Al Cu

On Inter-bar Currents in Induction Motors with Cast
Aluminium and Cast Copper Rotors

ALEXANDER STENING
Licentiate Thesis
Stockholm, Sweden 2010
TRITA-EE 2010:027
ISSN 1653-5146
ISBN 978-91-7415-682-9
Electrical Machines and Power Electronics
School of Electrical Engineering, KTH
SE-100 44 Stockholm
SWEDEN
Akademisk avhandling som med tillstnd av Kungl Tekniska hgskolan framlgges
till oentlig granskning fr avlggande av teknologie licentiatexamen tisdagen den
15 Juni 2010 klockan 10.00 i E2, Kungl Tekniska hgskolan, Lindstedtsvgen 3,
Stockholm.
Alexander Stening, May 2010
Tryck: Universitetsservice US AB
iii
Abstract
This thesis presents a study of the eects of inter-bar currents on induction
motor starting performance and stray-load losses. The work is focused on the
performance dierences between aluminium and copper casted rotors.
A method to predict the stator current when starting direct-on-line is
developed. This includes modelling of skin-eect, saturation of the leakage
ux paths and additional iron losses. The results are veried by measure-
ments. An analytical model accounting for inter-bar currents is derived, and
the dependency of the harmonic rotor currents on the inter-bar resistivity is
investigated. It is found that the inter-bar currents can have considerable
eect on motor starting performance and stray-load losses, the amount being
strongly dependent on the harmonic content of the primary MMF.
Based on measurements of inter-bar resistivity, the starting performance
of an aluminium and a copper casted rotor is simulated. The results indicate
a higher pull-out torque of the aluminium rotor than for the equivalent copper
rotor. This is rather due to an increase of the fundamental starting torque of
the aluminium rotor, than due to braking torques from the space harmonics
in the copper rotor. The results are veried by measurements. It is found
that the dierence between the pull-out torques is even larger than calculated
from the model. Thereby, it can be concluded that the inter-bar currents have
a considerable eect on motor starting performance.
At rated speed the braking torques are larger in the aluminium rotor than
in the copper rotor. This is seen as increased harmonic joule losses in the ro-
tor cage. Simulations have shown, that these losses can be as large as 1% of
the output power for the studied machine.
Keywords: Induction motors, Inter-bar currents, Copper rotors, Aluminium
rotors, Starting torque, Asynchronous torques, Starting current, Stray losses.
v
Sammanfattning
Denna licentiatavhandling presenterar en studie av tvrstrmmars pver-
kan p startegenskaper och tillsatsfrluster fr asynkronmaskiner med gjutna
aluminium- och kopparrotorer.
En metod fr estimering av startstrmmen i asynkronmaskiner vid direk-
tstart mot ntet utvecklas. Metoden inkluderar strmfrtrngning, jrnmt-
tning av lckdesvgar samt jrnfrluster p grund av lckden. Resultaten
verieras med mtningar. En analytisk modell fr berkning av tvrstrm-
mar hrleds, med vilken beroendet av rotorns vertonsstrmmar p kontak-
tresistivitet mellan rotorledare och rotorplt utreds. Simuleringar visar att
tvrstrmmar kan ha stor inverkan p asynkronmaskinens startmoment och
dess tillsatsfrluster. Eekten av tvrstrmmars inverkan r direkt kopplad
till vervgsinnehllet i den av statorlindningen skapade MMK:n.
Baserat p mtningar av kontaktresistivitet mellan rotorledare och rotor-
plt, berknas startprestanda fr en gjuten aluminium- respektive koppar-
rotor. Resultaten indikerar att aluminiumrotorn har ett hgre kippmoment
n motsvarande kopparrotor. Enligt simuleringar beror detta mer p ett
kat grundtonsmoment i aluminiumrotorn n p ett reducerat totalmoment
i kopparrotorn. Mtningar visar att denna skillnad existerar och att den
dessutom r strre n berknat frn modellen. Det kan sledes konstateras
att tvrstrmmar har en betydande eekt p asynkronmaskinens startegen-
skaper.
Moment av hgre ordning n grundtonsmomentet skapar vid nominell
drift ett resulterande bromsande moment, vilket visar sig vara strre i alu-
miniumrotorn n i kopparrotorn. Detta leder till en kning av hgfrekventa
resistiva frluster i rotorkretsen. Simuleringar av den studerade asynkron-
maskinen visar att dessa frluster kan vara s stora som 1% av mrkeekten.
Skord: Asynkronmotorer, Tvrstrmmar, Kopparrotorer, Aluminiumro-
torer, Startmoment, Asynkrona moment, Startstrm, Tillsatsfrluster.
Acknowledgements
This work has been carried out within the High Performance Drives program of the
Center of Excellence in Electric Power Engineering at the department of Electrical
Machines and Power Electronics. Since the start of this project, several people have
been involved and have contributed to this thesis in dierent ways; I am grateful
to them all.
First of all, I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. Chandur Sadarangani for
his help throughout this project and for sharing his knowledge in our conversations.
I am also grateful to Assoc. Prof. Juliette Soulard, for being available and inspiring
me whenever I needed it. I would like to thank the personnel at ABB LV Motors
and ITT Flygt for giving me a rewarding stay outside KTH. A special thanks goes
to Bo Malmros and Jrgen Engstrm, for their useful inputs and for helping me
with supplies of prototype motors.
I would like to thank Jan Timmerman and Olle Brnnvall, for always helping
me to nd the best solutions to my problems in the laboratory, and also for the
nice moments we have had discussing hunting and boating. Further, I would like
to thank Dr Stephan Meier for his help during the time he worked in the labora-
tory. Thanks to Prof. Hans-Peter Nee for reading the thesis and for his valuable
comments.
I am very grateful to all employees at EME, for contributing to a pleasant
atmosphere. In the same way I would like to thank the former employees at EME,
for keeping up the good spirit with dierent kinds of Roebel-activities. A special
thanks to my colleges and friends, Henrik Grop and Dmitry Svechkarenko, for the
nice times we have had and for the times to come. To my former college Rathna
Chitroju, I would like to say that I am glad you are still in Sweden, thanks for
the joy you are bringing. Further, a thank goes to my oce room mate Alija
Cosic, with whom I have shared many laughs. Thanks to Eva Pettersson and Peter
Lnn for helping me with administration and computers, things I sometimes do not
understand.
Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family, for their
support and understanding. This truly means a lot to me. To my beloved cohabitee
Ida Axelsson; thanks for your patience during the late hours when I have been
working with this thesis, you mean everything to me.
Alexander Stening
Stockholm, May 2010
vii
Contents
Contents ix
1 Introduction 1
1.1 The need of accurate induction motor models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Improved eciency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Starting performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Die cast aluminium and copper rotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Rotor skewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Scientic contribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Publications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Studied motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.8 Outline of the thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 Measurements of inter-bar resistance 7
2.1 Test setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Modelling of the rotor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Results from measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3 Model for the analysis of inter-bar currents 17
3.1 Rotor circuit taking inter-bar currents into account . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 Stator ux linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.1 Airgap ux density due to stator current . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2.2 Stator ux linked by the rotor circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 Rotor ux linkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3.1 Airgap ux density due to rotor current . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.3.2 Flux caused by the phase belt harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3.3 Flux caused by slot harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.4 General set of equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.5 Eects of a nite inter-bar resistance on rotor current distribution . 31
3.5.1 Rotor without skew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.5.2 Rotor with skew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
ix
x CONTENTS
3.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4 Eects during a direct-on-line start 41
4.1 Skin eect in the rotor bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.1.1 Numerical method used to account for skin eect . . . . . . . 42
4.1.2 Verication with FEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.2 Saturation of the leakage paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2.1 Model used to account for saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2.2 Iron losses due to leakage ux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3 Rotor losses and starting torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3.1 Rotor losses during a start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.3.2 Eects of a nite inter-bar resistance on starting torque . . . 53
4.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5 Simulation results and measurements 59
5.1 Simulation results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1.1 Starting torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5.1.2 Rotor losses at rated speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.2 Measurements of starting torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2.1 Measurement setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.2.2 Results from measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
6 Conclusions and Future work 71
6.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.2 Future work guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Bibliography 73
List of Figures 76
Chapter 1
Introduction
Electrical machines are widely used for high ecient conversion between electrical
and mechanical energy. Ever since the induction motor was invented in 1886, it
has been serving the ever growing industry. Due to the simplicity and the robust
design of the induction motor, it has become the most commonly used electrical
machine.
1.1 The need of accurate induction motor models
Despite the simple working principle, the designer requires extensive knowledge of
the induction motor, in order to construct an ecient motor. During the years, the
induction motor designs have been rened, which increases the need for accurate
motor models.
1.1.1 Improved eciency
In order to reduce the consumption of electricity, the manufacturing of high ecient
motors has become a topic of current interest. New eciency standards make the
induction motor design even more challenging. This requires not only the mini-
mization of the well known stator and rotor copper losses, iron losses and friction
losses, but also the reduction of the additional losses. These losses are dened as
the additional losses that occur in the machine over the normal losses that are con-
sidered in usual induction motor performance calculations.
At rated load the additional losses are referred to as stray-load losses. For small
to medium sized induction motors these losses vary typically within the range 0,5%
- 3% of the motor input power [1]. Measurements have, however, shown that these
losses can be even larger [2]. Measuring these losses with a reasonable accuracy
is a dicult task. As there are dierent eciency standards dening this measur-
ing procedure, the amount of stray-load losses depend on the standard used [3, 4].
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Investigations of the dierent stray-load loss components have been performed,
among others by Nishizawa in [2]. Figure 1.1 shows the obtained stray-load loss
components for a set of small to medium-size induction motors.
3%
10%
17%
30%
40%
Leakage ux losses
High-frequency losses
Pulsation losses
Inter-bar current losses
Surface losses
Figure 1.1: Stray-load loss components (0,2-37 kW induction motors) [2].
According to this study, the largest portion of the stray-load losses is composed
of surface losses caused by high frequency ux. However, these losses can be su-
ciently suppressed by the use of non-machined rotors [2], reducing the eddy currents
at the rotor surface. The second largest portion of the stray-load losses, according
to [2], are the losses caused by inter-bar currents. These currents, owing between
the rotor bars through the iron lamination, can cause considerable losses in the in-
duction motor unless the rotor bars are insulated [5]. These losses, primary caused
by the stator slot harmonics, result in increased torque dips during a direct-on-line
start, which can reduce the pull-out torque [6]. Therefore, the torque-speed curve
contains information regarding these losses.
1.1.2 Starting performance
The starting characteristic of the induction motor is an important design factor.
For the motor to start, the starting torque must be larger than the load torque.
Furthermore, to ensure a reasonable margin of overload capability, it is usual to
require that an induction motor is able to deliver momentarily at least twice its
rated torque at rated voltage [7]. In traction applications, the pull-out torque is
1.2. DIE CAST ALUMINIUM AND COPPER ROTORS 3
an important design criteria since the speed range of the motor is limited by its
pull-out torque [8]. This reinforces the need of inter-bar current models.
1.2 Die cast aluminium and copper rotors
Large motors are manufactured with fabricated aluminium or copper bar rotors.
The prefabricated bars are inserted into rotor slots that are punched around the
periphery of the rotor lamination and the short circuit rings are welded or brazed to
the bars. However, this choice is unattractive for small to medium sized motors due
to cost reasons. These machines are generally equipped with die cast aluminium
rotors. The casting process results in a low resistive path between the rotor bars
and the iron core. This is referred to as inter-bar resistance. Resistance, however,
is not an appropriate unit to use for this contact region as it depends on the stack
length. Therefore, this resistance is usually multiplied with the stack length, den-
ing the inter-bar resistivity.
Due to advancements in casting technology, it is possible to manufacture die cast
copper rotors. Thanks to the higher conductivity of copper, the motor eciency
can be increased. Measurements have shown, however that the inter-bar resistivity
in copper rotors can be as much as 10 times lower than in casted aluminium rotors
[9], this promotes the ow of inter-bar currents.
1.3 Rotor skewing
The stator, creating the primary MMF, is usually equipped with semi-closed slots.
These openings create a non-uniform distribution of the air-gap permeance, dis-
torting the fundamental MMF. This give rise to airgap space harmonics referred
to as slot harmonics, the order depending on the number of stator slots. In an
unskewed rotor, these harmonics induce high frequency currents in the rotor cage,
the resulting cage losses can form a considerable part of the stray losses [10].
If the rotor is skewed by one stator slot pitch and the rotor bars are insulated,
these currents are eciently suppressed, improving the motor eciency. However,
by the introduction of casted rotors, the inter-bar resistivity being low, inter-bar
currents start to ow. The magnitude of these currents are highly dependent on
rotor skew and inter-bar resistivity.
1.4 Objectives
The objective of this thesis is to study the eects of inter-bar currents on aluminium
and copper casted rotors. This is achieved by developing analytical models to
simulate the starting performance and to calculate additional rotor losses. The
models should be veried by measurements. The objectives can be summarized as
follows:
Measure the inter-bar resistance on a set of aluminium and copper rotors.
Develop a computer program for the calculation of the eects of inter-bar
currents on motor performance.
Develop an analytical model that that can account for saturation of the leak-
age paths during a direct-on-line start.
Verify the analytical models by measuring the starting performance of the
induction motor equipped with either an aluminium or a copper rotor.
1.5 Scientic contribution
This work has resulted in the following contributions:
Measurements have shown that the inter-bar resistivity in the studied casted
rotors is lower in the copper rotors than in the aluminum rotors.
Measurements have shown results indicating an uneven distribution of the
inter-bar resistivity in the studied aluminium rotors, while in the copper ro-
tors, the inter-bar resistivity is evenly distributed.
A numerical method to account for skin-eect has been veried by nite
element simulations.
A method to estimate the starting current of induction motors has been de-
veloped and veried by measurements.
An analytical model to predict the eects of inter-bar currents on starting
performance has been veried by measurements.
The starting torques of one aluminium- and one copper rotor skewed by one
stator slot pitch have been measured. The results show that the pull-out
torque is lower for the copper rotor than for the equivalent aluminum rotor.
This is veried by simulations.
1.6 Publications
The work presented in this thesis has resulted in two international conference papers
listed below:
A. Stening and C. Sadarangani, The eects of inter-bar currents in cast alu-
minium and cast copper rotors, In Proc. International Conference on Elec-
trical Machines, Vilamoura, Portugal, September 2008.
1.7. STUDIED MOTORS 5
A. Stening and C. Sadarangani, Starting performance of induction motors
with cast aluminium and copper rotors including the eects of saturation and
inter-bar currents, In Proc. International Conference on Electrical Machines
and Systems, Tokyo, Japan, November 2009.
1.7 Studied motors
In this thesis the models developed are used to simulate the performance of two
dierent motors, referred to as Motor A and Motor B.
Motor A 11 kw, 4-pole, 36 stator slots and 44 rotor slots with aluminum casted
bars.
Motor B 11 kW, 4-pole, 36 stator slots and 28 rotor slots with both aluminium
and copper casted bars.
Measurements have been performed on Motor B, this motor is therefore used to
verify the analytical models. The aluminum and the copper rotors have the same
geometry, except for a small dierence in the short-circuit ring design. The same
stator is used when measuring the performance of the two rotor concepts.
Motor A is used for analytical studies to demonstrate the dependency of the
inter-bar resistivity on motor performance.
1.8 Outline of the thesis
Chapter 1: This chapter introduces the thesis, gives a brief introduction to the
topic and presents the objectives.
Chapter 2: A method for measurements of inter-bar resistance is presented. An
equivalent circuit of the rotor is used to calculate the resistivity from measured
voltages. Results are presented from the measurements on ve dierent rotors.
Chapter 3: In this chapter the main model used to account for inter-bar currents
is derived. Motor A is simulated, results are presented showing the distribution of
the inter-bar currents in a skewed and an unskewed rotor at dierent inter-bar re-
sistivities.
Chapter 4: Models used to account for inter-bar eects during a direct-on-line
start are presented. A numerical method to account for skin eect is veried with
FEM-simulations. A method to include saturation of the leakage ux paths is de-
rived. The rotor losses and the produced torque is derived from the rotor currents.
Simulation results are presented showing the dependency of the starting torque on
the inter-bar resistivity for Motor A.
Chapter 5: This chapter highlights the dierences in starting performance be-
tween the aluminum and the copper rotor used in Motor B. The additional losses
created in the rotor cage at rated speed are simulated as a function of inter-bar
resistivity. The simulated starting performance is veried by measurements.
Chapter 6: This chapter concludes the thesis, the results are summarized and
suggested future work is presented.
Chapter 2
Measurements of inter-bar resistance
The casting process results in a distributed low resistive path between the rotor
cage and core. To determine this resistance accurately is a dicult task. It is not
possible to measure the inter-bar resistivity directly; it has to be calculated from
measurements. The methods known can be categorized as non-destructive and de-
structive methods.
In 1958, Odok presented a method to measure inter-bar resistance on casted
rotors [6]. A direct current is fed into one short-circuit ring and taken out through
the shaft on the opposite side. The voltage drop between the ring and iron core is
measured along the axial direction. Based on the average value of this voltage, the
inter-bar resistivity is calculated. Odok also came to the important conclusion that
the inter-bar impedance can be assumed to be purely resistive. Odoks method is
simple but not so accurate since it does not take the distribution of the bar currents
into account. Odoks method was further developed, among others by Dabala in
[11]. Assuming an equally distributed inter-bar resistivity, this method takes the
distribution of the bar currents into account.
When casted copper rotors were introduced the measurements became even
more challenging. Dabala suggested an improved method for measurements on
casted copper rotors [9]. The improved method is not only taking the distribution
of the bar currents into account, it also considers the resistivity of the iron sheets.
The method in [9] is used to determine the inter-bar resistivity for a set of
aluminium and copper rotors. All rotors are made for the same 4-pole stator, rated
at 11 kW. The geometries of the rotors are the same for both concepts, except for
a minor dierence in the short-circuit ring design.
7
8 CHAPTER 2. MEASUREMENTS OF INTER-BAR RESISTANCE
2.1 Test setup
A test-rig was built with the intention to avoid unnecessarily destruction of the
rotor. This setup, shown in Figure 2.1, makes it possible to measure the inter-bar
resistance with a negligible impact on the rotor construction. The top of the rig,
on which the rotor is standing, consist of a smooth aluminium plate. One end of
the rotor shaft is insulated with a thin plastic lm and inserted into a hole in the
center of this plate. Due to the rotor weight a conducting path is created between
the plate and the short-circuit ring. In order to create a uniform distribution of the
current in this contact path, the aluminium plate is machined as well as the surface
of the short-circuit ring. To complete the current path a copper ring is mounted
on the other side of the shaft. With a potential dierence between this copper ring
and the aluminium plate, a current will ow from one short-circuit ring to the shaft
on the opposite side via the bar to core region.
By the use of an equivalent circuit of the rotor assuming that the current is
evenly distributed between the rotor bars, it is possible to determine the ring to
ring voltage U
AB
and the ring to shaft voltages U
AD
and U
BC
, as a function of the
inter-bar resistivity.
It is, however, appropriate to note some important issues regarding these mea-
surements. As this setup basically is a short-circuit, it requires a relatively high
current in order to obtain voltage levels that are possible to measure. And it is of
great importance to exclude the connection points of the rotor to the test-rig from
the voltage measuring circuit. It turned out, during the development of the test-rig,
that the currents where not evenly distributed between the rotor bars. Especially
for the copper rotors which where incidently manufactured without any ns on the
short-circuit rings. One reason for this is of course that the inter-bar resistivity
might be unevenly distributed. But an improvement was obtained by placing a
conducting washer between the aluminium plate and the rotor short-circuit ring,
according to Figure 2.2. This washer, being quite soft, distributes the force more
equally around the short-circuit ring, resulting in a smoother distribution of the
current in this contact region.
2.2 Modelling of the rotor
The rotor is modelled as proposed by Dabala [9], with a parameter network dis-
tributed in the axial direction x. As indicated by Odok in [6], the inter-bar
impedance is assumed to be purely resistive. However, the equivalent circuit in
Figure 2.3 has been further developed taking full consideration of the voltage drop
along the shaft. This is obtained by the parallel connection of all the rotor bars
instead of representing one bar. With the total current owing through the shaft,
the corresponding voltage drop is then modelled correctly.
In the equivalent circuit the following notations are used:
2.2. MODELLING OF THE ROTOR 9
I
A B
C D
x
(a) Circuit.
(b) Setup in the lab.
Figure 2.1: Rotor test setup for measurements of inter-bar resistance.
Figure 2.2: Conducting washer between test-plate and rotor short-circuit ring.
U: Bar to shaft voltage [V].
I
b
, I
s
: Sum of all bar currents, and shaft current, respectively [A].
R
b
, R
s
: Bar and shaft resistance per unit length, respectively
_
.
: Length of the rotor bars [m].
Q
r
: Number of rotor bars.
g
tn
: Inter-bar conductivity
_
1
m
.
g
Fe
: Iron core conductivity
_
1
m
.
From Kirchhos voltage law the rst dierential equation is obtained as:
dU(x)
dx
= I
s
(x)R
s
I
b
(x)
R
b
Q
r
(2.1)
And the second equation is obtained from Kirchhos current law, resulting in:
dI
b
(x)
dx
= U(x)
g
tn
g
Fe
g
tn
+ g
Fe
(2.2)
By realizing that the change in the shaft current is caused by the current owing
through the iron core, the third and the last equation within the system becomes:
dI
s
(x)
dx
= U(x)
g
tn
g
Fe
g
tn
+ g
Fe
(2.3)
The boundary conditions are expressed with the total current owing through the
rotor I, as;
I
b
(0) = I
s
() = I (2.4)
2.3. RESULTS FROM MEASUREMENTS 11
+
+
U(x)
I
b
(x)
R
b
Qr
x
I
b
(x + x)
g
tn
x
g
Fe
x
R
s
x
I
s
(x)
I
s
(x + x)
U(x + x)
x
x + x
A B
C D
0

