Book Volume II
The
Part
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Contents
1.1.1 Vacuum Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.1.2 Overview of vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1.2 Fundamentals 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 1.2.7 1.2.8 9
Definition of vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 General gas equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Molecular number density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Thermal velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Mean free path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Types of flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 pV throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Conductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 18 18 18 19 20 20 20
1.3 Influences in real vacuum systems 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 1.3.4 1.3.5 1.3.6 Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Condensation and vaporization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Desorption, diffusion, permeation and leaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bake-out . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Residual gas composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Venting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 Basic calculations 2.1 General 2.2 Calculations 2.2.1 Dimensioning a Roots pumping station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Condenser mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Turbopumping stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3.1 Evacuating a vessel to 10-8 hPa with a turbopumping station . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3.2 Pumping high gas loads with turbomolecular pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Piping conductivities 22 22 22 25 27 27 29 30
3 Mechanical components in vacuum 3.1 General 3.2 Materials 3.2.1 Metallic materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1.1 Stainless steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1.2 Carbon steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1.3 Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Sealing materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2.1 Elastomer seals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2.2 Metal seals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 32 33 33 36 36 36 36 37
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3.3 Connections 3.3.1 Non-detachable connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1.1 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1.2 Brazing, fusing and metalizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Detachable flange connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2.1 O-Ring seals and grooves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2.2 ISO-KF flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2.3 ISO-K/ISO-F flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2.4 CF flange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2.5 COF flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2.6 Other flange standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2.7 Screws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Vacuum chambers 38 38 38 39 40 40 41 42 43 44 44 44 47
3.4.1 Processing Surfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3.4.2 Processing Cleaning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 3.5 Components and feedthroughs 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 Hoses and flexible connectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Viewports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electrical feedthroughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other feedthroughs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 49 49 49 50 50 50 51 51 52 52 52 52 53 53 53 54 54 54 54 55 55 56
3.6 Valves 3.6.1 3.6.2 3.6.3 3.6.4 3.6.5 3.6.6 Valve control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Angle valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inline and diaphragm valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gate valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Butterfly and ball valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gas dosing valves and gas control valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Manipulators and mechanical feedthroughs 3.7.1 Operating principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1.1 Translation sealed by diaphragm bellows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1.2 Bellows-sealed rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1.3 Magnetically coupled rotation and translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1.4 Sealed elastomer rotation and translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.1.5 Rotation via sliding gaskets with pumped interspaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.2 Accuracy, repeatable precision and resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.3 Technical equipment and characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.3.1 Design features of a Z-axis precision manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7.3.2 Design features of an XY-axis precision manipulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Vacuum generation 4.1 Vacuum pumps working principles and properties 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4 4.1.5 4.1.6 4.1.7 4.1.8 Classification of vacuum pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pumping speed and throughput . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ultimate pressure and base pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Compression ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pumping speed of pumping stages connected in series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Gas ballast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Water vapor tolerance / water vapor capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sealing gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58 58 59 59 59 59 59 60 60
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4.2 Rotary vane vacuum pumps 4.2.1 Design / Operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Portfolio overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3.1 Single-stage rotary vane vacuum pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3.2 Two-stage rotary vane vacuum pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3.3 Operating fluid selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3.4 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Diaphragm vacuum pumps 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 4.3.4 Design / Operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portfolio overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60 60 61 61 62 63 66 66 68 68 68 68 68 69 69 69 70 70
4.4 Screw vacuum pumps 4.4.1 4.4.2 4.4.3 4.4.4 Design / Operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portfolio overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Multi-stage Roots pumps Vacuum generation 4.5.1 Design / Operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.3 ACP portfolio overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.3.1 Air cooled multi-stage Roots pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5.3.2 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Multi-stage Roots pumps Vacuum processes 4.6.1 4.6.2 4.6.3 4.6.4 4.6.5 4.6.6 Design / Operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Load locks and noncorrosive gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Harsh process chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portfolio overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.6.1 Water cooled, process pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6.6.2 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 75 75 76 76 77 77 78 78 78 80 80 81 81 81 81 82 82 82 83 71 71 72 72 73
4.7 Roots vacuum pumps 4.7.1 Design / Operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.2.1 Backing pump selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.3 Portfolio overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.3.1 Standard pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.3.2 Standard pumps with magnetic coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.3.3 Explosion-protected pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.3.4 Gas circulation cooled Roots pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.4 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7.5 Pumping stations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 Side channel high vacuum pumps
