan Bajracharya M. Sc.(Canada) Assoc. Professor Refrigeration, HVAC, IAQ
10 Dr. T. R. Bajracharya M. Sc.(USSR) Assoc. Professor Renewable Energy, Refrigeration, HVAC
11 Mr. Sunil Risal M. Sc.(UK) Lecturer Building Services, Refrigeration and A/C
12 Mr. Luza Shrestha B. E.(India) Lecturer Manufacturing, Hydraulic Machines
13 Mr. P. K. Ghimire B. E.(India) Lecturer Mechanical Design and Fabrication
14 Mr. R. K. Kayastha B. E.(China) Lecturer Machine Design, Metallurgy, Automation
15 Mr. G. R. Paudel M. Sc.(USSR) Lecturer Manufacturing, Management
16 Mr. Shreekar Pradhan M. Sc. Lecturer Instrumentation, Renewable Energy
17 Mr. Shreeraj Shakya M. Sc. Lecturer Renewable Energy, Forecasting and Inventory Control
18 Mr. N. P. Kafle M. Sc. Lecturer Renewable Energy
19 Mr. M. C. Luitel B. E. Lecturer Thermodynamics, AutoCAD
20 Mr. N. R. Bhattarai M. Sc. Lecturer Renewable Energy
21 Mr. M. S. Maharjan Diploma Sr. Instructor WS Technology
22 Mr. R. B. Shakya Diploma, B.Ed. Sr. Instructor WS Technology, Metallurgy
23 Mr. M. K. Shrestha M. Sc. Sr. Instructor WS Technology, Pollution Control
24 Mr. H. C. Manandhar Diploma Sr. Instructor Automobile, Computer Application
25 Mr. Mohan B. K. C. Diploma Instructor Refrigeration and A/C
26 Mr. B. P. Shakya Diploma Dy. Technician Refrigeration and A/C
27 Mr. I. N. Regmi Diploma Dy. Technician Refrigeration and A/C
28 Mr. Govinda Maharjan Diploma Dy. Technician General Mechanical
29 Mr. Kabir Maharjan Diploma Dy. Technician General Mechanical
30 Mr. Ramesh Choudary B. E. Dy. Technician Robotics, Mechanization
Staffs
Contact
S.N. Name Post Ananda Niketan, Pulchowk, Lalitpur
1. 1 Mr. Ganesh L. Shrestha Asst. Administrator GPO Box: 1175, Kathmandu,
2. 2 Mr. Sarad Shrestha Store-Keeper Tel: 5542053,5542054; Fax977-1-5525830;
3. 3 Mr. Rajendra Acharya Lab Boy E-mail: mechanical@ioe.edu.np; URL:http//mech.ioe.np
4. 4 Mr. Ram B. Shrestha Peon
5. 5 Mrs. Devaki Shrestha Khalasi
6. 6 Mr. Saroj Maharjan Khalasi
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BIOMASS ENERGY FOR COOKING IN NEPAL

Dr. Bhakta. Bahadur Ale
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
1. Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering,
Tribhuvan University
Email: <bhaktaale@yahoo.com>
Introduction
Ample and reliable accessibility of usable energy sources is one of the prerequisites for social and economic
development of a country. Nepal is facing a big challenge to provide the energy to meet the basic needs of people
due to poor infrastructure development and lack of fund for investment in the generation and management of energy
sources. The majority of people are still dependent on inefficient use of biomass energy sources.
The total energy consumption was 355 million GJ in Nepal in 2006. In fiscal year 2005/06 traditional, commercial
and renewable energy occupied 85.5%, 13.54% and 0.61% respectively of the total energy consumption (Economic
Survey, MoF, 2007). Biomass and hydropower are two indigenous energy sources in Nepal. Biomass fuels
(primarily fuel-wood) supply almost 86% of total energy demand and are extracted beyond the sustainable supply
capability of the forests indicating continuing problem of forest depletion and localized deforestation.
The energy consumption in renewable energy has been increased from 0.53 %in FY 2004/05 to 0.61% in 2005/06.
This indicates the gradual acceptance of renewable energy technologies to meet the basic needs of people by
replacing fossil fuels for lighting and biomass for cooking to some extent. In 2006, there were already 90,801 solar
home systems installed with the cumulative capacity of 3.6 MW (SEMAN, 2007). There are about 172,505 biogas
plants operating in various districts of Nepal as of mid July 2007 (BSP-N, 2007). And till 2005, about 1,541 micro-
hydro plants with cumulative capacity of 8.5 MW are operating in the country. There is high potential of wind
energy in the country but it is yet to be harnessed due to diverse topography and different meteorological conditions.
The extensive use of sold biomass causes high levels of indoor air pollution in housing. It has caused significant
negative health impact on women and children particularly because of the amount of time
they spend in the kitchen. They are exposed to indoor air pollution and found suffering from lungs related diseases
and eye irritation.
Many efforts have been made to overcome the indoor air quality problem resulting from solid fuel use in poor
housing through the promotion of fuel efficient and environmental friendly stoves and the promotion of biogas and
solar energy. However, these efforts have rarely proven sustainable and have been limited in scope. Even the use of
more efficient stoves cannot compensate the rising demand of firewood due to increasing population. An approach
that integrates economic, technical, housing design factors, environmental sustainability and cultural requirements
should be considered and implemented so that people living in poor housing can get rid of indoor air pollution.
2. Existing scenario
Fuels sources for cooking
Forest occupies about 30% of total land in Nepal. Forest land includes government forest, community forest and
private forest. Depending on the income of the family and availability various types of fuels are used for cooking.
Most common fuels in the rural areas are fuel wood, agricultural residues, dung, charcoal and biogas whereas in the
urban areas fossil fuels (kerosene, LPG, natural gas) and electricity are used for cooking. In some urban areas
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woods, charcoal and briquettes are also often used. Urban wastes like waste vegetables, kitchen waste, solid waste
and night soil can also used to generate biogas for cooking and heating.
Traditional fuels for domestic use are collected from nearby forest, farmland in rural areas whereas users buy these
fuels in urban areas. Recently the biogas plants are built in many villages. Even though it is considered
environmentally friendly and subsidized fuel it is still expensive for poor people. So many people in rural areas rely
heavily on fuel wood and agricultural residues for cooking.
Applications of biomass
Biomass fuel has various applications in Nepal. Fuel wood is extensively used for cooking, space heating and
rituals. Rice husk is the prime fuel for boilers and cooking stoves in Terai because of its easily availability and low
cost compared to fossil fuels. Solid biomass is also used in brick kilns, ceramic industries and agricultural product
drying purposes. Industrial applications demand significant amount of these fuels leading to even deforestation and
soil erosion causing environmental degradation.
3. Biomass energy supply and demand dynamics
Energy from a tree
A 12m high tree having an average stem diameter 0.4m provides about 15GJ energy. The average fuel
consumption per capita is also 15GJ in 2005 in Nepal. That means we are consuming about 25 million trees
equivalent energy per year. In 2004-05, about 78% of total energy demand was met by fuel wood
consumption which is equivalent to about 19 million trees of above mentioned size.
Tree regeneration at different altitudes
The firewood needed for cooking and space heating per family depends on altitude. As we go higher, that is from
plain to mountain the demand of fuel wood also increases. There will be more additional demand for firewood in the
region of tourist areas.
The regeneration of tree depends very much on the altitude where they are grown. Higher the altitude, slower the
tree growth and lesser is the firewood regeneration. Depending on the type of trees a rough estimation of
regeneration of tree can taken as follows (Sjoerd Nienhuys, 2003):
In Terai 500 m (1500 ft.) young hardwood trees can produce about 100 kg wood per year. Similarly the regeneration
of tree will be 20 kg, 15 kg, 10 kg, 5 kg per year at 2,000 m (6,000 ft), 2,300m (7,000 ft), 3,000 m (9,000 ft), 3,600
m (11,000 ft) respectively. Above 4,000 m (12,000 ft.) no more trees will grow.
Biomass as a
carbon neutral energy
source
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When firewood is combusted it releases CO2 which is absorbed by the newly planted trees during photosynthesis
process. That is why it is carbon neutral. CO2 is one of the major contributing elements to the greenhouse effect.
Trees trap CO2 from the atmosphere and make carbohydrates that are used for plant growth. They give us oxygen in
return. Mature trees can absorb roughly 22 kg (48 pounds) of CO 2 a year. The tree in turn releases enough oxygen to
sustain two human beings. Trees grow three times faster in the tropics than in temperate zones
Figure 3.1 Regeneration of tree at different altitudes.
(treesftf.org/about/cooling.htm).
Sustainable fuel wood supply estimates

With the continuous population growth and encroachment of forest for agriculture lead the increased demand in fuel
wood supply. Forest areas have been decreased and fuel wood demand is met by overcutting of the existing forests
thus decreasing the sustainable fuel wood supply.
7.0 Biomass supply and demand dynamics in 2004

6.841
6.8
The total fuel wood consumption was 16.8 million tons in
FUELWOOD IN MILLION TONS
6.691 2004-05 and the sustainable supply was only 6.5 million
tons which was 39% of the total demand. About 10 million
6.6
6.491 6.478 tons (61%) of fuel wood was found deficit in the country.
Deficit situation is most severe in Terai region where
6.4
sustainable supply can only meet about 19% of the total
fuel wood demand. Fuel wood demand in the Terai region
6.2 is very high compared to other regions. The reasons are
large population and higher economic activities in these
6.0 areas. It clearly indicates that the fuel wood requirement in
1978-79 1994-95 2000-01 2004-05 the Terai as well as in other regions are being met by over-
YEAR cutting of tree resources than its sustainable supply from
both forest area as well as from on-farm areas. Hills and
Figure 3.2 Estimation of sustainable
uel wood supply in Nepal
mountain regions were able to meet their demand of
fuel wood by about 57% and 78% respectively. In all three regions, contribution of off-farm areas is quite high in
supplying the fuel wood; however their contribution varies greatly from one to another.
Once the supply is found less than its demand then users start to change their strategy in energy resource use. High
imbalance situation in Terai region may indicate high use of agricultural residues and animal waste as well as biogas
technology.
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4. What should we do?
The following table shows the suggested technological interventions in short, medium and long term so that the fuel
wood is properly used and substituted by other types of fuels.
These technologies will reduce fuel wood consumption,

S.N. Technological Short- Medium- Long-
deforestation and assist effective use of forest wastes and
interventions term term term
agro-residues besides reducing Green House Gas
emissions. 1 Improved ●
cooking and
Fuel switching within biomass heating device
As per the energy ladder model, fuel switching consists 2 Gasification ● ●

of three distinct phases. The first phase is characterized technology
by universal reliance on biomass. In the second phase of
fuel switching households are hypothesized to move to 3 Bio-briquettes ● ●
‘‘transition’’ fuels such as kerosene, coal, and charcoal in and briquetting
response to higher incomes, urbanization, and biomass technologies
scarcity. The third and final phase of fuel switching is
characterized by households switching to LPG, natural 4 Biogas ● ● ●
gas, or electricity for cooking (Heltberg, 2004).
5 Bio-energy ● ●
Biomass solid fuels are less efficient than oil, natural gas power plant
or propane. It takes larger quantities of wood,
agricultural residues to do the job and they will produce larger quantities of smoke when they are burned. That is,
solid fuels produce considerably less heat for the amount of fuel consumed and produce significantly more pollution.
When we use more efficient s fuels we produce less pollution. This has been described as the energy ladder. The
dirtiest fuels such as grass and animal dung are at the bottom. Going up the ladder, step by step with wood, then
coal, until the next most efficient type of fuel is used. Producer gas and biogas are dramatically less polluting than
solid or liquid fuels. So the use of domestic gasifier or biogas stoves will not only save the fuel wood consumption
but also reduce the air pollution since producer gas and biogas are clean fuels.
Improved cooking stoves
The widely used traditional stoves posses disadvantages like low efficiency, produced smoke stays in the kitchen,
utensils and clothes are blackened by soot, risk of fire hazards to children and stoves needs blowing regularly. To
overcome these demerits of a traditional stove an improved cooking stove has been promoted by the government.
The fixed mud improved cooking stove (ICS) has comparatively higher efficiency, produces no smoke in the
kitchen, normally no need to blow the fire, minimum risk of fire and burning. But the mud ICS has low space
heating efficiency, demands frequent repair and maintenance works like cleaning of chimney every 2-3 months to
remove the soot, repairing of baffle inside ICS to maintain the shape and size for efficient operation. There are more
than 250,000 ICS installed in the country (AEPC-Nepal, 2008).
The metallic improved stoves can be even used for cooking as well as space heating in the colder region of the
country. The portable metallic stove with induced air (air blowers powered by solar energy) has higher thermal
efficiency and thus consumes less fuel wood. The metallic stove last long but costs more compared to mud ICS.
Gasifier stoves for cooking, space heating and drying
Gasifier stove can act as a simple and very important device for institutional energy sector which can improve
cooking and kitchen environment. It would be more worthy if it is used for roadside hotels, hostels, schools,
barracks, etc. where cooking is used for large number of people.
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Gas, electricity and liquid fuels being clean and efficient are preferred for cooking, however the access to such
energies is limited for majority of population in Nepal, and they are compelled to use wood as fuel in traditional
way. Traditional combustion of biomass material produces low conversion efficiency and high emission leading to
health problem and deforestation. It is possible to produce gas from wood in practice. Therefore, biomass gasifier
has been developed in different parts of the world since nineteenth century. Many countries of the world are working
to build institutional type of gasifier for large and continuous cooking purpose. In Nepal, NAST has developed a
briquette gasifier stove by adopting the design of Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand. As briquettes are not
easily available in rural areas of the country, hence a study was carried out by making modification of that type of
gasifier for the purpose of using of other biomass resources. The efficiency of the institutional gasifier was found to
be different with different types of fuels; for example for wood chips efficiency of gasifier was found to be 17.84%.
Similarly, the efficiency of gasifier for rice husk briquette and maize cob was 19% and 18.9% respectively (Gautam
et. al, 2006).
5. Conclusions
• ICS has proven to be energy efficient and environment friendly
• Gasifiers are technically more efficient and environment friendly
• Gasifiers are more economical to use as institutional cook stove
• Gasifier should be adapted & promoted to replace traditional dryers
• Fuel switching within biomass is very important
• Less polluting fuels are difficult to obtain and are costly in general due to processing cost
• Biomass fuels should be utilized rationally so that supply and demand are balanced
• Change in cooking behavior is essential to conserve fuel
• Promote cluster settlement (against dispersed settlement) in hilly and mountainous regions for easy distribution
and conserving fuel and develop horticulture in those areas
• Plantation of fast growing trees for fuel wood at low altitude to meet the growing demand is essential
Reference:
1. The Beehive Charcoal Briquette Stove in the Khumbu Region, Nepal. Report by: Ing. Sjoerd Nienhuys Senior
Renewable Energy Advisor, SNV-Nepal. Report date: Kathmandu, 11 March 2003. Updated Version.
2. Basnyat, M.S, 2004, “A study on gasifier based drying of large cardamom: a case study of Ilam district”, Msc
Thesis, Department Of Mechanical Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal.
3. Simkhada, K.P, 2005, M.S, Thesis” A study on the performance of a domestic gasifier stove”, Department Of
Mechanical Engineering, Tribhuvan University Nepal.
4. Gautam, J., Chapagain, P., and KC, P., 2006, Study, fabrication and performance evaluation of institutional
gasifier stoves, Project Report, Department Of Mechanical Engineering, Tribhuvan University Nepal.
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ISSUES IN NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGY
Ram Chandra Sapkota

Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University
Introduction:
Nanoscience can be defined as the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and
macromolecular scales where properties differ significantly from those at a large scale. It is the study of matter on an
ultra-small scale. One nanometer is equal to 10-9 meter or one billionth of a meter. If we wish to make comparison,
the diameter of a human hair is 100 times greater than a nanometer. The spacing between carbon –carbon atoms in
a molecule is in the range 0.12-0.15 nm; a pin head is around a million nanometer wide.
In particle sizes of nanoscale, the ratio of surface area to volume is dramatically high. Many important chemical
reactions involving catalysts occur at surfaces and it is obvious that very small particles are surprisingly reactive.
Because the more is the surface area, the more is the catalyst action to speed up almost all chemical, physical and
manufacturing processes .Nanoscience in this respect, has the potential to reshape the world by switching from
present manufacturing system to nanotechnology based system.
Nanotechnology refers to a field of applied science where a material is purpose fully controlled at the atomic or
molecular level. It also includes the fabrication of devices within the nano scale size range.
Nanotechnology can be seen as an extension of existing science into the nanoscale. It has made possible to
produce lighter, stronger and programmable materials that require less energy to produce than conventional
materials. It has been also claimed that several nanotechnology based application and processes will bring health as
well as environmental benefits to the people and society. Nanotechnology is a diverse collection of fields touching
on biology, medicine, materials, computers, manufacturing, physics, chemistry and many other areas. Nanoscale
technology and molecular manufacturing are the two broad branches of nanotechnology. Nanoscale technology
covers small structures or things from 1 to 100 nanometers in size. Small structures can be used for stronger
materials, better medicine, and faster computers.
Molecular manufacturing includes mechanical and chemical manufacturing systems that join molecules together
under the control of computers and robots. Chemical manufacturing can be very fast, precise and reliable which will
allow automated fabrication of complex products including molecular manufacturing system.
The effect of size on material properties:
Nanotechnology includes the production and application of physical, chemical and biological systems at scales
ranging from individual atoms or molecules to submicron dimensions. It also includes the integration of the resulting
nanostructure into larger systems. Many physical phenomena become significant when the size of the system
decreases. These include statistical mechanical effect as well as quantum mechanical effects. For example, the
quantum size effect is the effect where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reduction in particle
size. This effect is not seen at macro to micro level dimensions. But it becomes dominant when the nanometer size
range is reached. A number of physical properties change when compared to macroscopic systems. One good
example is the increase in surface area to volume of materials. This catalytic activity also opens potential risks in
their interaction with biomaterials.
Materials reduced to the nanoscale can suddenly show very different properties compared to what they exhibit on a
macro scale. For example, opaque substances become transparent ,inert materials becomes catalysts , stable
materials turn combustible, solids turn into liquids at room temperature ,insulators become conductors. A metal
such as gold which is chemically inert at normal scales becomes a catalyst at nanoscale. Materials exhibit these
unique quantum and surface phenomena at a nanoscale.
Major issues with nanotechnology:
17
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Nano optimists are claiming that nanotechnology based applications and processes can bring health as well as
environmental benefits. These claims are very important and have to be verified and conformed by future research
and experiment. Researchers and manufacturing industries hope to exploit the unique properties of materials and the
processes of nano manufacturing for medical applications and to deliver environmental benefits. Current medical
applications of nanotechnologies include anti-microbial wound dressing, and it is anticipated that further
applications will include more durable and better prosthetics and new drug delivery mechanisms. Current research
into application of nanotechnology includes efforts to reduce the amount of solvents and other harmful chemicals in
manufacturing, to improve energy efficiency and energy storage capabilities of materials, and to remove persistent
pollutants from soil and water supplies. These improvements can benefits the environmental and increase
sustainability of systems and structures.
The potential health and environmental benefits of nanotechnology are appreciable but the changed properties of
material at nanoscale which are being exploited by the researchers and industry might have negative health and
environmental impacts particularly that they might result in increased toxicity. Some researchers have expressed
worries about possible long term side effects associated with medical application. They suspect that nano materials
can be biodegradable. For instance, in the case of plastics, they were thought to be the best material but today they
have been proved to effect adversely on individuals and the environment.
Nanocritics suggest that there are a number of ways for human to come into contact with nanoparticles. The most
obvious is during is during the manufacturing processes of the particles or the products that incorporate them. A
second comes from the degradation of products under use. Nanoparticles used to strengthen tires become free from
the composite materials as the rubber in the tires is worn out. These particles may become airborne or waterborne
and be transmitted to humans and other animal through the ecological system. A third way is through the direct use
of the product. For example, nanoparticles in suntan lotions can be spread directly on the body, these small particles
will be absorbed through the skin.
Nanoparticles can reach human and other organisms by various environmental routes. Organisms may ingest
materials that have entered the water or been deposited on vegetation. The criteria used to identify chemicals that
have intrinsic properties that give cause for concern about their potential to damage their environment are based on
persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity.
There is a big social and ethical issues relating to the development of nanotechnology that would benefit from
further research and study. These include concerns about who controls nanotechnologies and who will benefit from
its exploitation in the short and long term. Although not all these issues are research questions, some are and others
may be in the future presenting a unique opportunity for interdisciplinary research to be undertaken between
scientists and social scientists. The costs would be small compared with the amount spent on research on
nanotechnology, the applications of which could have major social and ethical impacts.
Researcher have pointed out that nanoscience and nanotechnology have huge potential. They have recognized that
nanotechnology and its use may create new challenges in the safety, regulatory or ethical domains, which will
require societal debate if they are to fulfill this potential. The implementation of their suggestions will address many
of the potential, ethical, social, health, environmental, safety and regulatory impacts, and help to ensure that
nanotechnology develops in a safe and socially desirable way. It is difficult to predict the applications of
nanotechnologies due to the ethical issues and huge social challenges before it. But its advancement can play a big
role in enabling a number of applications which may have positive social impacts on the development of material
world
References
1. R.sapkota _lecture notes 4. Google.com
2. Nanoworld.com 5. Daenen et al,Eindhoven
3. Nanoscience.edu
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6. University of technology _wondrous world of
carbon nano tubes
ALTERNATIVE APPROACH FOR DESIGNING A FRANCIS TURBINE FOR SAND LADEN

WATER
Hari Prasad Neopane 1), Ole Gunnar Dahlhaug 2) and Tri Ratna Bajracharya 3)
1. Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science & Technology,
Norway
2. Department of Energy and Process Engineering, Norwegian University of Science & Technology,
Norway
3. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Institute of Engineering,
Kathmandu, Nepal
E-mail: hari.p.neopane@ntnu.no, ole.g.dahlhaug@ntnu.no, triratna@ioe.edu.np
Abstract:
The main objective of this paper is to propose an alternative design of a Francis turbine for minimizing the sand
erosion effect in sand laden river. To achieve this objective, one erosion model for hydraulic machinery has been
selected and all technical and managerial aspects have been considered in this study. Hydraulic turbine
components operating in sand-laden water subjected to erosive wear. Erosion reduces efficiency and life of turbine.
It also causes problem in operation & maintenance. Himalayan rivers carry large amount of hard abrasive
particles. Withdrawal of the clean water from the river for power production is expensive due to design,
construction and operation of sediment settling basins. Even with the settling basins, 100% removal of fine
sediments is impossible and uneconomical. The design of the Francis turbine can be done in two main stages. The
first step is the initial design, based on empirical data and the Euler’s turbine equation. The second step is a three
dimensional CFD analysis for fine tuning of the design, normally based on the assumption of uniform flow field
from the guide vanes cascade towards the runner blade inlets. The hydraulic design strategy for the Francis turbine
has played the major role in the design. The main objectives in the design of the medium head Francis turbines are
to reduce the pressure pulsation, avoid cavitations, to reduce sand erosion and to gain maximum efficiency. The
ideal goal is to design a runner that has the widest possible operating range for head variations beyond the normal
design head, and that would require the minimal maintenance. The initial step is the most important. The basic
hydraulic design of the runner is done during this stage, and the balancing of the pressure distribution on the
blades by controlled parameters gives the designer an important feeling, which assists in evaluating the result of
the CFD analysis. This feeling is very useful in helping to make the right changes in the geometry and to improve
the performance of the runner. The CFD analysis is also important in the study of the model turbine behavior and
forms the basis for final tuning of the prototype Francis runners.
Key words: Francis turbine, erosion, efficiency
1. Background
Erosion of turbine components is one of the major problems in run off river type hydropower plant. Erosion of
turbine may be caused by several reasons, such as abrasive and erosive nature of silt particles contained in the
streams.
Sand erosion is designated as abrasive wear. This type of wear will break down the oxide layer on the flow guiding
surfaces and partly makes the surfaces uneven which may also be the origin for cavitation erosion. Sand erosion
therefore may be both a
19
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releasing and contributing cause for damages which are observed in power plants with a large transport of wearing
contaminants in the water flow. The erosion damages are to some extent different for Pelton and Francis turbines.
On Pelton turbines it is the needle tip, the sealing rings in the nozzles and the runner buckets which are most
exposed to sand erosion. The wear on needle tips occurs as streaks and indentations forward to the tip. On the
buckets the sand contaminants in the water flow is wearing the bucket gap backwards. That causes a delayed contact
with the jet and makes an erroneous splitter. The bucket edge is usually exposed to an even wear and tear and
becomes wider, and extended indentations may occur just behind the edge [1]. Mass loss is one of the indictors of
erosion of turbines. There are number of cases in this. For example, significant amount of erosion had appeared in
turbine bucket and needle in first year of operation (about 6000 hours) in Khimti I hydropower plant [2]. High head
Pelton and Francis turbines are affected by sand erosion, the erosion of Kaplan turbines are also reported
[3]. The efficiency of the turbine decreases with the turbine erosion. Pelton turbine has maximum drop in
efficiency at full load where as in Francis turbine; maximum drop is a part load. One of the factors
causing loss of efficiency in Francis turbine is the increase in guide vane clearance. The effect of the
faceplate wear was investigated by Brekke in the Driva Power Plant (71.5 MW, Hn=540 m, n=66 rpm) in
Norway. About 4% relative efficiency increments were observed at Best Efficiency Point after the repair
of faceplate. The thermodynamic efficiency test at Kvilldal Power Plant in Norway (315 MW, Hn=520 m,
n=333 rpm) by inserting 1 mm shim in the guide vane shaft (making artificial gap between faceplate and
guide vane) showed the difference in 0.8% relative efficiency at BEP [4]. A clear understanding of
relationship between sediment concentration, sand erosion and efficiency helps for the optimization of
power plant operation and maintenance.If the sediment particle contains high value of quartz, erosion rate is
rapid [5]. Mineral content analysis of the water sample from the Chilime River, Nepal shows that the quartz content
is greater than 75%. Quartz is a very hard particle having Mohr’s hardness scale with value 7. It causes abrasion
erosion in the hydraulic machinery when they strike with very high velocity [6]. Quartz content in the sediment is
greater than 60% in most of the Nepalese rivers [7]. The Fig. 1.1 gives overview of quartz content in different rivers
of Nepal.
2. Conventional Design of Francis Turbine
2.1The importance of the 80

Quatrzcontent [%]
Runner: draulic 70
energy of the water is 60
converted into 50
mechanical shaft 40
energy in the turbine
30
runner at the expense
of the interaction 20
between flow and the 10
runner blades 0
Khimti
constituting a rotating
KhimtiKhola
Chitlang
Kulekhani
Palung
Bagmati
Dhobi
Tinau
Tamakoshi
Manahara
Phedi
Chilime
Roshi
DhadKhola
AadhiKhola
ArunKhola
Modi-2
DolalGhat
Ganaha
RaptiKhola
SaptaKoshi
Jhimruk
Modi- 1
MadiRever
Sunkoshi
Gaur
West Seti
cascade of profiles. Runner is

one of the most important
components of the turbines.
Francis turbine is a reaction
type of turbine where the
specific energy in front of the
Karnali
Tinau
runner consists of partly West Gandaki Bagmati Bagmati Koshi

pressure energy and partly Rapti Kathmandu
kinetic energy. For the high
head type of the Francis turbine approximately Ref. Kathmandu University, & IOE
20
Fig. 1.1 Quartz Content In Nepali Rivers

E-VISION 2
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50% of the energy is converted into kinetic energy in front of the runner and there is a pressure drop through the
runner of approximately 50% of the total energy drop through the turbine. So, the design of the runner is very
important.
2.2 Input Parameter:
Before going to start the design of the Francis runner there should be input parameters. The main input parameter of
the design is the net head (He) which is calculated from the available head after deducting the friction losses on the
penstock, flow at the full load (Q) and available submersion. The available submersion is the distance between the
centerline of the turbine and the tailrace. For the purpose of this research work, the input parameters have been
selected based upon the 12 MW Jhimruk Hydro Power plant which is located in western part of Nepal. The input
parameters are:
• Flow at the full load (Q) = 7.05 m3/s

