intended mainly as a book of reference, and for this purpose is printed with a copious index. It has been written chiefly for those students who have learnt, or are now studying, Persian in India. It
THIS work
is
and
is
and
Many
of
illus-
many
of
whom
have to study Persian through the medium of English, and it is have been treated from an English
point of view. These notes, however, are not intended to supplant the study of Arabic or Persian rhetoric, but merely to supplement it.
poet, has
made no attempt
to deal with
Chodzko, Haggard and Le Strange, Tisdale, Socin, Thacher, Wright, and others, including several works in Urdu and Persian, have been My acknowledgments are specially due to Agha freely made use of.
Muhammad Kazim
ers,
Board
(
of
Examin-
who has
also
and
to
brother-in-law,
the
late
Mahmud
Jilani,
The addition
amount
Qur'an, the Alif Laylah and other Arabic works) to the Persian Course has necessitated a far larger amount of Arabic grammar than was
anticipated, a task for which I felt myself
This portion of
set for
it.
by no means competent. the work has grown much beyond the limits originally
thanks are chiefly due to Shams^lYusuf Ja'fari, Khan Bahadur, Head Maulavi of
it,
In compiling
my
'Ulama*
Muhammad
Jilani,
of Presidency College,
and
others,
who
dil
" clean, " In modern Persian, for instance, fcwuzjA+1 means dimagh " order, medal." J,> "stomach," imtiyaz jULo)
U> "nose,
IV
PREFACE.
helped
me
'/hroughout
its
compilation
and
also to Professor L.
White-
King,
C.S.I., of
Dublin,
who
and at whose
Owing
to the
War and
proofs at sea
and
PH1LLOTT,
Lieut. -Colonel.
>
TO
THE HON'BLE
MR. JUSTICE
ASUTOSH MOOKERJEE,
IN RECOGNITION
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART
I.
CHAPTER
I.
The Alphabet
..
..
..
.. ..
.
.
2.
Pronunciation of Consonants
..11
.
.
3.
4.
21
Hamza and
23
27 28
5.
6.
.,
7.
8.
Taslidid
and Idgham
..
.
...
..
..
29
Tanwin
Waslah
..
..
..
. .
9.
,,
..
.
.
..30 ..31
31
10.
11. 12.
..
.
..
.
..
. .
..32
33
13
To
find
Hijra
14.
..
Siyaq
..
.
.
..
.
.
..34 ..34
34
35
15.
,,
Letters in Poetry
,,
Handwriting Punctuation
..
..
..
..
.
.
..37
38
40
41
Summary
Accent
,,
20. 21.
Exercise in Translation
..
,.
..
..
..
..45
CHAPTER
Sec. 22.
23.
II.
48
24.
25.
26.
.,
,.
. .
..
.
..
. .
..48
.
48 48
51
. .
Declension
27. 28.
29.
56
58
.
Classical Persian
64
Vlll
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
III.
PRONOUNS.
Page
Sec. 30.
,,
Personal Pronouns
68
31.
32.
The
Affixed Pronouns
.. ..
..
,.
.. ..
.
,,
Possessive Pronouns
..71 ..75
77
33.
,,
34.
35.
36.
,,
82
87
. .
,,
,,
37. 38.
39.
88
98
98
..
.
..91
,,
,,
Pronouns
CHAPTER
Sec. 40.
41.
,,
IV.
130
..131
42.
^
. .
141
CHAPTER
Sec. 43.
V.
. . . .
The Adjective
149
161
44.
,,
Compound
45. 46.
169
171
CHAPTER
Sec. 47.
48.
,,
VI.
THE NUMERALS.
Cardinal Numbers The Ordinals
.
182
191
49. 50.
51.
Fractions
..
..
.. .. ..
. .
..
..
..
194
196
197
,,
Adverbial Numerals
Multiplicative Numerals
..
..
.
.. ..
.
,,
..
.
.
52.
.;
Distributive Numerals
198
53.
,,
54.
55.
198
199
199
CHAPTER
Sec. 56.
57.
VII
.
58.
200
203
204
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
IX
Page
Sec. 59.
60.
,,
The Seasons..
Ancient Persian year
.,
, ,
,.205
..
, ,
.. ..
. .
..
..
.
206
209
61.
Yazd-Gardi year
..
.
62.
Days
of the
Week
210
CHAPTER
Sec. 63.
64. 65.
VIII.
,
.
Money
Weights
. .
212 213
Measures of Length
.,
. .
,.
,.
.,
,.214
CHAPTER
Sec. 66.
67.
,,
. . .
.
IX.
. ,
. ,
.
.
68.
The Verb The Separate Substantive, Verb .. The Verb Transitive and Intransitive
Tenses from the Imperative Tenses from the Shortened Infinitive
.
217
, ,
..219 ,.221
. .
, .
223
225
69.
Active Voice
..
..
,
.
..
.
.
..
.
..229
.
.
70.
71. 72.
234
235
237
73.
74.
..
. .
,.238
. .
Roots or Stems
of
Simple Verbs
. .
239 248
75.
76.
Hybrid Verbs
tf^cw
Tawanistan
Giriftan
248
249
,.77.
78.
79.
,,
..
. .
..
. .
..254
. .
80.
,,
The Verbs " to begin, etc." The Auxiliary Verb Khwas tan
256
257
81.
and Verbs
. .
261
,,
82.
83.
,,
Rajtan Dashtan
.. ..
. .
.. ..
. .
..263 ..263
. .
84.
85.
266
274
280 282 285
,,
86.
Common
Verbs used
in the
Compounds
. . .
. .
,.
87.
88.
,,
CHAPTER
Sec. 89.
,,
X.
90.
91.
Simple Conjunctions
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page 354
366
Sec.
92.
93.
Compound Conjunctions
Interjections
. .
ments, etc.
94.
95.
389
etc.
. .
390
CHAPTER
Sec.
96.
97.
XI.
. . .
. .
.
Diminutive Nouns
,
394 398
Noun
. .
. .
98.
,,
99,
404
406
407
or van, vana,
un and van
.
100. 101.
102.
103. 104.
..
..
.
..408
.
The Turkish Suffixes ji, cht, .. The Suffix dan The Suffixes zar, sar, stan
gard, khana, shan,
na
105.
The
Suffixes
413
414
106.
107.
,,
..
.
,
..413
. .
. .
man
van
..
108.
109.
,
ma,
415
417
agin or gin
..
..
110. 111.
112. 113.
..
..
..417
.
418 419
5.v5, sa,
vand
114.
.. ..
..
ish
..
..'
..420 ..420
CHAPTER
Sec. 115
XII.
Verbal Nouns and Nouns and Adjectives derived from Verbs .. .. .. ..421 ..
116.
Compound Substantive
..
..
..
425
PART
CHAPTER
Sec. 117.
II.
XIII.
SYNTAX.
On
.. ..
.. ..
..
433
118. 119.
The Cases
Number
..445
Concord
464
of Multitude
and
their
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
\i
CHAPTER
Sec. 120.
XIV.
.
Pronouns
Page 476
CHAPTER XV.
Sec. 121. 122. 123.
,,
Adjectives
..
. .
..
. .
..
.
..
. .
..
.
490
Adverbs
405
502
Conjunctions
Prepositions
.. ..
..
..
..
..497
..
124.
..
CHAPTER
Sec. 125.
XVT.
.. .. ..
Use
of the Tenses
Aorist
505
CHAPTER
Sec. 126.
XVTT.
...
Subjunctive
Mood
..
'..
..
538
CHAPTER
Sec. 127.
XVITT.
545
552
129.
130.
Concessional Clauses
556
558
562 570 573
Relative Clauses
,,
131.
132.
..
..
..
Subordinate Clauses (continued). Local and Modal) Clauses Subordinate Clauses (continued).
Causal) Clauses
. .
Adverbial
. . . .
(Temporal,
. .
,,
133.
Adverbial
.
.
(Final
.
and
. .
,,
134.
Co-ordinate Clauses
..
..
..
..
576
CHAPTER XTX.
Sec. 135.
585
591 591
136.
(continued)
. . . .
,,
Concord of Adjectives, and Pronoun with Noun Government of Verbs, Prepositions, and Errors
600 600
CHAPTER XX.
Sec. 138.
604
CHAPTER XXI.
Sec. 139.
,,
Apposition
literation
614
140.
Repetition of
Jingling Sounds
Al-
622
xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Sec. 141.
,5
XXII.
Page
. . . .
629
142.
143.
144.
Number of Words and Arts of Abbreviation, Further Observation on Style Examples of Errors in Rhetoric
. .
.
etc.
. .
644
652 659
APPENDICES.
Appendix A.
Arabic
Grammar
(with detailed
. .
list
of contents)
. .
675
899
Appendix B.
INDEX
909
PART
ORTHOGRAPHY (&>
1.
I.
p\*
AND ORTHOEPY
(
9dj5
The Alphabet.
<f ^>j*
).