Figure 2.3: Equivalent circuit of the rotor used for the calculation of the inter-bar
resistivity.
and
I
b
() = I
s
(0) = 0. (2.5)
Based on the solution of the equations presented above, the ring to ring voltage
U
AB
and the ring to shaft voltages U
AD
and U
BC
are determined as a function of
the inter-bar resistivity. Figure 2.4 shows these voltages for the studied aluminium
rotor at a total current of 200 A. The corresponding results for the equivalent copper
rotor is shown in Figure 2.5.
These results show that the inter-bar resistivity can be determined, based on
the assumptions made in the model, through measurements of the corresponding
voltages on the considered rotor.
2.3 Results from measurements
A direct current power supply, Delta Elektronika SM15-400, was used to supply the
rotors with a total rotor current of 200 A. The voltages U
AB
, U
AD
and U
BC
were
then measured using sharp probes connected to the multimeter Agilent 34410A.
Based on these measured voltages, the inter-bar resistivities were calculated from
the model described in the previous section. It could be noted from the measure-
ments, that the accuracy for calculating the inter-bar resistivity was poor when the
derivative of voltage to inter-bar resistivity was low, measurements within these
areas were therefore avoided in the analysis. The results obtained for the studied
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
[
V
]
Inter-bar resistivity [m]
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
10
4
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
(a) Ring to ring voltage U
AB
.
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
[
m
V
]
UAD
UBC
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
10
4
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
(b) Ring to shaft voltages U
AD
and U
BC
.
Figure 2.4: Calculated voltages for the aluminium rotor at a total current of 200
A.
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
[
V
]
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
10
4
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
(a) Ring to ring voltage U
AB
.
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
[
m
V
]
UAD
UBC
10
8
10
7
10
6
10
5
10
4
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
(b) Ring to shaft voltages U
AD
and U
BC
.
Figure 2.5: Calculated voltages for the copper rotor at a total current of 200 A.
rotors are shown in Table 2.1.
From these results it can be concluded that the inter-bar resistivity is higher
in cast copper rotors than in cast aluminium rotors. For the studied rotors, the
dierence is at least a factor of ten. These results are however consistent with the
ndings in [9]. Measurements of inter-bar resistivity on aluminium rotors with the
same slot shape as the rotors studied in this thesis have shown very similar results
[12]. Even though, in that work, the author removed the short-circuit rings and
measured directly between the rotor bars.
It shall be noted that, depending on the casted rotor material, some of the
2.3. RESULTS FROM MEASUREMENTS 13
Figure 2.6: Two of the studied aluminium and copper rotors.
Rotor Al 1 Al 2 Cu 1 Cu 2 Cu 3
U
AB
[V] 134 130 125 124 123
R
tn
[m] - - 0,3 0,4 0,4
U
BC
[mV] 15,15 12,22 2,87 2,60 3,49
R
tn
[m] 9,0 7,0 0,4 0,3 0,6
U
AD
[mV] 5,35 3,04 2010
3
2210
3
1510
3
R
tn
[m] 7,0 4,0 - - -
Mean value
R
tn
[m] 8,0 5,5 0,35 0,35 0,5
Table 2.1: Measured voltages at a total rotor current of 200 A and the resulting
inter-bar resistivities R
tn
.
voltages in Table 2.1 are unsuitable for the determination of the inter-bar resistivity.
Regarding the aluminium rotors, the measured ring to ring voltage U
AB
results in
an innitely high inter-bar resistivity. This could be due to the fact that the model
assumes an equally distributed inter-bar resistivity along the rotor bars, and the
ring to ring voltage is strongly dependent on this distribution. One can conclude
that the inter-bar resistivity is unevenly distributed in the aluminium rotors. This
eect is studied further by measuring the voltage drop along the rotor bars with
reference to one short-circuit ring, referred to as U
AX
.
U
AX
=
_