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4.9 Turbomolecular pumps 4.9.1 Design / Operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.1.1 Turbomolecular pump operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.1.2 Holweck stage operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.1.3 Turbopump performance data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.3 Portfolio overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.3.1 Mechanical-bearing turbopumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.3.2 Active magnetic-levitation turbopumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9.3.3 Drives and accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83 83 84 86 87 88 89 89 90 90
5.1.1 Direct, gas-independent pressure measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 5.1.2 Indirect, gas-dependent pressure measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 5.2 Application notes 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 Measuring ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Active vacuum gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Passive vacuum gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Combination vacuum gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 95 96 96 96 96
6 Mass spectrometers and residual gas analysis 6.1 Introduction, operating principle 6.2 Sector field mass spectrometers 102 103
6.2.1 Operating principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 6.2.2 Application notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 6.3 Quadrupole mass spectrometers (QMS) 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 6.3.5 6.3.6 Quadrupole mass filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ion sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vacuum systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inlet systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Application notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 104 107 110 112 112 113 114
6.4.1 Advantages of Pfeiffer Vacuum mass spectrometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 6.4.2 Data analysis system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
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7.1.1 Leaks and leak detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 7.1.2 Leakage rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 7.1.3 Tracer gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 7.2 Leak detection with tracer gases 7.2.1 7.2.2 7.2.3 7.2.4 7.2.5 7.2.6 Design of a leak detector with a mass spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design of a leak detector with a quartz window detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Test methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Calibrating the leak detector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Local leak detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Integral leak detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 119 120 121 121 121 122 122
7.3.1 Leak detection with helium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 7.3.2 Comparison of test results with leak detector and quadrupole mass spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 7.4 Portfolio overview 7.5 Industrial leak testing 124 125
8 Contamination management solutions 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Contamination 8.3 The nature of AMC 8.4 From surface molecular contamination (SMC) to defects 8.5 Portfolio overview 126 127 128 128 130
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BACKING VACUUM Low Vacuum Medium Vacuum High Vacuum Ultra-high Vacuum
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Laminar flow
Rotary vane pumps Liquid ring pumps Diaphragm pumps Scroll pumps Roots pumps Screw pumps
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Meter
Molecular flow
Kilometer
Vacuum at a glance
Vacuum pumps
Thin layers Space simulation Cryogenic research Electron microscopy Nuclear physics Plasma physics High energy physics Particle accelerators Storage rings Cern ion trap Space travel Between Earth and Moon ISS Nothern lights
Diffusion pumps Turbomolecular pumps Sputter ion getter pumps Cryo pumps
Vacuum gauges
Mechanical + capacitive measurement equipment Thermal conductivity vacuum gauges Penning vacuum gauges Ionization vacuum gauges
Freeze drying Packaging industry Degasing, casting, dry vacuum smelting (super-pure metals) Incandescent lamp manufacturing Electronic tubes
Weather
Air travel
NGC891
Orion A. Nebula(H2) Visible interstellar gas nebula
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Interstellar
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1.1 General
1.1.1 Vacuum Definition A vacuum is defined colloquially as the state encountered in a room at pressures below atmospheric pressure. These pressures can be generated by gases or vapors that are evenly distributed over the room. The standard definition of vacuum is the state of a gas at which its pressure in a vessel and therefore its particle density is lower than that of the ambient surrounding atmosphere or in which the pressure of the gas is lower than 300 mbar, i. e. lower than the pressure of the atmosphere on the Earths surface. [2] 1.1.2 Overview of vacuum The significance of the 300 mbar specified in the standard becomes apparent when the barometric formula is considered. Atmospheric pressure sinks with increasing altitude due to the decreasing weight of the column of air over a certain area. ph = p0 exp
At the cruising altitude of a passenger jet of approximately 10,000 m above the surface of the Earth, atmospheric pressure has already decreased to 290 hPa. Weather balloons rise to a height of up to 30 km where the pressure is 24 hPa. Polar-orbiting weather satellites fly along a polar, sun-synchronous orbit at an altitude of about 800 km. The pressure here has already fallen to approximately 10-6hPa. The greater the distance from a planet, a sun or a sun system, the lower the pressure becomes. The lowest known pressures are found in interstellar space. In a range of technical applications, the pressure is not indicated as absolute but as relative to atmospheric pressure. The pressure range below atmospheric pressure is indicated as a negative number or a percentage. Examples of this are manometers, pressure reducers on gas cylinders or uses for vacuum lifting gear or vacuum transport systems. Different types of vacuum pumps are used on Earth to generate a vacuum. An overview of the working ranges of the most important types of vacuum pump and vacuum instruments is given in Figure 1.1: Overview of vacuum [1].
0 g h
p0
ph Atmospheric pressure at height h p0 Atmospheric pressure at sea level = 1,013.25 mbar or 101,325 Pa g Acceleration of gravity = 9.81 m s-2 0 Density of air at sea level at 0 C = 1.293 kg m-3 If for the purposes of simplification we assume that the density of the air, the acceleration of gravity and atmospheric pressure at sea level are constant, we obtain by summarizing: ph = p0 exp h 8,005 m
1.2 Fundamentals
1.2.1 Definition of vacuum Pressure is defined as the ratio of force acting perpendicular and uniformly distributed per unit area. p= F A
If ph = p0 /2 and the equation is solved for h, the result is the half altitude value h1/2 = 5,548m. In other words: atmospheric pressure is halved every 5,548 km. If the height value in the formula is substituted with the height of Mount Everest, we obtain a pressure of 335 mbar or, expressed in the formal SI unit, 33,500 Pa or 335 hPa. This explains the 300 mbar given in the standard as the lowest atmospheric pressure present on the Earths surface. In this book we will give pressures in the SI unit Pa supplemented by the prefix hecto in order to correlate the standard-compliant SI unit with the mbar numerical values commonly used in central Europe.
In an enclosed vessel the gas particles perform thermal movements. In their interaction with the vessel wall, the atoms and molecules are subjected to a large number of collisions. Each collision exerts a force on the vessel wall. Where an enclosed gas is not exposed to outside influences, the numerous collisions that take place result in the same pressure occurring at any point within the vessel, no matter where and in what direction the measurement is carried out.