The Arabs and other Muslims write from right to left and their printed books and manuscripts begin at what Europeans would call the end of the book. Their writing may be regarded as a species of shorthand,
(a)
,
the short vowels being omitted. In printing, each letter is not kept separate as in the
Roman
character;
there are no capital letters, no stops, and no paragraphs; in short, not one of the devices valuable alike to the printers and readers of Europe; from cover to cover their books appear to contain but one long unbroken sentence,
and many of the words are jumbled together, or, at the end of a line, written one on the top of the other. In some carefully written MSS. a line in coloured ink on the top of a word indicates a proper name or the commence,
ment
of a new paragraph, but even this aid is rarely given. Of existing alphabets the Arabic ranks next in importance to the Latin alphabet. It has supplanted the Greek alphabet in Asia Minor, Syria,
,
Egypt, and Thrace, and has supplanted the Latin alphabet in North Africa. It is the sole alphabet of Arabia, Western Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, Tartary,
1 Turkey and of all the alphabets employed in India, it is the best known. That the local alphabet of Mecca should have exterminated all other
; 1 '
and Asia,
is
an
illustration
"
to
******
more
striking
itself as
It took
Arab conquerors
found a dominion wider in extent than the widest empire of Rome, and to extend the alphabet of Mecca from the Indus to the Tagus." 1 The Arabic and English Alphabets can, it is said, be traced back to the
source.
THE ALPHABET.
in the
The Arabs originally used the Syrian alphabet, in which the characters are same order as in the Hebrew. Remains of this former order
still preserved in the numerical value of the letters, which in their numerical order are arranged in a series of meaningless words that serve as a memoria technica and correspond with the order of the Hebrew or Phoenician
are
alphabet.
The Arabic alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, all consonants. The arrangement of the Arabic alphabet is morphological, 2 i.e. letters of similar
form are brought into juxtaposition for the sake of comparison and as an
aid to
memory. With the Qur*an, the Persians 8 adopted and adapted the Arabic
it
p,
ch,
jh
and
g.
consists of thirty- two letters, all consonants; four of these letters are pure Persian 5 and eight 6 are peculiar to Arabic while the remaining twenty are
,
So far as their alphabets extend, i.e. up to <^> 400. " and " Other methods of arrangement are (1) form Gr. morphl logia." the Chronological, in which the letters are added according to the date of their adoption; (2) the Ideological, in which the characters are classed according to the meaning
1
From
c *
of their names (from Gr. 'idea "idea" + logia}; as in the arrangement of the hieroglyphic signs by Egyptologists; (3) the Phonological, the scientific arrangement of which the Deva-nagari is the most perfect example ; in this, the letters are arranged according
to the organs of speech by which they are articulated, viz. gutturals, palatals, etc., " each division being also scientifically arranged. Vide " The Alphabet by Isaac Taylor. " 3 For an account of the Ancient Persian The Alphabet" by Isaac Scripts, vide Taylor. At the time of the Arab conquest the Persians used the Pahlavi character.
* Also printed <-X In MSS. and in books lithographed in the East, the diacritical bar that distinguishes g from k is generally omitted. This puzzles a beginner. It will be noticed that the body of these four letters is identical with that of Arabic
letters,
distinction
They
letters
5
are adaptations of
by the diacritical marks. Persians do not always regard the J & nd -. (T new letters but occasionally represent them by the Arabic
is
"
they resemble
' '
is
The four
enumerated
^t.
rhyme
:
^ ^_* U. j
These eight
letters are
enumerated
in a school
rhyme:
The Urdu or Hindustani alphabet contains three more letters to correspond with three sounds, found in words of Hindi or Sanskrit origin; it thus consists of thirty-five
letters.
THE ALPHABET.
common
to
both
languages.
The
form of
many
of these letters
varies
somewhat according
to their position in a group of letters. In addition to the Alphabet, there are three vowel signs, which, written, are placed directly above or below the consonants to which
i.e.
:
if
they omitted
books
printed
specially for
of
which
is
The following table should be studied, in conjunction with the remarks that follow and elucidate it. The greater number of the letters are by
Persians * pronounced as in English:
signs, as
Qur'ans are printed or lithographed with all the vowel-points and orthographical it is considered a sin by Muslims to mispronounce a syllable of the sacred text. Notwithstanding this, most, if not all, of the editions printed or lithographed in India
1
errors. Inserting the vowels and signs adds considerably the cost of production. The State edition of a Qur'an printed and published in Turkey, and said to be letter perfect, is sold in Baghdad at the rate of thirty rupees, a similar edition, but printed in the Roman character, would probably 2 a copy i.e.
:
be sold for
five shillings.
The Arabic
is
an enemy
to
printing and an enemy to the diffusion of knowledge. The written character of a language is merely a collection of conventional signs, a
it
expression.
Many Muslims
sider mutabarrak.
a
object to .printed or lithographed Qur'ans, which they do not conto share this objection.
Vide
(k)
page
THE ALPHABET.
THE ALPHABET.
.S
THE ALPHABET.
THE ALPHABET.
w
as
words,
of
beginning
the
At
THE ALPHABET.
02
H B
THE ALPHABET.
(d)
9
-
It will
j and j never
alter
their shape,
(on (on
their
right),
;
their left)
is
they are not joined to the letter that follows hence if they occur in the middle of a word, a gap or
them them
formed nearly similar to the interval between two adjacent words. Inaccurate spacing is one of the difficulties in reading the cheap lithographed
interval
The
letters
-t and Jo though they do not change in shape, yet unite both on sides of them.
-
The eight letters peculiar to the Arabic are & ^ u o^> Js & a and (J. The four letters peculiar to the Persian have been enumerated preIn the Table of Consonants these two sets are distinguished viously.
-
Per. respectively.
occurs generally in Arabic words, but is " kid " "comb of bees"; also found in Persian words, as *)(*& Jl
letter
The
ghayn
"shout"
(g)
"rouge."
resemble each other in shape and are merely
Those
letters ;that
number
oj^^
),
of the dots,
(AjLfilxj
and sometimes
ctfUko
o^
).
Sometimes also letters that have only an imperfect resemblance, such as and i>, are included in this term. j whose names are palindromes'2 (Ji) Those letters as mim,nun and vav (and these are all formed by three consonants) are called Maktubl ( ^j& ).
1
If,
however, the
first
and third
letters of the
(
anagram
differ, as in fim,
u&d*
).
letters
(i)
)
are called
8
).
huruf-i
manquta
O^A.
Combined, these form the Arabic word nawm (fj* ) " sleep." palindrome is a word or sentence that, read either from right to left, or left to right, is exactly the same. Adam made the first palindrome when he introduced him1
self to Eve by, "Madam, I'm Adam." Letters transposed anyhow to make a new word or sentence are anagrams, thus rat is an anagram of tar and tear of
'
'
'
'
'
rate.'
3
A palindrome is
Nuqfa Ar.
)
also called
*
an anagram.
<^,
"a dot";
(for
sp^f
to
mark with
oj_>^
)
diacritical
points.
to
The term
alphabet
f^*Jl
which
ksJl
it is
is
also
applied
the
arranged.
It
is
there were
no
dots.
10
THE ALPHABET.
Dotted
letters are further
)
c^V
those dotted
above, and talitarii ( ^ilisu those dotted below. Dotted letters, whether fawqam or tahtam, are further distinguished by
JU
M
,
,
muwahhada *s*j*> ) musannat ( ^* } and musallasa ( <?^ according as they are marked by one, by two, or by three dots. (?) The system of transliteration in the present work is practically the Hunterian system. Modifications are q (instead of k) for <3, and m for & before a quiescent b or p for the final Arabic vowels, a small a,i, and u,
the epithets
/c
)
(
g*^
for the
and
tweenthem. Ex.
asfialj^l
)
''blossoms."
is
A
"
final
<jj-
or &iv.
literated
self
by " and
A
is
silent j as in
^'^
trans-
pronounced
"
.
short, as in
it is
transliterated u.
The ya
or the
hamza
of the
"
ya
of unity
etc., or of
transliterated as pronounced.
Hamza
Remark
in Arabic
words
is
shown by a hamza
as in fa*ida.
prolongation is omitted " this" is but expressed by fatha written perpendicularly over it; thus haza
/.In
alif of
IAA,
and
&\+*>j is
usually in Arabic
&+:*>)
vide also
Remark 1 1.
as in
<jASkj)<y*t, is
In Persian, an alif that is not mamduda or 'prolonged', " abbreviated", also by Indians incorrectly called maqsura
though
this latter
term
^5-.
is
and
^^
and
(
or
&
vide
under
It
letter
(k)
will
letters
2,
transliterated
by
(
^
A
* J
and
all
Js
by
two
e>
by
/,
and three
&
(j*
by
s.
In Arabic
make no
the Arabic pronunciation, generally that of Baghdad. at the beginning of words, are frequently (I) Certain letters, especially each but above one another this is the case not other, placed, alongside
:
it
1: ""r r< 2 (m) In the case of a change in letters as ftl cUi Ar., from pil i>*J, P., will be found that a labial is changed into another labial, a dental into a
There are
i***
five labials j
o y
.
and
-^>
tdbaddul-i-huruf
THE ALPHABET.
Something similar occurs in the permutations
of
11
weak consonants,
^.^$-
a vowel (English) being usually changed into a vowel. Sometimes however, a palatal becomes a lingual, as in
,
and
"China"; JK and
2.
(m.c.)
"squint-eyed."
Pronunciation
(talaffuz
.kiAj)
of Consonants.
as an original
it is
Alif.
(a)
letter
to be re-
it
is
4 (6). 1 (written or understood) that accompanies it: vide under If it occurs in the middle of a word, it is a prolongation of the short
vowel fatha and is transliterated by a, irrespective of its modern pronunciaIn this position most Arabs, Indians, and Afghans pronounce it like a in father Ex. V UT kitab " a book " some Persians and some Afghans would pronounce this more broadly, like a in "ball." This broad protion.