• Net head (Hn) = 201.5 m
• Available submersion = 0 m
2.3 Calculations of the Dimensions of the Runner:
The development of hydraulic turbines is aimed towards two goals: to achieve the maximum efficiency and to avoid
cavitation damage with the highest possible circumferential speed and meridional velocity in the runner for the
given submergence of the turbine.
Fig.2.1 Main dimension of the runner
For high head runners the cavitation problems are most likely to occur at the outlet section of the blades. In order to
study the cavitation a careful study of the blade loading must be done. For such study, the curvature of shroud and
crown as well as curvature of the blades, the blade angles and the blade leaning are the important parameters.
The empirical relation for the outlet angle and peripheral velocity is given by [8]:
130 < β 2 < 220 lowest values for the highest head
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35 < U2< 43 highest values for the highest head
For maximum efficiency, maximum peripheral speed at the outlet of the runner, U2 = 40m/s at the ring for moderate
setting assumed. In some case, the noise and vibrations problems are likely to increase with the speed. To avoid the
noise and vibrations problem, higher values of peripheral velocity couldn’t be used. U2 >43 m/s is not
recommended.
If the higher values of U 2 is chosen the blade outlet angle should be reduced. Assume, β 2 = 170. The lower values
of β 2 is also not recommended due to welding constraints. From the maximum efficiency point of view, no swirl at
the outlet i.e. C2u= 0 m/s has been selected.
The meridional velocity at the outlet of the runner at best efficiency with no rotation in draft tube will get a normal
value in this case. (See the outlet velocity vector diagram)
Then the following meridional velocity will be obtained:
C m 2 = U 2 ⋅ tan β2 = 12.2 m/s (2.1)
U 2 = ω 2 ⋅ R2
β2
C2=Cm2
V r2
Fig.2.2 Outlet velocity diagram
The ratio between the full load flow and the best efficiency flow
Q
κ= = 1 .1 − 1 .3 [-] (2.2)
Q*
We choose κ = 1.2
Q
So, Q* = = 5.875 m3/s, (* denotes the best efficiency point)
1 .2
The outlet diameter may now be found by assuming Cm2 to be constant across the outlet area across the runner
outlet diameter:
4⋅Q*
D2 = = 0.808m (2.3)
(π ⋅ C m 2 )
The speed of the turbine will then be according to the chosen values of U 2 and β2
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60 ⋅ U 2 60 ⋅ 40
n= = = 946 rpm (2.4)
π ⋅ D2 π ⋅ 0.808
This will not normally be a synchronous speed and an adjustment of the speed has to be made by adjusting the
circumferential speed U2 and the diameter. We want to keep the velocity triangle the same at the outlet therefore the
outlet blade angle β2 is constant.
In order not to increase the necessary submergence of the turbine, the speed should be reduced to nearest
synchronous speed.
The synchronous speed is found by checking the formula
3000
n= [rpm] (2.5)
Z
Where Z=number of the pairs of the poles in the generator for an electric grid with a frequency of 50 Hz.
If Z= 3, then n = 1000rpm and ω = 104.71 rad/s

If Z = 4, then n = 750rpm and ω = 78.53 rad/s
Using an empirical equation for calculation of the Net Positive Suction Head [4],
( 2
a ⋅ C2m + b ⋅ U 2
2
)
NPSH = [m] (2.6)
2⋅ g
Where a and b are constant and depends upon the speed number ( Ω )
*
Ω = ω ⋅ Q* [-] (2.7)
If Ω < 0.55 then a = 1.12, b = 0.055
If Ω > 0.55 then a = 1.12, b = 0.1 ⋅ Ω *
Ω = 0.51 for n = 1000rpm

Ω = 0.38 for n = 750rpm
In both case Ω < 0.55 and thus a = 1.12 and b = 0.055
If the outlet angle β 2 shall be unchanged as well as the best efficiency flow Q* the velocity vector diagram will be
homogeneous and the following equation will be valid.
2
π ⋅ D2
⋅ Cm2 = Q * [m3/s] (2.8)
4
n ⋅ π ⋅ D2
U2 = [m/s] (2.9)
60
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Then from simplification of above (2.8) and (2.9) equations we get
240 ⋅ Q *
D2 = 3 [m] (2.10)
π ⋅ n ⋅ tan β 2
2
For determining the required submergence of the runner the following equation has been used [5],
hs = hb − hva − NPSH [m] (2.11)
NPSH is depends on turbine parameters. It is also a requirement for the turbine design and has been denoted as a
required net positive suction head for turbine. The NPSH of the power plant has been included the necessary
submergence of the runner (-hs) the barometric pressure (hb) and the vapor pressure (hva) which ultimately depends
upon the water temperature.
The practical experience shows that for not exceed the cavitation limits, the difference of the barometric pressure
and the vapor pressure in the above equation is around -10 m. then the above equation becomes,
hs = 10 − NPSH [m] (2.12)
Before going to choose the best synchronous speed of the runner we have to calculates the outlet diameter, outlet
peripheral velocity of the runner and required submergence by changing the outlet blade angles as shown in the
following tabular form,
n = 1000 rpm
β2 D2 U2 hs
15 0.81 42.41 -2.42
16 0.79 41.5 -2.89
17 0.77 40.31 -3.21
n = 750 rpm
β2 D2 U2 hs
15 0.89 34.95 1.58
16 0.87 34.16 1.26
17 0.85 33.5 0.94
From the above result we can choose the best parameter of the outlet of the runner. The selection of the parameters
depends upon the fulfillment of the main objective of the Francis runner, which have been defined in the beginning.
So the best outlet parameters and appropriate speed of the runner are as follows:
β2 = 170 D2 = 0.85 m U2 = 33.5 m/s Cm2 = 12.2 m/s n = 750 rpm.
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The inlet dimensions may now be found by means of the Euler turbine equation. The energy converted by the
runner will be
E1 − E 2 = U 1 ⋅ C u 1 − U 2 ⋅ C u 2 = g ⋅ H ⋅ η h [m2/s2] (2.13)
The hydraulic efficiency ηh is the ratio of the available energy which is transfer to and converted to mechanical
energy by the runner and the net energy drop from the upstream to down stream side of the turbine. (Mechanical
losses, friction losses and leakage losses are not taken into consideration in the hydraulic efficiency.) That is:
U 1 ⋅ C u1 − U 2 ⋅ C u 2
ηh = [-] (2.14)
g⋅H
Principally every turbine is designed according to the available discharge Q, net head H n and a chosen optimal
rotational speed n. These parameters however, differ over wide ranges from one site to the other. For this variability
it is very useful to have similarity relations at hand for comparison means. In the following it is therefore, introduced
some ratio parameters which are designated as reduced quantities.
c
c= as reduced absolute velocity [-] (2.15)
− 2 ⋅ g ⋅ Hn
u
u= as reduced peripheral velocity [-] (2.16)
− 2 ⋅ g ⋅ Hn
v
v= as reduced relative velocity [-] (2.17)
− 2⋅ g ⋅ H n
Velocity diagrams based on dimensional values of the velocities are valid for only one single value of the net head
Hn. If reduced velocities however, present the corresponding velocity diagrams, these diagrams keep a similar shape.
The velocity diagrams based on reduced velocities are therefore beneficial because these diagrams are valid for any
value of Hn.
Additional useful reduced quantities are:
h
h= is the reduced head [ - ] (2.18)
− Hn
Q
Q= is the reduced discharge [-] (2.19)
− 2 ⋅ g ⋅ Hn
ω
ω= is the reduced angular velocity [-] (2.20)
− 2 ⋅ g ⋅ Hn
By using dimensionless reduced parameters the above equation yields
(
η h = 2 ⋅ u1 ⋅ c u1 − u 2 ⋅c u 2 ) [-] (2.21)
Assume that the hydraulic efficiency of 96% and the approximately 50% of the energy in front of the runner is
converted to kinetic energy.
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2 2
C1 C1
i.e. = 0 .5 ⋅ H n ⇒ = 0.5 ⇒ C1 ≅ 0.7 [-]
2⋅g 2 ⋅g ⋅ Hn
By drawing the inlet velocity vector diagram, will try to obtain the stagnation point on the blade inlet tip and the
inlet angle so the relative velocity does not lead to separation and possible inlet cavitations. (Especially for low head
turbines)
Cu1 U1
α1 r1 β1
Cm1
C
1
Fig. 2.3.The inlet velocity diagram
Besides the assumption that C1 ≅ 0.7 .Now will use eq.(2.21) when assume the hydraulic efficiency of the runner
to be 96% and no swirl conditions at the outlet of the runner. The following equation yields:
u1 ⋅cu1 = 0.48 [-] (2.22)
The inlet velocity diagram clearly illustrates that the smallest variation of the inlet flow angle with variation in the
guide vane angle is obtained if the angle between the absolute and relative velocity in close to 90 0 at best efficiency
point of operation.
Using the following empirical relation for calculation of the reduced dimensionless circumferential speed of the
blade inlet [8]
0.7 < u1 < 0.75 [-] (2.23)
The reduced dimensionless circumferential speed of the blade inlet then from experience may be chosen to 0.71, for
a low specific speed and then
0.48
c u1 = = 0.68 [-] (2.24)
0.71
The inlet diameter of the runner can now be found by the absolute value of U1
U 1 = 0.71 ⋅ 2 ⋅ g ⋅ H = 44.6 [m/s] (2.25)
The inlet diameter of the runner will then be
U 1 ⋅ 60
D1 = = 1.137 [m/s] (2.26)
n ⋅π
The meridional velocity at the inlet may from experience be chosen approximately 10% [8] lower than at the outlet
of the runner in order to obtain a slight acceleration of the meridional flow. (However, this choice will be different
for different manufacturers due to the philosophy of blade shape etc,)
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Thus, C m1 = 0.9 ⋅ 10.3 = 9.3 [m/s] (2.27)
Then the height of the blade at the inlet =B1, can now be found by means of equation of continuity as follows,
Q*
B1 = = 0.176 [m] (2.28)
π ⋅ D1 ⋅ Cm1
The inlet blade angle = β1 can be found from the following relation (see the above inlet velocity triangle)
 C m1 
tan β1 =   ⇒ β1 = 77 o [degrees] (2.29)
 U1 − C1u 
Note: In this preliminary calculation the displacement of the blade thickness has been neglected. By taken the blade
thickness into consideration the blade angles must be corrected due to increased relative velocity or meridional
velocity.
3. Erosion Models And Alternate Design of Runner
The mathematical models of erosion are useful for design of turbine components, sediment settling basin and
optimization of hydropower plant operation in Sand-laden River. Most often, individual particle dynamics are used
for developing erosion models. Empirical and statistical relations are also often developed from experiments and
field experiences. As erosion studies are heading toward numerical modeling and simulations, the importance of
analytical models are increasing day by day. Truscott [6] has found that the most often quoted expression for erosion
is
Erosion α velocity n (3.1)
3.1 Erosion Models for Hydraulic Machinery
The erosion models are basically developed for specific purpose or condition. For example, Bitter's model is
developed for dry condition, hence it is not clear whether this equation realistically predict erosion rate for wet
condition or not. Few researchers have presented models specifically for hydraulic machinery. Truscott [9] presented
the equation of Bergeron (in 1952) to predict the erosion rate of pump with simplified assumptions such as pure
sliding of spherical particles over the surface. He presented equation for erosion as:
3
⋅ ( ρ p − ρ) ⋅ D 3p ⋅ p ⋅K
Vchar
Erosion α (3.2)
D
Where Vchar is the characteristic velocity of liquid, D is the characteristic dimension of the machine, ρp is density of
particle, Dp is diameter of particle, p is number of particles per unit surface area, ρ is density of liquid and K is
experimental coefficient depending upon nature of abrasive particles. This equation is proportional to experimental
coefficient, which is dependent on abrasive nature of particles.
Karelin et al. [10] established the equation for surface erosion based on impact effect of particles considering kinetic
energy of single particle.
They have anticipated deviation on erosion estimated by equation due to uncertainties like non-homogeneous
particles, variable concentration, continuous alteration and pulsation of velocities and pressure, non-uniform flow
27
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distribution and so on. On the contrary to laboratory tests, Tsuguo [11] established the relationship of factors
concerning erosion of turbines based on 8 years erosion data of 18 hydropower plants. The repair cycle of turbine is
determined according to calculation of turbine erosion from equation, which gives erosion rate in term of loss of
thickness per unit time.
W = λ ⋅ c x ⋅ f y⋅ k 1 ⋅ k 2 ⋅ k 3 ⋅ Vchar
z
(3.3)
Where λ is turbine coefficient at eroded part; c is the concentration of suspended sediment, V is relative velocity. The
term f is average grain size coefficient on the basis of unit value for grain size 0.05 mm. The terms k1 and k2 are
shape and hardness coefficient of sand particles and k3 is abrasion resistant coefficient of material. The x, y and n are
exponent values for concentration, size coefficient and velocity respectively. The value of x and y are close to the
unity and any deviation of this linear proportionality is determined from plot of wear versus parameter. The values
of n are proposed for different turbine components based on relation between relative velocity and erosion.
Minimum value of n is proposed as 1.5 for Pelton bucket and maximum value is 3 for Francis turbine runner.
Equation 3.3 has been chosen for calculation of outlet dimensions of modify turbine runner.
As, W α Vr
3
and also assume all the coefficients in equation 2.3 has a constant values,
3
So, W = k 1 ⋅ Vr (3.4)
Where k1 = 0.3 − 0.5 [-]
For the discussion, the constant, k1 is chosen to be 0.3.
4. Results and Discussion
The main erosion of the Francis turbine occurs at the outlet of the guide vanes and at the outlet of the runner. In
order to reduce the erosion rate of the turbine, the absolute velocity at the inlet of the runner and the relative velocity
at the outlet of the runner have to be reduced. In this study, the flow and head are kept constant while the speed, inlet
Table 4.1 Variable input parameters
Speed rpm n 750 600 500 433 375 333 300 275
Inlet peripheral velocity, reduced - u1 0,71 0,74 0,77 0,8 0,83 0,86 0,89 0,92
Outlet blade angle degrees β2 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31
peripheral
velocity and outlet runner blade angle has been changed according to Table 4.1
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The results show that the outlet diameter changes relatively little while the inlet diameter changes drastically. The
reduction of the erosion at the outlet is more than at the inlet. This is shown in Fig. 4.1
4,5 100
4,0 90
80
3,5
Erosion Reduction [%]

70
3,0
Diameter [m]
60
2,5
50
2,0
Outlet Diamater 40
Inlet Diameter
1,5
Erosion reduction at the outlet 30
Erosion reduction at the inlet
1,0
20
0,5 10
0,0 0
750 600 500 433 375 333 300 275
Speed [rpm]
Figure 4.1 Results from the new design of the Francis runner
The inlet angle of the turbine has changed so that the design looks more like a pump-turbine. This means that the
turbine will be larger than the traditional design. The reduction of the erosion is linked to the reduction of the
velocity and therefore the size of the turbine increases. This result in a higher price of the turbine, but it will reduce
the maintenance costs during its lifetime.
It has been shown from the above calculation that the design of the runner can decrease the sand erosion. If a Francis
turbine designer combines the hydraulic design and coating of the critical parts, a significant reduction of erosion
can be achieved.
5. Conclusions
The modification in the conventional design of runner has played significant role for increasing manufacturing cost,
reducing repair and
maintenances cost and increase the life and efficiency of the runner. Hence details technical, managerial and
economical consideration will be needed along with experimental and computational fluid dynamics analysis.
6. References
[1] T. R. Bajracharya, C. B. Joshi, R. P. Saini and O. G. Dahlhaug, Efficiency improvement of hydro turbines
through erosion resistant design approach, ICPS Conference Proceedings (2004), IOE/TU/IITB/IIIE
29
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[2] T. R. Bajracharya, C. B. Joshi, R. P. Saini, O. G. Dahlhaug, Sand erosion of Pelton nozzles and buckets: A case
study of Chilime Hydropower Plant, Wear (2007) doi: 10.1016/j.wear.2007.02.021
[3] B. S. Mann, High-energy particle impact water resistance of hard coating and their application in hydro turbines,
Wear (2000), 140-146
[4] B. Thapa, Ole G. Dahlhaug, Sand erosion in hydraulic turbines and wear rate measurement of turbine materials,
CD ROM proceedings of international Conference-Hydro Africa 2003
[5] T. R. Bajracharya T. R., D. Sapkota, R. Thapa, S. Poudel, C. B. Joshi, R. P. Saini, O. G. Dahlhaug (2006),
Correlation Study on Sand Led Erosion of Buckets and Efficiency Losses in High Head Power Plants,
Proceedings of First National Conference on Renewable Energy Technology for Rural Development 12-14 th
October Kathmandu, Nepal.
[6] B. Acharya, B. Karki, and L. Lohia, (2005), Study on the Sand Erosion Led Damages of the Pelton Turbine
Component and their effects (A Case Study of Chilime Hydroelectric Project), BE Thesis, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Pulchowk Campus, Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University
[7] B. Thapa, R. Shrestha, P. Dhakal, (2004) Sediment in Nepalese hydropower projects, Proc, Int. Conf. on the
great Himalayas: climate, health, ecology, management and conservation, Kathmandu
[8] H. Brekke: Hydraulic Turbines, Design, Erection and Operation, NTNU, Trondheim, 2000.
[9] G. F. Truscott, A literature survey on abrasive wear in hydraulic machinery, Wear (20), Elsevier (1972) pp 29-49
[10] V. Y. Karelin, Fundamentals of hydro-abrasive erosion theory, Imperial College press (2002) pp 1-52
[11] N. Tsuguo, Estimation of repair cycle of turbine due to abrasion caused by suspended sand and determination of
desiting basin capacity, Proceedings of International seminar on sediment handling techniques, NHA,
Kathmandu (1999)
List of Symbols and Abbreviations

List of Symbols and Abbreviations
30
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Guide vane blade angle degrees k3 Abrasion resistance coefficient -
a Constant (used in equation 1.6) - Experimental coefficient -

2
A Cross sectional area of pipe m Turbine coefficient -
b Constant (used in equation 1.6) - Capacity ratio -
B Height of the runner m n Speed rpm
Blade angle degrees NPSH Net Positive Suction Head m
c Concentration of the sediments ppm Angular velocity rad/s
C Absolute velocity at the inlet m/s Angular velocity, reduced value -
Absolute velocity, reduced
C - Speed number -
value
D Diameter m p Number of particles 1/m2
2 2
E Energy m /s Density kg/m3
h hydraulic efficiency - Q Flow rate m3/s
Sub
f Symbols:
Grain size coefficient - Q Flow rate, reduced value -
2
g Gravity m/s U Peripheral velocity m/s
b Refers to the atmospheric pressure s Refers to the suction head
H Head m U Peripheral velocity, reduced value -
h Hydraulic
Head m x V Concentration exponent
Relative velocity m/s
h Head, reduced value - V Relative velocity, reduced value -
m Refers to the meridional direction y Size exponent
Hn Net head m Vchar Characteristic velocity m/s
kn1 Shape to
Refers constant
the net value - z Z Number ofvelocity
Characteristic generator pole pairs
exponent -
k2 Hardness constant - W Erosion rate -
p Refers to a particle 0 Refers to the centerline of the stay vane shaft
u Refers to the peripheral direction 1 Refers to the inlet of the turbine runner
va Refers to the vapor pressure 2 Refers to the outlet of the turbine runner
r Relative value * Refers to the best efficiency point of the turbine

o
Refers to the full load of the turbine
ELECTROCHEMICAL MICRO MACHINING (EMM):

A PROMISING FUTURE TECHNIQUE
Er. Luza Shrestha

Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering Pulchowk
Campus, Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University
Introduction
The needs for miniaturization of various ultra precision items utilized for producing highly precision machines and
equipments necessitate the development of manufacturing processes capable of performing micro manufacturing
31
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activities. The term micro machining refers to material removal of small dimensions that range from several microns
to millimeters. Since miniaturization will continue as long as people require efficient space utilization and more
efficient and better quality products, micro machining technology will become still more important in the future[1].
Advanced micro machining may consist of various ultra precision machining activities to be performed on very
small and thin work pieces [2]. Small and micro – holes, slots and complex surfaces are needed to be produced in
large numbers, sometimes in a single work piece, especially in the electronic and computer industries. When
conventional machining techniques are employed, the problems usually encountered are high tool wear rate and heat
generation at the tool and work piece interface and subsequent alteration of the work piece material characteristics,
etc. [3].Rigidity requirements for the tool are another major problem in conventional machining of small and deep
holes, complex surface or shapes. In addition, it becomes troublesome to machine three dimensional shapes [4].
Non conventional machining processes are getting their importance due to some of these specific advantages.
Electro chemical machining (ECM) was introduced in the late 1950s and early 1960s in aerospace and other heavy
industries for shaping and finishing operations. All of these processes now play an important role in the
manufacturing of a variety of parts ranging from machining of large metallic pieces of complicated shapes to
opening of windows in silicon that are a few microns in diameter[5]. When this electrochemical machining process
is applied to micro machining range for manufacturing ultra precision shapes, it is called electrochemical micro
machining (EMM) [6].
Need of Electrochemical Micro Machining
Recent changes in demand from society have forced the introduction of more and more micro parts in various types
of industrial products. For example, in the case of fuel injection nozzles for automobiles, several regulations arising
from environmental problems have forced manufacturers to improve their design, making them smaller and more
compact, with high accuracy. Inspection of the internal organs of the human body and surgery without pain are
universally desired. Miniaturization of medical tools is an effective approach to arrive at this target. Micro-
machining technology plays an increasingly decisive role in the miniaturization of components ranging from
biomedical applications to chemical micro-reactors and sensors. Micro-machining is the key technology in micro-
electromechanical systems (MEMS).
A general comparison between ECM and EMM is presented in Table 1 [8].
Major machining Electrochemical Electrochemical micro – machining (EMM)

characteristics machining
Voltage 10 – 30 V <10 V
Current 150 – 10000 A <1A
Current density 20 – 200 A/cm2 75 – 100 A/cm2
Power supply – DC Continuous/ pulsed Pulsed
Frequency Hz – kHz range kHz – M Hz range
Electrolyte flow 10 – 60 m/s < 3 m/s
Electrolyte type Salt solution Natural salt or dilute acid/ alkaline solution
Electrolyte temperature 24 – 65 º C 37 – 50 º c
Electrolyte concentration > 20 g/l < 20 g/l
Size of the tool Large to medium Micro
Inter – electrode gap 100 – 600 μm 5 – 50 μm
Operation Maskless Mask/ maskless
Machining rate 0.2 – 10 mm/min 5 μm/min
Side gap > 20 μm < 10 μm
Accuracy ± 0.1 mm ± 0.02 – 0.1 mm
Surface finish Good, 0.1 – 1.5 μm Excellent, 0.05 – 0.4 μm
Problems due to waste Low Low to moderate
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disposal/toxicity
Table 1: General comparison between ECM and EMM
ECM machining techniques do not produce thermal or mechanical stresses on the work piece material and they have
versatility that they can machine any kind of material. They leave no heat affected layer and produce no tool wear.
The machining performance in ECM is governed by the anodic behavior of the work piece material in a given
electrolyte. EMM appears to be a very promising micro – machining technology due to its advantages which include
high MRR, better precision and control, short machining time, reliability, process flexibility and environmental
acceptability, and it also permits the machining of chemical resistant materials like titanium, copper alloys and
stainless steel which are widely used in bio medical, electronic and MEMS applications.
Material Removal and Machining Accuracy in EMM
In the machining region where the workpiece directly faces the cathode tool, the anodic reaction rate is constant for
a constant inter-electrode gap (IEG) and electrolyte conductivity. The machining performance is influenced by
various predominant process parameters, such as current density, IEG, electrolyte flow rate, concentration and type
of electrolyte, and also the anode reactions [9, 10]. Material removal is maximum for small IEG. Experimental
results have proved that the addition of a magnetic field causes increase in material removal rate and accuracy.
In EMM, the machining performance is influenced significantly by the current density and the anodic reaction. The
metal removal rate (MRR) at any location is proportional to the product of current density (J) and metal dissolution
efficiency. Shape prediction of ECM, therefore requires knowledge of not only the current distribution but also the
functional dependence of metal dissolution efficiency (η) on current density and electrolytic flow condition.
Material removal rate (MRR) r = J a η/ ν F ρ
Where a is molecular weight of the metal, ν is the valence of metal dissolution, F is Faraday’s constant and ρ is the
density of metal (gm/ cm3)
Machining accuracy can be influenced by power supply, electrolyte selection and flow, selection of tool, IEG, UR
(Unit Removal) etc. For achieving higher accuracy, pulsed power supply with small IEG, passivating electrolyte,
balance electrode and dual pole tool are preferred, but the selection of all machining parameters depends on the
shape of the final product [11]. Temperature of the electrolyte will also influence the machining accuracy and
surface finish in EMM
Applications
Research and development in the area of EMM will be important and will fulfill the various urgent needs of the
electronics and precision industry in the area of ultra precision micro fabrication. Some of the application fields of
EMM are
• Surface finishing of print bands:
The print bands used in high-speed impact printers are fabricated from sheets of hardened ferrite stainless steel.
The print band system consists of a group of formed characters. Precise location of all the characters on a band is
achieved through timing marks. The characters and timing marks on the print bands must have special
characteristics to meet the desired trade-off between ribbon life and print quality. Bands with round-edged
characters increase ribbon life. To provide a high degree of character rounding, the EMM should involve a high
rate of dissolution. Surface finishing of print bands is most important in the print band manufacturing process.
An electro polishing process has been developed which gives micro-smooth surfaces for print bands. Fig. 6
shows a print band (a) before finishing and (b) after electro polishing and character rounding. Electro - polishing
33
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gives better surface finish and higher throughput. A wide range of metals can be used for print bands through the
use of electro polishing technology [7].
• Nozzle plate for ink-jet printer head:
Electroformed nozzles are currently used in a number of

commercially produced ink-jet printers. Electroformed
nozzles are produced by plating nickel on to a mandrel
(mold), which defines the pattern of the nozzle, and then
removing the finished product [12]. Pulsating
current/voltage permits better control over EMM of thin
films and foils for applications in micro fabrication.
Through-mask EMM was used to fabricate a series of
flat-bottomed conical nozzles in a metal foil. The process
is applicable to various materials including high strength
corrosion resistant materials such as conducting ceramics
[13 and 14]. The final shape of the nozzle depends on
dissolution time and conditions. Pulsed current can
improve the accuracy of finish of the nozzles.
• Deburring:
Fig. 1 SEM micrograph of a 3D electronic circuit board
The ECM method is widely used for removing burrs component [8]
left by other operations. ECM is a useful method for
deburring such products, since it can meet the increasing requirements for accuracy of dimension and form [5
and 6]. Electrochemical deburring is very rapid, with virtually no damage to the workpiece.
• Production of high accuracy holes:
EMM can be used for the accurate production of holes [6]. A typical application is the production of micro-holes
in turbine blades for generating a cooling effect, where EMM’s advantages are fully exploited, including its
applicability regardless of material hardness for generating complex geometry, high surface quality with stress
and burr free surfaces and economic large scale production. It also produces many parts for aerospace and
aircraft applications, like rocket engine parts, and jet engine rings more efficiently.
It has also found many applications in other industries, like the automobile, medical and defense industries. The
production of artificial hip joints of titanium and cobalt alloys and valve parts are now established industrial
processes. It has also been used to produce micro grooves for self-acting fluid film bearings, which can be
controlled precisely without distorting the other surfaces.
• 3D micro-machining:
3D EMM is shown in Fig. 1, an SEM micrograph of a machined component of an electronic circuit board in which a
platinum wire of 10 μm diameter was used as a tool on a copper sheet with the application of 50 ns, 1.6 V pulses of
2 MHz frequency, to obtain a delicate 3D copper structure, i.e. 5 μm×10 μm×12 μm in the middle of a hole on a
base, i.e. 15 μm×15 μm×10 μm. The micro tool was first fed vertically 12 μm deep into the workpiece. After this
vertical machining, the micro tool is moved laterally along the prescribed path in the copper sheet. The outer
rectangular trough was dissolved to a dimension of 22 μm×14 μm. During the process, the micro tool feed rate was
adjusted to 0.5 μm by monitoring the peak current transient of the inter-electrode gap.
34
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Conclusions
The micro-ECM (EMM) method can be effectively used for high precision machining operations such as removal of
burrs, making patterns in foils, and 3D micro-machining, and also in various applications. Results of recent research
indicate that the applications of Electrochemical metal removal in micro-machining offer many opportunities that
have been unexplored till now. Further research into EMM will open up many challenging possibilities for effective
utilization of ECM in the micro-machining domain. The increasing demands for precision manufacturing of micro
parts for biomedical components, automotive components and IT applications will lead modern manufacturing
engineers to utilizing EMM technique more successfully considering its advantages, i.e. quality, productivity and
ultimately cost efficiency, which are still vital for success in a competitive environment.
References
[1] N. Tenigyahi, Current status in and future trends of ultra precision machining and ultra fine material processing
Annals of the CIRP 2 2 (1983), pp. 573–582.
[2] T. Norio - Ann. CIRP 2(2) 1983, 573
[3] T. Masuzava and H.K. Tonshoff, Three-dimensional micromachining by machine tools Annals of the CIRP 46 2
(1997), pp. 621–628
[4] B. Bhattacharyya, S. Mitra and A.K. Boro, Electrochemical machining: new possibilities for micromachining.
Robotics and Computer Integrated Manufacturing 18 (2002), pp. 283–289.
[5] C. Van Osenbrugger and C. de Regt, Electrochemical micromachining. Philips Technical
Review 42 (1985), pp. 22–32.
[6] M. Datta and L.T. Romankiw, Applications of chemical and electrochemical micromachining in the electronic
industry Journal of the Electrochemical Society 136 (1989), p. 285c
[7] M. Datta and D. Landolt, Fundamental aspects and applications electrochemical micro fabrication
Electrochimica Acta 45 (2000), pp. 2535–2558
[8] B. Bhattacharyya, J. Munda, M. Malapati; Advancement in electrochemical micro – machining, International
Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 44 (2004) 1577 - 1589
[9] N. Tenigyahi, Current status in and future trends of ultra precision machining and ultra fine material processing
Annals of the CIRP 2 (2) (1983), pp. 573–582.
[10] B. Bhattacharyya and S.K. Sorkhel, Investigation for controlled electrochemical machining through response
surface methodology-based approach. International Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999), pp.
200–207
[11] S.H. Ahn, S.H. Ryu, D.K. Choi and C.N. Chu, Electrochemical micro drilling using ultra short pulses Precision
Engineering 28 2 (2004), pp. 129–134.
[12] M. Datta, Fabrication of an array of precision nozzles by through-mask electrochemical micromachining.
Journal of the Electrochemical Society 142 11 (1995), pp. 3801–3805.
[13] A.C. West, C. Madore, M. Matlezz and D. Landolt, Shape changes during through mask electrochemical
micromachining of thin metal films. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 139 2 (1992), pp. 499–506.
[14] R.V. Shenoy and M. Datta, Effect of mask wall angle on shape evolution during through mask electrochemical
micromachining. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 143 2 (1996), pp. 544–549.
35
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WASTE WATER TREATMENT IN NEPAL
* Ajay Kumar Jha, **Nawraj Bhattarai