0
R
b
Q
r
I
b
(x, R
tn
)dx (2.6)
The measurements were performed along one fourth of the total number of rotor
bars. The results are presented in Figure 2.7 together with the calculated values
using the inter-bar resistivity from Table 2.1. According to the measured voltage
prole, it can be concluded that the bar currents have decreased to zero in the last
third of the rotor. This implies, for the studied aluminum rotor, that the inter-
bar resistivity might be unevenly distributed. Probably due to the existence of
aluminium oxide along the rotor bar surface, naturally created through the reaction
with oxygen. This process is enhanced by the high casting temperature [13].
The corresponding results for an equivalent copper rotor is shown in Figure 2.8.
In this case, the measured and the calculated voltage shows good correlation. For
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
[
V
]
Axial position x [m]
R
tn
= 5, 5 10
6
[m]
Measured bar 1
Measured bar 2
Measured bar 3
Measured bar 4
Measured bar 5
Measured bar 6
Measured bar 7
Analytical using
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Figure 2.7: Measured and calculated voltage U
AX
for rotor Al 2 at a total current
of 200 A
2.4. SUMMARY 15
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
[
V
]
Axial position x [m]
R
tn
= 0, 35 10
6
[m]
Measured bar 1
Measured bar 2
Measured bar 3
Measured bar 4
Measured bar 5
Measured bar 6
Measured bar 7
Analytical using
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Figure 2.8: Measured and calculated voltage U
AX
for rotor Cu 2 at a total current
of 100 A
the studied copper rotor, the theory of an evenly distributed inter-bar resistivity
seems to hold, indicating an important dierence between aluminium and copper
casted rotors.
2.4 Summary
A test-rig has been built for the measurement of rotor voltages, from which the
inter-bar resistivity can be calculated through an equivalent circuit of the rotor.
Measurements have shown that the inter-bar resistivity is as much as ten times
higher in cast aluminum- than in cast copper rotors. An important dierence was
noted between the two rotor concepts. Aluminium rotors show results indicating
an unequal distribution of the inter-bar resistivity, while the copper rotors seem to
have a more equal distribution of this resistivity.
Chapter 3
Model for the analysis of inter-bar currents
The analytical model used to include the eects of inter-bar currents is derived from
Behdashtis work in [14]. The inter-bar currents are taken into account by intro-
ducing a transverse bar to bar resistivity distributed along the rotor bars. Based
on Behdashtis proposed equivalent circuit of the rotor the inter-bar current dis-
tribution along the rotor core can be obtained. Apart from the machine geometry,
this model requires the fundamental stator current as an input parameter.
3.1 Rotor circuit taking inter-bar currents into account
The equations describing the distribution of the inter-bar currents along the iron
core is derived in the rotor reference frame by studying a small element of the rotor
circuit. In Figure 3.1, the bar current of order n in bar number k, at time t and
axial position x is denoted i
bn,k
(t, x). The inter-bar current distribution at the
corresponding time and position is referred to as J
tn,k
(t, x), given in [A/m]. At
point A in the rotor circuit Kirchhos current law gives:
i
bn,k
(t, x) i
bn,k
(t, x dx) + (J
tn,k1
(t, x) J
tn,k
(t, x)) dx = 0 (3.1)
In the rotor reference frame the fundamental component of these currents are vary-
ing with slip frequency. Assuming sinusoidal rotor bar currents and using peak-
value scaling, Equation 3.1 is written with complex notion as:
x
I
bn,k
(t, x) = J
tn,k
(t, x) J
tn,k1
(t, x) (3.2)
In the following text, bold symbols represent complex quantities. The phasor of
the inter-bar currents at a certain time can be illustrated as in Figure 3.2, where
the phase displacement of the inter-bar currents of order n between two adjacent
slots, is determined from the number of poles p and the number of rotor bars Q
r
,
i.e.
17
18 CHAPTER 3. MODEL FOR THE ANALYSIS OF INTER-BAR CURRENTS
i
bn,k+1
(t, x) i
bn,k
(t, x)
J
tn,k
(t, x + dx)
J
tn,k
(t, x)
x + dx
x
A B
C D
k k + 1
Figure 3.1: Denition of bar- and inter-bar currents in a small element of the rotor
circuit.
J
tn,k1
(t, x) = J
tn,k
(t, x)e
j
np
Qr
(3.3)
Combining Equation 3.2 and Equation 3.3 gives the relation between the inter-bar
current distribution and the bar current as;
J
tn,k
(t, x) =
e
j
np
2Qr
2j sin
_
np
2Qr
_
x
I
bn,k
(t, x). (3.4)
J
tn,k
(x)
J
tn,k1
(x)
np
Q
r
Figure 3.2: Phase displacement between inter-bar currents.
3.1. ROTOR CIRCUIT TAKING INTER-BAR CURRENTS INTO ACCOUNT 19
The currents in the rotor element ABCD in Figure 3.1 are linked by both the
ux from the stator current
sn
, and the ux produced by the rotor current
rn
.
The voltage equation for this current loop is therefore given by;
0 = Z
bn
I
bn,k
(t, x)dx + R
n
J
tn,k
(t, x) Z
bn
I
bn,k+1
(t, x)dx
R
n
J
tn,k
(t, x + dx) +

t
_
sn
(t, x) +
rn
(t, x)
_
,
(3.5)
where Z
bn
is the bar impedance per unit length and R
n
is the inter-bar resistivity.
In Figure 3.3(a), R
n
is dened as the resistance between two adjacent bars
multiplied with the stack length. The inter-bar current path can also be dened
via the rotor shaft, according to Figure 3.3(b). The induced voltages in the rotor
bars are the same for these two cases. If the inter-bar current losses should be the
same for these two models, the following equation must be satised [14]:
R
n
= 4R
tn
sin
2
_
np
2Q
r
_
(3.6)
As the measurements of the inter-bar resistance resulted in the bar to shaft resistiv-
ity R
tn
, Equation 3.6 is used for the conversion into bar to bar resistivity. In order
solve the voltage equation of the rotor circuit, the phase angle of the bar currents
are expressed in a similar way as for the inter-bar currents.
I
bn,k+1
(t, x) = I
bn,k
(t, x)e
j
np
Qr
. (3.7)
Combining the Equations; 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, and 3.7 gives the following dierential
(a) Resistance between rotor bars.
R
n
R
n
(b) Resistance between rotor bars and shaft.
R
tn
R
tn
R
tn
Figure 3.3: Denitions of inter-bar resistances.
equation for the rotor bar currents:
0 =Z
bn
I
bn,k
(t, x) R
tn
2
x
2
I
bn,k
(t, x)
+
1
dx
e
j
np
2Qr
2j sin(
np
2Qr
)
t
_
sn
(t, x) +
rn
(t, x)
_
(3.8)
The solution gives the axial variation of the bar currents. The inter-bar currents
for the solution of Equation 3.8 can then easily be obtained through Equation 3.4.
Required are the stator and rotor uxes linked by the rotor element ABCD.
3.2 Stator ux linkage
In this section the stator ux linked by the rotor element is calculated in the
rotor reference frame. The stator ux of order n is expressed as a function of the
fundamental stator current.
3.2.1 Airgap ux density due to stator current
The time varying current in the distributed three phase stator winding results in
in a rotating MMF-wave in the airgap. The magnitude of the resulting ux density
is depending on the airgap permeance. Due to the stator and rotor slotting the
rotating MMF-wave sees a permeance that is varying in both time and space.
The airgap ux density is conventionally determined as the product of the MMF-
wave and the permeance function. This method is described further among others
in [7, 15]. However, in this thesis the airgap ux density caused by the stator cur-
rent is calculated by the use of a dierent method. The results are veried with
the nite element method (FEM).
The method used is based on the fourier analysis of a simplied ux density
distribution along the airgap, resulting from the current in one phase. The total
airgap ux density is then obtained by superposition of the other two phases. Two
dierent shapes of possible ux density distributions in the air gap are studied,
referred to as Model A and Model B. It turns out that the two models give very
similar results.
First the calculation is simplied by introducing the following assumptions:
The stator and rotor iron is assumed to have innite permeability.
The rotor slotting do not contribute to the permeance variation along the
airgap circumference.
The current in phase a is assumed to have the following variation in time:
i
a
=
i cos( t). (3.9)

3.2. STATOR FLUX LINKAGE 21
Model A
The distribution of the airgap ux density in space due to the current in phase a
is approximated according to Figure 3.4. By applying Amperes law along the line
C at time t = 0 the following is obtained;
_
C
dl =
qN
s1
C
s
i (3.10)
which gives:
=

0
2
qN
s1
C
s
i (3.11)
Where q is the number of slots per pole per phase, N
s1
is the number of conductors
per slot and C
s
is the connection factor. It is assumed that the airgap ux density
created by the current in one phase is zero beneath the stator slot openings dened
by the distance d in Figure 3.4, given in [16] as:
d =
2
Q
s
_
1
1
C
fs
_
. (3.12)
Where Q
s
is the number of stator slots and C
fs
is the Carter factor due to the stator
slotting. Based on this distribution of the ux density, the harmonic components
are calculated by means of Fourier analysis. The amplitude of these harmonic
components of order n are obtained as:
B
n
=
2
n
qN
s1
C
s
sin
_
np
2C
fs
Qs
_
sin
_
np
2Qs
_
i (3.13)
C
d
1
stator
rotor
Figure 3.4: Airgap ux density due to current in phase a, Model A.
With the contribution from the other two phases, the peak value of the total airgap
ux density becomes;
B
nm
=
3
2
B
n
K
rn
(3.14)
which is equal to:
B
nm
=
3
n
qN
s1
C
s
K
rn
sin
_
np
2C
fs
Qs
_
sin
_
np
2Qs
_
i (3.15)
Where K
rn
is the winding factor for the wave of order n. With known Fourier
coecients the resulting airgap ux density can be expressed in both time and
space as:
B
nm
(t,
1
) =
n=1
B
nm
cos
_
t n
p
2
1
_
(3.16)
Where
1
is the mechanical angular position given in stator coordinates.
Model B
The distribution of the airgap ux density in space due to the current in phase a
is approximated according to Figure 3.5. The resulting airgap ux density of order
n is then determined by Fourier analysis to [17];
B
nm
=
3
n
qN
s1
C
s
K
rn
K
fn
i (3.17)
b
sys
2
1
stator
rotor
Figure 3.5: Airgap ux density due to current in phase a, Model B.
where the form factor is given by
K
fn
= 1 2 + 2
sin
_
ksn
2Qs
p
2
_
ksn
2Qs
p
2
sin
_
n
Qs
p
2
_
1
ks
2
_
_
sin
_
n
Qs
p
2
_ . (3.18)
Where k
s
is dened as:
k
s
=
b
sys
s
. (3.19)
The distance b
sys
is the slot opening and
s
is the slot pitch. The coecients and
are geometry dependent coecients which can be found in [15, 17].
Verication with FEM
The two models are slightly dierent when it comes to the modeling of the perme-
ance change beneath a stator slot. This will aect the harmonic components of the
airgap ux density. It is believed that Model B is closer to the actual ux density
distribution in the machine.
In order to verify the analytical models, a comparison is made with the results
from a FEM simulation. The FEM results are obtained from a no-load test per-
formed with the simulation software Flux2d. As the electrical steel is assumed to
have innite permeability in the analytical models, the same assumption is adapted
to the FEM model, i.e. saturation is not taken into account. The stator current
obtained from this simulation is used to calculate the corresponding ux densities
with the analytical models.
1
[mek
o
]
A
i
r
g
a
p
u
x
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
T
]
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
(a) FEM simulated airgap ux density at no-
load.
Harmonic order
A
i
r
g
a
p
u
x
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
T
]
Model A
Model B
Flux2d
1 5 7 11 13 17 19
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
(b) Harmonic spectrum of the airgap ux den-
sity at no load.
Figure 3.6: Comparison between analytical and FEM-simulated airgap ux density
at no-load.
The FEM simulated airgap ux density distribution at no load is shown in Fig-
ure 3.6(a). From this simulation it is obvious that the stator slotting has a large
impact on the ux density distribution, and hence, also on the harmonic compo-
nents describing this distribution. It can be seen that the rotor slotting aects the
airgap ux density, but to a lesser extent than the stator slotting. In Figure 3.6(b)
the harmonic spectrum is compared with the corresponding analytical values. In
the analysis, harmonic components up to the order of the rst pair of slot harmonics
are considered.
The fundamental component calculated with Model A is 3.4 % higher than
the FEM simulated value, the corresponding value for Model B is 2.4 %. Apart
from the leakage ux, the main dierence between the models is believed to be
descended from the modeling of the airgap permeance. The overall harmonic spec-
trum obtained from the two analytical models, for the harmonics considered, shows
acceptable correlation with the FEM results. Based on the values of the fundamen-
tal components, Model B will be used for the calculation of the airgap ux density
created by the stator current.
3.2.2 Stator ux linked by the rotor circuit
In the previous section the airgap ux density produced by the stator current was
derived in stator coordinates. Based on these results this section presents the cal-
culation of the stator ux linked by the rotor circuit.
As the calculations are performed in the rotor circuit, the airgap ux density
produced by the stator is expressed in rotor coordinates. This requires information
regarding the position of the rotor relative to the stator ux waves. Therefore, it
is assumed that a wave of order n at the time t = 0, has a position relative to the
rotor as shown in Figure 3.7. Based on these conditions, the relation between the
stator and the rotor positions is given by:
1
=
2
+
2
p
(1 s
1
)t (3.20)
The airgap ux density of order n seen by the rotor can then be expressed with
rotor coordinates in time and space as:
B
r
n
=

B
nm
cos
_
s
n
t n
p
2
2
_
(3.21)
Where s
n
is the slip of a wave of order n given by;
s
n
= 1 n(1 s
1
), (3.22)
n should be positive or negative according to the direction of rotation of the wave.
The ux linked by the element ABCD in Figure 3.7 is equal to;
2
Qr
(k 1)
x
2
Qr
k
x
x + dx
2
A B
C D
Figure 3.7: Position of a wave of order n at time t = 0 in the rotor reference frame.
sn
(x, t) =
_ 2
Qr
k+
x
2
2
Qr
(k1)+
x
2
rdx