'
'
nunciation
in Persia.
is
characteristic
of
the
tent-people
and
of
certain dialects
In the Fars dialect, a before n or m is nearly always pronounced like u 99 Ex. v&* " a shop " is dukun c^, and bam " roof " is bum &. This incorrect pronunciation
of
is
in certain
common
many
its
parts
of
Persia; for
as though spelt nun &jj etc. " wind " is thus ab bad broad promany pronounced nounced nearly like bawd,- the alif being given the sound of a in the English word fall. Some Afghans too have this broad pronunciation, but the Indians
and
In
word
father.
In Persia,
be used, the word will be taken to mean however, **> ba'd " after ', and even an educated Persian will be puzzled by it. In Khurasan, on the other hand, the j is turned into alif; Ex. andardn
this last pronunciation
" and khan c>^for ofjM for i^vM "the women's apartments c^ "blood." For the pronunciation of alif with a hamza (f ) in the middle of a word,
;
vide
under a in
this section.
Remark
I.
in astronomical tables
an unmarried man.
In this case
it
is
it
from
alif as
a letter
of prolongation.
*
are written in
*'
in which the days, etc., There are two kinds of almanacs, taqvlm-i Farsl (^*l^ f*^ in which signs and the letters of the full, and taqvlm-i-ruquml c^f) fljfi
12
THE ALPHABET.
In Arabic it is a particle of interrogation; Ex. A-lastubi-rabbi-kum, "Am " not Your Lord ? Quran VII. 168, whence the Persian o~Jf or
'
cJjf
jj^
at
the creation.'
Poets frequently compare an erect stature, or the straight nose of a " from the creation of Also X~>* f* % jot JU| jf = beauty, or sighs, to alif.
Adam
to the birth
of the Messiah
' ' ;
' '
*>**!
is
-oJ|
' '
:
Alif
Unity
of
God.
alif
Remark
according to
II.
its
Kinds of
(1)
alif.
Alif-i rabita
*b-$j -^l
as, o**o
"binding or copulative alif" joins two " from hand to lLoj> dast-d dast hand; (a
ready-money bargain)." This alif is also called alif-i ittisdl ( JlAif <JMt ) " the alif of junction", or alif-i inhisar jUaJ| <-aJ| ). Some Grammarians
(
JUj
otff
but vide
the
(10).
(
is
alif-i 'atf
;
<*-&*
UA)J )
tak-a-pu
(jj&
(or
iakdpuy
isj&)
"
Alif-i fa'iliyyat
(
oJUU'
ua)|
" the
alif of
"
agency
as the alif in
of
U#
a present
Alif-i maf'uliyyat
;
participle
(4)
as, ziba
Alif-i
( IAJJ )
"adorned
J^XA/O eo^f
)
"
u^jjj
masdar
"warmth",
(
^
)
which forms abstract nouns from adjec" breadth", from grarmand pahn (m.c.)
alif
adjectives.
(5) Alif-i
i
tanwm
f
&}ju
the
in the adverb
(6)
U5b dd
'im an
"
Alif-i-
qasamiyya
;
*%+~3 -^l
the
a?i/
of the
Persian vocative
as,
When
it is
*'<*
O, or by, God not used in an oath, but as a simple vocative, " dila -&f heart ZwftmZa IbJb " oh
!
Haqqd U^
;
gil
"
"
lulbul\
If
"
as,
' '
^^
is
!
or oh distress
"
"
alas,"
)
it is called Alif-i
(
nudba
&***
Jfcff
" the
alif of
"
plaint
1
An
erect stature
is
also
THE ALPHABET.
13
alif-i zd*id or
(9)
<-&,) "the precative alif in du'dutamannq ($+*) " " " kundd as, mabddd i^U/o "may it not be may he do. (8) Alif-i tahstn-i kaldm t^s~^ <-a't ) "the ofo'/ of embellishment " as, in & <( he said." This is also, and more properly, called x5fj <JJJf " vide '' alif
" verbs
(7)
;
Alif-i
superfluous
' '
(12).
<{
Alif-i
-ftJl
mubalagha
)
**>U
VA'.J
' '
kasrat
**J&
is
"
This
firawdm
)
\jb$j>
*-*'l ).
(10)
^'/-i wasli
j^j
CA),
words
said to be the superfluous alif at the " camel " as, in ushtar ^i-^f (or shutur)
is
and
cU>^
),
but vide
(1).
This
is
(11)
alif-i
is
mutakallim
JL^Lo oMf
as,
" oh
^ ^jj>
3
my
(12)
*5\) CA'I
:
"
)
superfluous alif"
is
sometimes, in poetry,
IA'UC
(^
c>xJlJ'*yolj
*J
AwAf b
Asii^
In rosfa ^*f;, chapa l^, sa&2a rawgr, J5j i^, the a??/ is Fi<Ze also Derivation of Words' for 'Formative Alif. tsJU CA)| ) expresses fitness or (13) Alif-i liyaqat (
'
capability;
as,
khwana
u.;
Gfja.
legible.
/; as,
5 in
(for
U^
11
(old)]
enough
as
*'
,
"
;
aw
(for
a
m; as, ghuzhm fie [for ghuzhb with v; as, vas <j^ J (for bas " with WOT khtvav and Tchaw l (for khwdb) " sleep v; Persian nahib the naJiw water (for 6) ^^^ )
)
"
tongue
"
zafan &l)
with
a single grape
' '
"
^)
' '
fear."
Pronounced as in English.
'
Remark.
^
'
"
)
superfluous
'
^
'
as in
fjj:
vide under
and
Prepositions.-'
muwahhada
the single-dotted b
'
to
distinguish
it
from
v_
is called bd-yi
farsi
^^ ^,
or bd-yi 'ajami
it is
u*^ ^-
There
frequently interchangeable
1 Still
The
i.e.
substituted,
is
is
called
'
original letter
called mubdal
minh"
14
THE ALPHABET.
with
<i.x.v*
/
)
"
)
elephant
r
"
;
safid **&
(for
sapid
firuzi
csj^'
(f
piruzi
"
c^jjj/iJ)
victory."
CU
in
s^> S
by the Arabs
Egypt
is
pronounced
like th in
as s ; in
it is
pronounced &.
th.
Among
Some
the Persians and Indians, it is an English s. Afghans and some educated Indians give it the sound of
^j*
p**.,
to distinguish
from ^ ^L
It
is
Jamadcfl-Ulq a,ndJumddq'l-Akhir. It is sometimes interchangeable " crooked " withc^ - and z\ with zhj as, kazh (old) (for kaj ^)
;
as, chuza
**
of
a bird"; with g; as, Jildn for (old) for kash Caspian with sh c4; as, kaj
;
"would that."
It
is
-^
Ch
^> or jim-i
It is
'ajarrii
^+^ +^
some-
^^J
(old)
(for (for
puchushk
V-=FVJ
J^}j)
"
}
"a
physician."
(for
In
Arabicized words
it
changes to <j>;
(for
as,
>J&*.
$w ^-h>
Ar.
Chin
(***')
"China"
chang
^U,
hd-yi halqi
cymbals."
muhmala
if
^U.
make
this
h in
"haul"
word be pronounced
in
the throat.
To
the beginner should copy an Arab or an Afghan many times when he says the word .-^L* Sahib: (he should also note the sound of <jt>
in this word). the Persians this letter
By
is
pronounced
like
q.v.
Remark. Children in Indian schools are taught to make a distinction in but in , pronunciation when reading between ^ and *, and between u* and in speaking, no such distinction is made. practice,
Kh
mu'jama A+SX**? ^lA.. Great care must be taken to make this a guttural and not a k. (There is a story of a doctor who seriously alarmed a patient by mispronouncing the word khun <l blood.")
kha-yi
c^
sometimes interchangeable with <J; as chakhmdkh flint or cock of a and with h as, uTb. chaqmdq (JjUs^ ) gun " earth." (for khdk ^()
It is
, < (
^U^ (for
(old)
' '
Ir Abjad,
it
viz. 3.
THE ALPHABET.
15
ghayr manquta J^a^c J\& or sometimes mulimala <*At<* Jf^. interchangeable with t o as, ^ jj " with z " black ) partridge ; ^fy (for durraj i; as, MsJaV " master " sazaj Ar. form of sada aalw a kind (for wstao' ilu.| )
;
}
Jli
ddl-i
It is
of
plant"
with z)
as, dizar
j^
7
;
j Z
mu'jama *+^&* jj^. it is sometimes interchanged with a a as, **tf for **tf By the Arabs it " when is sounded like the th in though," if, pronouncing it, the tip of the tongue be thrust well forward between the front teeth of
.
called zal-i
manquta
di^5ix Jf3, or
By
month
j
both jaws and slightly compressed compare with " zeal." It is a the Persians like or as z in
:
and
(jc.
j,
is
are."
11
manquta A%a\^
with
cc I
muhmala
*U^/o ^f^.
It is
^j^
(for
1
mlufar
y^>
a convolvulus
<:
aZso
a waterlily
za-yi
chanal J
^
as,
(m.c.) (for
chanar
\^)
plane-tree."
called
havvaz j?&
^\).