*Department of Municipal and Environmental Engineering
Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, China
**Lecturer, Department of Mechanical Engineering
Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University, Nepal
Abstract
The existing treatment plants and sewerage systems face number of problems in Nepal. In most cases, treatment
systems are not functioning, or operating at far below the capacity. In addition, many towns of the country are
unable to operate schemes in a financially viable manner. The increasing trend of construction of sewers by
municipal authorities without considering treatment facilities is posing serious threats to the environment. All
industrial wastewater in most cases are directly discharged into local water bodies without proper treatment. So far
rivers and streams in the Kathmandu valley receive raw domestic sewages and untreated industrial wastes. In this
context, the present paper presents about the development trend of wastewater treatment plants in the world and
status of existing plants in Nepal.
Keywords: Waste water treatment, Financially viable, Sewage system
1. Introduction
1.1 Waste Water

Wastewater is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence. It comprises liquid
waste discharged by domestic residences, commercial properties, industry, and/or agriculture and can encompass a
wide range of potential contaminants and concentrations. Sewage is correctly the subset of wastewater that is
contaminated with feces or urine. "Sewage" includes domestic, municipal, or industrial liquid waste products.
1.2 Waste water treatment

As the name implies, Waste water is mostly water; a very small portion is waste material. What happens in a
wastewater treatment plant is essentially the same as what occurs naturally in a lake or stream. The function of a
wastewater treatment plant is to speed up the process by which water cleanses (purifies) itself. A treatment plant uses
a series of treatment stages to clean up the water so that it may be safely released into a lake, river, or stream. Major
steps are:
1.2.1 Primary Treatment
In primary treatment, sand, grit, and the larger solids in the wastewater are separated from the liquid. Screens, grit
chamber and settling tanks are most commonly used for the separation. Primary treatment removes 45 to 50 percent
of the pollutants.
1.2.2 Secondary Treatment
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After primary treatment, wastewater still contains solid materials either floating on the surface, dissolved in the
water, or both. Under natural conditions, these substances would provide food for such organisms as fungi, algae,
and bacteria that live in a stream or lake. In this process, wastewater is separated from the organisms and solids,
disinfected to kill any remaining harmful bacteria, and released to a nearby lake, river, or stream. Secondary
treatment is largely a biological process and microorganisms convert non settle able solids to settle able solids. It
removes the pollutants--up to 85 or 90 percent altogether.
1.2.3 Tertiary Treatment
After primary and secondary treatment, municipal wastewater is usually disinfected using chlorine (or other
disinfecting compounds, or occasionally ozone or ultraviolet light). An increasing number of wastewater facilities
also employ tertiary treatment, often using advanced treatment methods. Tertiary treatment may include processes to
remove nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus, and carbon adsorption to remove chemicals.
1.2.3 The Stuff that’s Left Behind
Sludge requires proper treatment and disposal, and can often be reused. Sludge handling methods are designed to
destroy harmful organisms and remove water. The end product of the sludge handling process is a relatively dry
material known as “cake.” It can be applied to agricultural land as a soil conditioner, placed in landfills, or cleanly
burned. At some plants, sludge serves as a fuel to produce energy.
1.3 Waste Water Treatment Processes

There are numerous processes (like Activated sludge systems, Advanced Oxidation Process, Aerated lagoon,
Aerobic granular reactor, Aerobic treatment system, Anaerobic clarigester, Anaerobic digestion, API oil-water
separator, Anaerobic lagoon, Bead Filter, Belt press, Bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels, Bioreactor,
Bioretention, Biorotor, Bioroll, Biolytix, Carbon filtering, Cesspit, Chlorine disinfection, Combined sewer,
Composting toilet, Constructed wetland, Dissolved air flotation, Distillation, Electrocoagulation,
Electrodeionization, Electrolysis, Electro-Fenton process, Expanded granular sludge bed digestion, Facultative
lagoon, Fenton's reagent, Flocculation & sedimentation, Fluidized Bed Biofilter, Flotation process, Froth flotation,
Fuzzy Filter, Humanure (composting), Imhoff tank , Iodine, Ion exchange, Living machines, Membrane bioreactor,
Nanotechnology, N-Viro, Ozone and Ultrasound, Parallel plate oil-water separator, Recirculating Sand Filter, Reed
bed, Retention basin, Reverse osmosis, Rotating biological contactor, Sand filter, Septic tank, Sequencing batch
reactor, Sewage treatment, Stabilization pond, Submerged aerated filter, Treatment pond, Trickling filter,
Ultrafiltration (industrial), Ultraviolet disinfection, Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion, Wet oxidation etc)
that can be used to clean up waste waters depending on the type and extent of contamination. Most wastewater is
treated in industrial-scale wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) which may include physical, chemical and
biological treatment processes. The most important aerobic treatment system is the activated sludge process, based
on the maintenance and recirculation of a complex biomass composed by micro-organisms able to absorb and
adsorb the organic matter carried in the wastewater. Anaerobic processes are widely applied in the treatment of
industrial wastewaters and biological sludge. Some wastewater may be highly treated and reused as reclaimed water.
For some waste waters ecological approaches using reed bed systems such as constructed wetlands may be
appropriate. Modern systems include tertiary treatment by micro filtration or synthetic membranes. After membrane
filtration, the treated wastewater is indistinguishable from waters of natural origin of drinking quality. Nitrates can
be removed from wastewater by microbial denitrification, for which a small amount of methanol is typically added
to provide the bacteria with a source of carbon. Ozone Waste Water Treatment is also growing in popularity, and
requires the use of an ozone generator, which decontaminates the water as Ozone bubbles percolate through the
tank. Disposal of wastewaters from an industrial plant is a difficult and costly problem. Most petroleum refineries,
chemical and petrochemical plants have onsite facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant
concentrations in the treated wastewater comply with the local and/or national regulations regarding disposal of
wastewaters into community treatment plants or into rivers, lakes or oceans.
2. Historical Aspects and Development Trend of Wastewater Treatment
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In the Mesopotamian Empire (3500 to 2500 BC) some homes were connected to a storm water drain system to carry
away wastes. In Babylon there were latrines which were connected to 18 inch diameter vertical shafts lined with
perforated clay pipes leading to cesspools. In the Indus city of Mohenjo-Daro (Pakistan) the wealthy as well as some
of the peasants used latrines and cesspools. These were connected to drainage systems in the streets from whence the
liquid flowed to cesspools or through drains to the nearest river. Archaeologists have found four separate drainage
systems at King Minos’ Royal Palace at Knossos (Crete), which dates from 1700 BC. The wastewater drained
through terracotta pipes which were joined with cement into stone sewers to the Kairatos River. From 2000 BC the
island of Crete had a drainage system made up of terracotta pipes. Wolfe (1999) states that many of the drains are
still in use today. There was a recent discovery of a stone lavatory with running water in a royal tomb from the
Western Han dynasty (206 BC to AD 24) in the central province of Henan, China (Rennie 2000). The Ancient
Greeks (300 BC to 500 AD) tackled the problem of waste in a different way. They had public latrines which drained
into sewers which conveyed the sewage and storm water to a collection basin outside the city to agricultural fields
for irrigation.
3. Waste Water Treatment in Nepal
In Nepal, surface water pollution is one of the serious environmental problems in urban centers due to the discharge
of untreated wastewater into the river-system, turning them into open sewers. Pollution of rivers is more severe and
critical near urban stretches due to huge amounts of pollution load discharged by urban activities. For example,
Bagmati river in Kathmandu Valley. The river suffers from severe pollution these days. The observed dry season
average of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) in the river is in the range of 20–30 mg/liter and total coli form are
as high as 104–105 MPN/100 ml. Per capita pollution load discharge of urban areas has been estimated to be about
31gBOD/capita/day in Bagmati River. Regression analysis reveals pollution loads steadily increasing nearly in step
with the trend in urbanization. The dissolved oxygen (DO) level of the Bagmati is declining at an average annual
rate of nearly 0.3 mg/liter/year (Karna, 2001). Unplanned urbanization and industrialization occurring in the cities of
Nepal may be largely responsible for this grave situation. Inadequate sewerage, on-site sanitation, and wastewater
treatment facilities in one hand, and lack of effective pollution control measures and their strict enforcement on the
other are the major causes of rampant discharge of pollutants in the aquatic systems.
Wastewater treatment plants are almost non-existent in the country except for a few small sized in the Kathmandu
Valley and other cities and even these are not functioning well. Successful implementation of a few constructed
wetland systems within the past recent years has attracted attention to this promising technology. A two-staged
subsurface flow constructed wetland for hospital wastewater treatment and constructed wetlands for treatment of
grey water and seepage is now becoming a demonstration site of constructed wetland systems in Nepal. To treat the
wastewater of a hospital at Dhulikhel ( 40 km far from Kathmandu), a two-stage constructed wetland was built with
a settlement tank, a horizontal flow bed as first stage and a vertical flow bed as second stage. The plant is operated
without electric power. The aim was the elimination of organic compounds, nitrification and a significant reduction
of indicator bacteria. Different phases of operation (high and low water level within the soil profile, serial operation,
one stage operation) were investigated, of which the serial operation with high water level in the horizontal flow bed
and low water level in the vertical flow bed showed the best elimination performance. The aril removal rate
constants (k-values) turned out to be very high (especially of the vertical flow bed) compared with literature values
of other subsurface flow constructed wetlands. For the vertical flow bed kCOD was 0.22 m/d and kNH sub (4)-N
was 0.85 m/d during serial operation. For kNH sub (4)-N a strong correlation with the hydraulic loading rate and the
COD inlet concentration was found (Laber, 1998). Beside these systems, few constructed wetlands have already
been designed and some are under construction for the treatment of leach ate and seepage. The majority of urban
areas do not have access to sewerage networks except three cities of Kathmandu Valley. The domestic wastewater
generated from these cities is discharged into the local rivers without any treatment. Out of the total urban
population only 76 % have access to toilets while the remaining use opens spaces, riverbanks for defecation. The
present sewerage network in Kathmandu and Lalitpur consists of about 200 km of sewer lines. Most of sewage
except Patan area is supposed to flow by gravity to the sump well at Sundarighat, from where it is to be pumped to
the wastewater treatment plant at Dhobighat. This pump is provided with 2 anaerobic ponds and 1 facultative pond;
having design capacity 15.4 MLD. The plant is not in operation due to non-functioning of pumping station and
breakage of pumping main laid across the bed of Bagmati River. Wastewater facilities development and
management is poor. The treatment plant at Balkumari 1.1 MLD capacity is partial in operation. It receives sewage
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by gravity from eastern part of Patan. The plant is provided with two anaerobic ponds, one facultative and one
maturation pond. The sewage treatment at Bhaktapur, 2 MLD capacities is not in operation due to failure in pumping
station and farmers tapped the wastewater to irrigate their cropland. The Department of Water Supply and Sewerage
(DWSS) has started to construct a sewage system of about 6 km. of sewer line and a treatment plant (lagoon type)
on 20.54 hectors to serve design population of 53000 in Thimi, Bhaktapur. The newly constructed WWTP 17.3
MLD at Guheshwori by BASP is the only plant operational in the Valley.
4. Conclusion Plant Capacit Status Remarks

y MLD
Treatment of wastewater is a relatively modern
practice. While sewers to remove foul-smelling
Dhobighat 15.4 Not Needs
water were common in ancient Rome, it was not Operational Rehabilitatio
until the 19th century that large cities began to n
understand that they had to reduce the amount of Kodku 1.1 Partial Needs
pollutants in the used water they were discharging to Operational Rehabilitatio
the environment. Despite large supplies of fresh n
water and the natural ability of water to cleanse Sallaghari 2.0 Partial Needs
itself over time, populations had become so Operational Rehabilitatio
concentrated by 1850 that outbreaks of life- n
threatening diseases were traced to bacteria in the
polluted water. Since that time, the practice of
Hanumangh 0.5 Under Needs
wastewater collection and treatment has been at Constructio Rehabilitatio
developed and perfected, using some of the most n n
technically sound biological, physical, chemical, and Guheshwori 17.3 In
mechanical techniques available. As a result, public operation
health and water quality are protected better today KMC
than ever before. The modern sewer system is an Facilities
engineering marvel. Homes, businesses, industries, Teku Operating Treats
and institutions throughout the modern world are
Septage
connected to a network of below-ground pipes
which transport wastewater to treatment plants Propakar Operating Just placed
before it is released to the environment. in operation
Table: Waste water treatment Plants in Nepal
In Nepal, there are no many waste water treatment plants. The existing treatment plants and sewerage systems face a
number of problems. In most cases, waste, sewer and sewage treatment systems are lacking not functioning, or
operating at far below the capacity. In addition, many towns of the country are unable to operate schemes in a
financially viable manner. The increasing trend of construction of sewers by municipal authorities without
considering treatment facilities is posing serious threats to the environment. All industrial wastewater in most cases
are directly discharged into local water bodies without any treatment. So far rivers and streams in the Kathmandu
valley receive raw domestic sewage and untreated industrial waste.
References
1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wastewater
2. http://www.adbio.com/wastewater/ww_history.htm
3. http://www.cityoflewisville.com/wcmsite/publishing.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/Wastewater+Treatment+Histo
ry/$FILE/The+History+of+Wastewater+Treatment3.pdf
4. http://www.personal.leeds.ac.uk/~cen6ddm/History/HistSewTreat.pdf
5. http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/summary_0199-6601581_ITM
6. http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14052210
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7. http://www.springerlink.com/content/wnpvc05hmlgykc0g/
http://md1.csa.com/partners/viewrecord.php?requester=gs&collection=ENV&recid=46
FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACE
Mahesh Kr Marita
Engineer (A & C)
Nepal Airlines Corporation
1. Primary Flight Controls Surface:
It enables the control of an aircraft on its yaw, roll and pitch axes. This control is made possible with following
control surfaces for a typical commercial aircraft:
• Aileron, Roll Spoiler (Roll Control)
• Elevator, Horizontal Stabilizer (Pitch Control and Pitch Trim Control)
• Rudder (Yaw Control)
• Helicopters use the Main Rotor and the Tail Rotor Control to perform their maneuverings
• Ailerons:
The two ailerons, one at the outer

trailing edge of each wing, are
movable surfaces that control
movement about the longitudinal
axis. The movement is roll. Lowering
the aileron on one wing raises the
aileron on the other. The wing with
the lowered aileron goes up
because of its increased lift, and the
wing with the raised aileron goes
down because of its decreased lift.
Thus, the effect of moving either
aileron is aided by the simultaneous
and opposite movement of the aileron
on the other wing. Rods or cables
connect the ailerons to each other and
to the control wheel (or stick) in the
cockpit. When pressure is applied to
the right on the control wheel, the left
aileron goes down and the right
aileron goes up, rolling the airplane to the right. This happens because the down movement of the left aileron
increases the wing camber (curvature) and thus increases the angle of attack. The right aileron moves upward and
decreases the camber, resulting in a decreased angle of attack. Thus, decreased lift on the right wing and increased
lift on the left wing causes a roll and bank to the right.
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• Elevators:
The elevators control the movement of the airplane about its lateral axis. This motion is pitch. The elevators
form the rear part of the
horizontal tail assembly and are free to swing up and down. They are hinged to a fixed surface--the horizontal
stabilizer. Together, the horizontal stabilizer and the elevators form a single airfoil. A change in position of the
elevators modifies the camber of the airfoil, which increases or decreases lift.
Like the ailerons, the elevators are connected to the control wheel (or stick) by control cables. When forward
pressure is applied on the wheel, the elevators move downward. This increases the lift produced by the
horizontal tail surfaces. The increased lift forces the tail upward, causing the nose to drop. Conversely, when
back pressure is applied on the wheel, the elevators move upward, decreasing the lift produced by the
horizontal tail surfaces, or maybe even producing a downward force. The tail is forced downward and the nose
up.
The elevators control the angle of attack of the wings. When back pressure is applied on the control wheel, the
tail lowers and the nose rises, increasing the angle of attack. Conversely, when forward pressure is applied, the
tail rises and the nose lowers, decreasing the angle of attack
• Rudder:
The rudder controls movement of the airplane about its vertical axis. This motion is yaw. Like the other primary
control surfaces, the rudder is a movable surface hinged to a fixed surface which, in this case, is the vertical
stabilizer, or fin. Its action is very much like that of the elevators, except that it swings in a different plane – from
side to side instead of up and down. Control cables connect the rudder to the rudder pedals.
• Trim Tabs:
A trim tab is a small, adjustable hinged surface on the trailing edge of the aileron, rudder, or elevator control
surfaces. Trim tabs are labor saving devices that enable the pilot to release manual pressure on the primary controls.
Some airplanes have trim tabs on all three control surfaces that are adjustable from the cockpit; others have them
only on the elevator and rudder; and some have them only on the elevator. Some trim tabs are the ground-adjustable
type only.
The tab is moved in the direction opposite that of the primary control surface, to relieve pressure on the control
wheel or rudder control. For example, consider the situation in which we wish to adjust the elevator trim for level
flight. Level flight is the attitude of the airplane that will maintain a constant altitude. Assume that back pressure is
required on the control wheel to maintain level flight and that we wish to adjust the elevator trim tab to relieve this
pressure. Since we are holding back pressure, the elevator will be in the up position. The trim tab must then be
adjusted downward so that the airflow striking the tab will hold the elevators in the desired position. Conversely, if
forward pressure is being held, the elevators will be in the down position, so the tab must be moved upward to
relieve this pressure. In this example, we are talking about the tab itself and not the cockpit control.
Rudder and aileron trim tabs operate on the same principle as the elevator trim tab to relieve pressure on the rudder
pedals and sideward pressure on the control wheel, respectively.
2. Secondary Flight Control Surface:
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These surfaces are required for Takeoff and Landing. They comprise High Lift Systems (Flap, Slat and Krueger
Flaps) as well as Airbrakes and Ground Spoilers.
JUST-IN-TIME (JIT)
PRODUCTION
Er. Dhruba Panthi

059BME
Introduction
Just-in-time (JIT) is a management philosophy that strives to eliminate sources of manufacturing waste by producing the right
part in the right place at the right time. Waste results from any activity that adds cost without adding value, such as moving and
storing. JIT (also known as lean production or stockless production) should improve profits and return on investment by
reducing inventory levels (increasing the inventory turnover rate), reducing variability, improving product quality, reducing
production and delivery lead times, and reducing other costs (such as those associated with machine setup and equipment
breakdown). In a JIT system, underutilized (excess) capacity is used instead of buffer inventories to hedge against problems that
may arise.
JIT applies primarily to repetitive manufacturing processes in which the same products and components are produced over and
over again. The general idea is to establish flow processes (even when the facility uses a jobbing or batch process layout) by
linking work centers so that there is an even, balanced flow of materials throughout the entire production process, similar to that
found in an assembly line. To accomplish this, an attempt is made to reach the goals of driving all queues toward zero and
achieving the ideal lot size of one unit.
The basic elements of JIT were developed by Toyota in the 1950's, and became known as the Toyota Production System (TPS).
JIT was firmly in place in numerous Japanese plants by the early 1970's. JIT began to be adopted in the U.S. in the 1980's.
Some Key Elements of JIT
1) Stabilize and level the MPS with uniform plant loading (heijunka in Japanese): create a uniform load on all work centers
through constant daily production (establish freeze windows to prevent changes in the production plan for some period of
time) and mixed model assembly (produce roughly the same mix of products each day, using a repeating sequence if several
products are produced on the same line). Meet demand fluctuations through end item inventory rather than through
fluctuations in production level. Use of a stable production schedule also permits the use of back flushing to manage
inventory: an end item’s bill of materials is periodically exploded to calculate the usage quantities of the various components
that were used to make the item, eliminating the need to collect detailed usage information on the shop floor.
2) Reduce or eliminate setup times: aim for single digit setup times (less than 10 minutes) or "one touch" setup. This can be
done through better planning, process redesign, and product redesign
3) Reduce lot sizes (manufacturing and purchase): reducing setup times allows economical production of smaller lots; close
cooperation with suppliers is necessary to achieve reductions in order lot sizes for purchased items, since this will require
more frequent deliveries.
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4) Reduce lead times (production and delivery): production lead times can be reduced by moving work stations closer together,
applying group technology and cellular manufacturing concepts, reducing queue length (reducing the number of jobs
waiting to be processed at a given machine), and improving the coordination and cooperation between successive processes;
delivery lead times can be reduced through close cooperation with suppliers, possibly by inducing suppliers to locate closer
to the factory, as Toyota has done in Japan and Honda has done in Ohio.
5) Preventive maintenance: use machine and worker idle time to maintain equipment and prevent breakdowns.
6) Flexible work force: workers should be trained to operate several machines, to perform maintenance tasks, and to perform
quality inspections. In general, JIT requires teams of competent, empowered employees who have more responsibility for
their own work. The Toyota Production System concept of “respect for people” contributes to a good relationship between
workers and management.
7) Require supplier quality assurance and implement a zero defects quality program: errors leading to defective items must be
eliminated, since there are no buffers of excess parts. A quality at the source (jidoka) program must be implemented to give
workers the personal responsibility for the quality of the work they do, and the authority to stop production when something
goes wrong. Techniques such as "JIT lights" (to indicate line slowdowns or stoppages) and "tally boards" (to record and
analyze causes of production stoppages and slowdowns to facilitate correcting them later) may be used.
8) Small lot (single unit) conveyance: use a control system such as a kanban (card) system (or other signaling system) to
convey parts between work stations in small quantities (ideally, one unit at a time). In its largest sense, JIT is not the same
thing as a kanban system, and a kanban system is not required to implement JIT (some companies have instituted a JIT
program along with a MRP system), although JIT is required to implement a kanban system and the two concepts are
frequently equated with one another.
Kanban Production Control System
A kanban is a card that is attached to a storage and transport container. It identifies the part number and container capacity, along
with other information. There are two main types of kanban (some other variations are also used):
1) Production Kanban (P-kanban): signals the need to produce more parts

2) Conveyance Kanban (C-kanban): signals the need to deliver more parts to
the next work center (also called a "move kanban" or a "withdrawal kanban")
A kanban system is a pull system, in which the kanban is used to pull parts to the next production stage when they are needed; a
MRP system (or any schedule based system) is a push system, in which a detailed production schedule for each part is used to
push parts to the next production stage when scheduled. The weakness of a push system (MRP) is that customer demand must be
forecast and production lead times must be estimated. Bad guesses (forecasts or estimates) result in excess inventory and the
longer the lead time, the more room for error. The weakness of a pull system (kanban) is that following the JIT production
philosophy is essential, especially concerning the elements of short setup times and small lot sizes.
Dual-card Kanban Rules:
1) No parts made unless P-kanban authorizes production

2) Exactly one P-kanban and one C-kanban for each container (the number of containers per part number is a management
decision)
3) Only standard containers are used, and they are always filled with the prescribed (ideally, small) quantity
The number of kanban card sets required in a particular location can be calculated as:
K = (expected demand during lead time + safety stock)/ (size of the container)
If rounding is necessary, K must be rounded up to the next highest integer.
Productivity Improvement with Kanban:
1) Deliberately remove buffer inventory (and/or workers) by removing kanban from the system
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2) Observe and record problems (accidents, machine breakdowns, defective products or materials, production process out
of control)
3) Take corrective action to eliminate the cause of the problem
References:
1. "Just-In-Time Production Systems: Replacing Complexity With Simplicity in Manufacturing Management" article by
Richard J. Schonberger
2. Industrial Engineering, October 1984, pages 52-63;
3. Applications of Single-Card and Dual-Card Kanban, Interfaces, August 1983, pages 56-67.
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MODAL VIBRATION MECHANISM IN GEAR

HOUSING WALLS
Er. Sanjeev Maharjan (059BME)