B
nm
cos
_
s
n
t n
p
2
2
_
d
2
(3.23)
where is given by [16].
=
2
Q
r
_
1
1
C
fr
_
(3.24)
The rotor skewing is taken into account by introducing the mechanical skewing
angle , given by:
=
2
Qs
s
(3.25)
Where
s
is the skewing in number of stator slots. This gives the linked stator ux
expressed with complex notation as:
sn
(x, t) =
2rdx
n
p
2
B
nm
sin
_
np
2C
fr
Q
r
_
e
j
_
snt
np
2
_
(2k1)
Qr
+
x
__
(3.26)
3.3 Rotor ux linkage
The stator ux linked by the rotor circuit induce currents in the rotor bars, the
magnitude and frequency of these currents are depending on the rotor speed. As
a result, a rotor ux is created which counteracts the stator ux. In this section,
the rotor ux linked by the small rotor element is derived as a function of the bar
current of order n.
3.3.1 Airgap ux density due to rotor current
The calculation is simplied by introducing the following assumptions:
The stator and rotor iron is assumed to have innite permeability.
The rotor slotting do not contribute to the permeance variation in the airgap.
The rotor bar currents are assumed to vary sinusoidally in time.
The current of order n in rotor bar k, i
bn,k
, and the corresponding MMF, M
n,k
, is
shown in Figure 3.8. Applying amperes law along the line C gives:
M
n,k
(x, t) M
n,k1
(x, t) = i
bn,k
(x, t) (3.27)
The phase displacement between the MMF over two adjacent rotor teeth is given
by:
M
n,k1
(x, t) = M
n,k
(x, t)e
j
np
Qr
(3.28)
The rotor bar current i
bn,k
is replaced with the complex bar current I
bn,k
introduced
to dene the rotor circuit equation in Section 3.1. This gives the following expression
for the complex airgap MMF created by the rotor current.
M
n,k
(x, t) =
e
j
np
2Qr
2j sin
_
np
2Qr
_I
bn,k
(x)e
jsnt
(3.29)
3.3. ROTOR FLUX LINKAGE 27
r
x
2
i
bn,k+1
i
bn,k
i
bn,k1
M
n,k1
M
n,k
C
A B
C D
Figure 3.8: Current in bar number k and the corresponding MMF in the airgap.
The corresponding airgap ux density at the point
1
, is obtained by multiplying
the MMF with the airgap magnetic permeance per unit area.
B
n,k
(x,
1
, t) = M
n,k
(x, t)(
1
) (3.30)
According to the previously stated assumption the airgap permeance variation
along the circumference is only created by the stator slotting, i.e. the rotor is as-
sumed to have closed slots. This simplies the forthcoming analysis considerably.
As the eect of the rotor is neglected, the airgap permeance function can be ex-
pressed independent of time in stator coordinates. In analogy with the calculation
of the airgap ux density due to the stator current in Section 3.2.1, the airgap
permeance function is approximated, Model A is used for simplicity reasons. By
the use of Fourier analysis, the distributed permeance dened by Figure 3.9, can
be expressed in stator coordinates as;
(
1
) =

0
C
fs
+
2
0
=1
sin
_

C
fs
_
cos (Q
s
1
) (3.31)
where is the order of the permeance harmonic considered. In this thesis, only
the permeance harmonics of the rst order are considered. With complex notation,
this simplies Equation 3.31 to;
(
1
) =
0
+
s1
e
jQs1
(3.32)
where
0
=

0
C
fs
(3.33)
0
d
s
1
Figure 3.9: Permeance variation along the airgap circumference as dened by Model
A.
and
s1
=
2
0
sin
_

C
fs
_
. (3.34)
The airgap ux density is now calculated as the product of the MMF and the
permeance function. Note that the permeance function has to be expressed in
rotor coordinates by the use of Equation 3.20.
B
n,k
(x,
2
, t) = (
2
, t)
n=1
M
n,k
(x, t) (3.35)
From this denition a series of harmonic components is obtained, they are treated
separately in the following.
B
n,k
(x,
2
, t) = (M
1,k
+M
5,k
+M
7,k
...)
_
0
+
s1
e
jQs(2+
2
p
(1s1)t)
_
(3.36)
3.3.2 Flux caused by the phase belt harmonics
Phase belt harmonics are due to the concentration of the MMF in slots, in a three
phase machine they full the condition:
n = 1 6k
The dominating terms of the airgap ux densities caused by rotor currents in-
duced by the phase belt harmonics are those acting through the average permeance
0
. The interaction with the harmonic permeance
s
is neglected in this study.
Thus, the airgap ux densities due to these harmonics are simply calculated as:
B
n,k
(x, t) = M
n,k
(x, t)
0
(3.37)
3.3. ROTOR FLUX LINKAGE 29
The corresponding ux is obtained by integrating the ux density over the area
ABCD in Figure 3.7.
rn
(x, t) = rdx
_ 2
Qr
k+
x
2
2
Qr
(k1)+
x
2
B
n,k
(x, t)d
2
(3.38)
Which gives the same result as in [17]:
rn
(x, t) = j
rdx
C
fr
C
fs
Q
r
I
bn,k
(x)
e
j
np
2Qr
sin
_
np
2Qr
_e
jsnt
(3.39)
3.3.3 Flux caused by slot harmonics
The slot harmonics are partly made up of the MMF slot harmonics of order:
n = 1 +
2Qs
p
These rotor elds are caused by the harmonic rotor current of order n = 1 +
2Qs
p
,
acting through the average permeance. The corresponding ux densities are deter-
mined by Equation 3.37.
The slot harmonics are also generated through the interaction with the perme-
ance harmonics of order , having the same number of poles. These harmonics
arise from the interaction between the fundamental rotor eld and the harmonic
permeance. In the rotor reference frame this is seen as a wave, that can be sepa-
rated into a wave rotating in the positive direction and one in the negative direction
respectively, i.e. = 1. Each of the waves produces a ux density given by:
B
,k
(x,
2
, t) = M
1,k
(x, t)
s1
2
e
jQs(2+
2
p
(1s1)t)
(3.40)
The backward rotating permeance eld corresponding to = 1, produces to-
gether with the fundamental MMF, the same rotor frequency as the MMF harmonic
of order n = 1 +
2Qs
p
, rotating in the forward direction. Therefore, the resulting
rotor ux of order n, linked by the element ABCD in Figure 3.7 is calculated as:
rn
(x, t) = rdx
_ 2
Qr
k+
x
2
2
Qr
(k1)+
x
2
(B
n,k
(x, t) +B
,k
(x,
2
, t))d
2
(3.41)
Which gives similar results as in [17]:
rn
=j
rdx
0
e
jsnt
_

Q
r
C
fs
C
fr
I
n,k
(x)e
j
np
2Qr
sin
_
np
2Qr
_ +
1
Q
s
sin
_

C
fs
_
I
1,k
(x)e
j
p
2Qr
sin
_
p
2Qr
_ sin
_
Q
s
Q
r
C
fr
_
e
j(
Qs
Qr
2(k
1
2
)+Qs
x
)
_
(3.42)
3.4 General set of equations
For a given stator current the rotor Equation 3.8 can be solved by inserting Equa-
tions; 3.39, 3.42 and 3.26. The solution gives the corresponding rotor bar current
as a function of the axial position x. In the following, the rotor current of order n
in bar number k = 1, is denoted I
bn
. The solution is depending on the order of the
considered current.
In case of a phase-belt harmonic the dierential equation for the rotor circuit
becomes:
If n = 1 +
2Qs
p
, = 1
Z
2n
I
bn
(x)
tn
2
x
2
I
bn
(x) + E
n0
e
j
npx
2
= 0 (3.43)
Where:
E
n0
=
2r

B
nm
np
sin
_
np
2C
fr
Qr
_
sin
_
np
2Qr
_ (3.44)
Z
2n
=

s
n
Z
bn
+ jX
n
(3.45)
X
n
=
2r
Q
r
C
fs
C
fr
4 sin
2
_
np
2Qr
_ (3.46)
tn
=

s
n
R
tn
(3.47)
If the considered harmonic is a slot harmonic of the rst order, the corresponding
equation becomes:
If n = 1 +
2Qs
p
, = 1
Z
2n
I
bn
(x)
tn
2
x
2
I
bn
(x) + E
n0
e
j
npx
2
+ jX
1
I
b1
(x)e
jQs
x
= 0 (3.48)
Where:
X
1
=
r
2Q
s
sin
_

C
fs
_
sin
_
Qs
C
fr
Qr
_
sin
_
np
2Qr
_
sin
_
p
2Qr
_ (3.49)
Due to the interaction with the permeance harmonics, the rotor bar current of or-
der n is now also a function of the fundamental bar current I
b1
, obtained from the
3.5. EFFECTS OF A FINITE INTER-BAR RESISTANCE ON ROTOR CURRENT
DISTRIBUTION 31
solution of Equation 3.43.
The boundary conditions for these two dierential equations are obtained by
studying the rotor circuit at the point where it connects to the adjoining short-
circuit ring, as in Figure 3.10(a). At this point the ring voltage and the bar to bar
voltage are equal, i.e.
I
an,k
Z
an
= J
tn,k
R
n
(3.50)
Where Z
an
is the impedance of the short-circuit ring segment with respect to the
frequency of the n
th
harmonic. Using the phasor relation between the bar- and
the short-circuit ring currents given in Figure 3.10(b), together with Equation 3.4,
gives the boundary conditions as:
_