)
;
mu'jama &^**>
It
<^\j, za-yi manquta ai^avo ^ij^ an(j 2^^ 8 sometimes is interchangeable with ^; as, 5il^
;
^>
(for sw23*-
with
gurigh
fejf (for
(
gunzj^
) ;
with
5; as,
.4 i/as
(for ^4?/a2)
with
q. v.
Zi
is
a poetical contraction of
j ZA
called go-yi
/am
<^lj.
It inters in
pronounced
as
in
French jour or as
&\+fc
^>.
(
It
ttj
and
;
sln-i
muhmala
{
as, Icustl
kushti
4 y^') wrestling"; a?so the Zardushti belt worn under the f or J^</ *musk.' Also sometimes with <jo; as, clothing, and
"
J^
(for
J^
manquta
^Js^avo c .^i,
It is
an abbreviation
;
for
Shamal JU^
(for
as,
pachan i^U-b
^asA
(for
ul
fc " pashan e;Ub ) scattering " also with " a pine ^r q.v.
;
pS
called
.
sad-i
ghayr-i
manquta
Ai^ftix)
^c
^U?,
and
5ao*-*
muhmala
month
of >9a/ar
and
J are sometimes interchangeable. Ex.^H* or used in speaking by Zardushtis. * The Bombay Parsees call this belt kusti, but the Persian Zardushtis
3 Still
call it kttshti.
10
also for
THE ALPHABET.
which shows that an genuine <ji^ (old) to so account has been audited hence sad kardan &jjf
the
word
' '
' '
sadiq
pronounced like ^> By than in sibilant harder and Educated In Arabic a stronger English. Indians and Afghans affect the Arab pronunciation: vide remark
mark an account,
etc.
the Persians
it is
to
i
h.
Pronounced by the Persians Z, zad-i manquta, or zad-i mu'jama. like the th in though if pronounced In like 3 i .e. like z in zeal. Ba.^hdad
.
with the tip of the tongue behind the root of the front teeth of the upper jaws. (In Egypt a hard palatal d).
b T
manquta, and
ta-yi
muhmala.
the Persians pronounced like 01*. By the Arabs a hard palatal t. Educated Indians and Afghans imitate the Arab pronunciation. It
By
interchanges with
s>\
t z
called za-yi
manquta
mushala
*J
^l.
By
the
Persians, likej.
In Baghdad
like
the th in though
pronounced
'
manquta
ifejfti*
j*p
^c,
or
'ayn-i
muhmala
u*
j$
with
h.
It
is
transliterated
Few Persians can imitate In Arabic the ^ is a strong guttural. the Arab pronunciation. At the beginning of a word, it is by the Persians treated as though it
were the prop for a vowel.
1
Ex.
e*j>Uc
ibadat "adoration
"
(as
though spelt
o^t). At the end of a word it is, in Persian, either quite silent as *.&. jam a or else more properly there is a slight vowel sound like a half a or half e as in tama' +&. The Persians never say jama 'like the Indians. 8 Many
1
**> man' are often like *^ jam' and pronounced with a drawl, and a peculiar intonation that sounds affected to English ears such words are not man If so pronounced they will pronounced in the least like /*^ jam or
words
often be unintelligible.
letter
By
the Persians
O^
is
give a distinct and peculiar sound to the consonant z before pronouncing its vowel u ^_ . 2> This at least is the case in Southern Persia with some words of three letters end-
ing in
Tehran the
final
is
The Arabs
like
the Indians.
THE ALPHABET.
a double a; Ex.
17
^U^i are Arabic word pronounced [An with a mute hamza in the middle, has, in Arabic, and should have in
sa'd
is
pronounced
sd-dd. 1
Words
like
i-i-tibdr
and
correctly-spoken Persian, this same half-bleating sound; Ex. "ordered; a commissary" (pronounced ma'amur)].
j^^ ma^mur
a middle syllable of a word, there is a very perceptible ^ begins pause in the enunciation Ex. **UI qal-'a "a fort": care must be taken to
;
When
this
make
pause in the correct place, as the pronunciation generally unintelligible. The Arabs do not make this pause.
c.
ga-l'a or qal'a is
Gh
4Uaui/o
(:
^p
much
hard guttural something between gh and r, the r being sounded like the r in a " Parisienne." It
Parisienne,
by
represents
1000 in arithmetic and hence is with Persian poets a symbol for the bulbul-i hazdr ddstdn ^U-ata ;{_)& Jjb. It interchanges with <3
as ayagh
l>|
(old for
ayaq
<3U|)
" a cup."
sometimes interchanges with
<->
C_3
JJ
F called
Q
q.v.
c
oJiy
Jljl.
q.v.
In Baghdad and by Persian Turks often pronounced like a hard English g. A guttural like q pronounced from the depth of the throat as if undergoing
suffocation, or like ck in stuck
It
when pronounced
a
at the
back
of the throat.
like k,
common
i
,
English mistake.
By
it
the uneducated
it is
confused with
common words
Ex.
j&
ghfidr instead of
In Turkish words used in Persian, the two letters seem interchangeqadr able: a Turk of Persia will often spell the same word with either letter
indifferently.
^.
The
and
U-f
"
' '
^K
LJ G
colloquially
dga.
^fi
<y^ oK.
It
is
in Persian
o^", or kdf-i 'ajami t^p^ o&. times interchangeable with for lagdm as lijdm ^,
^^
It
is
somebridle;
^^
"
halter" (Persia).
J
f
L is
an abbreviation
of the
month
shavvdl Jt>^.
tfi
Poets compare
it
to a ringlet.
is
an abbreviation
for the
c>;
It
sometimes
interchanges with n
as,
(m.c.) (for
6am, ft*
In ba'd
(m.c.).
^,
the double
sound
*
perceptible.
18
THE ALPHABET.
N.
There
is
(j
no nasal n l in Persia.
is
In India, however, n
is
in
some
it is
consequently before an izd/at) the nasal sound disappears. It has usually the sound of ra f when it immediately precedes 6 ^ (or p Y). Ex. JAO (tanbal) "lazy" is pronounced tambal: note that
this is transliterated
m.
W or
V.
At the beginning
it is
of a
amongst Persians a consonant like v; but amongst Arabs, Afghans and Indians it is a w, like the w in we or it is pronounced like a v, or between a v and In p>yZ and w>mJ.
^y
is
,
a w.
Before an
The v sound
alif
common
in Isfahan
and Kirman.
;
and after
Ex.
there
is,
therefore,
u*~\j>
is
up":
is
silent^
transliterated w.
Khwish
of
<J^
In
and
its
compounds
^
In Arabic words,
pi.
however,
is
before
pronounced
Ex.
is
u*^
u^'A.
derivatives, the j
pronounced
khud "self", <Jbe* khush "pleasant", ^^)^ khurshid "the sun", ^i-;^ khursand " happy ". j*. and ^f^* are often pronounced chi and hamchi. A few Arabic words like ^^ ^az/a^ "life", saldt "prayer", are
transliterated u; also
du
"two",
tu
"thou",
like pish
L and
*^
eU^
and
d>3Ca.
is
sometimes interchangeable with o, as z/a/a k'U (old) [for ydvd\^ " vain, foolish". The vdv that occurs before an alif and is (m.c.)]
not pronounced, as
iJjti^o
in
Tchwdstan
^M^,
:
is
zamma
&>+>*
%il>o
^ vyX*
"
^*U^f ^fj
ghayr-i-maktub
td'us
vyx^Ac
vdv-i malfug-i written but not pronounced." ii^ALoyj ) sometimes occurs as in ^j-^Lb
"a peacock," but the more correct form c/^Lfc> is also found. In Ar. both the wdws have the sound of w in this word.
Remark.
harf-i
A letter
(
that
)
($ij~*
o^
and
is written, but not pronounced, is also called " a stolen letter." For further remarks on j, vide
(b)
(d).
letters
*>,>,
-J
&9
*'
o,
(3, d), as in
the words
^*
" thou
-
45-
t.
THE ALPHABET.
8
19
mudawwara (***> <^k) (round decided aspirate like h in hope,, except when it ends a Persian word or a feminine Arabic word (which is always preceded 1 by a fatha ). In this case it is called the "obscure," "imperc5^), or ha-yi
h" and is transliterated a Ex. aJLk khdna &s& "a house", gufta "said" (Past Partciple). This 'obscure' h is in India pronounced like fatha, but in Persia it is pronounced like a short e, or i as khdne or gufte. (If the silent h precedes an && " I have it is there as in be a
ceptible" or "silent
,
;
alif,
said", said, may, slight f! breathing sound of the h, as guftah-am, but the writer is of opinion that this sound is imaginary and that the h generally remains silent.
first
In the
,
case,
i.e.
when
aspirated, the
* is called
ha-yi malfuzl
ha-i
(^
* or
"manifest,"
sounded; in the second case it " concealed ", i.e. mute. ha-yi mukhtaft or makhfi
((^^
AJ
cs
The h
nih
is
distinctly
*
nuh "nine",
*J
"place"
s
(Imper.),
*J
bih
"good"
(but
&
ba or
bi,
the preposition
"to"
or
"for"),
&>
like words. 3
" what? In *** si " three ", &*. chi ", *T " " who ? " and the that", there conjunction
* is
H
is
no
"
, great Final
pronounced like short i. In *j na and **> ma " not ", it is silent according to rule; but A* mih s " a also and */o mah moon.