Master’s student
College of Electrical and Mechanical Engineering
Harbin Engineering University, China
Background:
Vibration and noise are the serious problems in structural elements and automation. Reduction of these two to desire
level is the matter of concern for the researchers. Modal analysis (by applying FEM or other analytical method)
provides mode shapes and natural frequency of structural elements. The mechanism related to the transmission of
disturbance energy in structural elements should be considered for the safety in design to reduce vibration and noise.
1. Introduction
The use of gear transmission in both defense and commercial application has substantially increased. With the
demand of high power and performance the vibration and noise on gear housing are on increasing trend. Housing
wall supports gear, shaft and bearing. The power applied to the
input shaft drives pinion gear. Gear rotates to mesh with another
gear. At the time of meshing, the impact force generates between
the gear pairs. The impact dynamic force develops the energy.
Part of the energy transmits to the shaft and from shaft to
bearing. Then this energy in the form of vibration is transmitted
to housing wall through bearing. Figure 1 displays the gearbox
model built on Pro/E software. Thus, in a power transmission
system, the vibration energy generated at the gear mesh is
transmitted to the gear housing and this makes structure noise
producing.
Figure 1 a) Gearbox with housing:
Noise in gearbox is generated at gear mesh and rolling of bearings. Primary sound wave generates at the contact of
gear mesh and emits into the internal housing. The wave penetrates
through the walls and transmits to the surroundings. Part of the wave
energy is damped in the walls. The disturbance energy during gear
contact is absorbed by structural parts such as gear, shaft, bearing and
walls. The disturbance energy may excite the natural vibration of the
housing wall which can create the tertial sound wave. Therefore, the
housing wall acts as dual, insulator for the primary waves and the
amplifier for the tertiary sound wave [1].
Figure 1 b) Gearbox without housing
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2. Vibration energy, sound power and sound radiation efficiency
The equation of motion for gear housing can be studied with the finite elements with N degree of freedom given in
matrix form as,
.. .
[ M ]{u ( t )}+ [C]{u ( t )}+ [K ]{u ( t )} = {f ( t )} ----------- (1)
Where [M] = the mass matrix
[C] = the damping matrix
[K] = the stiffness matrix
{u (t)} = displacement vector
{f (t)} = the excitation force vector
By assuming proportional damping, the damping matrix is represented by
[c] = α [M] +β [K]
The coefficient α= 1.0[1/s] and β= 5.0×10-7[s], referring to experimental work [2]
Based on orthogonality of Eigen vectors, the vibration

energy T is represented by the following expression.
1 . . 1 . .
1 m . .
T = {q * }T [ M ]{q} = {ξ * }T {ξ } = ∑ (ξ 2 rR + ξ 2 rI )
2 2 2 r =1
------------- (2)
.
Here {q * } is the conjugate complex of velocity
.
.
amplitude, and and ξ 2 rI are the real and imaginary
ξ 2
rR
Figure 3 a) Discrete model of the gearbox
housing
.
parts of respectively.
ξr
The sound power W radiated from the structure is calculated in the frequency domain by integrating the sound
intensity over the surface of the structure:
W = ∫ I dΓ ---------- (3)
Γ
Where Γ is the surface of the structure. The sound power does not depend on the measuring point and is used as the
index corresponding to the vibration energy.
The sound radiation efficiency is defined as the ratio of the radiated sound power to the power of the plane wave
radiated from the plate of rigid piston motion, which has the same area as the surface of the vibrating structure. The
efficiency σ is, therefore, represented by
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W
σ= ---------- (4)
ρ0 cυ2 S
Where υ2 is the mean squared velocity of the vibrating surface with area S, and c is the sound velocity [3].
3. Modal Analysis
Modal analysis can be obtained using software such as ANSYS, NASTRAN and others. The modal analysis of the
gear housing shown in figure 3 a) is achieved by 3D brick finite element with 12 degree of freedom. The finite
elements mesh contains a total of 6385 finite elements, 12950 nodes with 38850 degrees of freedom [4]
The mode shapes of oscillation become complex as the frequency increases. The three characteristics from the
modal analysis can be drawn. First, the structure is divided into a certain number of zones which oscillates
separately from one another with the same frequency. Waves propagate from every zone and get into collision at
points which represent partitions between these zones. By analogy with the laws of physics, this oscillation
represents a stationary wave and the partitions represent nodes of the stationary (standing) wave. The second
characteristic is that the number of modal zones increases with increase of natural frequency. Their number doesn’t
only depend on frequency but on the complexity of shapes, arrangement of ribs and other reinforcement, the
thickness of walls, total dimensions of housing, shape and size of opening etc. The third characteristics is that
sources of waves of natural oscillations are at points of the greatest displacement, and that at points of nodal
partitions (nodes) are close to zero.
Figure 3 b) Distribution of deformations in modal shape of oscillation with

frequency f= 359 Hz.
It is opposite to stresses. Stresses are greatest at points of nodal partitions which act
as clamping (constraining), and they are smallest at points of wave sources where
displacements are greatest.
Figure 3 c) Distribution of deformations in modal

shape of oscillation with frequency f = 2540 Hz.
In figure 3 b), we can observe each of the wall forms

one nodal zone. As figure 3 c), the division into
modal zones is very complex. The number of these zones is great and they are
mostly distributed among the ribs and other zones of increased rigidity.
4. Software design in vibration
With the advancement in computer design, parametric modeling and auto mesh
is trying to achieve for the gear housing to reduce vibration through sensitivity
analysis. However, it is not easy to get parametric modeling as it consumes lots of
time. The next problem is even if the parametric design is achieved, consistency of mesh can not be guaranteed.
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Honeywell Engines and systems has overcome this difficulty introducing CAD-independent parametric modeling
technique called the contour Natural shape function [5].
5. Conclusion
By modal analysis the possible modes of housing can be obtained. In reality, conditions for these shapes excitation can
not be fulfilled. Only a few out of extremely large number of modes are usually active. In real conditions, the excited
modal shapes are the result of combination of way of excitation, excitation frequency, damping, transmission of exciting
energy, etc. These combinations are random and modal responses are also random.
References
[1] Ciric Kostic, S., Ognjanovic M.: The Noise Structure of Gear Transmission Units and the Role of Gearbox Walls,
FME Transactions, Vol. 35, No.2, 2007.
[2] Ishikawa, M., 1989, “Study of Vibration Transmission in Gearbox,” Master Thesis (Tohoku University).
[3] Inoue Katsumi, Yamanaka M, Kihara M, “Optimum Stiffener Layout for the Reduction of Vibration and Noise of
Gearbox Housing, ASME Transactions, 518, vol.124, September 2008.
[4] Ciric Kostic, S., Ognjanovic M.: Excitation of the Modal Vibrations in Gear Housing Walls, FME Transactions, Vol.
34, No.1, pp, 21-28, and 2007.
[5] S-Y Chen, Oct 200, “Integrating ANSYS with Modern Numerical Optimization Technologies”, ANSYS Solution
Magazine, spring issue of 2003
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GREASE TRAP
Er. Naveen Kumar Mallik (059BME)
Site Engineer
Plumbing Contraction Company (Fajar AL Khaleej), Doha,
Qatar
Introduction
When fats, oils or grease (FOG) enters the sewer lines, it cools, solidifies and sticks to the insides of the pipes,
trapping food particles and other debris. Over time, this mass continues to grow until it obstructs the flow of
wastewater and causes sewage to back flow. The easiest way to solve this problem is to prevent FOG from entering
the sewer system. Grease traps can be effective in controlling FOG. Proper installation, use, and proper
maintenance of a grease trap will ensure separation and retention of FOG from wastewater before it enters the sewer
system.
A grease trap is designed to physically separate fats, oil, and grease (FOG) and solids from kitchen wastewater and
prevent it to mix with sewer waste. As wastewater enters the trap it slows down and the grease particles, which are
lighter than water, coalesce and float towards the top of the tank. The heavier solid particles settle at the bottom. The
trap outlet is located near the middle of the tank to prevent the grease and solids from passing through the tank. The
longer the wastewater stays in the trap, the better the separation. As the layers of grease and solids increases
(thickens), the retention time in the tank is reduced, separation is less complete and grease & solids are allowed to
pass through to downstream plumbing.
Since oil, fats, and grease density are lower than water they float. The baffles help to retain grease toward the
upstream end of the grease trap since grease floats and will generally not go under the baffle. This helps to prevent
grease from leaving the grease trap and moving further downstream where it can cause blockage problems.
How grease trap works
 Flow from kitchen fixtures enters the grease trap.

 An approved flow control or restricting device must be installed to restrict the flow to the grease trap to the
rated capacity of the trap.
 An air intake valve allows air into the open space of the grease trap to prevent siphoning and back-pressure.
 The baffles help to retain grease toward the upstream end of the grease trap since grease floats and will
generally not go under the baffle. This helps to prevent grease from leaving the grease trap and moving
further downstream where it can cause blockage problems.
 Solids in the wastewater that do not float will be deposited on the bottom of the grease trap and will need to
be removed during routine grease trap cleaning.
 Oil and grease floats on the water surface and
accumulates behind the baffles. The oil and
grease will be removed during routine grease
trap cleaning.
 Air relief is provided to maintain proper air
circulation within the grease trap.
 Some grease traps have a sample point at the
outlet end of the trap to sample the quality of
the grease trap effluent.
 A cleanout is provided at the outlet or just
downstream of the outlet to provide access
into the pipe to remove any blockages.
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E-VISION 2
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 The water exits the grease trap through the outlet pipe and continues on to the grease interceptor or to the
sanitary sewer system.
Following establishments must have functioning grease trap-
 Restaurants, cafeterias, hotels, hospitals, factories, clubs, and other commercial and/or institutional
kitchens,
 Food and meat packing and processing establishments,
 Supermarkets, bakeries, and other establishments where grease can be introduced into the sewer system in
large amounts.
The kitchen appliances drain to grease trap are-
All kitchen fixtures located in food prep or clean up areas should be plumbed to the grease trap. Pot sink, Prep sink,
dishwasher, floor drains, trench drains, floor sinks, disposers, wok stoves, tilt kettles etc.
Grease trap cleaning procedures
 No use of enzymes, acids, caustics, solvents or emulsifying products should be done when cleaning or
maintaining the grease traps.
 Remove lid. If the trap is equipped with removable baffles, remove them.
 Make sure the flow restrictor on the inflow pipe is present.
 Scoop the accumulated top grease layer out of the trap and deposit in a tight-sealing container for proper
disposal.
 Bail out water in the trap to facilitate cleaning solids from the bottom. Set water aside so you can return it
to the trap after cleaning. Note: grease haulers can remove the entire content of the trap using their vacuum
system.
 Remove all the solids from the bottom of the trap, drain liquids from solids and properly dispose them in
the trash.
 Scrape the sides, the lid, and the baffles with a putty knife to remove the grease, and deposit the grease into
the same container used for the grease layer.
 Replace lid and baffles.
References:
• www.environmentalbiotech.com
• www.bwsc.org/engineering
• yahoo search
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PRODUCTION OF BIO-DIESEL FROM

WASTE OIL
Er. Alok Dhungana 064MSRR501

Er. Anirudh Prasad Sah 064MSRR502 Er.
Mukesh Ghimire 064MSRR511
Background
Nepal is a net importer of petroleum product. From the graph shown below, we are spending more than 50% of our
national commodity export for petroleum product.
60% 45% 53%

50% 38% 41%
31%
40% 27%
30%
20%
10%
0%
10 20 30 40 50 60
/0 /1 /2 /3 /4 /5
0 0 0 0 0 0
02 02 02 02 02 02
Figure 1 Petroleum Products Import against Commodity Export of Nepal Source: Economic Survey, Govt. of Nepal,
2006/07
It is more than obvious to see that this growth is soaring in an unsustainable manner such as to overwhelm our
economy in short future. This is further supported by a report on oil vulnerability of the Asian and the Pacific
countries (UN, 2007), which has listed Nepal in High vulnerable countries (High OPVI). Hence we need to develop
plans and policies to gradually reduce our dependency over the imported petroleum product.
Some of the promising resources are the appropriate renewable energy technologies like hydropower, bio-energy,
solar energy etc.
Introduction
Bio-diesel is derived from vegetable matter which can replace diesel in vehicles. It is gaining its height recently in
Nepal. There are lots of programs on plantation of Jatropa curcas over barren and marginal lands in many regions of
Nepal. These programs are going to create employment and help in poverty alleviation to some extent. If these
programs are not managed properly, it is going to culminate into a huge problem of use of arable land to the
production of energy rather than food.
Besides, all this long process, we seem to have disregarded other sources of biodiesel like waste oil, which may be
used frying oil, animal fats, waste lubricating oil etc.
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E-VISION 2
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In fact, bio-diesel is monoalkyl-esters of fatty acids from vegetable oils and animal fats. Biodiesel is usually brewed
from the neat vegetable oil by transesterification with an alcohol, usually methanol, in presence of a catalyst, usually
a base such a KOH (Fig. 2). Glycerol is a by-product of the reaction.
Figure 2 Transesterification Reaction
Number of experiments conducted worldwide has shown exciting results. Some of the benefits of biodiesel over the
petro diesel are:
•Biodiesel is a renewable energy technology.
•It saves carbon, which can be traded under CDM.
•It can be produced within the country.
•It has exceptional lubricating property; hence the life of the engine will increase dramatically.
•Production, processing & transportation induce more economic activities.
•Management of waste.
Experimental Biodiesel Production Process from Waste Oil
First the methanol and the catalyst (sodium hydroxide) are mixed. After the methanol and catalyst are mixed, they go into a
reactor, where the oil is added to the mix. Used oil is first run through a filter to remove the fatty acids. This mixture is agitated
continuously for 1 to 8 hours. It may also be heated during the process which decreases the viscosity and makes agitation less
energy consuming. The fat or oil used is converted to esters during this stage. Care must be taken not to let this reaction
converted to sopanification. Sopanification reaction produces soap instead of methyl esters.
Excess methanol must be removed in the subsequent stage of production. The methanol is removed by a flash process or by
distillation. Excess methanol can also be removed after the glycerine and esters have separated. The removed methanol can be
reused, in later biodiesel production.
Glycerine and methyl esters are the two major products produced after the reaction is complete and the excess methanol is
removed from the mixture. The products are separated with the aid of gravity, since they have different densities. Glycerine is the
denser of the two products. Glycerine is then drawn off the bottom of the tank and can be sold either as crude glycerine, or if
potassium hydroxide was used as the catalyst, the salt can be used for fertilizer.
Conclusion
Hence the process is very simple and can be tested in small scale in lab. This biodiesel can be further tested on stationary and
vehicle engine.
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Used frying oils can be obtained from noodles factory and hotels in large volume. Motor oil from vehicle repair centre and
animal fats are other major sources. They are cheap and readily available. Large scale conversion plants can produce considerable
amount of biodiesel.
There are large numbers of promising energy resources all around us, yet we are always poor in energy utilization. Hence it’s the
duty of us engineers to make it technically and economically viable resources.
PIONEERS OF FLIGHT
Ambish Kaji Shakya
061BME 601
Flight has fascinated mankind for centuries and countless

unsuccessful flying machines had been designed. The first successful flight was made by the French Montgolfier
brothers in 1783, when they flew a balloon over Paris. The next major advance was development of gliders, notably
by the Englishman Sir George Cayley, who in 1845 designed the first gliders to make a sustained flight and by the
German Otto Lilienthal, who become known as the first pilot because he managed to achieve controlled flights.
However, powered flight did not become a practical possibility until the invention of lightweight, petrol-driven
internal combustion
engines in the 19th century.
Then, in 1903, the American
brothers Orville and Wilbur
Wright made the first powered
flight in their Wright Flyer
Biplane which used a four-
cylinder petrol- driven engine.
Aircraft design advanced
rapidly and in 1909 the
Frenchmen Louis Bleriot
made his pioneering
flight across the English
Channel. The American
Glenn Curtiss also achieved
Fig 1: Aircraft used in World War I.
several “firsts” in his Model- D Pusher and its variants, most
notably winning the world’s first competition for airspeed at
Reims in 1909.
Biplanes and Triplanes
Biplanes dominated aircraft design until the 1930s, largely because some early monoplanes were too fragile to
withstand the stresses of flight. The struts between biplanes’ wings were stronger compared to those of early
monoplanes, although the greater surface area of biplanes’ wings increased drag and reduced speed. Many aircraft
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designers also developed triplanes, which had a particular advantage over biplanes: more wings meant a shorter
wingspan gave greater maneuverability. Triplanes were most successful as fighters during World War I, the Germen
Fokker triplane being a notable example.
However, the greater maneuverability of triplanes was no advance for normal flying and so most manufacturers
continued to make biplanes. Many other aircraft designs were attempted. Some were quadruplanes, with four pairs of
wings. Some had tandem wings (two pairs of monoplane wings, one behind the other). One of the most bizarre
designs was by the Englishmen Horatio Phillips: it had 20 sets of narrow wings and looked rather like a Venetian
blind.
World War I aircraft
When World War I started in 1914, the main purpose of military aircraft was investigation. The British-built BE 2, of
which the BE2B was a variant, was well-suited to this duty: it was very stable in flight, allowing the occupants to
study the terrain, take photographs, and make notes. The BE 2 was also one of the first aircraft to drop bombs. One of
the biggest problems for aircraft designers during the war was to mount machine guns. On aircraft that had front-
mounted propellers, the field of fire was restricted by the propellers and other parts of the aircraft. The problem was
solved in 1915 by the Dutchman Anthony Fokker, who designed an interrupter gear that prevented a machine-gun
from firing when a propeller blade passed in front of the barrel. The German LVG CVI had a forward-firing gun to
the right of the engine, as well as a rear-cockpit gun, and a bombing capability. It was one of the most versatile
aircraft of the war.
Early passenger aircraft
Until the 1930s, most passenger aircraft were biplanes, with two pairs of wings and a wooden or metal framework
covered with fabric or sometimes plywood. Such aircraft were restricted to low speeds and low altitudes because of
the drag on their wings. Many had an open cockpit, situated behind or in front of an enclosed-but unpressurized-cabin
that carried a maximum of ten people. The passengers usually sat in wicker chairs that were not bolted to the floor,
and the journey could be bumpy when flying through turbulence. Warm clothing, and ear plugs to reduce the effects
of prolonged noise, was often required. During the 1930s, powerful, streamlined, all-metal monoplanes such as the
Lockheed Electra became widespread. By 1939, the advent of pressurized cabins allowed fast flights at high altitudes,
where there is less turbulence. Flying boats were still necessary on many routes until 1945 because of inadequate
runways and the frequency of emergency sea-landings. World War II, however, resulted in enough good runways
being built for land-planes to become standard on all major airline routes.
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Fig 2: Aircrafts used in World War II, Hawker Tempest

World War II aircraft
WHEN WORLD WAR II began in 1939, air forces had already replaced most of their fabric-skinned biplanes with
all -metal, stressed-skin monoplanes. Aircraft played a far great role in military operations during World War II than
ever before. The wide range of aircraft duties and the introduction of radar tracking and guidance systems put
pressure on designers to improve aircraft performance. The main areas of improvement were speed, range, and
engine power. Bombers became larger and more powerful-converting from two to four engines-in orders to carry a
heavier bomb load; the US B-17 Flying fortress could carry up to 6.1tons of bombs over a distance of about 3,200
km (2,000 miles). Some aircraft increased their range by using drop tanks (fuel tanks that were jettisoned when
empty to reduce drag). Fighters needed speed and maneuverability: the Hawker Tempest had a maximum speed of
700 kmph (435 mph), and was one of the few Allied aircraft capable of catching the German jet-powered V1 “flying
Bomb”. By 1944, Britain had introduced its first turbojet-powered aircraft, the Gloster Meteor fighter, and
Germany had in the world, the turbojet-powered Me 262, which had a maximum speed of 868 kmph (540 mph).
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KNOWING CATIA
Dave Shrestha
061BME611
Introduction
CATIA (Computer Aided Three Dimensional Interactive Application) is a multi-platform CAD/CAM/CAE

commercial software suite developed by the French company Dassault Systemes and marketed worldwide by IBM.
Written in the C++ programming language, CATIA is the cornerstone of the Dassault Systemes product lifecycle
management software suite.
The software was created in the late 1970s and early 1980s to develop Dassault's Mirage fighter jet, and then was
adopted in the aerospace, automotive, shipbuilding, and other industries.
Historical Background for CATIA
• CATIA started as an in-house development by French aircraft manufacturer Avions Marcel Dassault, at that time
customer of the CADAM CAD software.
Initially named CATI (Conception

Assistée Tridimensionnelle
Interactive — French for Interactive
Aided Three Dimensional Design)
— it was renamed CATIA in 1981, when
Dassault created a subsidiary to develop
and sell the software, and signed a
non-exclusive distribution agreement
with IBM.
In 1984, the Boeing Company

chose CATIA as its main 3D CAD tool,
becoming its largest customer.
In 1988, CATIA version 3 was ported

Fig: Using CATIA for simulation of machine tool
from the mainframe computers to UNIX.
In 1990, General Dynamics Electric Boat Corp chose CATIA as its main 3D CAD tool, to design the U.S. Navy's
Virginia class submarine.
In 1992, CADAM was purchased from IBM and the next year CATIA CADAM v4 was published. In
1996, it was ported from one to four Unix operating systems, including IBM AIX, Silicon Graphics IRIX,
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Sun Microsystems SunOS and Hewlett-Packard HP-UX.In 1998, an entirely rewritten version of CATIA,
CATIA V5 was released, with support for UNIX, Windows NT and Windows XP since 2001.
In 2008, Dassault announced CATIA V6. Support for any operating system other than Windows is dropped.
Features
Commonly referred to as a 3D Product Lifecycle Management software suite, CATIA supports multiple stages of
product development, from conceptualization, design (CAD), manufacturing (CAM), and analysis (CAE).
CATIA can be customized via application programming interfaces (API). V4 can be adapted in the FORTRAN and
C programming languages under an API called CAA. V5 can be adapted via the Visual Basic and C++ programming
languages, an API called CAA2 or CAA V5 that is a component object model (COM)-like interface.
Although later versions of CATIA V4 implemented NURBS, V4 principally used piecewise polynomial surfaces.
CATIA V4 uses a non-manifold solid engine.
Catia V5 features a parametric solid/surface-based package which uses NURBS as the core surface representation
and has several workbenches that provide KBE support.
As of 2008[update], the latest release is V5 release 19 (V5R19).
V5 can work with other applications, including Enovia, Smarteam, and various CAE Analysis applications.
Supported Operating Systems and Platforms
CATIA V5 runs on Microsoft Windows (both 32-bit and 64-bit), and as of Release 18 Service Pack 4 on Windows
Vista 64. IBM AIX, Hewlett Packard HP-UX and Sun Microsystems Solaris are supported.
CATIA V4 is supported for those Unixes[ and IBM MVS and VM/CMS mainframe platforms up to release 1.7.
CATIA V3 and earlier run on the mainframe platforms.
CATIA-using Industries
CATIA is widely used throughout the engineering

industry, especially in the automotive and aerospace
sectors. CATIA V4, CATIA V5, Pro/ENGINEER, NX
(formerly Unigraphics), and SolidWorks are the
dominant systems.
1. Aerospace
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The Boeing Company used CATIA V3 to develop its 777 airliner, and is currently using CATIA V5 for the 787
series aircraft. They have employed the full range of Dassault Systemes' 3D PLM products, comprised of CATIA,
DELMIA, and ENOVIA LCA, supplemented by Boeing developed applications.
European aerospace giant Airbus has been using CATIA since 2001.
Canadian aircraft maker Bombardier Aerospace has done all Fig: Using CATIA for seat design of
its designing on CATIA.
2. Automotive
Automotive companies that use CATIA to varying degrees are BMW, Porsche, Daimler Chrysler[2], Audi,
Volkswagen, Volvo, Fiat, Gestamp Automocion, Benteler AG, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Renault, Toyota, Honda, Ford,
Scania, Hyundai,Škoda Auto, Proton, Tata motors and Mahindra.
Goodyear uses it in making tires for automotive and aerospace and also uses a customized CATIA for its design and
development. All automotive companies use CATIA for car structures — door beams, IP supports, bumper beams,
roof rails, side rails, body components — because CATIA is very good in surface creation and Computer
representation of surfaces.
3. Shipbuilding
Dassault Systems has begun serving shipbuilders with CATIA V5 release 8, which includes special features useful to
shipbuilders. GD Electric Boat used CATIA to design the latest fast attack submarine class for the United States
Navy, the Virginia class. Northrop Grumman Newport News also used CATIA to design the Gerald R. Ford class of
supercarriers for the US Navy.
4. Other
Architect Frank Gehry has used the software, through the C-Cubed Virtual Architecture company, now Virtual Build
Team, to design his award-winning curvilinear buildings. His technology arm, Gehry Technologies, has been
developing software based on CATIA V5 named Digital Project. Digital Project has been used to design buildings
and has successfully completed a handful of projects.
Future Implementations
Dassault Systemes has announced plans to release CATIA Version 6 (V6) in mid-2008. The new interface allows
designers to manipulate the 3D solid model directly rather than the feature based design approach employed in
CATIA V5.
References
1. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page
2. A short history of CATIA & Dassault Systemes
http://www.edstechnologies.com/download/history-catia.pdf
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MOONBUGGY: AN INTRODUCTION
Jatin Man Amatya 061BME613
Ujuma Shrestha 061BME647
The vehicle moon buggy derived its name from the off-road vehicle designed by National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) to be driven in the rough terrains of the moon. NASA organizes a race called “The great
moon buggy race” for the students of various colleges to participate with their own design of the buggy at Huntsville
Alabama every year. NASA has certain criteria which is needed to be fulfilled by the vehicle built for participating
in the race. The students have to develop a vehicle which is operated by muscular strength and should not use any
energy storage devices like flywheel, batteries
etc. The design of a vehicle addresses
engineering problems similar to problems faced by
the engineers who designed the original lunar
vehicle. These include functionality, drive
type, safety, assembly and disassembly
requirement. It has to withstand high parameter and
demands according to commission of
NASA. Though moon buggy name was derived
from a NASA project it actually now is the project
for students to show their skill in human powered
vehicle design.
The Moon Buggy Race has many requirements which affect the design of the Moon Buggy and the qualifications
for the awards. Each Moon Buggy is required to carry two students, one male and one female for the duration of the
course. This course consists of approximately one half of a mile of “lunar” surface composed of craters, rocks, lava,
inclines and “lunar” soil. During the competition the two riders are required to carry the Moon Buggy disassembled
to the starting line within a 4’ x 4’ x 4’volume, mimicking the requirements of the original lunar roving vehicle. At
the starting line the Moon Buggy will be assembled, tested for safety and set up for course testing. At this point the
design team will be evaluated on the time required to safely traverse the course. Each team is allowed two runs
through the “lunar” terrain and the shortest time will be added to the assembly time for a total time for this
competition. Awards are given to the three teams with the shortest time in assembling the vehicle and navigating the
course. The completed Moon Buggy will be evaluated on functionality separate from the race. This evaluation will
examine the technical approach used to solve the engineering problem of navigating the lunar course and not the
time needed to traverse the course.
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CARBON NANOTUBE IN NANOTECHNOLOGY
Kundan Lal Das
061BME614
Nanotechnology began being promoted as a key

component of future technology in the late 1970s. The
term nanotechnology was first used in 1974 by Japanese
scientist Norio Taniguchi in a paper titled “On the Basic
Concept of Nanotechnology.” However, the term was also
used by American engineer K. Eric Drexler in the book
Engines of Creation (1986), which had a greater impact
and helped accelerate the growth of the field. By this time,
major breakthroughs had been achieved in industry, such
as the formation of nanoparticle catalysts made of non
reactive metals and used in catalytic converters found in
automobiles. These catalysts chemically reduced noxious
nitrogen oxides to benign nitrogen and simultaneously oxidized poisonous carbon monoxide to form carbon dioxide.
♦ The Tools of Nanotechnology
The scientific community began serious work in nanoscience when tools became available in the late 1970s and
early 1980s—first to probe and later to manipulate and control materials and systems at the nanoscale. These tools
include the transmission electron microscope (TEM), the atomic force microscope (AFM), and the scanning
tunneling microscope (STM).
♦ Contribution of Dr. Samio Lijima
• In 1971 he developed World’s first high- resolution electron microscope at Arizona state University
• In 1980 he discussed about Onion shaped graphite in his PhD paper
• He found that the fifth state of carbon was the carbon nanotube.
• He developed Multi-walled Carbon Nanotube (CNT) in 1991
• He developed Single-walled CNT in 1993
♦ Carbon nanotube
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Carbon nanotube is a one dimensional quantum wire of diameter of few nanometer diameters and several nanometer
of length. It is formed by rolling graphene sheet. The chemical bonding of nanotubes are entirely of sp2 bonds,
which is stronger than the sp3 bonds found in diamond, provides the molecules with their unique strength.
♦ Properties of Carbon Nanotube
The properties of carbon nanotube may be classified under mechanical properties, electrical properties, thermal
properties, magnetic properties, field effect, and optical properties. Some of them are listed below.
 Mechanical properties:
The carbon nanotube possesses wonderful mechanical properties. The sp² carbon-carbon bond gives carbon
nanotubes amazing mechanical properties. The Young's modulus of the best nanotubes can be as high as 1000 GPa
which is approximately 5 times higher than steel. The tensile strength or breaking strain of nanotubes can be up to
63 GPa, around 50 times higher than steel. These properties, coupled with the lightness of carbon nanotubes, give
them great potential in applications such as aerospace. It has even been suggested that nanotubes could be used in
the “space elevator”, an Earth-to-space cable first proposed by Arthur C. Clarke.
 Electrical
Some nanotubes have conductivities higher than that of copper, while others behave more like silicon. There is great
interest in the possibility of constructing nanoscale electronic devices from nanotubes. For a given (n,m) nanotube, if
n - m is a multiple of 3, then the nanotube is metallic, otherwise the nanotube is a semiconductor. For (n = m)
nanotubes are metallic, and nanotubes (5,0), (6,4), (9,1), etc. are semi conducting.
 Thermal properties:
All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal conductors along the tube, exhibiting a property known as
"ballistic conduction," but good insulators laterally to the tube axis. It is predicted that carbon nanotubes will be able
to transmit up to 6000watts per meter per Kelvin at room temperature; compare this to copper, a metal well-known
for its good thermal conductivity, which only transmits 385 W/m/K. The temperature stability of carbon nanotubes
is estimated to be up to 2800 degrees Celsius in vacuum and about 750 degrees Celsius in air.
 Magnetic properties:
It is magnetized when it is placed in contact with magnetic materials. It has very weak ferromagnetic property. The
basic electrical property changes from semiconductor to metal in strong magnetic field. Band gap shrink in strong
magnetic field.
♦ Applications of Carbon Nanotube
The carbon nanotube has numerous applications visible in the real world. Some of them being space elevator,
supercapacitor, hydrogen storage, atomic force microscope, memory device, molecular electronics, thermal
materials, biomedical, air water filteration etc.
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a. Space elevator
Carbon nanotube having strong carbon-carbon bond has wonderful mechanical property. It is also lighter than steel.
These property favours the use of this material as the most ambitious space elevator.
b. Supercapacitor or Ultracapacitor
Supercapacitors are electrical storage devices that can deliver a huge amount of energy in a short time.
Supercapacitors that can deliver a strong surge of electrical power could be manufactured from carbon nanotubes.
The charge and discharge processes are very fast at the interface between the nanotube electrode and electrolyte
solution. The high speeds of charge and discharge suggest a possible application of this kind of multi-walled carbon
nanotubes to supercapacitor.
c. Hydrogen storage:
Since the carbon nanotubes has the high hydrogen adsorption property at less
pore diameter, equipped with high mechanical strength, therefore it can be
used as the material for the adsorption of the hydrogen which is the obstacle
for the hydrogen fuel cell vehicle or other hydrogen energy technology.
It sounds like the development of carbon nanotubes tends to solve most of the
problems and obstacles prevalent in the research world, especially those in the
field of material science and engineering. But still we have to go a long way
for the maturation of the research for carbon nanotubes. With its discovery we
can endeavor the ladder to the space or the highway to the moon. It seems all
like a dream. But still we should not stop dreaming.
Fig. Space Elevator
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MATERIAL SELECTION: SITKA SPRUCE