x
I
bn
_
2
_
Zan
Rn
I
bn
_
2
_
= 0
x
I
bn
_
2
_
+
Zan
Rn
I
bn
_
2
_
= 0
(3.51)
From this equation it is obvious that the inter-bar current density at the rotor
boundary is determined by the impedance of the short-circuit ring, regardless the
rotor skew. Thereby, it can be concluded that inter-bar currents are present also
in unskewed machines, unless the impedance of the short-circuit ring is zero.
R
n
Z
an
I
bn,k+1 I
bn,k
I
an,k I
an,k1
J
tn,k
J
tn,k1
2
x
(a) Rotor circuit.
I
an,k1
I
an,k
I
bn,k
np
Qr
(b) Ring- and bar current phasors.
Figure 3.10: Rotor currents at the boundary x =
2
.
3.5 Eects of a nite inter-bar resistance on rotor current
distribution
According to the previous section, a nite inter-bar resistance introduces the inter-
bar current density J
tn,k
. With the contribution of the inter-bar current density in
the adjacent rotor tooth J
tn,k1
, a resulting bar current is obtained dI
bn,k
.
dI
bn,k
(x) = (J
tn,k
(x) J
tn,k1
(x)) dx (3.52)
This current denes the change in the bar current when moving a small distance
dx in the positive x-direction, according to Figure 3.11. In this gure, the airgap
ux density caused by the stator current B
nm
is used as reference phasor.
From this gure one can see that the inter-bar currents causes a non uniform
distribution of the rotor bar currents. This eect is enhanced by the rotor skew, but
the dependency of the size of the inter-bar resistance, or the required bar insulation
to cancel out this eect, is not that obvious.
With the intention to get a better understanding of this eect, a case study is
performed on an 11 kW 4-pole machine. The machine having 36 stator slots and
a full pitch single layer winding is equipped with a cast aluminium rotor with 44
rotor slots, referred to as Motor A. The machine is simulated both with and without
rotor skew. The rotor bar- and inter-bar currents are then studied along the core
at dierent values of inter-bar resistance.
I
bn
(x)
I
bn
(x + dx)
dI
bn
n
B
nm
B
rn
(x)
n
Figure 3.11: Change in rotor bar current due to the interaction with inter-bar
currents.
3.5.1 Rotor without skew
The inter-bar current density in a rotor without skewing is focused towards the
rotor ends, and its magnitude is directly determined by the ratio of short-circuit
ring impedance to inter-bar impedance. This analysis is somewhat simplied by,
as stated in Chapter 2, assuming that the inter-bar impedance is purely resistive.
DISTRIBUTION 33
The magnitude of the fundamental locked-rotor inter-bar current density along
the rotor core is shown in Figure 3.12(a). Due to the low impedance of the short-
circuit ring, it requires a quite low inter-bar resistivity to introduce fundamental
inter-bar currents. These currents, having their maximum values at the rotor ends
decreases towards zero in the middle of the rotor.
Figure 3.12(b) shows the angle
1
dened in Figure 3.11, giving the phase angle
of the inter-bar currents owing along the rotor bar, contributing to the bar current.
At the rotor ends, this angle is set by the voltage over the corresponding short-
circuit ring segment. In the middle of the rotor, where the inter-bar currents are
zero, a phase shift of 180 degrees occurs. In other words; the voltage over the
ring segments at each end of the rotor introduces two circumferential current paths
through the rotor teeth, opposing each other. In a symmetrical rotor, assuming an
equally distributed inter-bar resistivity, these currents cancel each other out in the
middle.
As a result the bar current is reduced towards the ends of the rotor. This can
be seen in Figure 3.13(a) which shows the fundamental locked rotor bar current.
But the eect is of minor importance, as well as for the phase of the corresponding
current phasor shown in Figure 3.13(b).
In the following, the variation of the inter-bar currents with rotor speed, and
the inuence on the rotor currents of higher order is studied. The analysis is per-
formed with the inter-bar resistivity R
tn
= 5 10
5
m. Figures 3.14(a) and 3.14(b)
show the fundamental bar and inter-bar current as a function of both slip and axial
position in the bar. It can be seen that the inter-bar currents have their maximum
Axial position x [cm]
I
n
t
e
r
-
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
_
A
m
m
_Rtn = 5 10
4
m
Rtn = 5 10
5
m
Rtn = 5 10
6
m
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
(a) Inter-bar current density.
1
[
]
Rtn = 5 10
4
m
Rtn = 5 10
5
m
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 10
-180
-160
-140
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80 80
(b) Resulting fundamental inter-bar current an-
gle
1
.
Figure 3.12: Magnitude of the fundamental locked rotor inter-bar current density
and the resulting angle
1
, for Motor A with unskewed rotor.
R
o
t
o
r
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
k
A
]
Rtn = 5 10
4
m
Rtn = 5 10
5
m
Rtn = 5 10
6
m
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
3.44
3.46
3.48
3.50
3.52
3.54
3.56
(a) Fundamental bar current.
P
h
a
s
e
[
]
Rtn = 5 10
4
m
Rtn = 5 10
5
m
Rtn = 5 10
6
m
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
89.4
89.6
89.8
90
90.2
90.4
90.6
90.8
91
91.2
(b) Fundamental bar current angle
1
.
Figure 3.13: Magnitude of fundamental locked rotor bar current and the corre-
sponding angle
1
, for Motor A with unskewed rotor.
value at the speed corresponding to the largest slip. However, their inuence on
the fundamental rotor current is of minor importance.
The cases when the currents are caused by higher order space harmonics are
dierent. As these elds have low synchronous speeds, the corresponding rotor
currents create torques that counteract the fundamental torque at nominal speed.
The rotor currents of order higher than the fundamental are therefore sources of
stray losses. Figure 3.14(c) and Figure 3.14(e) shows the rotor currents caused by
the rst pair of slot harmonics, having the order n = 1
2Qs
p
and n = 1 +
2Qs
p
,
respectively.
These currents, caused by the slot harmonics, are large in the unskewed rotor.
Especially at low speeds when the high fundamental current creates large slot MMF
harmonics. Thus, large asynchronous torques are expected during a start.
Furthermore, at nominal speed the magnitude of these harmonic currents are
still quite large. This is also true at no-load, when the magnitude of the slot
space harmonics are determined by the fundamental no-load current. The resulting
cage losses can form a considerable part of the no-load losses [10]. This eect is
enhanced by main ux saturation increasing the fundamental current, which has
been neglected in this thesis.
Rotor skewing by one stator slot pitch is a common practice to reduce the rotor
currents caused by slot harmonics. But this promotes the ow of inter-bar currents.
DISTRIBUTION 35
Slip
R
o
t
o
r
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
k
A
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
(a) Rotor bar current, n = 1.
Slip
I
n
t
e
r
-
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
A
m
m
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
2
4
6
8
(b) Inter-bar current density, n = 1.
Slip
R
o
t
o
r
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
A
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
100
200
300
400
500
(c) Rotor bar current, n = 1
2Qs
p
.
Slip
I
n
t
e
r
-
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
A
m
m
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
(d) Inter-bar current density, n = 1
2Qs
p
.
Slip
R
o
t
o
r
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
A
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
(e) Rotor bar current, n = 1 +
2Qs
p
.
Slip
I
n
t
e
r
-
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
A
m
m
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
(f) Inter-bar current density, n = 1 +
2Qs
p
.
Figure 3.14: Magnitude of the currents in the unskewed rotor caused by the fun-
damental and the rst pair of slot space harmonics when R
tn
= 5 10
5
m.
3.5.2 Rotor with skew
The analysis continues with the same motor as in the previous section but with
a rotor skew of one stator slot pitch, i.e.
s
= 1. When the rotor is skewed
the voltages induced in the skewed conductors are reduced in comparison to the
unskewed conductors. The ratio of these voltages denes the skewing factor for the
n
th
rotor voltage as:
k
sk
=
sin
_
nps
2Qs
_
nps
2Qs
1 (3.53)
This expression becomes zero if the skewing in number of stator slots is equal to:
s0
=
Q
s
np
2
(3.54)
For the rst pair of slot harmonics k
sk
is close to zero when
s0
is close to one. As
a result, when skewing insulated rotor bars by one stator slot pitch, a large reduc-
tion of the corresponding rotor currents can be expected, improving the machine
performance, both in terms of reduced asynchronous torques and rated eciency.
However, in casted rotors the rotor skewing might have an opposite eect.
Figure 3.15 shows the fundamental locked- rotor inter-bar current density and
the resulting angle
1
for dierent values of inter-bar resistivity. The inter-bar
current densities at the rotor ends are approximately the same as for the unskewed
rotor. The important dierence is that the inter-bar currents now are focused
towards the middle of the rotor, somewhat depending on the inter-bar resistivity.
By studying the angle
1
, one can expect a continuous increasing bar current in
I
n
t
e
r
-
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
_
A
m
m
_
Rtn = 5 10
2
m
Rtn = 5 10
3
m
Rtn = 5 10
4
m
Rtn = 5 10
5
m
Rtn = 5 10
6
m
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
(a) Inter-bar current density.
P
h
a
s
e
[
]
Rtn = 5 10
4
m
Rtn = 5 10
5
m
Rtn = 5 10
6
m
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
(b) Angle
1
.
Figure 3.15: Magnitude of the fundamental locked-rotor inter-bar current density
and the resulting angle
1
for Motor A with skewed rotor.
DISTRIBUTION 37
R
o
t
o
r
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
k
A
]
Rtn = 5 10
2
m
Rtn = 5 10
3
m
Rtn = 5 10
4
m
Rtn = 5 10
5
m
Rtn = 5 10
6
m
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
0.8
3.05
3.10
3.15
3.20
3.25
3.30
3.35
3.40
3.45
3.50
(a) Rotor bar current.
P
h
a
s
e
[
]
Rtn = 5 10
4
m
Rtn = 5 10
5
m
Rtn = 5 10
6
m
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
100
(b) Bar current angle
1
.
Figure 3.16: Magnitude of fundamental locked-rotor bar current and the corre-
sponding angle
1
, for Motor A with skewed rotor.
the positive x-direction, except for very low values of inter-bar resistivity. This can
be seen in Figure 3.16(a), showing the fundamental rotor bar currents.
An interesting result can be found in Figure 3.16(b), showing the angle of the
fundamental bar current phasor with respect to the stator ux density. For low
values of inter-bar resistivity the phase change between the rotor ends is equal to
the electrical skewing angle, indicating that the skewing is ineective. These results
are consistent with what was found in [18].
Figure 3.17 shows the rotor currents caused by the fundamental and the rst
pair of slot harmonics as a fuction of speed, when the inter-bar resistivity R
tn
=
5 10
2
m. The overall inter-bar current density is low, the value of the inter-
bar resistivity is thereby to be considered as high. In comparison to the unskewed
case the currents caused by the slot harmonics are drastically reduced. The corre-
sponding asynchronous torques will vanish and an improved motor eciency can be
expected. With high values of inter-bar resistivity the theory, assuming negligible
inter-bar current ow, holds. i.e. the skewing is eective.
Measurements have shown that the inter-bar resistivity in cast rotors is much
lower than the value referred to as high in the previous case. In Figure 3.18 the
corresponding results are shown with an inter-bar resistivity of R
tn
= 5 10
5
m.
Inter-bar currents now appears for all the considered harmonics. High fundamental
inter-bar currents at start indicate an increased locked rotor torque. But most
notable is the large increase of inter-bar currents caused by the slot harmonics,
resulting in a huge increase and a distortion of the corresponding bar currents. In
this case the skewing is not eective. As the inter-bar resistivity is much higher
than the bar resistivity, large additional losses are created in the bar to core region.
Large asynchronous torques and increased stray losses are expected.
Slip
R
o
t
o
r
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
k
A
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Slip
I
n
t
e
r
-
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
A
m
m
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
Slip
R
o
t
o
r
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
A
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
10
20
30
40
2Qs
p
.
Slip
I
n
t
e
r
-
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
A
m
m
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
2Qs
p
.
Slip
R
o
t
o
r
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
A
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
2
4
6
8
2Qs
p
.
Slip
I
n
t
e
r
-
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
A
m
m
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
2Qs
p
.
Figure 3.17: Magnitude of the currents in the rotor skewed by one stator slot
pitch, caused by the fundamental and the rst pair of slot space harmonics when
R
tn
= 5 10
2
m.
DISTRIBUTION 39
Slip
R
o
t
o
r
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
k
A
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Slip
I
n
t
e
r
-
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
A
m
m
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Slip
R
o
t
o
r
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
A
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
100
200
300
400
500
2Qs
p
.
Slip
I
n
t
e
r
-
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
A
m
m
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
2
4
6
8
2Qs
p
.
Slip
R
o
t
o
r
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
A
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
100
200
300
400
2Qs
p
.
Slip
I
n
t
e
r
-
b
a
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
[
A
m
m
]
0
0.5
1
1.5
-10
-5
0
5
10
0
2
4
6
8
10
2Qs
p
.
Figure 3.18: Magnitude of the currents in the rotor skewed by one stator slot
pitch, caused by the fundamental and the rst pair of slot space harmonics when
R
tn
= 5 10
5
m.
3.6 Summary
A model to calculate the inter-bar currents in cage induction motors has been de-
rived. This model requires the stator current and the inter-bar resistivity as input
parameters. Simulations have shown that the inter-bar current density is increasing
rapidly with decreasing inter-bar resistivity. This aects the bar current distribu-
tion and phase angle.
In unskewed rotors the inter-bar currents are focused towards the rotor ends, and
their magnitude is directly determined by the ratio of short-circuit ring impedance
to inter-bar impedance. Unless this ratio is very high, inter-bar currents are small
in unskewed rotors and can therefore be neglected.
When the rotor is skewed by one stator slot pitch inter-bar currents increase.
This eect is most signicant for rotor currents that are caused by the slot space
harmonics. For the studied machine, the inter-bar currents are reduced to a negli-
gible level when the bar to shaft resistivity is larger than 5 10
2
m. In this case
rotor skewing becomes eective.
Chapter 4
Eects during a direct-on-line start
When a cage induction motor is started directly against the grid, the presence of
skin eect and leakage path saturation has large impact on the machine perfor-
mance. The high frequency of the fundamental slot leakage ux gives rise to high
current density in the upper parts of the rotor bars. As a result, the eective bar
resistance is increased and the eective bar inductance is decreased. The start-
ing currents will generate large dierential and slot leakage uxes. This saturates
the dierential and slot leakage ux paths, which will reduce the corresponding
leakage inductances. It also creates additional iron losses in the stator and rotor
teeth. These factors have to be taken into to account when calculating the starting
performance of the machine.
4.1 Skin eect in the rotor bars
A good starting performance usually implies high starting torque and low starting
current, requiring a high rotor resistance and a high rotor leakage inductance. On
the other hand, to obtain a high full load eciency and to ensure a reasonable
margin of overload capability, low rotor resistance and leakage inductance is prefer-
able. This trade-o between starting performance and rated eciency is a classical
problem for the induction motor designer [19].
However, during an induction motor start when the rotor frequency equals the
mains frequency, advantage is taken of the skin eect. In the deep bar rotor shown
in Figure 4.1(a), the self inductance is highest at the bottom of the bar. During
a start when the rotor frequency is high, the rotor current is focused towards the
upper parts of the bar. As a result, the rotor bar losses are increasing and a larger
torque is produced. This is normally modeled by an increased equivalent bar re-
sistance and a decreased bar inductance. When the rotor has accelerated up to
nominal speed the rotor frequency is very low, resulting in an evenly distributed
bar current. Utilizing the whole rotor bar area ensures a low slip and therefore
41
42 CHAPTER 4. EFFECTS DURING A DIRECT-ON-LINE START
(a) Deep bar. (b) Double cage. (c) Bar in the studied
machine.
Figure 4.1: Dierent types of rotor bars.
reduced losses. Analytical expressions for the frequency dependent impedances of
dierent deep bar rotors have been derived by Liwschitz-Garik in [20].
With the introduction of the double cage rotor shown in Figure 4.1(b), the
AC-resistance of the bar can be increased even further. The idea is to create two
parallel current paths in the rotor bar, one with low resistance and high inductance
to conduct most of the current at rated speed, and one with high resistance and
low inductance which will conduct the largest part of the current during start. An
analytical method for performance calculations of multiple squirrel cage rotors has
been presented by Alger in [19]. Finite element modeling of a double cage rotor has
shown good correlation with analytical methods [21]. In this work Williamson and
Gersh highlight the eects of magnetic saturation, showing that the phenomena has
a considerable eect on the leakage inductance, while the eects on the frequency
dependent resistance is of minor importance.
The drawback with the analytical models is that they are restricted to a cer-
tain slot geometry, which is often quite simple. In the case of more complicated
geometries numerical methods are preferable.
4.1.1 Numerical method used to account for skin eect
In this thesis the skin eect is taken into account by the use of a one-dimensional
numerical model described in [22]. Besides the accuracy, the main advantage of
using this method is that it can easily be adapted for dierent slot geometries. The
drawback might be that it requires a software with a numerical solver. However,
the exibility of the method denitely makes it worth the eort. In the following
a brief description of the model is presented, giving the assumptions used and the
main equations describing the theory.
4.1. SKIN EFFECT IN THE ROTOR BARS 43
The following assumptions are made:
The magnetic eld lines are crossing the rotor bar perpendicular to the slot
sides.
The rotor iron reluctance is negligible.
The current density is axial-symmetrical in the slot.
The rotor bar current density J varies sinusoidally in time with angular fre-
quency .
The bar is modeled with a large number of rectangular segments of equal height.
Figure 4.2 shows the dimensions of the v
th
segment. Within this section Maxwells
induction law denes the induced electric eld

E
v
, produced by the ux density
eld

B
v
.