' ' ' '
after
Ex.
human excrement " etc., etc. In * *f guh moon " or a month " *j rah " a road where the
' * ,
' :
" U^b* padishah " a king " **> mah " the " shah
king
,
' '
final
h
It
is
aspirated.
distinctly
must be
pronounced in words
like
^
<js
muhr and
Mash-had.
A final
1
silent
will
sometimes become
<ji
Some grammarians consider the Persian silent * to be a vowel. Except when changed into S. The $ is not silent in Arabic. be silent (in Persian) when not an original letter. only
2 3
final
is
sounded,
it is
transliterated
by h and not by
a.
Ex. **
Three distinct syllables, not two as in India. Two syllables, not three. In 1908 Persian
to
20
(for pista *i~J P.)
(for
THE ALPHABET.
"a pista-nut"
'
also as ndkdj to be Arabic) ^, gfcti (said ndgdh iW> P.) suddenly.' In Arabic, final 8 is in certain cases written s and is then called by the Arabs id marbuta and by some Indians hd-td, and is in classical Arabic
;
"
pronounced
like
often pronounced
and written
except in pause or before a vowel. In Persian this is o^a. instead of *^. In English ci>; Ex.
i.e.
as o.
is
different
is
generally so written
1
of
an instrument or
aya
cs*3R*
apparatus,'-
"
<(
penis."
is
ai^
'
"
(^1
is this
paper correct
",
but
5>l>
A^ua *SjJ
this
paper signed
This distinction is, however, seldom observed and is considered pedantic, " and " thus jihat " cause qimat price" may be written both o.^ or A^ and o*&j or **AJ.
Fide also remarks on
oU^ and
ci>X
.
at the
end of j.
(^ T
yd-i tahtdmyya
AAJliso ^Ij
At the beginning of a word is the the middle of a word after an initial long
When,
for
the
a verb
is
changed into
this letter is
pronounced y as it
Tjwn/a
fall,
don't come
"
from c*vof dmadan "to come", U* " to fall " he did not ^^'l uftddan "*, nayuftdd ^&s>
etc."
also represents the long vowel i (pronounced 3 (d). a ai: wide in pique) or diphthong At the end of a word it is a long ?, but at the end of the words ^Ij and
,
as
^JU^
it is
sometimes shortened
It
is
khaili).
thus bale or ball and khayle (for khayll or thus ml-guft but is sometimes
^,
final
In Persia, as in India, the dots are never written under the where in some printed books, however, the dots are inserted. In Arabic the
:
alif-i
maqsura.
f
A
alif,
at the
is
end
of a
fatha, is
pronounced
like
)
and
transliterated a
thus <^y a
is
(also
is
pronounced da'wa.
This
in Arabic called
alif-i
;^ax>
(
01)1
alif-i
maqsura
'the
mamduda
o>j<x/o
Jtf| )
*^Lj
is,
in
spelt
^^,;
it is
pronounced
baqile.
3
In Persian this
often written as
alif.
THE VOWELS.
prolonged alif" [vide
vasl\ thus
21
and is not sounded when in contact with alif-i " the contention of the moderns" is ^^(iJi ^}*3 pronounced
4
(d)],
\
da'vq'l-mutcfakhlchirin.
*
Note that in the Persian-Arabic compound y^j! or y^jf the ^ is in reality a final letter, and the comparative suffix y can be written separately,
asy
<_
J.\.
Remark
(
is
In Urdu or in Indian writing yd-e ma'kusi or " reversed yd " written at the end of a word to show that the has a majhul
I.
sound.
In
'
reversed yd
'
is
it is
however better
vide
4.
Remark II. Even when quoting Arabic or reading the Qur'an, the Persians do not try to give the Arabic pronunciation to all the Arabic letters. Indians and Afghans, on the contrary, not only attempt but greatly exaggerate the Arab pronunciation of certain letters.
For the Arabic and the Persian pronunciation
form
of certain letters before the izafat, vide
'
of the alphabet
and the
Peculiarity of Arabic
Words/
t
In Indian dictionaries a letter preceding another is termed JAJ \* and one following another is styled vo I* thus in the word *_>;, the letter ra
:
is k
JAJ
U ma
qabl-i bd.
3.
(in
the middle
There are no regular vowels in the Arabic written language, but the 1 (c)] which they call of the three signs r. 7 L\yide table, " " the movers" (lit. motions"), and one of these signs o'^^Jt alharakdt placed above or below a consonant determines its vowel sound. When
(a)
" movers", it is called Jfy-* accompanied by one of these mutaharrik or "moving." The short vowels were originally quite unreprea consonant
is
**
sented.
As the "movers"
it is
consonant,
only give the vowel sound essential to a obvious that they cannot stand alone at the beginning of a
word: vide
(c).
zir
below
(
it, is
),
called
majtuh
*)&*
mazmum
(c)
(_+***>
).
22
THE VOWELS.
or nominative
or genitive (T), and nasb ( ) or ) accusative (1), and the words, not the letters, so marked, are styled marfu*
(&)
L,jar
),
yp
\_^
majrur
(^^
i
and mansub
i is
v^*^
vide
8.
Remark.
'fen' than
for
arcZ.
in Persian oftener
is
pronounced
like e in
like
fin.
Also faiha
(c?)
Long vowels
and
Alif, j
or semi- vowels
and
correspond respectively with the "movers ", i.e. the short vowels a, u, i.* In Arabic writing the long vowels are formed by a combination of two
of
these affinities;
(Ex.
i
t ba, j* bu
and
^
"
'
bl)
and pronounced
like
a in
father,
in prude
I.
and
^,
in police or pique.*
afo'/ is
:
Remark
to the
In
the
in
v is prolonged
II.
sound
Remark
is
The^ and
2, p. 21)
^5 of prolongation and ^Aftjf vM (& or C^JL) a wasla shortened in pronunciation, thus j jiff
pronounced
(e)
fi'lfaivr (fl-fawr).
(in the
Diphthongs
middle of words).
By ^, the diphthongs ai or ay, and au or aw, are formed, and pronounced like ai in a/sZe (rare in Persian) or ' ' * Ex. <Jjjx> mai'Z 4 or mayl " inclination ey in they, and o% in sfott p*> saum
combining fatha with <^ and with
; ,
or
sawm
fasting."
In modern Persian the ay is most often pronounced like ey in they; Ex. (.5^ is pronounced both khaili and MeyZt (also khaile, etc., etc.) (vide under
^-); also the au sound, characteristic of the Arabic, Afghan, or Indian accent, tends towards the sound of o in hose.
letter
(f)
The
original Persian
"weak
letters'* is the
'
term applied to
(.5-
as opposed
:
to
^i-
OJJ^A. the
'
real consonants.
Hence oK/
is
;
vav
is
called ulchjit-i
zamma
"
sister of
3
'*
sister of
kasra."
huriif*' l-madd
When
"
'
"
letters of
o?;^
like
filling
up
or impregnating
HAMZA.
23
When
and
^
]
follow a consonant
by jazm, they were said to have an open sound called J>^ < majhul, or "unknown" (i.e. unknown to the Arab invaders) Ex. )y* mor an ant, ** sher " a lion " but when a 9 was preceded by a consonant pointed with L or a ^s with ~, then the sound was called ^jj**> ma'ruf or " known"
; ;
Ex.
<jS>x>
The majhul sounds o and e are still preserved in the Persian spoken by Afghans and Indians, but they are now unknown in Persia: in modern " an ant" is called Persian' mur, and there is nothing in pronunciation to " " lion from shir " milk." distinguish the word for
2
Remark
I.
least nine
u,
u,
and diphthongs
ai, ay,
and aw.
The
au sound
characteristic of Indians.
f
Remark II. To sum up the remarks on the weak consonants, c5 - j ol* o^>) when ^ and (^ are initial, or are movable in the middle of a word, ( they are real consonants and are pronounced with their proper vowels; when
,
they follow a jazm they are consonsants, as in juzv *>', and when they follow a consonant that has neither a vowel nor a jazm they were in classical, and
are in Indian Persian majhul. or zamma ( ^_) the sound is
When
u
;
has a zir
orkasra
the sound
is t.
When j and
may
4.
^ follow
(*)
they
be called diphthongs.
Hamza 3
(a)
distinct
In endeavouring to pronounce a vowel without a consonant, a though slight effort is made with the muscles of the throat; this
is
by the Arabs
*,
is
represented by
is
called hamzah, which signifies "prick, the form of which has arisen from the
Persia lion
sher
j&
is
called
also loosely
panther, etc.
* i.e. in Persia. Dr. Rosen " The Persian of India may justly remarks in his grammar be looked upon as a petrification of the old classical language. It has also preserved the "majhul" vowels e and o for * and M, and differences of pronunciation. other many The Persian-speaking Indians, whose studies are mostly confined to the classics and
:
poetic exercises, have followed none of the developments of the modern language." The Persian of India, therefore, though far purer both in idiom and pronunciation than the language of Persia, sounds pedantic, and is almost unintelligible to ordinary Persians.
8
Denotes
of the alphabet is
" pressure" or puncture." Among Arab grammarians the more generally called hamzah.
first letter
24
letter
off of
when final is written by itself, and may follow any of the letters. The letter marked is called jr*** mahmuz or "hamzated", a term also applied to a word having hamza for one of its radicals.
so
Remark.