FOR VIOLIN
Roma Gurung
061BME633
Background:
Music is a universal language: it connects the gap of verbal language. The magic behind the music is its
uniqueness; music has its own identity according to the musical instrument. The musical instruments are different to
each other in respect of their structure and building material. The material selection for the musical instrument plays
a vital role in the production of a specific music/tone. Accordingly now we could think why the top plates of violins
and cellos, for example, are always made from sitka spruce and the backs from curly maple, and the special varnish
used was one of the secrets of Stradivarius? Why clarinets are made from Africa blackwood, recorders from apple or
pear wood? Why trumpets and trombones are made from brass, plated with silver? Why bells are made from bronze
and organ pipes from a tin-lead alloy? In a spirit of inquiry, it makes sense to ask how well founded these traditions
are.
Within this wide range of material availability for musical instrument, we will examine the most widely
used material since centuries ago – the wood for the violin. After a long period of evolution in the history of
mankind, the skill and devotion of luthiers have established the most appropriate wood species for typical
instruments. The organization of the instruments in an orchestra is based on four main standard groups: the strings,
the woodwinds, the brasses, and the percussion. And the Wood is used for strings, woodwind, and percussion
instruments. Undoubtedly, among all the string instruments, the violin is the most fascinating.
In string instruments, basically, vibrating strings are too thin to radiate any appreciable amount of acoustic
energy, and it is therefore essential that they be coupled to some sort of radiating structure- a vented box in a violin.
The shape and material of the vented box will affect the sound and response of the instrument.
The important material parameters for the radiating structure are the speed of vibrational waves, the
mechanical impedance (sound wave resistance) and the mechanical damping of the material. In wood, the Young’s
modulus is very different along the grain and across the grain, the ratio being as high as 20:1 for spruce and as low
as 3:1 for some other woods, which means that, even if average properties are matched by some other material, the
frequencies of the vibrational modes will be quite different. Because of this anisotropy, the wood in violin and guitar
tops always has its grain running along the length of the instrument, and something similar is built into pianos and
harpsichords.
The internal damping of the wood has a rather different effect, since it becomes most important at high
frequencies, and again differs considerably from one timber or another, and even from one tree to another of the
same timber. If the high-frequency damping losses are very low, then the sound will be bright and clear, while if
they are larger the sound will be smooth and mellow.
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The material selection for Violin:
The violin implies the different types of wood for its different parts: Spruce (Picea abies) used for the top
plate and Curly Maple used for the backplate, ribs, and neck of the violin. These species of wood are categorized
under the name of ‘resonance wood’ that consists of all species with remarkably regular anatomical structure and
high acoustic properties.
In the understanding of material selection, violin makers traditionally select their boards according to the
simplest anatomical criteria-straight grain, fine texture, and low density-supplemented with rather crude bending
tests. Other criteria concern the constitution of the annual ring: for violins and violas, 1mm average ring width (0.8-
2.5mm are the limits); proportion latewood in the annual ring, typically in the order of ¼; and the discrepancy
between the respective densities of latewood and earlywood, as wide as possible, typically 900 and 280 kg/m3,
respectively, so that the overall density in maintained around 400 kg/m3. The transition between earlywood and
latewood must be as smooth as possible. Compression wood is completely rejected. The luthier’s general Criterion is
that a regular structure is the primary requirement for soundboards. And at present, the regularity of the annual ring
width can be determined using X-ray microdensitometric analysis (Bucur 1984c) or image analysis (di Bella et al.
2002). Final sophisticated selection is achieved through bending tests. The result is that matched soundboards
exhibit similar elastic behavior (Ono and Kataoka).
Furthermore, for curlymaple the most important criterion of selection is the beauty of the wavy grains
structure. At first glance, this criterion is obviously concerned with the aesthetic aspect of the instrument. The very
complex structure of curly maple plays an important role in its acoustical behavior.
Acoustical Properties of Resonance Wood for Violins
The acoustical behavior of wood material during the vibration of violin plates is related:
1. To the elasticity of the material along or across the grain, under extensional or bending vibrations; and
2. To the internal friction phenomena caused by the dissipation of vibrational energy.
In a solid body such as wood three kinds of vibratory resonant motion are possible:
a. Longitudinal resonant vibrations which can be taken as the dynamic analogue of axial stresses acting in a
short column. The longitudinal resonance methods can be applied for determining the elastic constants, the
sound velocity, and the logarithmic decrement.
b. Transverse resonant vibrations or flexural vibrations, corresponding to static bending in a wooden beam, are
the most frequent dynamic stresses in structural parts, such as trusses, joists and spars.
c. Torsional resonant vibrations as the dynamic counterpart to the static torsion. Decisive for the internal stress
and the fundamental resonant frequency is the modulus of rigidity G of the wood.
Theoretical understanding of the propagation of linear vibration in solids and technological advances between 1948
and 1990 permitted the development of the frequency resonance method, using thin strips of wood for the
measurement of elastic constants, along and across the grain (Young’s moduli EL and ER and shear moduli GLR and
GLT), as well as the corresponding damping constants, expressed as the logarithmic decrecment and commonly noted
in the literature as Tan and Tan or quality factor QL or QR. The frequency resonance method also allows access
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to the corresponding sound velocity of extensional or bending waves. Knowing the density of the material ( ),
acoustic impedance (V× ) and acoustic radiation (V/ ) can be deduced. This last parameter can help in matching
two violin plates with different Stiffnesses and densities but on which the ratio (V/ ) is identical (Schelleng 1982).
In addition to these advancement,an important step in the mechanical characterization of wood for violins was
achieved when the ultrasonic velocity method, at 1 MHz frequency, was used for the determination of 12 elastic
constants (3 Young’s moduli, 3 Shear moduli, and 6 Poisson’s ratios) (Bucur 1987b).
The wave length in the case of the propagation of longitudinal waves along the axis of the rod, the sound velocity v
is,
where E= modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) and = density of the wood.
The propagation velocity of elastic torsional waves depends on the modulus of rigidity G. thus,
where G= modulus of rigidity (shear modulus)
Among different varieties of wood used for the violin, the acoustical behavior of most essential spruce wood will be
examined further.
Spruce resonance wood:
The following table 1 and 2 give the experimental data for the two important characteristics of acoustical
behavior of the Picea species - spruce wood used for the top of the violin. Refering the data in table 1, we note the
very high values of modulus of elasticity parallel to the longitudinal direction (E L) compared to that in the radial
direction (ER). Also we note the very low values of modulus of rigidity along tangential-radial plane (G TR) compared
to that in the tangential-longitudinal plane. And this gives an idea of the high anisotropy of spruce.
It is well known that if no external periodic forces are acting on a solid vibrating body it returns to the static
condition. The successive amplitudes become lower and lower since the original inherent energy is dissipated partly
by radiation of sound, partly by internal friction, which produces heat and which is called ‘damping capacity’
because it decays the free vibrations in the wooden member. In the case of free vibrations the decrease in amplitudes
of two successive cycles of vibration follows a logarithmic law. Therefore the logarithmic decrement may be
computed as ln where A1 and A2 are the amplitudes of two succeeding cycles. The damping capacity of wood is
higher than it is for most other structural materials.
Sound velocity in wood, parallel to the fiber, has about the same magnitude as sound velocity in metals except lead.
The density of wood amounts to only 1/20 to 1/10 of the density of technically used metals. Consequently the sound
wave resistance w, which is decisive for the propagation of sound and especially for the reflection of sound at the
boundary between two media, is quite different for woods and metals since
The decay of the free vibrations of any plates is caused partly by damping due to internal friction and partly by
damping due to sound radiation. Damping due to sound radiation depends mainly on the ratio of sound velocity to
density for a particular material. Comparing woods with metals the acoustical superiority of the former becomes
evident. In musical instruments, e.g. sounding boards of pianos or violins, low damping due to internal friction and
high damping due to sound radiation is desirable.
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Spruce has the quality of high damping of sound radiation at low sound wave resistance (Horig 1929).
Table 2 shows the damping constants at low frequency and high frequency measured by the resonance
method using strips. It can be noted that the damping constants are highly influenced by the range of frequency and
by the anisotropic direction, i.e., by the anatomical structure. The damping coefficients are higher in the radial (R)
direction than in the longitudinal (L) direction.
Furthermore, it is quite interesting to observe that the properties of spruce vary according to the location
and environment of the tree growth (refer table 3)
It is evident from table 3 that the density and the dynamic properties of Japanese species are in the same
range as those of European resonance spruce. Barlow (1997) presented a very innovative approach for the selection
of materials for music instruments by introducing “merit indices”, which are ratios of the values of different
mechanical properties – Young’s moduli – to density. These indices are used in conjunction with maps of the values
of mechanical properties versus density and wood microstructure.
In conclusion, wood is a unique material for musical instruments and acoustic purposes. Among the various musical
instrument and material used in them, the study of experimental data of the acoustical behavior (anisotropic nature
and internal damping) for the spruce wood for the top of violin justified its application. Also the variation in the
acoustical behavior due to the location has also been examined.
Logarithmic decrement at low frequency Logarithmic decrement at high frequency
Density Axis L Axis R Axis L Axis R

Species
(kg/m3)
Frequ- Frequ- Frequ- Frequ-
ency ency ency ency
480 0.022 642 0.069 1046 0.084 16587 0.098 13130

Spruce
440 0.021 779 0.058 753 0.075 13025 0.077 12008
Sitka 480 0.030 425 0.063 190 0.049 14551 0.071 11311
Spruce 460 0.032 552 0.059 1159 0.081 11332 0.070 12042
Red 480 0.022 873 0.074 553 0.052 9931 0.120 8074
spruce 450 0.022 797 0.063 696 0.052 9613 0.072 8718
White 480 0.023 547 0.063 4454 - - - -
Spruce 460 0.022 591 0.066 437 0.064 12817 0.082 14527
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Table 1. Dynamic elastic constants and corresponding velocities of spruce (Picea

spp.) used for musical instruments. (Haines 1979)
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Young’s moduli Shear moduli

Density Velocity (m/s)
Species (108 N/m2) (108 N/m2)
(kg/m3)
VLL VRR VTL VTR EL ER GTL GTR
480 5600 1200 1307 359 150 7.4 8.2 0.62

Spruce
440 600 1100 1215 316 160 5.0 6.5 0.44
480 5200 1700 1581 309 130 13 12 0.46

Sitka spruce
460 5200 1500 1062 242 130 11 5.1 0.27
480 6300 950 1060 277 90 4.8 5.4 0.37

Red spruce
450 5700 1300 1192 305 150 7.9 6.4 0.42
White 480 5200 1600 1241 306 130 12 7.4 0.45

spruce 460 5700 1600 1224 339 150 12 6.9 0.53
Table 2 Damping constants (logarithmic decrement) measured with the

resonance method at different frequencies. (Haines 1979)
Species Origin Age (years) Diameter (cm) Density EL (108N/m2) QL
(kg/m3)
P. glehnii Japan 325 62 427 119 164
P . jezoensis Japan 150 52 428 129 171
P. sitchensis Canada 315 137 424 109 137
P. abies Germany 200 60 445 142 177
Table 3 Acoustic and elastic properties of spruce (Picea spp.) logs for musical
instruments of different origins (Japanese, Canadian, European). (Ono 1983b)
References:
1. Acoustics of Wood; Bucur,Voichita. ;CRC Press, New York 1995
2. “Material For Musical Instruments”;Neville Fletcher; Research School Of Physical Sciences And Engineering;
Australian National University
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3. “Wood Properties”; Jerrold E. Winandy, USDA-Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Wisconsin
4. “Mechanical Properties of Wood”; David W.Green, Jerrold E. Winandy, David E. Krestschmann.
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COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS: AN
INTRODUCTION
Anil Kunwar
061BME603
What is Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)?
Fluid (liquid and gas) flows are governed by partial differential equations (PDE) which represent
conservation laws for the mass, momentum and energy. Computational Fluid Dynamics is the art of replacing such
PDE systems by a set of algebraic equations which can be solved using digital computers.
CFD provides a qualitative and sometimes even quantitative prediction of fluid flows by means of
 Mathematical modeling (partial differential equations)
 Numerical methods (discretization and solution techniques)
 Software tools ( solvers , pre and post-processing utilities )
CFD is a combination of three disciplines: theoretical fluid dynamics, numerical mathematics and computer
science. It uses a computer to solve the mathematical equations for problem of fluid dynamics at hand. Thus, it
enables scientists and engineers to perform ‘numerical experiments (computer simulations)’ in a ‘virtual flow
laboratory’.
Historical Background for CFD
In the 18th and 19th centuries, significant work was done trying to mathematically describe the motion of
fluids. Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) derived Bernoulli's famous equation, and Leonhard Euler (1707-1783)
proposed the Euler equations, which describe the conservation of momentum for an inviscid fluid, and conservation
of mass. He also proposed the velocity potential theory. Two other very important contributors to the field of fluid
flow emerged at this time; the Frenchman, Claude Louis Marie Henry Navier (1785-1836) and the Irishman, George
Gabriel Stokes (1819-1903) who introduced viscous transport into the Euler equations, which resulted in the now
famous Navier-Stokes equation. These forms of the differential mathematical equations that they proposed nearly
200 years ago are the basis of the modern day computational fluid dynamics (CFD) industry, and they include
expressions for the conservation of mass, momentum, pressure, species and turbulence. Indeed, the equations are so
closely coupled and difficult to solve that it was not until the advent of modern digital computers in the 1960s and
1970s that they could be resolved for real flow problems within reasonable timescales. Other key figures who
developed theories related to fluid flow in the 19th century were Jean Le Rond d'Alembert, Siméon-Denis Poisson,
Joseph Louis Lagrange, Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille, John William Rayleigh, M. Maurice Couette, Osborne
Reynolds, and Pierre Simon de Laplace.
The major pioneering works in the field of modern day CFD was done by Richardson and Courant and
colleagues; they combined theoretical fluid dynamics and numerical mathematics. A substantial part of Euler and
Navier-Stokes Software used worldwide now, is based on a journal distilled by the mathematician Sergei
Konstantinovich Godunov, from his Ph. D thesis .Similarly, Peter D. Lax has contributed several mathematical
discoveries of importance to CFD. Importantly, John von Neumann and others have efforted in implementing the
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discipline of computer science to enable the integral enhancement of CFD .In 1940s , Von Neumann and
Richtmeyer collaborated in the development of the artificial viscous method ,leading to capturing of shock waves
Daimler Chrysler was the first company to use CFD in Automotive sector. Speedo was the first swimwear
company to use CFD.
Steps for applying CFD for analyzing fluid problems
First the mathematical equations describing the fluid flow are written .These are usually a set of partial
differential equations. These equations are then discretized to produce a numerical analogue to the equations .The
domain is then divided into small grids or elements .Finally the initial conditions and boundary conditions of the
specific problems are used to solve these equations .The solution methods can be direct or iterative. In addition,
certain control parameters are used to control the convergence, accuracy and stability of the method.
Elements of CFD codes:
1. A pre- processor, which is used to input the problem geometry, generates the grid; define the flow parameter and
the boundary conditions to the code.
2. A flow solver, which is used to solve the governing equations of the flow subjects to the conditions provided.
There are 4 different methods used as flow solver: finite difference method (FDM), finite element method (FEM),
finite volume method (FVM), and spectral method.
3. A post processor, which is used to massage the data and show the results in graphical and easy to read format.
Experiments Vs Simulations
CFD gives insight to flow patterns that are difficult, expensive and impossible to study using traditional
(experimental) techniques.
Experiments Simulations (via CFD)

Quantitative description of flow phenomena using Quantitative prediction of flow phenomena using CFD
measurements software
 for one quantity at a time  for all desired quantities
 at a limited number of points and time instants  with high resolution in space and time
 for a laboratory-scale model  for the actual flow domain
 for a limited range of problems and operating  for virtually any problem and realistic operating
conditions conditions
Error sources: measurement errors , flow disturbances Error sources: modeling, discretization , iteration ,
by probes implementation
Applications of CFD
CFD is used in wide variety of disciplines and sectors, including aerospace, automotive, power generation,
chemical manufacturing, polymer processing, petroleum exploration, pulp and paper operation, medical research,
meteorology, astrophysics, effect analysis of missiles and shells etc.
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As shown in the figures, CFD simulation has been used in aerodynamic shape design and analyzing the
smoke plume from an oil fire. Thus, the limitations of experimental analysis method have been greatly overcome by
this method.
Reliability of CFD simulations:
The results of a CFD simulation are never 100% reliable because
• the input data may involve too much guessing or imprecision
• the mathematical model of the problem at hand may be inadequate
• the accuracy of the results is limited by the available computing power
The reliability of CFD simulations is greater
 for laminar / slow flows than for turbulent / fast ones
 for single-phase flows than for multi-phase ones
 for chemically inert systems than for reactive flows
Available CFD Softwares:
Some of the CFD softwares that are in use are as following:-
software website remarks

ANSYS CFX http: // www.ansys.com commercial
FLUENT http: // www.fluent.com commercial
STAR-CD http: // www.cd-adapco.com commercial
FEMLAB http: // www.comsol.com commercial
FEATFLOW http: // www.featflow.de open- source
Conclusion:
CFD is a highly interdisciplinary research

area which lies at the interface of physics, applied
mathematics and computer science. With the
emergence of CFD, the solutions of complicated,
difficult and impossible flow problems can be
obtained via computer simulations.
CFD is attractive to industry and research

based projects since it is more cost effective than
physical testing. CFD simulations are cheaper, faster,
easier and of multipurpose than the process carried
for physical experimentation. However, one must
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note
Tired that complex
Guys!!! Long flow
way simulations are challenging
to go….during Gorkha and error- prone and it takes a lot of engineering expertise to
Tourobtain validated solutions.
The merits and limitations of CFD are both the encouraging factors for scientists and engineers of today to
perform extensive research in this field.
References:
1. Das , Tarit Kumar , Computational Fluid Dynamics , Wiley Eastern Limited ,1980
2. Korren, Barry ;Computational Fluid Dynamics : Science and Tool ; Centrum voor Wiskunde en
Informatica, Amsterdam , Netherlands ,2006
3. Ashgriz,N.,Mostaghimi,J.; Fluid flow handbook, Toronto , Canada
4. Bhaskaran Rajesh ,Collins Lance ; Introduction to CFD Basics
5. http://www.mathematik.uni-dortmund.de/kuzmin/cfd intro/cfd.html
6. http://www.fluent.com/about/cfdhistory.htm
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UNDERGROUND TUNNEL AND

TUNNELING METHODS
Rajkumar Chaulagain
061BME629
Introduction
Tunnels are artificial passage built underground to facilitate transportation, storage or protection. Tunnels have been
built from time immemorial for various purposes. The earliest known tunnel was constructed about 4000 years ago
by Queen Semiramis in ancient Babylon under the Euphrates River to connect her palace and the temple of Jove.
The tunnel was 1 Km long and was of section 3.6 x 4.5 m.
The principal function for which tunnels other than mining tunnels and military sappers tunnels , are build include :
1. Transportation
• People and goods : Pedestrian and cycle subway, Railways and motors, Highways
• Water: Canals, City supplies, Irrigation, Hydroelectric power, Cooking water
• Sewers
• Cables and pipe services
2. Storage and plant
• Car parks
• Cavern storage of oil
• Underground power stations
• Military stocks
• Disposal of radioactive waste
3. Protection of people
• Shelters
• Control posts
The fundamental operations of tunneling are:

1. Survey
2. Tunneling operations, apart from fixing the alignment and the lining (which are the preliminary and final
aspects of constructions of a tunnel) comprises these intermediate operations:
Excavation : applicable to soft soils
Picking : applicable to medium soils and very sift rocks
Blasting : applicable to medium and hard rocks.
3. Fixing temporary supports, as necessary.
4. Removal of bladed/excavated material.
5. Dressing, fixing final supports, followed by final operation of lining, wherever necessary.
Where all condition are favorable, construction becomes relatively simple, but the history of tunneling shows how
often unexpected physical conditions have made a project impossible as originally conceived , and ultimately only
achievable, after years of immense effect, by virtue of new method.
Factors related to tunneling function
The factors related to above fundamental operations are mutually interdependent and are not separate for decision
making. Those are
1) Situation for a tunnel may be through a mountain or hill, or subaqueous, or urban.
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2) Ground may be anything from soft silt to hard uniform rock covering a very wide range of behaviors in
excavation; water may play an important part. Any choice of ground implies changes in geometry, structural
form and construction method
3) Dimension and geometry are those of the finished tunnel: width, height, and length, together with levels and
gradients and curves. Specified limits may be very narrow or offer a wide range of possibilities.
4) Structural form may be circle, horseshoe, rectangle, or other shape incorporating cast-iron, concrete, brick work,
sprayed concrete etc, to carry the loads imposed. The nature of the ground and method of construction influence
strongly the structural form.
5) Construction methods range from boring by drilling and blasting, or by tunneling machine, or with or without a
shield, to cut and cover in various sequences, and submerged prefabricated tunnels. The choice of method is
limited by the ground condition, but also by available resources in the widest sense.
6) Equipment of the completed tunnel include such features as roadway or rail track, lighting, ventilation,
decorative and functional finishes, control systems.
All of these things are taken fully into account in the planning and design of the project. It is usually most
unsatisfactory and inefficient to make sustainable addition or alterations at a later stage, except where proper
provision has been made in the original planning
Tunneling Methods
The adoption of any one of a number of possible methods for tunneling depends on the nature of the soil profile.
Soils can be grouped under soft strata or rock. Soft strata may be cohesive soil (clay), or granular soil or mix.
Tunneling through soft strata is done by using one of the traditional methods of diving, i.e., excavation by digging or
with a tunneling machine. The machine is generally used in very soft layer and clay and prevails in subway
construction. Wherever seepage flow is heavy, the operation has to be supplemented by use of compressed air.
Occasionally some drilling and blasting is also done, especially in the case of mix soft rock and in laterite types of
soil.
A number of methods have been developed for tunneling by machine and the choice will generally depend on the
type of soil of structure etc.
1. Traditional Methods
a. Sequencing
The traditional methods of sequencing operation to achieve full profile may be classified as follows:
i. Full face method
ii. Top heading and benching method
iii. Bottom heading and stopping method
iv. Drift method, sub classified method into wall plate drift method, side drift method and multiple drift method.
The first three methods are generally used for rocks (aided by blasting) and medium type soils, while the last (iv) is
used for soft rocks and disintegrated rock (requiring ground support).
b. Excavation and advancing
These are the methods of making tunnel with simple tools.
i. Fore poling Method
The fore poling method is the most commonly used in gravelly cohesion less soil, particularly in running ground for
small tunnels, as well as driving headings in some other cases. Fore poles are timber planks with wedged ends which
can be driven through the soil.
ii. Tunneling with Liner plates
This is generally used for either forming drifts or headings on medium soft ground. It can also be adopted for small
cross-section drifts in running ground, combined with compressed air.
iii. Needle Beam Method
This method is modification of the liner plate method. It is applicable wherever the roof can stand for a few minutes
and the sides for an hour or two as in stiff clay. The full section of the tunnel is broken up into successive portion.
iv. Flying Arch Method
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The flying arch method is similar to the needle beam method except that no beam is used for supporting the liner
plates. As the top heading is driven, the liner plates of the arch are supported by trench jacks resting on the bench
itself.
v. Shield Tunneling
The shield tunneling method is used in loose, non-cohesive or soft ground. It is mostly circulars in shape. It can be driven either
in free air is under compressed air. The former method is used when the depth of the tunnel is shallow and/or there is not much
likelihood of ingress of water, as in clayey soils. The advantage of the shield tunnel is that it permits excavation of soil and
erection of primary lining under safe conditions. It also provides better control of ground settlement from above as well as on the
sides.
2. Tunneling by tunnel boring machines (TBMs)
These associate back-up systems which can be used to highly automate the entire tunneling process. There are a variety of TBMs
that can operate in a variety of conditions, from hard rock to soft water-bearing ground. Some types of TBMs, bentonite slurry
and earth-pressure balance machines, have pressurized compartments at the front end, allowing them to be used in difficult
Some hydropower tunnels of Nepal
conditions below the water table. This pressurizes the ground ahead of the TBM cutter head to balance the water pressure. The
operators work in normal air pressure behind the pressurized compartment, but may occasionally have to enter that compartment
to renew or repair the cutters. This requires special precautions, such as local ground treatment or halting the TBM at a position
free from water.
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Despite these difficulties, TBMs are now preferred to the older method of tunneling in compressed air, with an air
lock/decompression chamber some way back from the TBM, which required operators to work in high pressure and go through
decompression procedures at the end of their shifts, much like divers. Until recently the largest TBM built was used to bore the
Green Heart Tunnel (Dutch: Tunnel Groene Hart) as part of the HSL-Zuid in the Netherlands. It had a diameter of 14.87 m.
Pipe Jacking, also known as pipe-jacking, is a method of tunnel construction where hydraulic jacks are used to push specially
made pipes through the ground behind a tunnel boring machine or shield. This technique is commonly used to create tunnels
under existing structures, such as roads or railways.
S.N. Name of Hydropower Length (m) Shape or Cross section (m or m2)
1 Kaligandaki-A 5 925 Dia. 7.4
2 Marsyandi 7199 Dia. 6.4
3 Kulekhani-I 6233 Dia. 2.3
4 Kulekhani-II 5847.8 Dia. 2.5
5 Modikhola 2071
6 Puwakhola 192 D-shape 2.3*2.3
7 Seti 1555
8 Middle Marsyandi 5210 Dia. 5.4
9 Chameliya * 4418.3 (4 total) 3 D-shape & 1 Horseshoe shape
10 Kulekhani-III* 6924.7 (5 total) O, D & Horseshoe shape
11 Upper Tamakoshi * 9730 (2 total) 29 &7.1
13 Bhotekoshi 3301 D-shape(4*4)
14 Chilime 3069.5 D-shape (3.5*3.75 & 3*3)
15 Indrawati 3000 D-shape(3.25*2.5)
16 Chakukhola 958 D-shape(1.8*2)
References
• Tunnels planning, design construction, vol.1, J.M.Megaw and J.V.Bartlett