E
v
=
B
v
t
(4.1)
With rectangular slot sections dened in a cartesian coordinate system according to
Figure 4.2, and with a bar current dened in the positive y-direction, the induction
law can be rewritten as:
e
x
E
y
(z)
v
z
= e
x
B
x
(z)
v
t
(4.2)
With section resistivity
v
and a current density

J
v
varying sinusoidally in time,
the rst equation within the system can be dened as:
v
dJ
y
(z)
v
dz
= j
0
H
x
(z)
v
(4.3)
Neglecting the displacement current, Amperes circuit law states that the mag-
netic eld

H
v
is generated by an electrical current according to:

H
v
=

J
v
(4.4)
Assuming that the bar width is equal to the slot width, which is reasonable in a
casted rotor, the following is obtained:
e
y
H
x
(z)
v
z
= e
y
J
y
(4.5)
Which denes the second and the last equation within the system as:
dH
x
(z)
v
dz
= J
y
(4.6)
z
x
y
b
v
h
v
Figure 4.2: The v
th
section of the rotor slot.
If section i carries the current I
i
, the rst boundary condition can be obtained from
Amperes law.
b
v
H
x
(z = h
v
)
v
= b
v+1
H
x
(z = 0)
v+1
=
v
i=0
I
i
(4.7)
As the sections are short-circuited at the bar ends the voltages over all sections are
equal, giving the nal boundary condition as:
v+1
J
y
(z = 0)
v+1
=
v
J
y
(z = h
v
)
v
(4.8)
These equations are part of the iterative process described in Figure 4.3. For
a known bar current I
bar
with the angular frequency , this method calculates
the bar current distribution and phase. The corresponding impedance correction
factors are then obtained from:
k
r
=
P
AC
P
DC
(4.9)
k
x
=
W
AC
W
DC
(4.10)
Where the active power P and the stored magnetic energy W are simply calculated
as:
P =
nsec
v=0
|I
v
|
2
b
v
h
v
(4.11)
W =
1
2
nsec
v=0
h
v
b
v
i=0
I
i
2
(4.12)
I
v=0
=
I
bar
nsec
Calculate J
v+1
Error =
|
nsec
i=0
Ii|I
bar
I
bar
OK?
I
v=0
= I
v=0
(1 Error)
Calculate k
r
and k
x
For: n
sec
NO YES
Figure 4.3: Procedure for the calculation of the impedance correction factors k
r
and k
x
that accounts for skin- eect.
4.1.2 Verication with FEM
In order to verify the model, the radial distribution of the locked rotor bar current
was calculated using harmonic analysis in Flux2D. The studied 4-pole machine is
equipped with a rotor having 28 rotor slots, casted with either aluminium or copper.
Figure 4.4(a) shows the magnitude of the locked rotor bar current density for a
number of rotor bars corresponding to one pole. The result is somewhat depending
on the relative position between the bar and the stator core. The corresponding
current distribution obtained by the proposed model, for same current, is shown
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
o
f
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
_
A
m
m
2
_
Radial position in rotor bar [mm]
bar 1
bar 2
bar 3
bar 4
bar 5
bar 6
bar 7
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
(a) FEM-simulation.
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
o
f
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
_
A
m
m
2
_One-dimensional numerical method
FEM - average
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
(b) Proposed numerical method.
Figure 4.4: Locked rotor bar current density for the aluminium rotor.
P
h
a
s
e
[
]
bar 1
bar 2
bar 3
bar 4
bar 5
bar 6
bar 7
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
50
100
150
(a) FEM-simulation.
P
h
a
s
e
[
]
One-dimensional numerical method
FEM - average
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
50
100
150
Figure 4.5: Locked rotor bar current phase angle relative to the bottom of the bar
for the aluminium rotor.
in Figure 4.4(b). The method used shows good correlation with the FEM results,
except in the upper parts of the bar. This is due to saturation of the rotor tooth
tips. As a result, the current density in the top of the bar is overestimated by 22
%.
Figure 4.5(a) shows the phase angle of the bar current density with reference
to the current owing at the bottom of the slot. The result obtained from the
proposed model is shown in Figure 4.5(b), which indicates a slightly overestimated
inductance in the top of the bar.
As part of the goal of this thesis is to study the dierences between aluminium
and copper casted rotors, the corresponding simulation is performed with a copper
rotor. The results are shown in Figures 4.6 and 4.7. Due to the lower resistivity of
copper the skin depth is smaller, resulting in a more pronounced skin-eect. This
is seen in the results as a slightly increased saturation of the tooth tips. As a con-
sequence, the current density at the top of the bar is overestimated by 28 %.
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
o
f
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
_
A
m
m
2
_
bar 1
bar 2
bar 3
bar 4
bar 5
bar 6
bar 7
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
(a) FEM-simulation.
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
o
f
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
d
e
n
s
i
t
y
_
A
m
m
2
_Analytical
FEM - average
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
50
100
150
200
250
Figure 4.6: Locked rotor bar current density for the copper rotor.
P
h
a
s
e
[
]
bar 1
bar 2
bar 3
bar 4
bar 5
bar 6
bar 7
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
(a) FEM-simulation.
P
h
a
s
e
[
]
Analytical
FEM - average
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
Figure 4.7: Locked rotor bar current phase relative to the bottom of the bar for
the copper rotor.
When simulating the machine performance the skin eect correction factors are
multiplied with the corresponding DC-values, giving the eective AC-values. Based
on the presented theory these factors vary with the rotor frequency according to
Figure 4.8. The more pronounced skin-eect in the copper rotor will somewhat
compensate for the lower resistivity. If the locked rotor torque should be main-
tained when changing from aluminium rotor to copper rotor, the rotor slot must be
redesigned. In this case, it could be obtained by the use of a double cage conductor,
increasing the skin-eect even further, but at the expense of reduced power factor
at rated speed.
Frequency [Hz]
S
k
i
n
e
e
c
t
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
i
o
n
f
a
c
t
o
r
s
kr - Al
kx - Al
kr - Cu
kx - Cu
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
2.2
2.4
2.6
Figure 4.8: Skin-eect correction factors for the studied rotor slot.
4.2 Saturation of the leakage paths
At low rotor speeds when the current is high, the large dierential and slot leakage
uxes saturate the stator and rotor tooth tips. Regarding the rotor slots, this was
already indicated in the previous section. The slot design has a large impact on
the saturation level during a start, especially the design of the tooth tips. In [23],
Agarwal and Alger show that if the tooth tips are designed correctly, a reduction
of the starting current can be obtained with a negligible change of the power fac-
tor at rated speed. There are dierent techniques to account for these saturation
eects. One idea is to adjust the length of the slot opening depending on the level
of estimated saturation [24]. In [25], Chalmers introduce saturation factors similar
to those commonly used to account for skin-eect, showing good agreement with
measurements.
The tooth tip saturation will aect the distribution of all space harmonics.
However, the complete analysis of these eects is beyond the scope of this thesis.
In this work the inuence of the leakage path saturation on the fundamental current
is investigated. In order to simplify the analysis a combined analytical and nite
element model is used. The method denes impedance correction factors depending
on the fundamental current. These equations are then solved with initial values
from a FEM-simulated locked rotor test.
4.2. SATURATION OF THE LEAKAGE PATHS 49
4.2.1 Model used to account for saturation
During an online start the rotor impedance is much smaller than the magnetizing
impedance. The magnetizing branch in the equivalent circuit can therefore be
neglected at low rotor speeds. The resulting circuit is shown in Figure 4.9. The
stator and rotor resistances are usually quite small. The starting current is therefore
mainly determined by the value of the leakage inductances. The saturated reactance
is dened as:
X
sat
=
1
k
sat
X
unsat
(4.13)
The large fundamental current is the reason for the leakage path saturation. The
model is developed based on the assumption that the level of leakage paths satu-
ration is proportional to the stator current. If the saturation factor is assumed to
have the following variation with the rotor slip;
k
sat
(s) = 1 +
A
B +
1
s
(4.14)
the validity of the model will depend on the denition of the constants A and B.
The rst condition used for the calculation of these constants is obtained from a
nite element simulation of a locked-rotor test. From this simulation the saturation
factors can be obtained giving the boundary condition as zero speed.
k
sat
(s = 1) = k
FEM
(s = 1) (4.15)
Based on the results from the FEM-simulation, the stator current is studied as
function of the terminal voltage. Figures 4.10(a) and 4.10(b) show the normalized
current for the aluminum rotor and the copper rotor, respectively. The red lines
showing the starting current obtained if saturation is neglected. Du to saturation
eects the starting current is increased by as much as 37 % for the copper motor
U
1
+
I
1
R
1
jX
1
R
21
s
jX
21
Figure 4.9: Equivalent circuit during online start.
Normalized stator voltage
_
U
Un
_
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
z
e
d
s
t
a
t
o
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
_
I
I
n
_
FEM - IFEM
Linear extrapolation - Ik
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
(a) Aluminium rotor.
Normalized stator voltage
_
U
Un
_
N
o
r
m
a
l
i
s
e
d
s
t
a
t
o
r
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
_
I
I
n
_
FEM - IFEM
Linear extrapolation - Ik
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
(b) Copper rotor.
Figure 4.10: FEM-simulated locked rotor test.
and 34 % for the aluminium motor. The saturation factor at zero speed is dened
as:
k
FEM
(s = 1) =
I
FEM
I
k
(4.16)
The stator current remains quite high during the rotor acceleration, up to the
speed where the peak-torque occurs, above this speed it decreases rapidly. The
value of the current at this point is therefore used when dening the second condi-
tion for the calculation of the constants A and B. The stator current at peak-torque
I
p
, can be estimated from the locked rotor current by the use of a circle diagram.
According to Alm in [26], when neglecting the magnetizing current and the iron
losses, this current is obtained as shown in Figure 4.11.
The phase displacement between the stator voltage and current
k
is, for the
studied machine, close to 60
, for both the aluminium rotor and the copper rotor. In