Alif
when
it is
is
not hamza.
In moat cases alif occurs as the (b) Short vowels at the beginning of words. bearer of hamza and then performs a function essentially different from that
9
in the
Remark
is
to
13
(d)
Ex. J[ ah,
I
v
,
ub.
.
{.
When an
the sign *
as
silent
?*
hamza
'
letter a
2.
In the word c^U> ma*zun "permitted", the hamza is it life, it represents the jerked sound
paragraph
;
mentioned
and, as the
f is
pointed with -^ the two together in Persian give the half-bleating sound mentioned in the remarks on the letter 2.' In the word o**^; ra'is " a
head ",
x
"a
hamza
is
not silent,
but
is
marked with
and
is
*
con,9
In the words
-**j*1
has no vowel and also follows a letter without a vowel. The Arabs would pronounce the final * in these words something like shay-a, su-a 2 umara-d, but the Persians ignore the * in such Arabic words' they do howthe
final *
:
it
from the
is
when
it
9
-
is
word, as in
c;fy>
Note that though the is marked with * the hamzated' alif does not serve to as would be the case if hamza were absent from the thus prolong the sound of the to all intents and purposes alif-hamza (or hamza) and alif are two separate letters.
1
'
This
final * in
)
following a silent
h
*
(or a
^'
(Arabic broken plurals of
in such
their
-*J
^x
and
by
k
manner
is
Cfkx"'
3
"the nobles
is
time "
it is
When hamza
in
letter *
and
'
become
in
Urdu
_H^-> taslr
and
(^^
mumin.
25
The
latest
alif
Arabic Dictionaries treat alij-Tiamza as the first letter of alone as a or for example, if it be desired to look
>
***
scfal*
must be looked
for at the
a " it beginning of the alphabet; if however it be desired to look out JU sdl flowed ", the alif must be treated as a ^5 and the searcher must look for a word
,
spelt
;U
sar a
'
he scaled a
is
waw,
}
rd.
is
in Arabic, alif
not
two weak consonants j or ^ and according to certain laws of euphony a weak consonant undergoes certain changes or permutations when it comes
toge her in a 'measure' or 'form' with a vowel that
it:
is
or
and the
letter after
must
is
^ "a prophet"
first
it is
it is
from Uo
?<;
-
Ui ?
The second
letter of
JL
* *
hamza, because
JU
is
a letter of prolongation.
sdkin, as in <jJ;.
Long
As already stated, the long a short vowel and the weak consonant
of writing the long vowels in the middle It follows by rule [vide short 3
(d).
Vjf = ub
and ^Ji =
&.
Similarly wt
alif is
written over
thus T
2
this alif
on the top
is
prolongation." at the beginning of words (e) By the same rule the "diphthongs"
are
vide
written
3
(e).
^1
aib (or
ayb),
and
v>?
>ub
for awb)
for pronunciation,
It will
alif,
or The hamza is a strong letter, although in certain cases it is liable to modification consonants, real sometimes are vav and M hile likof the weak letters. ya change any letter of tha alif is not regarded as such at all ; but only as a prop for hamza, or as a
JU
An
2 3
ali/
so
marked
is
by some Grammarians
called alif-i
mamduda,
as
c^T
Pr
-ome."
Alif-i
mamduda can only occur at the beginning of a syllable: &\j> to a final alif foHowed by alif mamduda is restricted
alif
*U~, in contradistinction to
maqswa,
as in *+*
and
^-
26
hamza following a long a is written on the line, 1 the alif that precedes such a hamza is generally marked with a madda but this madda ' ' '* ' " he came.' for fU thus in Arabic has no effect on the
f
'
pronunciation
*U>,
This
is
when^
or
u **
*Ufci 3
is
and
of the izafat; as, c^^tl writing before the always " medical officers of the * the the were retained, Military Department'
disappears in
^
:
^^
;
might be mistaken
26
(/)
for the
^
*
of unity
vide
Remark
to
(g)
vide also
(2).
(/)
over
is
omitted,
even in words fully pointed with the vowels, etc.; and in the dictionaries, Persian and Urdu, no distinction is made between alif and hamza i.e. both
;
Hamza
Englishmen) one syllable ends in a vowel and the next begins with one; Ex. **$^ fctida " benefit" instead of or *4<J. 6
s^tf
first
more correct to omit the dots in the and place the sign * over it, as e>*^ pafidan This to stand firm." word may also be written e*H*^ pzyidan, but in this case the first ^ must be
When two
come
together,
it is
:
y.
Similarly gunjcfish
J^^*^
or
gunjdyish <J^'-au&
Strictly speaking
As a
rule
it
is
when
it is final
in
C5, the
f.*
hamza
'
is
placed on
'
s
**
or
(without dots)
thus
*Ub^
s
*-febV
In Modern Persian usually pronounced qayil. In Persian, it is optional to write or omit the In Urdu a hamza does duty
for
final * in
e.g.
such words.
1
a hyphen,
cJj*
*-
ja-uh
"may
go?",
y*
ja-o
A hamza
is
^
is
In
qa'ida
*.
a strong
ci
27
1
vowel
is
(for
it and p*3*>* (for only observed in certain cases ), For the Persian ct /hamza " is necessary for distinction [vide Remark I (g)]. as a sign of the genitive case, etc., after an obscure h or after a final vide
*>*
^\ when
^,
-*
26
(/)
^ of unity, vide
rarely sayil c^U*.
41
(c)
(d).
(g)
Hamza
is
pM
qdyim for
jJU>
Remark
I.
The
and
its
:
omission in modern
;
" by the following examples \&$ gadd beggar" " a beggar"; &^/ <^\*$ gadd-yiJi*? gada*i* begging"; <y *$ gada-i* Kirman " the beggar of Kerman."
Persian, are best illustrated "
be noticed that the distinction between the words for " begging" " lies in the accent and "a beggar (with of unity) only. " Mahl <ykU> fish " mnhi-i 3 (class ) a fish [^*U yak mah\ in " one month more " Jo m.c.] : j&i* U iJL yak mdh-i dlgar (m.c.) j&.t
It will
^^
"
^
:
^^
yak mahi-yi digar (m.c.) "one fish more"; also in m.c. ^Aid cj*^* mahi-yi digar-i and classically ^i^U mahi-t digar: ^Ui numayam "I show " we show." but
j&
gJUJ
numayim
II.
Remark
of
of syllables
when
jur-at
(not ju-rat).
In the same
way
&\j*
Qur-an:
or All-** mas-ala.
5.
The
letter
the ^ (at
beginning of words).
at the beginning of a
-*** is
word
$
v^!
f
is
pronounced
y
v-yjjc
like the
and
'ujub (Ar.
20.
pronounced
like
v^
defects, vices," as
is
though
spelt
v*t,
vide
In the
the
line.
Roman
character,
transliterated
by a
reversed
comma above
^&
**
a badness,*' but in
t^'<^ juda'l the hamza is necessary. mark hamza is used to introduce it. line requires "a prop"; and this in
When
But
'the
a syllable begins with a vowel, the this hamza being written above the
is
I
case of a
in the case of
it is
that in the (with or without *), and in the case of * it is ^5* ), only initial form this last is [often] distinguished from the ordinary y by losing its dots e.g.
(with or without f
:
mas-ul "inquired of", **Sl fa-ida "advantage." Palmer '3 Concise Eng.-Per. Diet.
Note the
For
two words.
28
JAZM OR SUKUN.
6.
(a)
Jazm
or Sukun.
In Arabic and Persian, the first letter of a word is always accompanied by a vowel, hence in the mouth of an Arab or Persian a word like Smith becomes Ismith (or Ismit).
1
by no vowel sound, it is said to be sakin e/ "*, i.e. quiescent, inert, or mute," and the symbol called /*>* jazm "cutting off, or amputation," or ()*
is
1
When
followed
"
o
(
]
)
is
letter
is
"moved
'
it.
In the word
^^
mardum
( ; )
;
by
fatha,
letter
"quiescent, inert, mute, or silent", having the sign jazm ( o) over it while the third letter ( ^ ) is moved ' by zamma or pish and finally the
;
last letter
is
"quiescent."
is
A
of the
first
letter so
aJ16
marked
called sakin
"
"
quiescent
or
majzum\
it
has none
olj^a*.
only
is
When two or more quiescent letters occur together, the termed sakin, the others being termed mawquf o^r* " dependent
"friend" the ^
is
on"
and 4j
In Persian (but not in classical Arabic) the last letter of all words is quiescent; this being a rule, the sign jazm is omitted in the case of
,
final
letters.
Jazm
Roman
character)
2
two
Jii
in Persian
to avoid even the suspicion of a vowel between the two last letters ; many Persians pronounce these words almost like tifli, naqla, nagda, and in the two last words slightly dwell on the fatha. The Arabs and Indians pronounce
tifel,
naqel,
Remark.
The presence
or absence of a jazm in a
word
of three letters,
;
sometimes completely
alters the
meaning,
e.g.
<_>& nafs
means "passion"
fissure
a woman, 4
^b "
but
^y "a
and the
Fow
Indiana can pronounce two consonants at the beg nning. In Hindustani a few wo:ds begin with two consonants with no vowel between
illiterate
:
them.
In such cases a jazm is not written over the first letter as theoretically a quiescent consonant cannot occur at he beginning of a word. It is for this reason that a vowel is often inserted; thus Brahman is often pronounced Birahman. 3 Barf *'snow" is in India pronounced baraf; this pronunciation renders the
word
*
unintelligible to
many
Persians.
of either
sex.