• Transportation tunnel, S. Ponnuswamy, D. Jhonson Victor
• Nepal Electricity Authority, Generation, August, 2008, 6th issue
• www.tunnelwikipedia, the free encyclopedia.htm
• www.himalhydro.com.np
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WHY AND WHY NOT OF TROLLEYBUS SERVICE IN
KATHMANDU VALLEY
Rudramani Ghimire
061 BME 635
Background
Air pollution is one of the serious problems in the Kathmandu valley, the day by day increasing number of
the petroleum vehicles being the major cause for it. Over the last 10 years, the increase in the number of vehicles has
rose to a value of 20% per years. This alarming growth of petroleum based vehicles, stirring the environmental
balance has warned us to think about the need of zero emission vehicles and their operation in Kathmandu.
Electric vehicles, which use the domestic fuel are one of the zero emission vehicles. There is clear need to
promote environmental friendly vehicles.
In context of Nepal, though this trolley bus system

is not a new concept, it is a concept that needs vitalization.
The Chinese government had set up electric vehicle
trolleybus system along the 13 km long from Suryabinayak
(Bhaktapur) to Tripureshwor (Kathmandu) in 1975. Now it
is not at a working condition.
Introduction:
A trolleybus is an electric vehicle, energy being

supplied by the positive and negative stung hung above the
road intended for trolleybus operation. Trolley bus are route
captive to their over head wires and they can deviate by more than a single traffic lane to either side of the lane from
the wires are hung. Most trolleybuses have the limited Fig. Trolleybus in Kathmandu
capability to travel off wire by developing power from the
auxiliary power unit or by the traction batteries but modern trolley
buses have an auxiliary power unit (APU), which allows the buses to travel off-wire for several blocks and avoid
anything blocking their normal route i.e. an excavation in the street or a street fair. Their operation is less flexible
than the motor buses but they are more energy efficient, quite and less polluting and long lasting than the motor
buses.
The main concern here is to discuss about the why and why not of trolley buses.
Why Trolley Buses?
Trolley buses have significant advantages for operation within the Kathmandu environment, and these can
be listed as follows:
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Low Noise:
Whilst diesel buses have become slightly quieter over the last 10 years, there seems little chance that they
will ever be made significantly quieter again. The majority of the noise at normal speeds comes from the engine and
exhaust. Since a trolleybus will have neither of these noise producers, the noisiest components will be the air
compressor, which will only operate intermittently, the air conditioning compressors and fans, and tyres noise,
which will only become noticeable at higher speeds.
A large fleet of trolleybuses will therefore result in greatly reduced noise pollution.
What is even more significant is that they could operate thorough housing estates at late hours, and
throughout the night, without disturbing residents, in the way that currently occurs.
Reduced Waste:
Due to the intensive use of buses in Kathmandu valley, it is necessary to change engine oil, gearbox oil and
fitters at intervals as short as six weeks. Disposal of such waste materials constitutes a sizable environmental
burden, although re-use of the oil can ameliorate this problem partially. By contrast, a trolleybus requires very little
routine replacement of oils etc. Perhaps the only significant new waste generated is the wearing of the carbon
current collector shoe, releasing small amounts of carbon dust, particularly at junctions and points in the overhead
wiring.
Improved Performance:
Whilst in the past some trolleybuses, notably those manufactured in China and the former Soviet bloc, were
comparatively low powered, and therefore very slow, more recent developments in the electric traction system allow
new trolleybuses to out-perform their diesel counterparts. This may not necessarily be in top speed, but certainly in
the accelerating phase, and in hill climbing ability, which tends to be more important under Kathmandu conditions,
since top speed is rarely if ever required.
For comparison, the recent most powerful diesel buses have an engine power of 224KW (305HP), which is
reduced by transmission losses to about 190KW (259HP), diesel engine have only the nearly 30% efficiency and
there is a lot of transmission losses also in account. Trolleybus will have a traction motor capacity of 230KW
(314HP), which gives about 215KW (293HP) at the drive wheels. It can be seen that the trolleybus can out-perform
the diesel equivalent, by a considerable margin.
Smoother Ride:
Diesel buses have irritating vibration due to the reciprocating motion of the cylinder piston system and
changing of the multistate gear box. Since trolleybuses do not require any multi-speed gearboxes, they are able to
accelerate much more smoothly than a 3 or 4 speed diesel bus, and any erratic application of the accelerator pedal
can be electronically smoothed, to avoid discomfort to the passengers.
They also have regenerative, or rheostat braking capability, which in effect replicates the benefit of the
hydraulic, or electric , retarder now used by all diesel buses. It provides the driver with a smooth and effortless form
of braking, which under normal circumstances avoids the need for any heavy or sudden application of the air brakes.
Unaffected by Oil Price:
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A trolleybus will still need some small amount of lubricating oils for the drive axle, chassis lubrication,
power steering, etc. Compare this with the total dependence of the diesel bus on oil products, both for it’s primary
fuel, and also for large quantities of engine, and gearbox oils. In the contest of the Nepal fluctuating of the oil price
is unfortunate, which affect on the political issue too.
As we have seen recently, oil prices can rise very quickly, and this imposes added cost pressures on all
operators of diesel vehicles. Whilst oil supplies are not threatened in the near future, there appears little doubt that
future oil reserves will be more expensive to recover, and as demand continues to grow the price of all oil derived
products will climb. Nepal has the ability to produce the electricity as required. It has the 2nd largest capacity to
produce electricity per person, which is renewable and no risk of shortage. It is the domestic fuel so we can save the
money which spent for the purchase of the diesel.
No On-Street Exhaust Emissions:
Diesel vehicle exhaust the unhealthy gases from the tail pipe. Which degrade the health of the people as
well erode the metal statue and memorial. Kathmandu is the culturally richest city so we have to preserve metal
component of the temple so we need to reduce the tail pipe emission to preserve the aesthetic view of them.
Whilst on electrical power there will be some hot air produced by the electrical drive components, this will
be minor when compared with either the waste heat produced by a diesel engine and gearbox, or with the waste heat
given out from the air-conditioning system.
Why Not the Trolley Buses?
High Capital Cost:
From present indications it appears that an equivalent trolleybus will cost about 70% more than the diesel
equivalent. However, the normal working life of trolleybus will be 20 years, as against 14 for a diesel bus. It can
therefore be seen that the annual depreciation is only 19% more than for a diesel bus.
The installation of the power supply and overhead wiring network is undoubtedly capital intensive, when compared
to normal buses. However, provided the network is intensively used, and can remain in use for a prolonged period,
then its costs can be amortized over many years. Overhead wiring appears to have no finite life, and with reasonable
maintenance can continue to be used indefinitely. The minimum realistic operational period for a trolleybus system
would be 20 years.
Inflexibility:
It is often perceived that trolleybuses can only run in procession, and on fixed routes. However, whilst this
was once true, the use of modern, remotely controlled overhead switches mean that it is easily possible for
overtaking maneuvers to take place, as well as segregated use of bus stops.
The scope for buses to use alternative roads to avoid major roadwork, fire incidents, etc is already very limited,
since most streets not used by buses are already impossible due the obstruction caused by advertising signs.
Another often quoted “problem” is the difficulty of re-routing trolleybuses to go through new development
areas, etc. Again this does not apply to most of the main urban bus routes, Where a major road re-alignment is
unavoidable, there is always adequate notice, which gives the trolleybus operator sufficient opportunity to modify
the overhead network.
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As a last resort, trolleybuses could be moved for short distances under the auxiliary power mode to meet a
temporary disruption.
Effect on Existing Bus Operations:
Many people of the Kathmandu valley and nearer are involved in the transportation professional their main
source of the income are city buses and micro-buses. Existing buses are replaced from here and it create great
problem on the existing buses management. That makes the many people jobless so is the great problem. So the
owner should be encouraged to invest on it with great priority. Driver and jobholder can be rejoined on it by
providing require training. .
Visual Intrusion of Overhead Wiring:
It is impossible to make overhead wiring for

trolleybuses completely invisible, but with good design,
and use of high quality components, its visual impact
can be reduced. In Nepal electricity is supplied from the
overhead wire so we can use the electric poles for the
over head wire power supply of the trolleybuses by
checking their strength and managing them in the
proper way. That reduces the extra pole cost of the
trolleybuses.
Fig. Overhead power supply cable of trolleybus
Conclusion:
Trolleybuses are twice as energy efficient as diesel buses. The operation of trolleybuses results in less air
contaminant emissions per km than are produced by internal combustion buses. Trolleybuses are environmentally
superior whereas diesel bus emissions cause cancer and are linked to asthma, chronic respiratory disease and heart
disease. There is no safe level of diesel exhaust exposure. They perform well in stop-and-go traffic and on busy
routes i.e. in the Kathmandu valley, where maximum traffic jam.
Trolleybuses have greater potential to reduce greenhouse emissions in the long-demand we can earn the
money from the carbon trading, and it less noisy it can reduce the noise level of the road of the over traffic
population area. Trolleybuses have lesser maintenance cost due to the lesser moving component.
Although cleaner than diesel buses, none of the existing and new alternative technologies [CNG, hybrid]
can really compete with the trolleybus in terms of the overall toxic emissions profile, load capacity, reliability. Fuel
cell buses are currently unproven, but are not likely ever to match the trolleybus in terms of energy efficiency.
Despite these advantages , trolley bus system has several drawbacks as mentioned above . The solutions for
these problems need to be sought for inorder to promote trolley bus system and thereby enable the practice of an
efficient and eco-friendly transportation system in Nepal.
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SMALL SCALE ORTHODOX TEA DRYING
WITH GASIFIER
Bal Mukunda Kunwar

061/BME/607
Background
In Nepal, tea, one of the most widely-consumed beverages in the world, is one of the major cash crops. The
area under tea cultivation in Nepal (2004/2005) has more than 15,901 hectares of land. There are more than 85 tea
estates providing tea leaves to 38 tea processing factories. Annually more than 12.6 million kg of tea is produced in
these factories. The tea produced here are mainly of two types - CTC and orthodox tea. CTC (Cut, Trim & Curl) tea,
which is known as black tea, is mostly consumed within the country. Orthodox tea, which is known as hill tea, is
export oriented. As per the statistics of the government, currently Nepal is producing 10.94 million kg of the CTC
tea and 1.66 million kg of orthodox tea. 90% of the orthodox tea is exported to India and overseas countries,
whereas remaining is used for direct consumption and partially for blending purposes in the black tea to impart it
with the good flavor. The major hill plantation districts for orthodox tea are Ilam, Tehrathum, Dhankuta and
Panchthar. [1]
Tea Production Process
The tea leaves must go through process of Withering, Rolling, Oxidation and Drying for making loose tea.
Firstly, two leaves and bud from the tea plant is plucked and collected to wither. The objective of withering is to
reduce the moisture in the tea leaf by up to 70%.The tea leaves are laid out on a wire mesh in troughs. Air is then
passed through these troughs so that the moisture is removed in a uniform way. This process takes between 12 to17
hours, until the leaves are limp, pliable and will roll well. The tea leaves are then placed into a rolling machine,
which rotates horizontally on a rolling table. This action creates the twisted wiry looking tea leaves. During the
rolling process the leaves are also broken open, which starts the third process - oxidation.
Oxidation is an extremely important part of tea production. The process of oxidation ultimately creates the
different types of tea and contributes to tea's flavor, color and strength. This stage is critical & finalizes the flavor of
the tea. If left too long, the flavor will be spoilt. To oxidize tea, the leaves are put into troughs or laid out on tables.
Oxidization occurs when enzymes within the leaves react with the air and takes 30 minutes to two hours at about
26oC for completion. It is during this process that the tea leaf changes from green, through light brown to a deep
brown. To stop the oxidization process, the tea is passed through hot air dryers. [2]
On an average 100 kg of fresh leaf produces 22.5 kg of dried tea containing residual 3% moisture. The
difference of 77.5 kg between the figures represents the moisture evaporated during the process. Of the 77.5 kg,
about 20-25 kg is evaporated during withering and around 20-50 kg is evaporated during drying. A leaf particle has
to undergo a moisture change from around 70% to 3% during drying. The drying takes place by evaporation of
moisture from the surface of tea leaves and migration of moisture from interior of a particle to the surface known as
diffusion process. [2]
Drying Process
The drying process is influenced by the temperature of inlet and exhaust air, volume of air, quantity of leaf
fed, period of drying. So, these factors should be well accounted before designing the tea drying system. Drying of
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tea involves both physical and chemical aspects. Temperature, at which tea is dried, has to be selected judiciously.
Too high temperature at the initial stage may cause case hardening and blistering. A faster rate of evaporation may
impart the teas an undesirable harshness. On the other hand, too low drying temperature slows down the rate of
drying and high temperature oxidation is allowed to proceed for a longer period resulting in a ‘dull’ and ‘soft’
product.
For conventional drier, an inlet temperature between 90-110°C has been found to be satisfactory. Exhaust
temperature is equally important as it indicates how much heat has been extracted from the incoming hot air. For
conventional drier an exhaust temperature of 50-60°C is advocated as at this range the oxidation of the leaf is
brought nearly to a stop. Volume of air for drying depends on two factors – moisture to be removed and temperature
selected. If the volume of air is below the normal requirement, the temperature will have to be increased to produce
the same amount of heat. Controlling air volume can control the temperature and the capacity of a dryer to a certain
extent. Fan or blower is use to control the volume of air. The spread of the leaf should be to a reasonable depth.
Overloading the dryer requires higher drying temperature and longer period of drying. In general, finer material
should be spread thinner. The thickness of spread of leaf will also depend on the degree of wither as well as inlet
temperature index. Time required for drying tea varies with degree of wither, temperature, thickness of spread and
volume of air. It is apparent that the two main objectives of drying viz., final moisture content (3%) and arrest of
‘oxidation’ can be achieved even in shorter residence time by increasing the drying rate. [2, 4]
Problem associated with Tea drying in Nepal
Though tea production is good in Nepal, the farmers are facing a lot of problems. In case of orthodox tea
the situation is much worse. The overall production of tea leaves in the production area is greater in comparison to
the capacities of existing tea factories. There are 15 large scale factories with fixed capacity. This limits the
production of tea leaves and surplus production will not fetch proper price. The fresh leaves must be delivered to
factory within 12 hrs. But in hilly region due to transportation problem the tea delivery is late. The longer the
delivery time more is deduction in price of tea leaves. So, farmers far away from the industries have to produce dry
tea on their own. Tea requires special conditions for the preparation and processing, which are not easily available to
local farmers at affordable costs. Tea processing has a lot of complication too. Equal importance should be given to
each process.
Besides, traditional method of drying using coal, wood, etc in open drying system deteriorates the quality
and flavor of the tea. Small contamination with the smoke or undesired flavor destroy the quality of the tea. On the
other hand, in hilly region the climatic condition is unsuitable for solar drying. Because of this constraints tea
farmers who are living far from the tea industries are not able to produce quality tea, hence they do not get proper
price for their products. So, there is a need of good tea drying system for small scale with proper heat source. This
system must be able to produce quality tea with preserved flavor. This system must prevent contamination of tea
with smoke and other undesired flavor. The production must be high and continuous.
Tea drying system
A tea dryer consists of the dryer, furnace, heat exchanger and a fan. The fan is used to introduce the clean hot
air at the bottom of the dryer. In furnace the fuel is burnt. In heat exchanger the heat of the furnace gases is
transferred to clean air. In the drying chamber the clean hot air is passed through the leaf and evaporates the
moisture therein. Furnace and heat exchanger form one unit known as the stove or air heater. The gasifier is the
source of heat energy act as a furnace. The gas is burned in the heat exchanger. The heat generated by the flue gases
heats the fresh air passing through the heat exchanger. There is no direct contact between incoming air and burned
gas. The heated air is then passed to cabinet by forced circulation. This heated air then dries the tea leaves. [2, 4]
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Gasifier
The gasifier is the source of heat energy in which gasification of biomass occurs. Gasification is a process
that converts carbonaceous materials into producer gas by means of thermo chemical reaction of the raw material at
high temperatures with a controlled amount of oxygen. Producer gas is the mixture of Carbon monoxide, Hydrogen
and Methane which are combustible, together with Carbon dioxide, Nitrogen and Water-vapor, which are non
combustible. Gasification is a very efficient method for extracting energy from different types of organic materials.
The advantage of gasification is that using the producer gas is more efficient than direct combustion of the original
fuel. So, more of the energy contained in the fuel is extracted. Also, it produces less smoke and pollution is also less.
In a gasifier, the carbonaceous material undergoes several different processes at different zone viz; Drying zone, where
the moisture is driven out from raw material, Pyrolysis zone, where the carbonaceous particle heats up. & solid biomass
decomposed to tar, oils, acids, lighter gases and char in absence of O 2, , Reduction zone, where the gasification process occurs as
the char reacts with carbon dioxide, steam and hydrogen to produce carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane, and Combustion
zone, where the pyrolysis products are oxidized into carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and water vapor which provides heat for
the subsequent gasification reactions. On the basis of air movement, gasifier can be divided to; Up-draft gasifier, Down-draft
gasifier and Cross-draft gasifier. [3, 4]
Conclusion
From all study and observation between various methods for tea drying, using gasifier as heat source not only helps for uniform flame
for heat exchanger, but continuous fuel of multiple nature can be used and drying of tea can be carried out effectively. For higher efficiency,
appropriate exchanger should be with having minimal losses.
References
1. FNCCI,2006
2. http://www.twiningsusa.com/TeaExperience/prepare-manufacture.php
3. http://www.wikipedia.com/gasification.html
4. M.S.BASNYAT, S. O., 1992, “A study on gasifier; A case study on Illam”, M.Sc. Final year project report, Department of Mechanical
Engineering.
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LANDFILL GAS: WASTE TO ENERGY
Bikash Shrestha
(061BME609)
The trash we toss in the garbage could end up powering our lights, computer and television, because in the world of
alternative energy, one man's trash is another man's treasure trove of fuel.
With growing urbanization, environmental sanitation, including solid waste management has become a critical issue.
In urban areas, improper dumping is resulting in an accumulation of health and environmental problems. To avoid
these problems waste management methods should be practiced. Landfills are one of the most common solid waste
management processes. However landfill can create a number of adverse impacts if not managed properly. Landfill
gas (LFG) is one of the byproduct of landfill which can cause a lot of harms. However we can utilize LFG to our
favor.
Landfill Gas
Landfill gas (LFG) is produced by wet organic waste decomposing under anaerobic conditions in a landfill. The
waste is covered and compressed mechanically and by the weight of the material that is deposited from above. This
material prevents oxygen from accessing the waste and anaerobic microbes thrive. The microbes turn complex
organic compounds in garbage into methane, carbon dioxide, and trace amounts of other compounds. LFG is about
50-55% methane and about 40-45% carbon dioxide, traces of hydrogen sulfide, complex organic compounds and
other compounds including nitrogen and oxygen. The exact composition of landfill gas is unique to each location
depending on the climate and the garbage profile.
Hazards of Landfill Gas
This LFG slowly

released into the atmosphere
if the landfill site has not
been engineered to capture
the gas. Landfill gas is
hazardous for these key
reasons.
Fig: System of landfill gas plant
 Landfill gas becomes

explosive when it
escapes from the landfill and mixes with oxygen. The lower explosive limit is 5% methane and the upper
explosive limit is 15% methane.
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 The methane contained within LFG is 21 times more potent as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.
Therefore uncontained landfill gas which escapes into the atmosphere may significantly contribute to the
effects of global warming.
 Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) contained within landfill gas contribute to the formation of
photochemical smog.
 Release of the toxic contaminants which can create health problems in local communities.
 Landfill gas due to presence of hydrogen sulfide has an odor normally associated with rotten eggs / rotten
garbage.
Landfill Gas to Energy
Landfill Gas is a reliable and renewable fuel option that remains largely untapped at many landfills across the world,
despite its many benefits. A landfill gas plant is needed for efficient conversion of LFG to energy. A landfill gas
plant consists of an extraction system and a utilization system.
Extraction System
The gas extraction takes place through vertical perforated pipes and sometimes horizontal
suction pipes. In this way the gas is easily extracted from the very beginning of the gas production, as the gas is
sucked out before closure/covering of the landfill. Sometimes an impermeable membrane will cover the landfill, and
almost all the gas can then be collected and recovered. Injection of water under the membrane will be necessary in
order to maintain a gas production. The gas is sucked out of the landfill by means of a gas pump or a compressor
leading the gas to the utilization plant by means of pressure in the transmission pipe. The connection of the single
wells to the pump and utilization system can be done in different ways. The most common way, is to connect the
wells to a main collection pipe which go around on the landfill.
Utilization System
The gas can be used in a gas boiler for the production of hot water for heating or process heat. Very often the landfill
gas is used as fuel in a gas engine, which drives a power generator. There are also other possibilities for using the
gas, such as direct use, upgrading to natural gas quality, fuel for vehicles, use in fuel cells, etc.
1. Power production
The most known use of the gas is in a gas engine running an electric generator producing power. The normal
plant sizes with gas engines produce between 350 and 1200 kW power per engine. In larger plants, in which the
power production lies around or above 4 MW, gas turbines are sometimes used, and in very large plants steam
turbines can also be used.
2. Combined Heat and Power Plant (CHP Plant)

CHP plants compared with only power production are the most efficient system for utilizing the energy from
landfills. These plants produce both heat and power output. In principle, there are two types of gas engine
plants: spark-ignition engines and dual-fuel engines. Spark-ignition engines can be used for CHP plants with
generating capacities from 20 kW to 8 MW. Dual-fuel engines are not made for very small capacities.
3. Boiler Systems
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The second most common use of landfill gas takes place in gas furnaces, in which the gas is used for heating of
water in a boiler system. This is a simple system. The heat from some boiler systems is used in greenhouses,
either by normal circulation of hot water, or by heating of air that is blown into the greenhouses. This is also a
relatively simple and efficient way to use the gas.
4. Upgrading to Natural Gas Quality

Some plants upgrade the landfill gas to natural gas quality. Consequently, the gas can be distributed through the
natural gas distribution network.
5. Use of Gas in Vehicles

Various places in the world, for example the USA, Brazil, France, etc., there are plants, in which the landfill gas
is compressed and used in either compactors, refuse collection vehicles, buses or ordinary cars.
6. Fuel Cell
The landfill gas can also be used in fuel cells. This system has been tested in the USA during some years with a
production from 25 kW and up till 200 kW plant.
7. Direct Gas Use

Some of the clay mines and cement industries are using the gas directly in the kiln instead of using natural gas.
In some cases the landfill gas is used in a mix with natural gas.
8. Dryers
Landfill Gas is using in drying sludge and canola seeds.
9. Conversions to Methanol and/or Dry Ice

Some companies are converting methane from landfills into methyl alcohol or methanol. Some have expressed
interest in converting the carbon dioxide in landfill gas to dry ice.
Benefits of Landfill Gas:

Generating energy from LFG creates a number of environmental as well as economical benefits.
1. Reduces Greenhouse gas emissions

Landfill Gas to Energy projects significantly reduces Methane, a potent heat-trapping gas (over 21 times
stronger than CO2), emissions from landfills. It is estimated that a Landfill Gas to Energy project will capture
roughly 60-90% of the BioMethane emitted from the landfill, depending on system design and effectiveness.
The captured methane is destroyed (converted to water and the much less potent CO2) when the gas is burned.
2. Offset the use of non-renewable resources
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Producing energy from LFG avoids the need to use non-renewable resources such as coal, oil, or natural gas.
This can avoid gas end-user and power plant Carbon Dioxide Emissions and criteria pollutants such as sulfur
dioxide, particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, and trace hazardous air pollutants.
3. Benefits the local economy

Landfill Gas to Energy project generates revenue from the sale of the gas. It also creates jobs associated with
the design, construction, and operation of energy recovery systems involving engineers, construction firms,
equipment vendors, and utilities or end-users of the power produced.
4. Creates other indirect benefits

Producing energy from landfill gas also creates indirect benefits like:
• Improves the air quality of the surrounding community by reducing landfill odors.
• Destroys most of the non-methane organic compounds, thereby reducing possible health risks from these
compounds.
• Improve safety by reducing explosion hazards from gas accumulation in structures on or near the landfill.
5. Trade under CDM

By simply burning methane we are converting a more potent greenhouse gas to less. Producing
energy also reduce the use of petroleum product. So, a lot of carbon is saved which can be traded under Clean
Development Mechanism.
Conclusion
Conversion of landfill gas to energy is one of predominately unexploited technology. By exploiting this technology
we can help to improve our health, environment and economy. We should endeavor to make our earth better place to
live.
References
1. www.LandfillGasToEnergy.com
2. Energy recovery from landfill gas, Willumsen.pdf
3. Facts About Landfill Gas, lfgfact.pdf
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SPACE SOLAR POWER:

ENERGY UNLIMITED FROM FICTION TO FUTURE
Bipul Shrestha
061/BME/610
Abstract
The solar energy available in space is literally billions of times greater than we use today. The lifetime of
the sun is an estimated 4-5 billion years, making space solar power is a truly long-term energy solution. As Earth
receives only one part in 2.3 billion of the Sun's output, space solar power is by far the largest potential energy
source available, dwarfing all others combined. Solar energy is routinely used on nearly all spacecraft today. This
technology on a larger scale, combined with wireless power transmission, can supply nearly all the electrical needs
of our planet.
What Is Space Solar Power?
Space-based solar power (SSP) is the conversion of solar energy into power, usable either in space or on
earth, from a location in space such as geosynchronous orbit (GSO). Photovoltaic (PV) would generally be utilized
for energy conversion and microwave technology could be
applied for wireless energy transmission through space. In
space, the sun shines constantly and has greater intensity than
on earth. Outside of earth's atmosphere, average solar energy
per unit area is in the order of ten times that available on earth
and increases as the sun is approached, although there are
increased maintenance problems beyond acceptable solar
radiation limits.
SSP can generate large amount of electricity. It is estimated

that the production of 5 billion watts (5GWh) (equivalent to
five large nuclear power plants) would require several square km of Fig: Space Solar Power
solar collectors (weighing approximately 5 million kg) and an earth-
based antenna 5 miles in diameter.
Requirements for Space Solar Power
 Low-cost, environmentally-friendly launch vehicles: Current launch vehicles are too expensive, and at
high launch rates may pose atmospheric pollution problems of their own. Cheaper, cleaner launch vehicles
are needed.
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 Power transmission: A relatively small effort is also necessary to assess best power transmission from
satellites to the Earth’s surface with minimal environmental impact.
 Large scale in-orbit construction and operations: To gather massive energy, solar power satellites must
be far larger than the International Space Station (ISS). Fortunately, solar power satellites will be simpler
than the ISS as they will consist of many identical parts.
Solar power satellite