this case, the graphical solution of the problem gives the following relation between
the starting current and the current at peak torque:
I
p
=
1
3
I
k
(4.17)
Thus, the saturation factor is decreased by the same amount giving:
k
sat
(s = s
p
) = 1 +
k
FEM
(s = 1) 1
3
(4.18)
Neglecting the stator resistance, the corresponding speed is found as:
s
p
=
R
21
X
21
(4.19)
4.2. SATURATION OF THE LEAKAGE PATHS 51
I
p
I
k
k
Figure 4.11: Simplied circle diagram for the induction motor dening the starting
current and the current at break-down torque.
Based on Equation 4.14, with the conditions dened by Equations 4.16 and 4.18,
the saturation factor can be obtained as a function of fundamental rotor slip. The
method ensures that the saturation factor is roughly proportional to the stator
current during a start. Figure 4.12 shows the saturation factors for the studied
machine as a function of rotor speed. As the peak-torque occurs at a higher speed
for the copper rotor, the two saturation curves becomes a bit dierent. In the
Rotor speed [ 100 rpm]
S
a
t
u
r
a
t
i
o
n
f
a
c
t
o
r
Al-rotor
Cu-rotor
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
1
1.05
1.1
1.15
1.2
1.25
1.3
1.35
1.4
Figure 4.12: Saturation factors as a function of rotor speed.
forthcoming analysis, this method is used when calculating the fundamental stator
current during a direct-online-start.
4.2.2 Iron losses due to leakage ux
The large leakage ux during start gives rise to additional iron losses in the stator
and rotor teeth. In the equivalent circuit, these losses can be modeled by introduc-
ing additional resistances in parallel with the stator and rotor leakage reactances
[22], as shown in Figure 4.13.
As a result, the equivalent leakage reactance is reduced and the equivalent
resistance is increased. Referred to the stator side, the increase in resistance is
given by;
R(s) = k
LR
(X
1
+ X
21
)
s (4.20)
and the reduction of the leakage reactance is given by;
X(s) = k
LX
(X
1
+ X
21
)
s (4.21)
Where X
1
is the stator leakage reactance and X
21
is the rotor leakage reactance,
referred to the stator side. The coecients k
LR
and k
LR
are empirical constants
that are obtained from short-circuit tests on a large number of rotors.
These values can be used when correcting the analytical starting current ac-
cording to measurements.
X
R
Fe
+R X X
Figure 4.13: Additional resistance taking iron losses into account.
4.3 Rotor losses and starting torque
In Chapter 3, the rotor bar currents were derived as a function of stator current and
inter-bar resistivity. The case study of the 4-pole machine having 36 stator slots
and 44 rotor slots showed the eects of a nite inter-bar resistance on bar current
distribution. In this section the corresponding torque is calculated, showing the
eects of inter-bar currents on the starting performance.
4.3.1 Rotor losses during a start
According to the model used, the losses created within the rotor cage is derived
from three dierent regions. The rotor bars, the short-circuit rings and the contact
4.3. ROTOR LOSSES AND STARTING TORQUE 53
region between bar and core. This denes the total loss created by a bar current of
order n as:
P
2n
= P
bn
+ P
rn
+ P
tn
(4.22)
Where the bar losses are;
P
bn
= Q
r
R
bn
_
2
2
I
bn
(x)
2
dx (4.23)
and the end ring losses, derived through the ring currents becomes:
P
rn
= Q
r
R
an
I
bn
(
2
)
2
+ I
bn
(
2
)
2
_
1 e
jnp
Qr
_
2
(4.24)
Finally the inter-bar current losses created in the contact region.
P
tn
= Q
r
R
n
_
2
2
J
tn
(x)
2
dx (4.25)
The airgap power, which is the power transferred through the airgap, is given
by:
P
n
=
T
n
np
2
(4.26)
Together with the equation describing the relation between airgap power and cage
losses,
P
2n
= s
n
P
n
(4.27)
the developed shaft torque is obtained as:
T
n
=
P
2n
s
n
np
2
(4.28)
The total shaft torque is given by the sum of all the harmonic torques.
T =
n=1
T
n
(4.29)
If the torque of order n at slip s
n
is positive, it contributes to the acceleration. If
it is negative it counteracts the accelerating torque, reducing the acceleration.
4.3.2 Eects of a nite inter-bar resistance on starting torque
In Chapter 3 it was indicated that the inter-bar currents are of minor importance
in the unskewed rotor. This is further reinforced by Figure 4.14(a), showing the
obtained starting torque. The total torque is more or less the same for all the
studied inter-bar resistivities. Although fundamental inter-bar currents are present
Speed [rpm]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
5 10
6
R
tn
5 10
2
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
(a) Total torque.
Speed [rpm]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
n = 1
n = 5
n = 7
n = 11
n = 13
n = 17
n = 19
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
-150
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
(b) Torque components.
Figure 4.14: Starting torque of Motor A with unskewed rotor.
4.3. ROTOR LOSSES AND STARTING TORQUE 55
at the rotor ends at zero speed, the inter-bar resistivity is too small to create any
torque.
As expected for an unskewed rotor, there are large asynchronous torques during
start-up. The torque components considered are shown separately in Figure 4.14(b).
Apart from the fundamental component, the dominating torques are those created
by the rst order slot harmonics. These torques reduce the rotor acceleration during
the start, and at rated speed they create additional losses. It should be noted that
these torques do not become zero at fundamental synchronous speed. A small
breaking torque at this high speed can create considerable additional losses. Again,
at no-load when the main ux path usually is saturated, these braking torques are
increased even further due to the increased fundamental current. This eect is not
included in this simulation.
However, these eects are one of the reasons why rotors generally are skewed.
Figure 4.15 shows the starting torque when the rotor is skewed by one stator slot
pitch. When the inter-bar resistivity is high the asynchronous torques caused by
the slot harmonics are eciently suppressed. When the inter-bar resistivity gets
lower the starting torque decreases rapidly. And at a certain level the machine
might not even be able to start.
Speed [rpm]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
R
tn
= 5 10
2
m
R
tn
= 5 10
3
m
R
tn
= 5 10
4
m
R
tn
= 5 10
5
m
R
tn
= 5 10
6
m
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Figure 4.15: Starting torque of Motor A with a rotor skewed by one stator slot
pitch.
Speed [rpm]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
R
tn
= 5 10
2
m
R
tn
= 5 10
3
m
R
tn
= 5 10
4
m
R
tn
= 5 10
5
m
R
tn
= 5 10
6
m
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275 275
(a) Fundamental torque.
Speed [rpm]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
R
tn
= 5 10
2
m
R
tn
= 5 10
3
m
R
tn
= 5 10
4
m
R
tn
= 5 10
5
m
R
tn
= 5 10
6
m
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
(b) Torque caused by slot harmonics, dashed lines are representing n = 1
2Qs
p
and solid lines are representing n = 1 +
2Qs
p
.
Figure 4.16: Main torque components for Motor A with a rotor skewed by one
stator slot pitch.
4.4. SUMMARY 57
As there are inter-bar currents having fundamental rotor frequency, the fun-
damental torque is increased. This can be seen in Figure 4.16(a), showing the
fundamental components at dierent inter-bar resistivities, indicating that a con-
siderable increase of the fundamental torque can be obtained. However, for this
machine, in the motoring region the braking torques are obviously larger than this
increase. The torques created by the rst pair of slot harmonics are the main
cause of this eect, shown in Figure 4.16(b). For low inter-bar resistivities, the
asynchronous torques are much larger than in the unskewed rotor, and their mag-
nitudes remain large even at speeds well above their synchronous speed. This can
result in a considerable decrease of the pull-out torque. This machine will most
likely have large stray-load losses unless the cage is insulated.
4.4 Summary
When a cage induction motor is started directly against the grid, diculties may
arise in the calculation of the starting current. FEM-simulations of the studied ma-
chine have shown that the starting current is increased by 34% with an aluminum
rotor and 37% with a copper rotor due to the presence of leakage path saturation.
A numerical model used to account for the skin-eect has been veried with
FEM-simulations. A combined analytical and nite element model has been devel-
oped for the calculation of the fundamental starting current, taking saturation of
the slot- and dierential leakage paths into account. A method to introduce the
eects of additional iron losses during a start has been introduced.
It have been shown that the eects of the inter-bar currents on the starting
torque in unskewed rotors are of minor importance. While in skewed rotors, the
inter-bar currents can have a considerable eect on the motor starting performance.
The inter-bar currents having fundamental frequency, contribute to the fundamen-
tal torque, i.e. they create useful torque and should not be considered as a source
of losses. It have been shown that the inter-bar currents created by the slot har-
monics can cause large asynchronous torques and are still very large even at speeds
well above their synchronous speed, resulting in a reduced pull-out torque. In some
cases the machine might not even be able to start.
Chapter 5
Simulation results and measurements
In this chapter, the 11 kW machine having 36 stator slots and 28 rotor slots is
simulated with either an aluminium- or a copper cage rotor, skewed by one stator
slot pitch. The dierences in starting performance between the copper and the alu-
minium rotor is studied. In the analysis, the starting torque is calculated using the
values of inter-bar resistivities obtained from measurements on the corresponding
rotors. The additional rotor losses at rated speed, caused by the inter-bar currents,
are also calculated as a function of the inter-bar resistivity.
In order to verify the results, measurements of the starting current and torque
have been performed.
5.1 Simulation results
Based on the models described in the previous chapters, the machine performance
is calculated at dierent rotor slips s and inter-bar resistivities R
tn
. In the anal-
ysis, space harmonics of order n, up to the rst pair of stator slot harmonics are
considered. The calculation procedure is described in the ow-chart in Figure 5.1.
5.1.1 Starting torque
The torque speed characteristics for the two rotor concepts are calculated when
starting direct-on-line at rated voltage, neglecting the line impedance.
First the torque is calculated assuming insulated rotor bars. Secondly the mea-
sured inter-bar resistivities are used for the study of inter-bar eects. Figure 5.2
shows the torque speed characteristics in the case of insulated and uninsulated rotor
bars for the two motor concepts.
In the case of insulated rotor bars, the stator slot harmonics are suciently sup-
pressed by the rotor skew. Since the 5
th
and the 7
th
space harmonics have larger
wave lengths than the slot harmonics, they still cause asynchronous torques. As
59
60 CHAPTER 5. SIMULATION RESULTS AND MEASUREMENTS
Start
For: Rtn
For: n
For: s
If n = 1 If n = 1
Calculate coecients accounting for;
skin-eect, saturation and additional iron losses.
Calculate stator current
from equivalent circuit.
Calculate the rotor- ring, bar
and inter-bar currents.
Calculate the terminal voltage from
the stator and rotor uxes.
Is the terminal voltage correct?
Yes
No
Calculate the rotor losses and torque.
Calculate skin-eect coecients.
From the fundamental stator
current, calculate; rotor- ring,
bar and inter-bar currents.
Estimate a new value
of the stator current.
End
Figure 5.1: Procedure for the calculation of motor performance at dierent speeds
and inter-bar resistivities.
5.1. SIMULATION RESULTS 61
Speed [rpm]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
Al
Cu
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
0
50
100
150
200
250
(a) Calculated for insulated rotor bars.
Speed [rpm]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
Al with R
tn
= 8, 0 m
Cu with R
tn
= 0, 35 m
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
0
50
100
150
200
250
(b) Calculated at measured values of inter-bar resistivity.
Figure 5.2: Simulated starting torque for the studied aluminium and copper rotors
skewed by one stator slot pitch.
Speed [rpm]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
n = 1
n = 5
n = 7
n = 11
n = 13
n = 17
n = 19
0 500 1000 1500
-50
-25
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275 275
(a) Aluminium rotor with Rtn = 8, 0 m.
Speed [rpm]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
n = 1
n = 5
n = 7
n = 11
n = 13
n = 17
n = 19
0 500 1000 1500
-50
-25
0
25
50
75
100
125
150
175
200
225
250
275 275
(b) Copper rotor with Rtn = 0, 35 m.
Figure 5.3: Starting torque components for the studied aluminium and copper
rotors calculated with measured values of inter-bar resistivity.
5.1. SIMULATION RESULTS 63
there are no inter-bar currents, the pull-out torques were expected to be the same
for the two motor concepts. However, the short-circuit ring of the copper rotor is
somewhat smaller than the short-circuit ring of the aluminium rotor. This, com-
bined with the fact that the copper motor is slightly more saturated in the leakage
paths during a start, results in a somewhat higher pull-out torque of the copper
rotor.
With uninsulated rotor bars, the skewing is no longer as eective. Large asyn-
chronous torques occurs due to the rst order slot harmonics, indicating inter-bar
current ow. Contrary to the results obtained for the motor having 44 rotor slots
simulated in chapter 4, the inter-bar currents seem to increase the pull-out torque
of the aluminum rotor. The pull-out torque is now 4,5 % higher in the aluminium
rotor than in the copper rotor. This is most likely due to a more suitable slot num-
ber combination, reducing the inuence of the slot harmonics on the starting torque.
The dierent torque components contributing to the starting torque in the alu-
minium and the copper rotor are shown in Figure 5.3(a) and Figure 5.3(b), re-
spectively. Due to the very low inter-bar resistivity in the copper rotor, the slot
harmonic torques becomes quite narrow, resulting in a lower braking torque at high
speeds than the the corresponding torques in the aluminium rotor. From these re-
sults it can be concluded that, for the studied machine, the higher pull-out torque
of the aluminium rotor is rather due to an increase of the fundamental torque than
due to the braking torques from the space harmonics in the copper rotor.
5.1.2 Rotor losses at rated speed
At rated speed the airgap space harmonics create high frequency rotor cage losses.
If the rotor bars are insulated these losses can be suppressed by rotor skewing. In-
vestigation of the starting torque characteristics has however indicated that unin-
sulated rotor bars increase the high frequency currents in the rotor circuit. The
dependency of the rotor stray-load losses is therefore studied as a function of the
inter-bar resistivity at rated power.
As the torque depends on the inter-bar resistivity the slip is recalculated to
maintain the shaft power. In order to get a realistic value of the rotor slip, the
simulation is performed at a motor temperature of 75 , and measured values
of friction- and iron losses are included in the analysis. Since the temperature
dependency of the inter-bar resistivity is unknown, no correction is performed on
this value. Figure 5.4 shows the high frequency cage losses obtained in the studied
machines, the rotors being either skewed by one stator slot pitch or unskewed.
The rotor without skew is not aected by inter-bar currents, as long as the
impedance of the short circuit ring to inter-bar resistance ratio is low. When the
rotor is skewed by one stator slot pitch and the rotor bars are insulated, the volt-
ages induced by the stator slot harmonics are eciently suppressed. The resulting
Inter-bar resistivity Rtn [m]
A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
r
o
t
o
r
l
o
s
s
e
s
[
W
]
s = 1
s = 0
Rtn Al-1
Rtn Al-2
10
8
10
6
10
4
10
2
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
(a) Aluminium rotor
Inter-bar resistivity Rtn [m]
A
d
d
i
t
i
o
n
a
l
r
o
t
o
r
l
o
s
s
e
s
[
W
]
s = 1
s = 0
Rtn Cu-1
Rtn Cu-2
Rtn Cu-3
10
8
10
6
10
4
10
2
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
(b) Copper rotor.
Figure 5.4: High frequency cage losses as a function of inter-bar resistivity R
tn
at
75 .
losses are mainly due to the lower order phase belt harmonics.
As the bar to core resistance decreases from a very large value, the high fre-
quency losses start to increase rapidly. The maximum value of these losses is
strongly inuenced by the number of stator and rotor slots [15]. According to the
model used, for the studied machine, these losses can be as large as 1 % of the
output power. If the bar to core resistivity is reduced even further, the additional
losses starts to decrease, and reaches the value of losses equal to the losses of the
unskewed rotor. The higher bar to core resistivity in the aluminium rotor is, in this
case, resulting in higher inter-bar current losses than the equivalent copper rotor.
5.2 Measurements of starting torque
The torque during start-up was measured on the rotors having 28 slots skewed by
one stator slot pitch. One aluminum rotor and one copper rotor have been tested.
The torque was measured dynamically during start when the machine was loaded
with a ywheel. The unltered torque signal was sampled at a high frequency
and the signal noise in the sampled data was suppressed by the use of a low-pass
butterworth lter of the 5th order with a cut-o frequency selected suciently high.
5.2.1 Measurement setup
A rotating torque transducer was used to measure the torque. The torque trans-
ducer, Magtrol TM-312 rated at 200 Nm, was mounted between the motor shaft
and the ywheel, according to Figure 5.2. The ywheel, having a moment of inertia
5.2. MEASUREMENTS OF STARTING TORQUE 65
Flywheel
Torque
transducer
Motor
Figure 5.5: Setup for measurements of starting torque.
of 1.6 kgm
2
, reduces the rotor acceleration making it possible to capture the torque
signal.
First, the 4-pole motor was accelerated in reverse direction to 1000 rpm. Then,
the torque was measured after shifting two phases of the sinusoidal supply voltage,
forcing the machine to accelerate in the opposite direction. By doing this, the in-
uence of the asynchronous torques could be measured with minimum distortion
from the switching transient.
Time [s]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