In Arabic the
/or/.
privities
words
29
Tashdid
and Idgham.
(a)
A
*
(
the sign
called
it
<v^
is
tashdid
it
placed above
to indicate that
A letter so
rated."
marked
first of
called
mushaddad
"
corrobo-
The
begins the following syllable. (6) In practice, the Persians strongly emphasize the letter that
is
marked
"
with the sign of duplication; Ex. ^^ khurram "joyful"; *iJ| albatta certainly." The Arabs however pronounce the doubled letter twice, unless
it
ends the word, when it can only be emphasized. words of only two letters are rare (c) Arabic
consequently words
)
like
ki and 5^
(shatt
lettered,
omitted.
>>)
vide under
be
quvvat strength." qut \^j In Arabic words a euphonic tashdid occurs when the article al precedes a word beginning with a solar lettter: vide 10.
Without the tashdid, there is nothing to show whether a " " food " or is
Remark
II.
Tashdid
is
any
that are purely Persian. The word **o bachcha is an exception if the ( *.) be omitted there is nothing to distinguish it from a$u bi-chi, " for what"; " Peculiarities of Persian words." In compounds, the tashdid vide also
over bachcha
is
etc.,
and
also in
**>
the expression
'<
(a
curse).
hillock ",
(d)
and
"
thick, dense."
signifies inserting
Idgltam
V*M
As a letter so assimilated (mudg&am shappara (from shab-para ^J v-* ) the two words with are practically synonymous. marked is tashdid, ) Remark
jadda
I.
Removing a
is
"path",
called
takhjif
jj
^^^
"lightened
"
'
substantives in which
two
coming
ba taahdU *J*i
In Arabic ^A-
" most emphatically an ass.'* L^aL (m.c.) "a i.e. one whose second and third muza'af verb, reduplicate The term muza'af is also applied to a quadrilateral verb of two
zalzaV
30
TAN WIN.
;
together, lose the tashdid <xjxJ before the Persian plural termination ha
thus
jinn er^
" a
spirit,
its
Similarly
from
saff
JU
" a
line
saf-dar )*&*>
" rank
' '
breaking
in Persian, as
kaff
Ar.,
Such Arabic words frequently lose the tashdid " l un palm of the hand/' kaf *J6 P.; habb
,
I
*-**>
is
"
pill
again restored before the <^ of unity, thus hob, P. (m.c.) becomes habb-i
(m.c.)
J*s*.
"a
pill"; fan
<J>
of the
hand ",
kaf-i
Remark
exceptions.
III.
mushaddad
cf
letter
is
saw";
8.
farrukh
farukh)
"happy, etc."
are
Tanwin
In
classical
is
the nominative
^
C
"7 is n. is
the genitive
Vide, also
(a).
the accusative )
is
If
the noun
,
,
~
,
called
tanmn "
s giving the nun. Arabic nouns in the accusative case are in Arabic used as adverbs;
"
&ij&
Ex. tf&M
alif is
an
ittifdq-
"
of
not sounded.
If the
l
word ends
<
in * or
5?
there
is
no
final alif;
Ex.
A^
*lij
bind* an if
"
alay-hi
accordingly ",
in
*4^
hikmat- an
"skilfully";
is
i
similarly
the
word ends
preceding the
lovingly." unsounded), thus <^>*>* hawa* In modern Persian the tendency is to omit the n and prolong the final d
the
is
^ and
^^ *
(in
"
Such words are considered by Lexicographers to be Persian. There is practically only one declension in Arabic. 3 In modern colloquial Arabic the final vowels and tanwin are with a few exceptions omitted: a noun in the accusative case, used as an Adverb, is given the tanwin.
i
Colloquial Arabic has, therefore, no distinction of case as found in the classical language.
*
*
*
:
The
alif
over the
is silent
^ajui ^?.
now seldom written, the word being spelt <^>A the ^ Words like uq l)a are generally written ^X** (without alif).
<_$
is
^^
<
In the
Roman
is
transliterated
a.
31
hal- a *
}
adverbs;
Ex.
3/U.
"now,
at present ",
' '
reality
is
always
jabr
an
modern Persian always pronounced hold V^ while He "in is pronounced both with and without the n. In some words the * " " retained Ex. <&* or
in
;
gkajlal**'*
suddenly
"by
accident ",
"
\j&*>
by force."
9.
Waslah.
is
This word signifies " a conjunction or joining " and the alif of the Arabic definite article Ji al " the " it
:
signifies that
the
;
alif
is
J joined
thus
vide
Remark
3 (d)*
a word before a wasla ends in a long vowel or in an alif-i maqsura, the vowel is shortened in pronunciation before the alif with wasla, thus
is
pronounced
fi'l-jumla
and not
fi'l-jumla.
10.
(a)
for the by " " no means obvious reason that the word shams sun begins with one of them. They are o->-i-a-j-j- u uS- uc-<j*-.b--J- e,. If an Arabic word with the article Ji begins with one of these letters, then, for
"
^^
the word itself is ^- f x " " the Peace of ^aJl .3U Salah^d-din (Saladin). Religion
sinniyya
a
-
but to compensate for its doubled and marked with --, thus
:
The dentals
**'**,
-.-by the
o. The lingual asaliyya ( ^JL>f aid of the tip of the tongue, and are
(6)
^-J-^-uw-u
^- 4
The lunar
letters
because
qamar the moon begins with one of them. With them no such takes change place in the J of the article. The lunar letters are subdivided into the labials shafahiyya or shafawiyya
^J^
o^
&
1
or *if
v5
^ ne
palatals
lahawyya
*^ ^
)
<3
The hamza
is
pronounced.
9
8
Difficulty of pronunciation or want of euphony is called istisqal ( Jl*&-l ). The loss of the front teeth prevents the people pronunciation of the dentals.
The
letters
u"
(J
are called
'*
j***>-)\ <*JJj^
sibilant letters."
32
ABJAD.
(aJila*)
or hanjariyya
'
Remark.
over
oj^ huruf'^l-laqlaqah clacking letters"; huruf 'z-zalq (J-'^l oj^ or *AflJjA// o^sJi al-huruf''zzawlaqiyyah letters articulated with the tip of the tongue and the lips they " soft 1 letters" are the liquids ; - & - J huruf^l-lin <^Uf Jj^ 3 - is 9 * " arched", viz. u^ - (j* Ji i nit'iyyah ***& letters promutbaqah *ft>Janounced by the tongue and the fore part of the palate (viz. ^ - ^ - Jt )
(c)
'*
11.
Abjad.
(a)
The
:
order
ooo o G5 oo 00 t> CO iO
r-1
T* CO <N
oooo
r-<
OQOt^Ci)
oooo
to mathematical
The use
of letters
as numerals
is
confined
works.
The sum
name
of a
verse recording an historical event, gives the year of the Hijra in which the
common
in all
Muslim countries.
is
This system
v Ua.,
the
Arabic word jummal cU^ signifying "cable; addition." with tashdid &>*& is reckoned as a single letter.
(b)
letter
marked
of
Examples
f
f
When
coins
u
ft
Nadir
with
Persia, he struck
xx x
the
chronogram
&
^ tf?-^*^'
'
allchayr
ma waqa
in
what happened."
The
sum
1
of these letters
1148 (A.H.)
A.D. 1735-6.
a
3
Vulgarly abujad.
The Arabs
-
of
for <j
(Jf>
for \J*
^
-j
for (j
6
<j^ f r
^
letters,
may have
the value of
"
of
of 3
letters.
of
^>
e.
they
may
NUMERICAL FIGURES.
33
The date of Taymurlang's death is in the dramatic words <s&jt f 1^ Vida'-i Shahryari " Farewell to Royalty," this = 807 (H.) A.D. H04-5.
A new gate to the mosque at Kazimayn was constructed by Farhad u Mlrza, an uncle of Nasir - d-din, Shah of Persia, in A.H. 1300 ( = A.D.
l J
1882),
or
'
nom
and an Afghan poet of Bagdad, who wrote under the takhallus o*Jliu de plume of Shihab, immortalised (as his son says) the event in a
'
poem, the chronogram of which, according to custom, occurs in the the last two misra' a jo.*> (a line of verse)
:
last, or
)*
&>.\ jt
At
J^ b
*sJ
jjU
j|
(JijlfA
to
is
" Shihab in a " happy frame of mind fixes its date May your road Paradise be by this gate." The sum of the letters in the second misra*
1299, but the writer says at the
J-" and
these words
may
alif
end of the first line "ba dil-i-shdd J^b also be translated " with the heart of shad' 9 now
:
is
which
'
one,
so this
makes the
total 1300.
The
letters of abjad
^j*)
f>.j&
the letters of the alphabet are used with special significations; thus the letter * denotes Thursday, the sign Virgo, the planet Venus and the moon when bright. Few Persians nowadays know these signs, and the almanacs
,
)^
!.j& is
preferred.
12.
Numerical Figures.
from the Hindus by the
1
(a)
The usual
:
Arabs) are
0123456789
I
left to right as in
English thus,
M*f
s-1901.
Called
by
the
Arabs
the
Bab^-^l-Farhadiyya
and
by the
Persians
Bab-i-
Farhadiyya.