A solar power satellite, or SPS or Powersat, as originally proposed would be a satellite built in high Earth orbit
that uses microwave power transmission to beam solar power to a very large antenna on Earth. However, the costs of
construction are very high, and SPS will not be able to compete with conventional sources (at current energy prices)
unless at least one of the following conditions is met.
 Sufficiently low launch costs is achieved

 A determination (by governments, industry,) is made that the disadvantages of fossil fuel use are so large
they must be substantially replaced.
 Conventional energy costs increase sufficiently to provoke serious search for alternative energy
 Such a system could have advantages to the world in terms of energy security via reduction in levels of
conflict, military spending, loss of life, and avoiding future conflict over dwindling energy sources.
From Fiction to Future
 Space stations transmitting solar power have appeared in science-fiction works like Isaac Asimov's Reason
(1941), that centers around the troubles caused by the robots operating the station.
 1968: Dr. Peter Glaser introduces the concept of a large solar power satellite system of square miles of solar
collectors in high geosynchronous orbit (GSO is an orbit 36,000 km above the equator
 1970's: NASA examines the Solar Power Satellite (SPS) concept extensively. 1999: NASA's Space Solar
Power Exploratory Research and Technology program initiated.
 Recently Japan is trying to experiment with small size power collector
 India and China are among the very interested countries to harvest this vast source of energy in the near
future.
Fig: Solar power satellite
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Components of Solar Power Satellites (SPS)
 A solar collector, typically made up of solar cells
 A microwave antenna on the satellite, aimed at Earth
 One or more paired, and much larger, antennas (rectennas) on the Earth's surface
Solar energy conversion (solar photons to DC current)
Two methods of converting photons to electricity have been studied, solar dynamic (SD) and photovoltaic (PV).
 Solar dynamic uses large reflector to focus sunlight to a high concentration to achieve a high temperature
to a heat engine to drive a piston or a turbine which connects to a generator or dynamo. Two heat cycles for
solar dynamic are thought to be reasonable for this: the Brayton cycle or the Stirling cycle.
 PV commonly known as “solar cells” uses semiconductor cells (e.g., silicon or gallium arsenide) to directly
convert sunlight photons into voltage. It is also possible to use Concentrating Photovoltaic (CPV) systems
Wireless power transmission to the Earth
The power could be transmitted as either microwave or laser radiation at a variety of frequencies depending
on system design. Whatever choice is made, the transmitting radiation would have to be non-ionizing to avoid
potential disturbances either ecologically or biologically if it is to reach the Earth's surface. This established an
upper bound for the frequency used, as energy per photon, and so the ability to cause ionization, increases with
frequency. Ionization of biological materials doesn't begin until ultraviolet or higher frequencies so most radio
frequencies will be acceptable for this.
Problems
 Launch costs: 4 GW power station would weigh about 80,000 metric tons (20 kg/kW) or very lightweight
design of 4,000 metric tons (1kg/kW) all of which would, in current circumstances, be launched from the
Earth. Total launch costs would range between $20 billion (low cost heavy-lift launch vehicle HLLV, low
weight panels) and $320 billion ('expensive' HLLV, heavier panels). Extraterrestrial materials from moon or
asteroids have been proposed to build solar cells. Space elevators made of carbon nanotubes can make
transporting cheaper but it is above recent technologies.
 Safety: The use of microwave transmission of power has been the most controversial issue in considering
any SPS design, but any thought that anything which strays into the beam's path will be incinerated is an
extreme misconception. It is important for system efficiency that as much of the microwave radiation as
possible be focused on the rectenna. Outside of the rectenna, microwave intensities would rapidly decrease
so nearby towns or other human activity should be completely unaffected. The long-term effects of
beaming power through the ionosphere in the form of microwaves has yet to be studied, but nothing has
been suggested which might lead to any significant effect.
Solar Power Satellites (SPS)'s economic feasibility
Current prices for electricity on the public grid fluctuate depending on time of day, but typical household delivery
costs about 5 cents/kWh in North America.
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If the lifetime of an SPS is 20 years and it delivers 5 GWh to the grid, the commercial value of that power is
(5,000,000,000 W)/ (1000 W/kW) = 5,000,000 kWh, which multiplied by $.05 per kWh gives $250,000 revenue per
hour. $250,000 × 24 hours × 365 days × 20 years = $43,800,000,000 ($ 43 billion).
By contrast, in the Nepal electricity can cost 13 cents /kWh. This would translate to a lifetime output of $114 billion
for power delivered to the Nepal.
Advantages of SSP over Conventional Power System
 Environmental Friendly
It is a renewable energy source, zero emission, and only generates waste as a product of manufacture and
maintenance. Space solar power does not emit greenhouse gases as done by petroleum products, coals and
biomass. It does not depend upon scarce fresh water resources, valuable farm land or depend on natural-gas-
derived fertilizer. Space solar power will not produce hazardous waste, which needs to be stored and guarded
for hundreds of years as in nuclear power. Solar power does not require environmentally problematic mining
operations.
 Continuous and ultimate source of energy

Space solar power is available 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, in huge quantities. It works regardless of cloud
cover, daylight, or wind speed. Space solar power can be exported to virtually any place in the world, and its
energy can be converted for local needs — such as manufacture of methanol for use in rural places where there
are no electric power grids. Space solar power can also be used for desalination of sea water.
Space solar power will provide true energy independence for the nations that develop it, eliminating a major
source of national competition for limited Earth-based energy resources. Space solar power will not require
dependence on other countries for oil to meet energy needs, enabling us to expend resources in other ways.
 New opportunities and exploration

Space solar power can take advantage of aerospace expertise to expand employment opportunities in solving the
difficult problems of energy security and climate change. Space solar power can provide a market large enough
to develop the low-cost space transportation system that is required for its deployment. This, in turn, will also
bring the resources of the solar system within economic reach.
 Energy in global winters:

Space solar power would be the only means of acquiring direct solar energy to supplement the burning of fossil
fuels or nuclear energy sources under the most extreme conditions of a global catastrophic volcanic winter (or
similarly, nuclear winter). This could include the massive energy increases necessary to grow food crops and for
increased heating requirements under ice age conditions.
Conclusion
Solar energy in terrestrial level is always considered as alternative energy and covers only small portion of total
energy utilized. But Space Solar Power can provide energy beyond the possibilities of any other terrestrial sources.
The conventional resources are becoming more scarce and the demand of energy is increasing, so we won’t have to
wait long to see new power rising above our horizon.
References
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http://www.nss.org/
http://www.universetoday.com/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_solar_power
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar_power_satellite
“HYDROGEN FUEL CELL”
A TECHNOLOGY FOR FUTURE ENERGY GENERATION
Prakash Aryal
061/BME/624
Abstract
In today’s world energy crisis is the major problem with depleting source of conventional organic fossil fuels. A
high-tech energy source like nuclear energy is not on everyone’s reach; and is not suitable for small scale and mobile
purposes. Thus search for alternative renewable, non-polluting and easily available source of energy is today’s world
utmost concern. Hydrogen fuel is one of them having highest possibility of being used as future fuel as it has the
highest heating value, non-polluting with only water as byproduct.
As Hydrogen is abundant element on earth it has high energy security. Hydrogen can be produced from a variety of
sources:
Traditional: natural gas, gasoline, diesel, propane
Renewable/alternative fuels: methanol, ethanol, landfill

gas, bio-gas, methane
Water: using electrolysis, solar or wind power.
Fig: Schematic Diagram of Hydrogen Fuel

Cell
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Hydrogen requires large storage facilities, low temperatures condition (-2520C) and special transportation system.
Explosion hazards are major safety problems in public use of this fuel. Extensive research is being done for easy and
safe storage of this fuel.
What Is A Fuel Cell?
A fuel cell is an electrochemical energy conversion device. It produces electricity from various external quantities of
fuel (on the anode side) and oxidant (on the cathode side). These react in the presence of an electrolyte. Generally,
the reactants flow in and products flow out while the electrolyte remains in the cell. It will produce energy in the
form of electricity and heat as long as fuel is supplied.
In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run down or require recharging.
Many combinations of fuel and oxidant are possible. A hydrogen cell uses hydrogen as fuel and oxygen as oxidant.
Other fuels include hydrocarbons and alcohols. Other oxidants include air, chlorine and chlorine dioxide. A fuel cell
consists of two electrodes sandwiched around an electrolyte. Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen over
the other, generating electricity, water and heat.
Hydrogen fuel is fed into the "anode" of the fuel cell. Oxygen (or air) enters the fuel cell through the cathode.
Encouraged by a catalyst, the hydrogen atom splits into a proton and an electron, which take different paths to the
cathode. The proton passes through the electrolyte. The electrons create a separate current that can be utilized before
they return to the cathode, to be reunited with the hydrogen and oxygen in a molecule of water.
A fuel cell system which includes a "fuel reformer" can utilize the hydrogen from any hydrocarbon fuel - from
natural gas to methanol, and even gasoline. Since the fuel cell relies on chemistry and not combustion, emissions
from this type of a system would still be much smaller than emissions from the cleanest fuel combustion processes.
Fuel cell design
In essence, a fuel cell works by catalysis, separating the component electrons and protons of the reactant fuel, and
forcing the electrons to travel through a circuit, hence converting them to electrical power. The catalyst is typically
comprised of a platinum group metal or alloy. Another catalytic process takes the electrons back in, combining them
with the protons and the oxidant to form waste products (typically simple compounds like water and carbon
dioxide).
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In the hydrogen–oxygen proton exchange membrane
fuel cell (PEMFC) design, a proton-conducting
polymer membrane, (the electrolyte), separates the
anode and cathode sides.
On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode

catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and
electrons. The protons are conducted through the
membrane to the cathode, but the electrons are forced
to travel in an external circuit (supplying power)
because the membrane is electrically insulating. On
the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the
electrons (which have traveled through the external
circuit) and protons to form water — in this example,
the only waste product, either liquid or vapor.
In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are

hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel,
methanol (see: direct-methanol fuel cells) and Fig: Design of Hydrogen Fuel Cell
chemical hydrides. The waste products with these types of fuel
are carbon dioxide and water.
To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series and parallel circuits, where
series yield higher voltage, and parallel allows a stronger current to be drawn. Such a design is called a fuel cell
stack. Further, the cell surface area can be increased, to allow stronger current from each cell.
Benefits of Hydrogen Fuel Cell
No other energy generating technology carries the combination of benefits that fuel cells offer. These benefits
include:
Table: Emissions from Vehicles
 Low to Zero Emissions
Engine Type H2O CO2 CO g/mile NOx g/mile HC
g/mile g/mile g/mile
Gasoline Passenger Car1 176.90 415.49 20.9 1.39 2.80
Gasoline Light Truck1 N/A 521.63 27.70 1.81 3.51
Methanol FCV2 113.40 68.04 0.016 0.0025 0.0034
Hydrogen FCV2 113.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Source: 1 2000 U.S. EPA Average Annual Emission for Passenger Cars and Light Trucks
2 Calculations from Desert Research Institute

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
A fuel cell running on pure hydrogen is a zero-emission power source. Some stationary fuel cells use natural gas or
hydrocarbons as a hydrogen feedstock, but even those produce far less emissions than conventional power plants.
Fuel cells are also very quiet, which reduces noise pollution.
 Transportation
Fuel cell vehicles are the least polluting of all vehicles that consume fuel directly.
Fuel cell vehicles operating on hydrogen stored on-board the vehicles produce zero pollution in the conventional
sense. Neither conventional pollutants nor green house gases are emitted. The only byproducts are water and heat.
The simple reaction that takes place inside the fuel cell is highly efficient. Even if the hydrogen is produced from
fossil fuels, fuel cell vehicles can reduce emissions of carbon dioxide, a global warming concern, by more than half.
 High Efficiency
In large-scale building systems, these fuel cell cogeneration systems can reduce facility energy service costs by 20%
to 40% compared to conventional energy service. Systems fueled by hydrogen can consistently provide more than
50 percent efficiency. Even more efficient systems are under development.
In combination with a turbine, electrical efficiencies can exceed 60 percent. Fuel cell passenger vehicles are
expected to be up to three times more efficient than internal combustion engines, which now operate at 10 to 16
percent efficiency.
 High Reliability/High Quality Power

A fuel cell system running on hydrogen can be compact, lightweight, has no major moving parts and do not involve
combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999% reliability. Fuel cells offer clean, high quality
power, crucial to an economy that depends on increasingly sensitive computers, medical equipment and machines.
Fuel cells can be configured to provide backup power to a grid-connected customer, should the grid fail. They can be
configured to provide completely grid-independent power or can use the grid as the backup system.
 Fuel Flexibility
Most fuel cells run on hydrogen and will continue to generate power as long as fuel is supplied. The fuel cell doesn't
care where the hydrogen comes from, so a fuel cell system that includes a "fuel reformer" can generate hydrogen
from diverse, domestic resources including fossil fuels, such as natural gas and coal; alcohol fuels, such as methanol
or ethanol; from hydrogen compounds containing no carbon, such as ammonia; or from biomass, methane, landfill
gas or anaerobic digester gas from wastewater treatment plants. Hydrogen can also be produced from electricity
from conventional, nuclear or renewable sources such as solar or wind.
 Security
Hydrogen can be produced from domestic sources, eliminating the need to import foreign oil. Because they don't
have to be attached to the electric grid, fuel cells allow the country to move away from reliance on high voltage
central station power generation which are the most likely terrorist targets in any attempt to cripple the energy
infrastructure.
 Modularity/Scalability/Flexible Siting
The beauty of fuel cells is their versatility - since they are scalable, fuel cells can be stacked until the desired power
output is reached. Larger fuel cells can be linked together to achieve megawatt outputs. Fuel cells are quiet, which
allows for siting close to business or residences. They are also durable and rugged, so they can withstand any terrain
or weather conditions.
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 Lightweight, Long-lasting Battery Alternative
Fuel cells are being developed for portable electronic devices such as laptops, cellular phones, etc. Fuel cells are
providing a much longer operating life than a battery would, in a package of lighter or equal weight per unit of
power output. Fuel cells also have an environmental advantage over batteries, since certain kinds of batteries require
special disposal treatment. Fuel cells provide a much higher power density, packing more power in a smaller space.
Application of Fuel Cell
 Remote Location
Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather stations, large
parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications.
 Heat and power supply for domestic purpose

A new application is micro combined heat and power, which is cogeneration for family homes, office buildings and
factories. This type of system generates constant electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not
consumed), and at the same time produces hot air and water from the waste heat
 Stationary
In hospitals, nursing homes, hotels, office buildings, schools, utility power plants - either connected to the electric
grid to provide supplemental power and backup assurance for critical areas, or installed as a grid-independent
generator for on-site service in areas that are inaccessible by power lines.
 Telecommunications
With the use of computers, internet, and communication networks steadily increasing, there comes a need for more
reliable power than is available on the current electrical grid, and fuel cells have proven to be up to 99.999% (five
nines) reliable.
Landfills/Wastewater Treatment Plants
Fuel cells currently operate at landfills and wastewater treatment plants, proving themselves as a valid technology
for reducing emissions and generating power from the methane gas they produce.
 Transportation
Different vehicles like two wheelers, cars, buses etc, using petrol or diesel as fuel can be operated using fuel cell
after slight modification in the design.
Trains - Fuel cells are being developed for mining locomotives since they produce no emissions. An international
consortium is developing the world’s largest fuel cell vehicle, a 109 metric-ton, 1 MW locomotive for military and
commercial railway applications.
Planes - Fuel cells are an attractive option for aviation since they produce zero or low emissions and make
barely any noise. Companies like Boeing are heavily involved in developing a fuel cell plane.
 Portable Power
Fuel cells can provide power where no electric grid is available and they are quiet which reduces noise
pollution.
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Micro Power
Consumer Electronics- Fuel cells will change the telecommuting world, powering cellular phones, laptops
and palm pilots hours longer than batteries.
 Base load power plants

The hydrogen fuel cell power plants for base load can be established for fulfilling continuous demand of
the electricity.
Conclusion From the above described benefits and possible application areas of hydrogen fuel cell, we can say that
hydrogen is sure to replace conventional fuel as major fuel in coming days. Special precautions should be taken in
handling and storage of hydrogen fuels. Hydrogen fuel cell is very versatile in nature having wide fields of
applications so research and development of this fuel cell must be promoted worldwide.
References
www.fuelcells.org
www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_cell
www.howstuffworks.com/fuel-cell.htm
CANTEEN QUALITY SURVEY

Nabin Shrestha (061 BME 618)
Prabha Sharma (061 BME 622)
Abstract
This paper presents the findings on the survey of canteen quality conducted at Institute of Engineering (IOE),
Pulchowk Campus, Tribhuwan University (TU) Nepal. The data were collected by written questionnaires distributed
to the respondents. The mean satisfaction levels were calculated. The overall mean satisfaction level of the students
was found 3.46 based on 5 point rating scale (1-Excellent, 2-Very good, 3- Good, 4-Bad, 5-worst).The study
indicated the quality of the canteen on various parameters that the students were or weren’t satisfied with.
Background
There are four canteens in Institute Of Engineering, Pulchowk which provide services to the students as well as to
the staffs of the College. Some of them also provide the meals. But every time there is always some tone of
dissatisfaction from the students. Thus, in the prospect of Quality Management, we studied the quality of food
provided by the canteens by the students’ survey.
The most common problems of the canteens were found to be uncomfortable seats, lack of proper air circulation,
untimely service and unmanaged interiors.
Purpose
• To find the factors which are contributing to reduce the quality
• To find the satisfaction level of the students
• To find the hygiene factor of the canteen
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Methodology
• All the canteens were visited to collect the menus available.

• Survey questions were prepared (about 180 sets of questions) and distributed to the students of every faculty.
• Survey Questions’ responses were collected (only 114 responses were obtained).
• Analysis of the collected information was carried out.
Assumptions of the study:

Canteen A: Canteen at architect department
Canteen E: Canteen opposite to central library
Canteen F: FSU canteen
Canteen H: Hostel mess
Limitations of the study:
 The quality of Tiffin items only was checked.

 Due to time limit internal satisfaction level of respondents could not be surveyed.
 Views of canteen proprietors and staffs of the campus couldn’t be taken.
Research Methodology
Population and sample:
The target population for this study was 1584 students studying at bachelor level in Institute of Engineering,
Lalitpur. About 180 students (11.36%) were expected to participate in survey. But only 114 students responded
which covers about 7.2 percent of the total students.
Instrumentation:
Questionnaires containing 11 questions were distributed for the study. 5 grades of satisfaction levels (1-Excellent, 2-
Very good, 3- Good, 4-Bad, 5- Worst) were used considering 11 parameters identified by our team and our instructor
Er. Guna Raj Poudel.
Data Collection Process:
About 6 or 7 students from each class were given questionnaires. After about one week the questionnaires along
with their responses were collected.
Data Analysis:
Data recording and analysis were done by the team members.
Results of the study:

From the survey, it was found that 85.96% of the total students take Tiffin at the college canteen. 92.86 % of 2064
batch, 91.43 % of 2063 batch, 88.89% of 2062 batch and 72.73 % from 2061 batch students take Tiffin at the college
canteen (Refer tables 1 and 2). The trend showed that there is certain dissatisfaction in taking Tiffin at the college
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canteen. The other causes for this trend may be that students get information about the hotels and other canteens
located outside the college premises which provides the better qualitative food. At average, 40.35% of students
take Tiffin in college canteen only for 4 or 5 days. Following it, 23.68% take for 6 days, 20.18% take for less than 3
days, 12.28% take for 7 days and 3.51% doesn’t take Tiffin at all in college
Canteen.
The most preferred canteen is canteen E by 45.54% of students. Similarly, canteen F by 33.03%, canteen H by
15.18% and canteen A is only by 6.25%. Table 3 shows the preferred canteen by the respective batches. 35.74% of
students responded that taste affects the quality most. Similarly 28.83% responded price, 21.62 responded other
factors, 8.11% responded manner of the staffs and 6.30% responded delivery service affects the most in the quality
provided by the canteen. The batch wise rating scales are shown in table 4.
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The students are not getting the type of food they preferred in the canteen of IOE. Only 25.23% of students
expressed their view that they are getting their preferred food in the IOE canteen but 74.77% of students gave the
negative reply. The detail results are shown in table 5.
Talking about the drinking water facility, 88.50% of students agreed that drinking water should be provided by the
canteen whenever required. The batch wise analysis is shown in table 6.
Though students take the Tiffin in the college canteen, their main complain is that they don’t get the drinking water
facility easily in canteens. 47.32% of students get drinking water only 25% to 50% of time, 25% get more than 75%
of time, 8.93 % always get drinking water whereas 18.75% doesn’t get drinking water at all during their visit to
canteen. The details are shown in table 7.
According to the 5 grade scale (refer

table 8 and 9), the hygienic condition
of food in the canteen is near about
bad and is rated 3.775853, taste and
price depending on quality are
slightly above good and is rated
3.263573 and 3.225092 respectively.
Table layout is rated near to bad and
is 3.67733. Access to entry and exit is
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slightly above good and is 3.121922. Location of canteen is rated between very good and good and is 2.639674.
Manner of canteen staff is rated slightly above good and is 3.105714. Air circulation in the canteen is rate between
good and bad and is near to bad having rated 3.621871. Sanitary facility is near to bad and is rated as 4.006684.
Delivery time is rated between good and bad and is nearer to good and is 3.225618. Lighting aspects is rated
between good and bad and is rated as 3.30623. Canteen cleanliness is rated 3.996785 which is nearly bad. Furniture
conditions is rated 4.019971 which is slightly above bad.
Out of the different parameters provided by the survey team, it was found that the furniture condition was rated
4.019971 and location was provided 2.639674. It means students have got great dissatisfaction in the furniture
condition the most and satisfaction in the location of the canteen of IOE. Other parameters were rated between these
two.
Conclusion:
The study showed that the overall quality level of the canteen is not satisfactory (3.46). There is a high gap to improve the quality level of
existing canteen from good to excellent. Canteens are for the students to fulfill their appetite. One of the challenges for the canteen proprietors is
to fulfill the need of the students by providing quality food in economical price in this competitive environment.
References:
1. E-Vision An Annual Engineering Journal 2006, Vol. 4