Measured
Filtered
0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
(a) Torque
Time [s]
S
p
e
e
d
[
r
p
m
]
Measured
Filtered
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
-800
-400
0
400
800
1200
1600 1600
(b) Speed.
Figure 5.6: Measured and ltered torque and speed as a function of time.
Using this measuring procedure, resulted in an acceleration time of approxi-
mately 3 seconds for the copper rotor at rated voltage. Figure 5.6 shows a typical
result of the measured torque and speed as a function of time. The red lines show
the corresponding values obtained after the ltering process. One can see that the
there are huge uctuations in the torque when starting direct-on-line. Therefore,
the use of a low-pass lter is necessary in order to validate the static model used
in the analysis.
5.2.2 Results from measurements
The RMS-value of the starting current, obtained after postprocessing of the mea-
sured sinusoidal current, is shown in Figure 5.7(a) and Figure 5.7(b) for the alu-
minium and the copper rotor, respectively. The current has been adjusted linearly
to account for the voltage drop during start. For a comparison, the corresponding
analytical values are calculated in three dierent ways. Firstly, they are calculated
by only considering the skin eect in the rotor bars. Secondly, the eect of satura-
tion of the leakage paths is introduced. And nally, the eect of iron losses in the
leakage paths is included.
From these results it can be concluded that the high level of leakage ux during
a start has considerable impact on the starting current due to saturation eects
and iron losses. These eects have to be considered when calculating a machines
starting performance.
Figure 5.8 shows the measured starting torques for the two rotor concepts. The
torque has been adjusted in quadratic relation to the voltage to account for the
voltage drop during the start. Large asynchronous torques are caused by the rst
order stator slot harmonics. This veries the prediction from the analytical model,
Speed [rpm]
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
A
]
Measured
Skin-eect
Skin-eect + saturation
Skin-eect + saturation + iron-losses
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
(a) Aluminium rotor
Speed [rpm]
C
u
r
r
e
n
t
[
A
]
Measured
Skin-eect
Skin-eect + saturation
Skin-eect + saturation + iron-losses
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
(b) Copper rotor.
Figure 5.7: Simulated and measured starting currents.
5.2. MEASUREMENTS OF STARTING TORQUE 67
Speed [rpm]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
Al
Cu
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
0
50
100
150
200
250
Figure 5.8: Measured torque for the aluminium and the copper rotor when starting
direct-on-line at rated voltage.
which showed that the inter-bar currents are counteracting the eect of rotor skew,
and that the pull-out torque of the aluminum rotor is higher than for the copper
rotor. The measured pull-out torque of the aluminium rotor is 7 % higher than the
pull-out torque of the copper rotor. This is even larger than expected theoretically.
After the introduction of the coecients accounting for additional iron losses in
the leakage paths, the simulated starting current correlated well with the measure-
ments. By comparing the corresponding starting torques, one can get an idea of
the accuracy of the analytical model used to calculate the rotor losses. Figure 5.9
shows a comparison between the measured and the simulated starting torques for
the two rotor concepts.
It should be mentioned that, since the simulations are based on a static model,
it is dicult to model rapid changes in the rotor acceleration. That is probably
the reason for the overestimated pull-out torques. However, given that the machine
is heavily saturated during start, the overall torque speed characteristics show ac-
ceptable correlation, except for the asynchronous torque caused by the 5
th
space
harmonic, which is overestimated by the analytical model. Regarding the asyn-
chronous torque caused by the 7
th
space harmonic, it is dicult to draw conclusions
as a synchronous torque is present at the same speed.
As a result of the calculated rotor losses caused by the inter-bar currents, the
Speed [rpm]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
Simulated
Measured
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
0
50
100
150
200
250
(a) Aluminium rotor
Speed [rpm]
T
o
r
q
u
e
[
N
m
]
Simulated
Measured
-400 -200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
0
50
100
150
200
250
(b) Copper rotor.
Figure 5.9: Simulated and measured torques for the aluminium and the copper
rotor when starting direct-on-line at rated voltage.
5.3. SUMMARY 69
torque speed characteristic of the slot harmonic torques was predicted to be dif-
ferent for the copper- and the aluminium rotors. This result is veried by the
measurements, showing a similar behavior, indicating that the analytical model
seems to give a reasonable estimate of the inter-bar current losses.
Note that the rotor slot harmonics are neglected in the analysis, which results
in less distortion of the simulated torque, especially since the rotor slots are semi-
closed and not closed.
5.3 Summary
Good agreement has been demonstrated between simulated and measured starting
characteristics for Motor B, for both aluminium and copper rotors.
Simulations have shown that the pull-out torque of the studied aluminium rotor
is higher than that for the equivalent copper rotor. This is rather due to an increase
of the fundamental starting torque of the aluminium rotor, than due to the braking
torques from the space harmonics in the copper rotor.
Measurements have shown that the dierence between the pull-out torques is
even larger than calculated from the model. The measured pull-out torque of the
studied aluminium rotor was 7 % higher than for the equivalent copper rotor.
Thereby, it can be concluded that the inter-bar currents have a considerable eect
on motor starting performance.
At rated speed the braking torques are larger in the aluminium rotor than in
the copper rotor. This is seen as increased harmonic joule losses in the rotor cage.
Simulations have shown, that these losses can be as large as 1 % of the output
power for the studied machine.
Chapter 6
Conclusions and Future work
6.1 Conclusions
A numerical model used to account for the skin-eect has been veried with FEM-
simulations. A combined analytical and nite element model has been developed
for the calculation of the fundamental starting current, taking saturation of the
slot- and dierential leakage paths into account. A method to introduce the eects
of additional iron losses during a start has been introduced. FEM-simulations of
the studied machine have shown that the starting current is increased with approx-
imately 35 % due to the presence of leakage path saturation and skin-eect.
A test-rig has been built for the measuring of rotor voltages, from which the
inter-bar resistivity has been calculated. Measurements have shown that the inter-
bar resistivity is as much as 10 times higher in cast aluminum than in cast copper
rotors. The aluminium rotors showed results indicating an unevenly distribution
of the inter-bar resistivity, while the copper rotors where indicating a more evenly
distributed inter-bar resistivity.
A model to include the eects of inter-bar currents in cage induction motors
has been derived. Simulations have shown that the inter-bar current density is
increasing rapidly with decreasing inter-bar resistivity in skewed machines. This
aects the bar current distribution and phase angle in such a way that the skewing
is made ineective, these results are consistent with the ndings in [18].
It have been shown that in skewed rotors, the inter-bar currents can have a
considerable eect on the motor starting performance. The inter-bar currents hav-
ing fundamental frequency, contribute to the fundamental torque, i.e. they create
useful torque and should not be considered as a source of losses. It have been
shown that the inter-bar currents created by the slot harmonics can cause huge
asynchronous torques and are still very large even at speeds well above their syn-
71
72 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK
chronous speed, resulting in a reduced pull-out torque. For Motor A, in some cases
the machine might not even be able to start. These eects are strongly dependent
on the combination of number of stator and rotor slots.
Good agreement has been demonstrated between simulated and measured start-
ing characteristics for Motor B with both aluminium and copper casted rotors.
Simulations have shown that the pull-out torque is 4,5% higher for the aluminium
rotor than for the equivalent copper rotor. This is rather due to an increase of the
fundamental starting torque of the aluminium rotor, than due to braking torques
from the space harmonics in the copper rotor. Measurements have, however, shown
that the dierence between the pull-out torques is even larger than calculated from
the model. The measured pull-out torque of the studied aluminium rotor was 7%
higher than for the equivalent copper rotor. Thereby, it can be concluded that the
inter-bar currents have a considerable eect on motor starting performance.
At rated speed the braking torques are larger in the aluminium rotor than in
the copper rotor. This is seen as increased harmonic joule losses in the rotor cage.
Simulations have shown, that these losses can be as large as 1% of the output power
for the studied machine.
6.2 Future work guidelines
Based on the results obtained in this thesis, for a cast copper rotor having a suitable
number of slots skewed by one stator slot pitch, one can expect similar performance
as for an equivalent rotor without skewing. This could be veried by measurements
on prototype machines. In case of a cast aluminium rotor, suitable measurements
should be made to verify if the stray-load losses are larger than in cast copper rotors
or not. It could also be favorably to study the starting torque and eciency of a
machine having an unsuitable slot number combination, increasing the inter-bar
current ow, making the verication of the analytical model much easier.
In general, unskewed rotors are said to create larger noise levels than skewed
rotors. As the inter-bar currents seem to counteract the rotor skew, it is of interest
to measure and compare the noise levels of skewed and unskewed rotors having
low inter-bar resistivities. Further, in order to suppress both noise and inter-bar
currents, the concept of asymmetrical rotor slots studied among others in [27],
should be evaluated by measurements on a prototype machine.
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[20] M. Liwschitz-Garik. Skin-eect bars of squirrel-cage rotors. Power Apparatus
and Systems, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers,
73(1):255 258, 1954.
[21] S. Williamson and D. R. Gersh. Finite element calculation of double-cage
rotor equivalent circuit parameters. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion,
11(1):4148, 1996.
[22] C. Sadarangani. Electrical machines - design and analysis of induction and
permanent magnet motors. KTH Hogskoletryckeriet, 2000.
[23] P. D. Agarwal and P. L. Alger. Saturation factors for leakage reactance of in-
duction motors. Power Apparatus and Systems, Transactions of the American
Institute of Electrical Engineers, 79(3):10371042, 1960.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 75
[24] H. M. Norman. Induction motor locked saturation curves. Transactions of the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, 53(4):536 541, 1934.
[25] B. J. Chalmers and R. Dodgson. Saturated leakage reactances of cage induction
motors. Proceedings IEE, 116(8):13951404, 1969.
[26] E. Alm. Elektroteknik, Band 3, Del 2B, Elektromaskinlra - Asynkronmaski-
nens teori, driftegenskaper och berkning. Alb. Bonniers boktryckeri, 1931.
[27] R. Chitroju. Improved Performance Characteristics of Induction Machines
with Non-Skewed Asymmetrical Rotor Slots. Licentiate thesis, Royal Institute
of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden, 2009.
List of Figures
1.1 Stray-load loss components (0,2-37 kW induction motors) [2]. . . . . . . 2
2.1 Rotor test setup for measurements of inter-bar resistance. . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Conducting washer between test-plate and rotor short-circuit ring. . . . 10
2.3 Equivalent circuit of the rotor used for the calculation of the inter-bar
resistivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.4 Calculated voltages for the aluminium rotor at a total current of 200 A. 12
2.5 Calculated voltages for the copper rotor at a total current of 200 A. . . 12
2.6 Two of the studied aluminium and copper rotors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.7 Measured and calculated voltage U
AX
for rotor Al 2 at a total current
of 200 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.8 Measured and calculated voltage U
AX
for rotor Cu 2 at a total current
of 100 A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.1 Denition of bar- and inter-bar currents in a small element of the rotor
circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2 Phase displacement between inter-bar currents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 Denitions of inter-bar resistances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4 Airgap ux density due to current in phase a, Model A. . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5 Airgap ux density due to current in phase a, Model B. . . . . . . . . . 22
3.6 Comparison between analytical and FEM-simulated airgap ux density
at no-load. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.7 Position of a wave of order n at time t = 0 in the rotor reference frame. 25
3.8 Current in bar number k and the corresponding MMF in the airgap. . . 27
3.9 Permeance variation along the airgap circumference as dened by Model
A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.10 Rotor currents at the boundary x =
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.11 Change in rotor bar current due to the interaction with inter-bar currents. 32
3.12 Magnitude of the fundamental locked rotor inter-bar current density and
the resulting angle
1
, for Motor A with unskewed rotor. . . . . . . . . 33
3.13 Magnitude of fundamental locked rotor bar current and the correspond-
ing angle
1
, for Motor A with unskewed rotor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
76
List of Figures 77
3.14 Magnitude of the currents in the unskewed rotor caused by the funda-
mental and the rst pair of slot space harmonics when R
tn
= 5 10
5
m. 35
3.15 Magnitude of the fundamental locked-rotor inter-bar current density and
the resulting angle
1
for Motor A with skewed rotor. . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.16 Magnitude of fundamental locked-rotor bar current and the correspond-
ing angle
1
, for Motor A with skewed rotor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.17 Magnitude of the currents in the rotor skewed by one stator slot pitch,
caused by the fundamental and the rst pair of slot space harmonics
when R
tn
= 5 10
2
m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.18 Magnitude of the currents in the rotor skewed by one stator slot pitch,
caused by the fundamental and the rst pair of slot space harmonics
when R
tn
= 5 10
5
m. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4.1 Dierent types of rotor bars. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.2 The v
th
section of the rotor slot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.3 Procedure for the calculation of the impedance correction factors k
r
and
k
x
that accounts for skin- eect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.4 Locked rotor bar current density for the aluminium rotor. . . . . . . . . 46
4.5 Locked rotor bar current phase angle relative to the bottom of the bar
for the aluminium rotor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.6 Locked rotor bar current density for the copper rotor. . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.7 Locked rotor bar current phase relative to the bottom of the bar for the
copper rotor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.8 Skin-eect correction factors for the studied rotor slot. . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.9 Equivalent circuit during online start. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.10 FEM-simulated locked rotor test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.11 Simplied circle diagram for the induction motor dening the starting
current and the current at break-down torque. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.12 Saturation factors as a function of rotor speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.13 Additional resistance taking iron losses into account. . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.14 Starting torque of Motor A with unskewed rotor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.15 Starting torque of Motor A with a rotor skewed by one stator slot pitch. 55
4.16 Main torque components for Motor A with a rotor skewed by one stator
slot pitch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.1 Procedure for the calculation of motor performance at dierent speeds
and inter-bar resistivities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
5.2 Simulated starting torque for the studied aluminium and copper rotors
skewed by one stator slot pitch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.3 Starting torque components for the studied aluminium and copper rotors
calculated with measured values of inter-bar resistivity. . . . . . . . . . 62
5.4 High frequency cage losses as a function of inter-bar resistivity R
tn
at
75 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.5 Setup for measurements of starting torque. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
78 List of Figures
5.6 Measured and ltered torque and speed as a function of time. . . . . . . 65
5.7 Simulated and measured starting currents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.8 Measured torque for the aluminium and the copper rotor when starting
direct-on-line at rated voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.9 Simulated and measured torques for the aluminium and the copper rotor
when starting direct-on-line at rated voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68

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On Inter-bar Currents in Induction Motors with Cast

Aluminium and Cast Copper Rotors

i cos( t). (3.9)

, for both the aluminium rotor and the copper rotor. In

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