2. Small Business Success Through TQM, Terry Ehresman, TATA McGraw Hill Publishing Company Ltd, Delhi
(1996)
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DEMING’S WAY
Ravi Shah
061BME632
The ultimate curse is to be a passenger on a large ship, to know that the ship is going to sink, to know precisely what
to do to prevent it, and to realize that no one will listen! This is the curse that has been visited for a quarter of a
century on W. Edwards Deming, revered in Japan as the Father of Quality Control, the man who taught the Japanese
how to produce goods of high quality at low cost.
Deming had taught the Japanese that higher quality meant lower cost, an idea foreign to most American managers.
He foresaw what would happen. Japanese entrepreneurs, observing a successful business in America, such as
textiles, steel, autos or consumer electronics to name but a few could study the products, reverse engineer them, and
produce them at lower cost and higher quality. If one nation has access to another's technologies and is better at the
arts and sciences of mass production, it follows that the first nation will invade the markets of the second. It is just a
matter of time.
Too many people believe that Deming merely teaches simple statistical quality control. They miss the point.
American managers travel to Japan, marvels at the behavior of the factory workers, and conclude that it is something
inherent in the Japanese culture. They come home convinced that it is not their fault. They blame their problems on
the American worker, on taxes, on government regulation, on the decay in society, in short, on anything except their
own managerial philosophies.
What Is Deming's Way?
Consider a trucking firm managed by a man educated according to current management methods taught in our
schools of business management. He will consider his job to be to run the company as profitably as he can and to
expand its business. To do so he may call on the best consultants he can get to help him design the best possible
system. He may set up work standards for the drivers and institute computer-based procedures to keep track of the
performance of the drivers, trucks, and dispatchers. He will study his markets and their opportunities. And he will
keep extensive records of income and expenses, ever on the alert for opportunities to profit.
Of course, he will not be able to do these things alone, and as his organization grows, he will institute methods to see
that his desires for efficiency and performance are carried out. Perhaps he will adopt management by objectives and
teach it to his subordinates. He may assign as much as 5 percent of his work force to data gathering and performance
monitoring, ever searching for possible profit opportunities.
In short, his idea of a good manager is one, who sets up a system, directs the work through subordinates, and by
making crisp and unambiguous assignments develops a basis to set standards of performance for his employees. He
sets goals and production targets for his people. He rates the employees as objectively as he can; sometimes even
calling on consultants to help him do so. He identifies poor performers and gives them further education to meet the
work standards, or he replaces them He hopes thereby to create the most efficient system possible.
Contrast this with the behavior of a manager who follows Deming's way. This manager sees his job as requiring him
to provide a consistency and continuity of purpose for his organization and to seek ever more efficient ways to meet
its purpose. For him, making a profit is necessary for survival but is by no means the main purpose of his
organization. His view of the purpose of his organization is to provide the best and least-cost transportation system
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for his customers and continuity of employment for his workers He does not view the concepts of "best" and "least-
cost" as contradictory.
He will consider that he and the workers have a natural division of labor. They are responsible for doing the work within the
system, and he is responsible for improving the system. However, he realizes that the potentials for improving the system are
never ending so he does not call on consultants to teach him how to redesign the "best" system for he knows that it doesn't exist.
Any system can be continuously improved on. He knows that the only people who really know where the potentials for
improvement lie are the workers themselves. He knows that the system is subject to great variability. Traffic conditions change,
trucks break down, shipping docks are not always ready to discharge or receive goods, and mistakes are made in routing or
addressing. There are countless ways for the system to go wrong and out of control, decreasing quality and increasing cost. He
knows that these ways occur randomly. To make it possible for him and the workers to work together, he knows they must regard
the system in the same way and speak a common language. Therefore he learns elementary statistics and teaches it to the
workers, engaging an expert consultant in statistics if necessary to help him and the workers when they come to a problem
beyond elementary statistics. All of his employees learn to keep their own statistics. Truck drivers keep track of how long they
have to wait at docks and study the circumstances at each event. They develop their own control charts and look for trends, for
correlations with other events, usually events beyond their control. The drivers meet with each other and sometimes with the
dispatcher and compare notes. They keep data on the performance of their trucks and discuss their statistical charts with the
purchasing agent and each other. Based on these data the manager, who is responsible for the system, makes the changes, and the
workers, based on their statistical information, and help him to learn how effective the changes have been. When the manager
instructs the purchasing agent to buy on "quality," not just on first cost, the purchasing agent has the information from the drivers
with which to do just that, and to demonstrate that he has done so. Everyone in the system is involved in studying it and
proposing how to improve it. Everyone spends about 5 percent of their time in this pursuit. No one spends 100 percent of the
time, except the company statisticians. The employees will see the setting of work standards as a dumb idea since it inhibits their
ability to improve the system. They will not need to "manage by objectives" because they will be engaged in consistently
redefining their objectives themselves and recording the performance of the system.
Under Deming's way, the manager understands that he needs the workers not only to do the work but to help him to improve the
system. Thus he will not regard them simply as robots made of flesh and bone, but he will rather consider them as thinking,
creative human beings. No one will have to teach him to be nice to people. He will not try to motivate them with empty slogans,
such as "Zero Defects!" Because they will be measuring and counting the defects themselves and helping him to remove them,
there will be no need for the slogans. He will not ask them to sign pledges to be polite to customers. Nor will he select the "Polite
Trucker of the Week.”Instead, he and they will have been studying the records of repeat orders and asking what they can do to
improve the statistics.
From time to time he asks for volunteers from his work force to take time out to interview customers and vendors, to understand
what they want or can supply to provide better service. They report back to him and the rest of the work force on what they have
found, statistically analyzed.
In short, the Deming-trained manager will have a natural basis for building a team and will not have introduced
adversarial relations.
Under currently taught methods of management it is presumed that the relation between boss and worker is
inherently adversarial. The result is that bosses who wish to fit the understood image must be careful not to develop
too intimate a relationship to the worker, lest they lose their objectivity in judging and rewarding performance.
Deming's way is therefore more than just attention to quality control. It is a managerial philosophy for achieving
lower cost and higher quality. And it works not only in the factory, but in hospitals, in service industries, and even in
the offices.
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It is in seeing how a changed managerial self-image could lead to such phenomenal successes that Deming had one
of those brilliant flashes of insight that few of us are privileged to have. As Newton with the apple (gravity), Einstein
with relativity, Freud with the subconscious, Deming saw a new way for management.
References:
• ‘Deming’s way’, Myron Tribus, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
STUDENT PROFILE OF 061 BME STUDENTS
1. 061/BME/601
Name: Ambish Kaji Shakya
Nickname: Ambush
Phone no: 9841578329
Address: Ombahal, Kathmandu
Email address: ambish_shakya@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Automobile, Hydropower.
Final year project: Design and fabrication of a kitchen waste based biogas plant and
testing with different feed materials
IOE in one word: Independent
Memorable moments: Hanging out with friends outside CIT Building, Kali-Gandaki tour, Kakani picnic, TES class
My words: Do good, be good, think good.
I’m unique coz: I’m attentive and always smiling at every moment.
Motto: Stay forward, always be ambitious towards your work and effort.
2. 061/BME/602
Name: Amit Regmi
Nickname: Einstein
Phone no: 9841549387
Address: Ghorahi, Dang
Email address: amitregmi@yahoo.com
Field of interest: Mechatronics
Final year project: Design and fabrication of sticker labeling machine
IOE in one word: Extraordinary
Memorable moments: Losing 3rd year Cricket tournament and mobile.
My words: The future belongs to the people who see possibilities before they become obvious.
I’m unique coz: I’m altruist.
Motto: Test of courage comes when we are in the minority and the test of tolerance comes when we are in
the majority.
3. 061/BME/603
Name: Anil Kunwar
Nickname: Anil Sir
Phone no: 9849085749
Address: Palung Mainadi V.D.C.-4, Palpa
Email address: anil_kunwar@yahoo.com, anil_kunwar@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Research and development in mechanics
Final year project: Design and fabrication of Bucket Wheat Dehusking Machine
IOE in one word: Vast technology
Memorable moments: Entrance examination, classes and laboratories,
Janaandoaln , hostel days.
My words: If there were 75 Pulchowk Campuses in Nepal, the rate of development of Nepal would have been
75 times greater than now.
I’m unique coz: some of my thinking and doing are intuitively unique.
Motto: Love everyone, believe in few and hate nobody.
4. 061/BME/605
Name: Arjun Bhattarai
Nickname: Hitler
Phone no: -
Address: Lions Chowk, Ngt, Chitwan
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Email address: arjun105bhattarai@hotmail.com
Field of interest: MP
Final year project: Study on the production of briquettes from pine needle
IOE in one word: Heaven
Memorable moments: Anytime happy, good with CNG, time spent with energy less ‘Maila’
‘Daku’ Sir ko guf, Purna maila ko style and his guf, Chiya Pasal,
My words: Anyhow, we have to become successful. Do all things if you are satisfied.
I’m unique coz: I’m unique.
Motto: Be happy, go ahead.
5. 061/BME/606
Name: Ashim Dahal
Nickname: Nakul
Phone no: 9841743416
Address: Mulpani, Kathmandu
Email address: ashim44@gmail.com
Field of interest: Aeronautics
Final year project: Performance evaluation of micro-francis turbine
IOE in one word: Dream
Memorable moments: Visit to Malaysia during Robot Competition, Cards played in
2nd year, ‘Kakani picnic ko alcohol dance’.
My words: In this divine place I could purify my insight from crude immature thought.
I’m unique coz: I’m always happy.
Motto: Do your best, God will do the rest.
6. 061/BME/607
Name: Bal Mukunda Kunwar
Nickname: Bal
Phone no: 9841428924
Address: Itram-8, Birendranagar, Surkhet
Email address: dipak_yes@hotmail.com
Field of interest: A/C, Aeronautical
Final year project: Design and fabrication of gasifier tea drying system
IOE in one word: Delinquent
Memorable moments: Kakani & Nagarkot picnic, Gorkha tour, Cricket tournament
My words: Keep breathing everything gonna be right
I’m unique coz: I am mysterious
Motto: Enjoy the life
7. 061/BME/609
Name: Bikash Shrestha
Nickname: Potter Bhai
Phone no: 9841428923
Address: Silgadhi, Doti-2
Email address: bikashstha13@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Energy
IOE in one word: Joyful
Memorable moments: Gorkha tour, Dance of Nagarkot picnic
My words: Dream what you want to dream, Go where you want go,
Try to be who you really are.
I’m unique coz: -
Motto: Live and let live
8. 061/BME/610
Name: Bipul Shrestha
Nickname: Bipul
Phone no : 9841509814
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Address: Phungling-4, Taplejung
Email address: bipulshrestha@yahoo.com
Field of interest: Sports, Computer, Hangouts and hangovers.
IOE in one word: Transformer
Memorable moments: Football game with electronics, Kakani picnic, Gorkha tour.
My words: Take every event as opportunity to learn new things. Never take it
personal coz nobody will remain same. It’s up to you to make
difference.
I’m unique coz: I have booster to do anything good at short time.
Motto: Life’s good.
9. 061/BME/611
Name: Dave Shrestha
Nickname: -
Phone no: 9741015299
Address: Koteshwor
Email address: dave.daveshrestha@gmail .com
Field of interest: Entrepreneurship
Final year project: Solar Hybrid Tunnel Dryer
IOE in one word: Irresponsible
Memorable moments: Gorkha tour, night in our class
My words: -
I’m unique coz: -
Motto: -
10. 061/BME/612
Name: Guru Prasad Chaudhari
Nickname: Guru
Phone no: 9803397401
Address: Harion-2, Sarlahi
Email address: ajit007.guru@gmail.com / ajit_7@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Mechanical Design
Final year project: Refining of lubricating oil
IOE in one word: Fun
Memorable moments: Renewable energy tour ’Gorkha’
My words: Success at every cost
I’m unique coz: -
Motto: To see others from the top
11. 061/BME/613
Name: Jatin Man Amatya
Nickname: Jaggu
Phone no: 9841280480
Address: Pulchowk, Lalitpur
Email address: jatinamatya@gmail.com
Field of interest: Renewable Energy, Management.
Final year project: Design and fabrication of moon buggy.
IOE in one word: South Park
Memorable moments: Chitwan tour, playing ‘chhungi’ infront of CIT, College tours, etc.
My words: God bless America
I’m unique coz: I love Chelsea.
Motto: Live Chelsea, eat Chelsea, and drink Chelsea.
12. 061/BME/614
Name: Kundan Lal Das
Nickname: Kundi
Phone no: -
Address: Shreepur, Birgunj
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Email address: kundantheslim@yahoo.com
Field of interest: Sports
IOE in one word: Destiny
Memorable moments: On the elephant!
My words: Be good, do good.
I’m unique coz: No one knows me well.
Motto: Live and let live.
13. 061/BME/615
Name: Manika Manandhar
Nickname: -
Phone no: 9841513525
Address: Nayabazar, Kathmandu
Email address: m_dhar13@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Energy, Environment.
Final year project: Multipurpose application, socio-economic and technical
aspect of rice husk.
IOE in one word: Senescence
Memorable moments: Gorkha tour, Kali-Gandaki tour, Picnic at Lakure-Bhanjyang
My words: -
I’m unique coz: I know what life is and what I’ve to do.
Motto: You can get what you have by giving it away.
14. 061/BME/616
Name: Manoj Chand
Nickname: Mannu
Phone no: 9849087132
Address: Kanchanpur, Mahendranagar
Email address: manoj_chand4@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Engineering, management and modeling.
Final year project: Designing, fabrication and testing of Aircraft Travel Board
Certification Device
IOE in one word: Best
Memorable moments: With friends and family.
My words: Try to enjoy each moment of life if possible.
I’m unique coz: I think coz of tall and handsome.
Motto: Never give up hope.
15. 061/BME/617
Name: Min Narayan Shrestha
Nickname: Minu
Phone no: 9849087132
Address: Dulegaunda-8, Tanahun, Gandaki
Email address: sthaminnarayan@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Cycling, riding bike, table tennis, badminton.
Final year project: Multi-crop seed-cum fertilizer planter driven by bullock
IOE in one word: Parliament
Memorable moments: Operating lathe machine for first time in Mechanical workshop.
My words: Go ahead to meet your destination-never be disturbed by throne
on you way, clear it and go ahead.
I’m unique coz: I enter every class after teacher has entered.
Motto: To be a successful Hydropower Designer
16. 061/BME/618
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Name: Nabin Shrestha
Nickname: CR
Phone no: -
Address: Khanlthoke VDC-3, Kavre
Email address: ernabinshrestha@yahoo.com
Field of interest: Heavy equipment and quality control
Final year project: Design and fabrication of Institutional Metallic Cooking Stove
IOE in one word: Theatre
Memorable moments: Picnic at Kakani, Tour at Gorkha, Pokhara, attachment at
Panchakanya, all four years as C.R. of mechanical batch.
My words: Balance between yours and other’s wishes.
I’m unique coz: I’ve been C.R. from UKG to Bachelor.
Motto: Understand this world.
17. 061/BME/619
Name: Nilesh Pradhan
Nickname: Nilu
Phone no: 9841579959
Address: Kupondole, Lalitpur
Email address: pra_nile@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Automobile, Renewable Energy
Final year project: Design and fabrication of ‘moon buggy’
IOE in one word: Youth
Memorable moments: Countless
My words: If you always do what you have always done, you will always get
what you always got.
I’m unique coz: I jump!
Motto: Move on.
18. 061/BME/620
Name: Param Chandra Adhikari

Nickname: Maaila, MP, Pandit
Phone no: 9803020544
Address: Kupondole, Sanepa
Email address: pcadhikari@hotmail.com
Final year project: Study on production of briquette from pine needle
IOE in one word: Egg Boiler
Memorable moments: KECian, Daku’s home, Get together just before FSU election, Welcome party, Bike sikako, 064
Fagu Purnima,
Garon Gurung @ CES.
My words: There is no time in space, we’ve created it.
I’m unique coz: I don’t get things out of my heart easily.
Motto: To get fully satisfied of my life during my last breath.
19. 061/BME/621
Name: Pitambar Paudel
Nickname: Pitu
Phone no: 9841783203
Address: Rupsepani, Dhainbung -8, Rasuwa
Email address: p3paudel@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Hydropower
Final year project: Multi-crop seed-cum fertilizer planter driven by bullock
IOE in one word: Wonderful
Memorable moments: Jana Andolan-2, Gorkha tour
My words: I have only sentences, no words.
I’m unique coz: I’m fat.
Motto: Enjoy every moment of life.
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20. 061/BME/622
Name: Prabha Sharma
Nickname: Prabha
Phone no: 9841873760
Address: Tucktukiya, Makrahar-9, Rupandehi
Email address: prabha_sharma18@yahoo.com
Field of interest: Automobile, Management.
IOE in one word: Better.
Memorable moments: All final cricket matches and picnics.
My words: Every successful person has a painful story and every painful
story has a successful ending.
I’m unique coz: I’m optimistic.
Motto: Be powerful.
21. 061/BME/623
Name: Pradeep Man Shrestha
Nickname: -
Phone no: 9741031601
Address: E khacheen, Lalitpur
Email address: prad_man@yahoo.com, prad_man@hotmail.com
Field of interest:
Final year project: Design and fabrication of ‘moon buggy’
IOE in one word:
Memorable moments: Lots of moments are memorable…, frens of Mechanical, Civil,
Archi, events & tours, seniors and juniors
Nilesh ko didi
My words: Live in love & harmony
I’m unique coz: I am on time
Motto:
22. 061/BME/624
Name: Praksh Aryal
Nickname: Don
Phone no: 9841611507
Address: Gwadi-2, Gulmi
Email address: reason_aryal14@hotmail.com, erreason@yahoo.co.uk
Field of interest: Politics, R and D of new technology, Internet surfing, etc.
IOE in one word: Platform
Memorable moments: Picnics, tours, Farewell and Welcome, Canteen, labs, etc.
My words: Great people do not do different things but they do things differently.
I’m unique coz: I’m open-minded, friendly and helpful.
Motto: To be a leader for the ‘Technical Revolution in Nepal’.
23. 061/BME/625
Name: Prameet Ranjan Jha
Nickname: Hajari
Phone no: 9841264461
Address: Janakpur-14
Email address: ranjan_prameet@yahoo.com
Field of interest: Cricket, party with friends.
IOE in one word: Must visit place.
Memorable moments: Gorkha tour, Kakani picnic, ‘Taas kheleko class ma’ attachment,
losing 2nd and 3rd year cricket finals
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My words: Don’t ever provoke anyone’s ego and never introduce the useful persons you knew to others.
I’m unique coz: I’m single piece.
Motto: Stick to the basics.
24. 061/BME/626
Name: Prashant Karna
Nickname: Kale, Neo
Phone no: -
Address: Lahan, Siraha
Email address: kprashant1@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Cricket.
IOE in one word: Good.
Memorable moments: ‘Crying Pramit’ at Kakani
My words: Be ‘bindas’
I’m unique coz: I don’t think so.
Motto: Pramit knows.
25. 061/BME/627
Name: Purna Ghimire
Nickname: Purne, Talwar
Phone no: 9841743420
Address: Prithvi Chowk, Pokhara
Email address: fullmoonpurna@hotmail.com
Final year project: Comparativ e performance evaluation of micro-Francis turbine.
IOE in one word: Heaven
Memorable moments: Always MP, Kedar Dai ko café, Hitler re Jungali ko room,
class bunk gareko, 7th semester ko result ko night.
My words: Every dream will be fulfilled in IOE.
I’m unique coz: I’m Purna, nobody else.
Motto: Be positive, think positive, do as you like.
26. 061/BME/628
Name: Rabin Basnet
Nickname: -
Phone no: 9841641117
Address: Duleguanda, Tanahun
Email address: arebasnet9@yahoo.com
Field of interest: Automobile Engineering
IOE in one word: Bindas
Memorable moments: Kakani picnic
My words: Higher you climb deeper you fall so, don’t look down.
I’m unique coz: others might not be unique.
Motto: ` Do it yourself.
27. 061/BME/629
Name: Rajkumar Chaulagain
Nickname: Rajak
Phone no: 9841469752
Address: Pashupati Nagar, Hetauda-9
Email address: rajkkrc_3@yahoo.co.uk, rajkkrc@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Mechanization, photography.
Final year project: Improved Water Mill System Design
IOE in one word: Opportunity
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Memorable moments: Robotic events, Gorkha tour.
My words: Know yourself first.
I’m unique coz: I’m least ‘gaphastic’.
Motto: Be punctual, struggling and optimistic.
28. 061/BME/630
Name: Ramanuja Dhungana
Nickname: Ramu
Phone no: -
Address: Rajahar-3, Nawal-parasi
Email address: dhramanuz@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Automobile, hydropower and aeronautical.
Final year project: Improved Water Mill System Design
IOE in one word: memorable
Memorable moments: Kali-Gandaki tour
My words: Maintain positive attitude.
I’m unique coz: I’ve French cut beard.
Motto: Hard working is the key to success.
29. 061/BME/631
Name: Ramij Raj Pandey
Nickname: Raja
Phone no: 9841611504
Address: Kalanki, Kathmandu
Email address: ramiz_kurt@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Music
Final year project: Design and fabrication of Bucket wheat dehusking machine
IOE in one word: Mistake
Memorable moments: Welcome party during our 2nd semester and 3rd semester
My words: I never wish…….. I always hope for better.
I’m unique coz: I’m unpredictable.
Motto: The only thing that matters is time. So, always keep your eyes on the time of your life.
30. 061/BME/632
Name: Ravi Shah
Nickname: Raw-v
Date of birth: 2042/07/27
Address: Battishputali, Kathmandu
Email address: ravi02shah@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Engineering, Management, Economics, Sports
IOE in one word: Cool
Memorable moments: Pokhara and Chitwan tours, ‘Photocopy’ sanga 1st time kura gardako
moment, Precious CIT moments, Nilesh risaeko din, Saathi haru ko smiles,
My words: We make something good from the difficulties we face. We learn new things.
I’m unique coz: I treasure relations.
Motto: Live. You are here to live. Life goes on whether rain, shine, mist or fog.
31. 061/BME/633
Name: Roma Gurung
Nickname: -
Phone no: 9841575327
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Address: Kolma Barahachaur, Syangja
Email address: romagurung33@yahoo.com
Field of interest: Mathematics, Machine Design
Final year project: Design and fabrication of Bucket wheat dehusking machine
IOE in one word: Great
Memorable moments: Lab classes discussions, visit to industries with friends, project work
tour, industrial attachment to Panchakanya Industry, Gorkha Tour
My words: Timeliness should be maintained in the academic schedule.
I’m unique coz: I’m myself.
Motto: Always put faith on yourself and be cool, calm and collective.
32. 061/BME/634
Name: Roshan Kumar Deo
Nickname: Prayash
Phone no: -
Address: V.D.C. Boria-7, Saptari
Email address: ros_deo@yahoo.com
Field of interest: so many…… (Especially aeronautics)
IOE in one word: Institute
Memorable moments: Many
My words: Try to be a man of value than a man of success.
I’m unique coz: I have no unique characters.
Motto: Serve the society in engineering aspects.
33. 061/BME/635
Name: Rudramani Ghimire
Nickname: -
Phone no: 9841440908
Address: Arjai-9, Gulmi
Email address: mail2me061@yahoo.com
Field of interest: Energy
IOE in one word: Base
Memorable moments: Energy tour to Gorkha.
My words: Be always ahead than time.
I’m unique coz: I’m always silent.
Motto: Work on a rural development.
34. 061/BME/636
Name: Salim Bux
Nickname: Boxer
Phone no: 9841632878
Address: Ward no. 2, New Road, Damauli, Vyas municipality, Tanahun.
Email address: next_saint786@yahoo.com, salimbakshi@gmail.com
Field of interest: Aeronautical Engineering
Final year project: Designing, fabrication and testing of Aircraft Travel Board
Certification Device
IOE in one word: Career
Memorable moments: Call of my friend saying I was selected for
Mechanical Engineering, KaliGandaki trip, Sauraha incident and trip, Vietnam trip, India trip
My words: “Not inflicting on others that which you do not want yourself”
I’m unique coz: I’m interested in every practice skilled works and no one is like me.
Motto: Be prepared.
35. 061/BME/637
Name: Sanjib Tiwari
Nickname: Daku
Phone no: 9841304621
Address: Kuleshwor, Kathmandu
Email address: sanjib_tiwari9@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Gizmos, music
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Final year project: Study on production of briquette from pine needle
IOE in one word: Wow!
Memorable moments: Chitwan visit with ‘Hami group’, Kakani picnic.
My words: Be cool and enjoy.
I’m unique coz: I’m myself.
Motto: To be a CEO of a multinational company
36. 061/BME/638
Name: Santosh Acharya
Nickname: Santo, Kayam
Phone no: 9841913884
Address: Ramgram municipality-3, Nawalparasi
Email address: santoshktm@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Automobile, music and sports
Final year project: Performance evaluation of micro-francis turbine
IOE in one word: Kai
Memorable moments: All memorable moments are worth forgetting!
My words: Pencil is provided with eraser on rear side to erase mistakes,
but erasing two times may tear the sheet.
I’m unique coz: I’m Santosh!
Motto: Yes, I’m motto!
37. 061/BME/639
Name: Shailendra Bhusal
Nickname: Bhusal
Phone no: 9803592498
Address: Arghakhanchi, Argha
Email address: bhusal639@yahoo.com
Field of interest: Refrigeratio and A/C.
Final year project: Animal driven multi-crop planter with fertilizer drill
IOE in one word: Romantic
Memorable moments: IOE Entrance
My words: Confident is the key to success.
I’m unique coz: I have self confidence
Motto: Be optimistic.
38. 061/BME/640
Name: Shankar Bogati
Nickname: Bogati / Hami
Date of birth: 2042/11/10
Address: Kuntibandali-3, Achham
Email address: hello_bogati@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Travelling, Music, Hydropower
Final year project: Study on the production of briquettes from pine needle
IOE in one word: -
Memorable moments: Sutla in heaven, Gorkha tour, Chitwan ma back,
Kulekhani tour
My words: -
I’m unique coz: -
Motto: Yaya hos!
39. 061/BME/641
Name: Sudeep Raj Subedi
Nickname: Tanker
Phone no: -
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Address: Chandranigahpur-1, Rautahat
Email address: s_subedi@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Rural development
Final year project: Recycling of used lubricating oil
IOE in one word: Utopia
Memorable moments: Dhattachment, Gorkha tour, Nagarkot picnic
My words: Be aware of Janakpurians
I’m unique coz: I am from Cha’pur
Motto: Prameet knows
40. 061/BME/642
Name: Sujan Jojiju
Nickname: Joju
Phone no: 9841451411
Address: Rani-pauwa-11, Pokhara
Email address: suzaan_joju@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Management
Final year project: Multipurpose application, socio-economic and technical
aspect of rice husk.
IOE in one word: Mirage
Memorable moments: Kali-Gandaki tour, all final matches of cricket, Kakani picnic
My words: Do not wait others to lead you; take the lead self.
I’m unique coz: I’m the master of self.
Motto: Always be ready to learn.
41. 061/BME/643
Name: Sunil Adhikari
Nickname: Dosti
Phone no: 9803597307
Address: Damauli, Tanahun
Email address: sunil2063@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Automobiles
Final year project: Improved Water Wheel
IOE in one word: Good
Memorable moments: Gorkha tour
My words: Be active.
I’m unique coz: I am Dosti (Dashing, Outstanding, Smart, Talented, Intelligent)
Motto: Be a successful person.
42. 061/BME/644
Name: Suraj Dahal
Nickname: Rajabadi
Phone no: -
Address: Gothatar, Kathmandu
Email address: deadmaninc_leo@yahoo.com
Field of interest: Arms and Ammunitions
Final year project: Multipurpose application, socio-economic and technical aspect
of rice husk.
IOE in one word: Unforgettable
Memorable moments: Playing cards in class in 2nd year, picnics, Welcome and farewell
My words: Unity and Dami
I’m unique coz: I am Jungali.
Motto: To serve my mother and motherland
43. 061/BME/645
Name: Surendra Maharjan
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Nickname: Mana/Suri
Phone no: 01-4212997
Address: Bhurngkhel, Kathmandu
Email address: surendramaharjan2000@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Automobile
Final year project: Solar cum Hybrid Tunnel Dryer
IOE in one word: ‘Ramilo Mela’
Memorable moments: Result day of 3rd year 1st part.
My words: Live and let live (No interference in privacy)
I’m unique coz: there is no other like me.
Motto: Hello motto!
44. 061/BME/646
Name: Tarzan Nakarmi
Nickname: Taru Bhai
Phone no: 9841122504
Address: Namuna Bast-8, Janakpur
Email address: tarzan_nakarmi@yahoo.co.in
Field of interest: Music, Cricket, Design
IOE in one word: Not bad
Memorable moments: Return trip from ‘Lakure Bhanjyang’
My words: Always plan in advance as how to stay at the top before
attempting to go there coz reaching top is not a difficult task but staying there is. It is just like
sleeping on bed of thorns.
I’m unique coz: I don’t think I’m unique as others do.
Motto: Pramit knows i.e. “Don’t ever provoke anyone’s ego and …………….”
45. 061/BME/647
Name: Ujuma Shrestha
Nickname: Uzu
Phone no: 9841408214
Address: Bhaktapur
Email address: shrestha_ujuma@yahoo.com
Field of interest: Management and media
Final year project: Design and fabrication of moon buggy
IOE in one word: Fun
Memorable moments: Don’t have so many of them.
My words: Live to express yourself, not to impress someone else.
I’m unique coz: My name is Uzma.
Motto: Live your life to the fullest.
46. 061/BME/648
Name: Anil Maharjan
Nickname: -
Phone no: 9741083083
Address: Lagan-21, Kathmandu
Email address: rose_anil@hotmail.com
Field of interest: Design
Final year project: Performance evaluation of modular type hybrid solar dryer
IOE in one word: Great
Memorable moments: Picnic (Kakani)
My words: All the moments of 4 years in IOE will always remain fresh in my
memories and hope all friends will meet at some point of life.
I’m unique coz: I believe I’m unique.
Motto: Wanna reach the top? Always start from the base.
118
061 batch students after felicitation in Chepang basti, Gorkha at

061 batch students in Nagarkot Picnic, 2065 Poush Renewable Energy Tour

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E-VISION 2

Dr. Rajendra Shrestha

Date: 25th February 2009

MESSAGE FROM THE DEAN

Associate Prof. Baburam Bhattrai

Date: 25th February 2009

MESSAGE FROM THE CAMPUS CHIEF

Dr. Durga Prasad Sangraula

Date: 25th February 2009

MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT OF TEACHERS’ASSOCIATION

It is a great pleasure to acknowledge that the students of the Department of Mechanical

Prof.Dr. Shailendra Kumar Mishra

Teachers Association, Pulchowk Campus

Date: 25th February 2009

MESSAGE FROM THE HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

I would like to congratulate batch 2061/BME of mechanical engineering department for

Mechanical Engineering Department is offering bachelor in mechanical engineering, Master of

Dr. Rajendra Shrestha

Head of the Department

Date: 27th March 2009

MESSAGE FROM THE FSU PRESIDENT

Free Students Union

1 Department of Mechanical Engineering: At Glance 7

2 Biomass Energy for Cooking in Nepal -Bhakta Bahadur Ale 9

Wastewater Treatment in Nepal -Ajay Kumar Jha

9 Modal Vibration Mechanism in -Sanjeev Maharjan 29

-Jatin Man Amatya

display console. Some of the equipments are interfaced with PCs.

Furthermore Robotics Club at IOE under the supervision of

S. Name Qualification Post Area of expertise

BIOMASS ENERGY FOR COOKING IN NEPAL

Fuels sources for cooking

3. Biomass energy supply and demand dynamics

Energy from a tree

Tree regeneration at different altitudes

Sustainable fuel wood supply estimates

7.0 Biomass supply and demand dynamics in 2004

uel wood supply in Nepal

mountain regions were able to meet their demand of

These technologies will reduce fuel wood consumption,

As per the energy ladder model, fuel switching consists 2 Gasification ● ●

Improved cooking stoves

Gasifier stoves for cooking, space heating and drying

Ram Chandra Sapkota

The effect of size on material properties:

Major issues with nanotechnology:

1. R.sapkota _lecture notes 4. Google.com

2. Nanoworld.com 5. Daenen et al,Eindhoven

ALTERNATIVE APPROACH FOR DESIGNING A FRANCIS TURBINE FOR SAND LADEN

2. Conventional Design of Francis Turbine

2.1The importance of the 80

cascade of profiles. Runner is

runner consists of partly West Gandaki Bagmati Bagmati Koshi

Fig. 1.1 Quartz Content In Nepali Rivers

2.2 Input Parameter:

• Flow at the full load (Q) = 7.05 m3/s

2.3 Calculations of the Dimensions of the Runner:

Fig.2.1 Main dimension of the runner

Then the following meridional velocity will be obtained:

C m 2 = U 2 ⋅ tan β2 = 12.2 m/s (2.1)

Fig.2.2 Outlet velocity diagram

The synchronous speed is found by checking the formula