The abjad system is also used as a species of Morse alphabet for visual and auditory signalling, in a manner that will readily be understood by Military Officers. Double raps or long sounds, such as sighing or sucking a pipe, indicate the number of the word in the abjad system, while single raps or short sounds indicate the position
i
Similarly, signs
made by
the right eye or eyebrow, or .by the foot, indicate the word, while those
on the
left,
the letter.
Vide also
16.
34
(I)
(*
g for 3,
or
13.
To
Let
of the Hijra:
E = the required English date in years Then E = M x 0-970225 -1-621 -54. The answer
Let
end of the year A.H. The year A.D. 1900 (1st May)
is
1318 H.
14.
Siyaq
($#* V
Mustawfis (^5****) or Revenue Accountants, and Munshis keep their accounts in a system of figures called (jU- siyaq or ^(^ divam which is
'
India. nearly the same pSj raqam of this system, vide Appendix to Woolaston's of For a detailed account is a complicated one. English-Persian Dictionary. The system and merchants keep their accounts in a form of siyaq
(
<3l**
<j\jii>
or siyaq
jjU*.
of the
Mustawfi
the is applied to a system of writing a sum in a feceipt ) written in siyaq ( $>** ) and then in words underneath it; under this again, half the sum is written in siyaq.
^f^o
(
).
:
Euqumi
^j$)
sum
is first
15.
Letters in Poetry.
Persian poets delight in discovering fanciful resemblances in the form of letters. As already stated, an upright stature is likened to the letter
altf^ but bent
by
is
grief or
age
it is
a bent neck
in
is
like a, while a
drooping head
like j.
his
beautiful
but
1 The revenue accounts being kept in siyak none but a mustawfi ij*j*~* or revenue accountant can interpret them. Persian officials are in the hands of their accountants. " I heard of one Governor who on removal from office had his accounts made up and was found to be a debtor to Government to the extent of 80,000 tumams (16,000).
He got
*
another mustawfi
^^*MM
to
examine
his accounts
and the
latter
brought him
amount
of 40,000
alif,
tumams."
Yates'
Khorasan and
Sistan.
HANDWRITINGS.
1
35
somewhat lengthy poem "Yusuf and Zulaykha'* compares the heroine's teeth to sin (-), her mouth to mim (, and her eyes to sad (*) or 'ayn (*) zulf is again compared to lam and jim.
;
16.
Handwritings.
and the
The two most important varieties of Arabic writing are the Kuft NasTch, and all the other varieties, national or calligraphic, may be referred to one of these two styles. The Kufic took its name from the town Kufa on the Euphrates, a
11
town that
at one time
was a seat
of
for
it is
now no
style at the time of the con quest of Syria, before the It is now supposed that the naskh did not originate in
the second or third century after the Prophet but was used simultaneously with the Kiific in the time of the earliest Khalifas, and possibly in the time
of the Prophet
himself. 8
'
The
and
Ta'tiq
<JjJiJ
),
hanging' hand,
in Persia.
is
still is,
much admired
Many
to
According to the Eastern romance Zulaykha saw and loved Yusuf in a dream At length she agreed suitors hearing of her beauty vainly sought her hand.
espouse the 'Aziz of Egypt, Qitfir (Potaphar of the Bible) believing him to be the Yusuf (or Joseph) of her vision. Her marriage was a rude awakening and her respect for her husband was doubtless lessened by the fact that he was, for
some reason or other, a eunuch. Joseph is recognized and bought in the slave market by Zulaykha and adopted by her husband. Zulaykha makes furious love to the unwilling youth. The ladies of Memphis discover her secret and talk scandal. Zulaykha hears the gossip, and faces the difficulty by giving a banquet to all the ladies of her acquaintance. While sending for Yusuf she gives each lady an orange to peel, with directions to observe Yusuf covertly the while. The ladies are so agitated at the sight of
beauty that they absently cut their fingers instead have to confess that Zulaykha has an excuse for her passion, They and she shut the doors and said 'come the temptation being so great. The Qur'an says " He said God keep me hither Verily my lord hath given me a good home and the But she longed for him; and he had longed for her, injurious shall not prosper.' had he not seen a token from his Lord." Qitfir dies and Zulaykha becomes a beggar, old, blind, decrepit, but Joseph retains his youth. Zulaykha builds a reed-hut on the
the
slave-boy's unexpected
of the orange.
'
Joseph fails to recognize in however has She the blind beggar-woman expiated her sin by her his wife. make to directed is Yusuf Her is and restored to her, youth suffering. Yusuf is a type of male beauty, the Adonis of the Muslims. common e^uxsr-* " of transcribers."
his former mistress.
girya
writing
is
what is commonly
styled khatt-i
36
HANDWRITINGS.
The
nasta'tiq
^JUi-J
(
is
)
:
^~i
or ordinary
ta'tiq
<JH^
a beautiful hand, chiefly used by the but the modern Arabs call the Persian
writing generally ta'tiq. Some old Arabic manuscripts written in Persia are in this style. hand is the term generally applied to broken or The shikasta *~
l ' ' '
1 In it the the cursive or running hand used by the Persians and Indians. dots are omitted and all the letters are joined together. It is very illegible
and puzzling even to natives. The ruq'ah <***; is used by Arabs and Turks
*
.%
in ordinary correspondence.
c
f^-k,
sulsi
^^xb
(or
^li)
are
the
names
of
titles of
letters
Europeans. These several scripts are little more than calligraphic styles. In Persia, even at the present day, calligraphy is one of the
fine
arts.
One
by
(
sell for
many pounds
a species
;
sterling.
The
Khatt-i shajari *
is
^j^Z
or
' '
tree- writing
"
,
of
merely another application of abjad *u! in it an enigmatical writing, stroke represents as it were the trunk of a fir- tree in which the number upright
of branches
of the
word
in abjad **v\,
Thus
in
^b
'Alt,
the
it is
occurs in the fifth word of the abjad system, namely in o^i**,, and the second letter in that word. All would therefore be written
'
:
\/
Vide also
11
(6)
footnote
2.
Remark.
not be written half at the end of one line and half at the beginning of the next also dual words connected by j should not be separated. Only inferior
;
'
'
own.
the
official
The dlwanl
The
(
-[??.&,
character, in Turkish
passports, etc.
S
4 Called also
khapi-i sarvl (j$f* 1*** or "cypress writing." Ther*> Bought him it is widely known. Like the Ar c/r Sistan.
Year
Amon
PUNCTUATION.
37
if
A greeting
is
is
there
not sufficient room, instead of crowding in the last few words, they are written above the line in one or more lines decreasing in length.
Two words are often written in one, as: ^^f anmard "that man." Two words separated by an izafat are sometimes incorrectly joined in one as
(kitab-i
17.
Punctuation.
In Qurans or ornamental verses, punctuation is represented by various marks such as, . . etc. etc. but in manuscripts, as already : nor the other symbols. stated, neither are the short vowels written
;
.
Even
in printed
and Indians mispronounce so many common Arabic words. 2 The following punctuation marks ( &&sj dl/o&: ) are occasionally used:-
Comma
Colon
Full stop
'
aldmat-i waqfa
alamat-i mutlaq
alamat-i dyat
'
'
'
oof
o*x>2k
flfiJUaf
o (for &)
.
Mark
of interrogation
,,
alamat-i istifhdm
nida,
. .
j>*>^
o
&
^J
(/)
exclamation
L
'
'*
'alamat-i
farydd,
.
yd
.
ta'ajjub
. .
._>.2put3
&(jjs
j d&i cx>X;
(n)
cu*^
Parentheses
brackets
f
), [
'aldmat-i
].
Poetry
aldmat-i
manzuma
5
In manuscripts, a dash ( ) called lakht cuij, is sometimes used to introduce the words of a speaker and consequently takes the place of u inverted commas. The modern sign over a word signifies either that
it is
it
begins a sentence.
These signs,
if
used,
In classical Arabic the short vowels are the most valuable part of a word: the
short vowel distinguished the person in a tense, the case of a noun, or the gender of a pronoun a short vowel makes the difference between the active and passive voice, and frequently between a transitive and intransitive verb, and the presence or " a triliteral absence of tashdid may entirely alter the sense: in the absence of "marks,
final
;
root
may
^
The vowels of even Persian words are misplaced the Ispahanis say amruz for A imruz, and in most parts of Persia padishah is the pronunciation of pad-shah. The Persian word common example is awaz of the Persians, instead of 'iwaz ( (j^^ )
'
girya
&
is
in m.c. gariya.
38
18.
(a)
An
abbreviation of a word
a part of
it,
as
Domini;
A
for
contraction
indicated, as
rec'd pay't
The term
contractions.
(a)
1
to both
abbreviations and
Some
of the
(1) p.c
=,
(2) f*l*>
a " God alay-U wa-sallam be gracious to him and give him prosperity (of the Prophet
= f L. j
*Lf
aJUj
^Le,
Salla-llah u
only).
For Christ
Muslim says
AjJLc ) ILxxi
^Ic
<dli
^^JUjj
^ ^ts
fJLJf &de j d\ }
li
^ IXAW
^JLc
(3)
^^AjJLc^f W JU.
to him."
Salla-llahu 'alay-hi"
"God
1
be gracious
Also
for'^^^e
^correct."
(4)
(f~ or)*
or
(^e^
Salam^-Uah
(or
'alay-hi or alayhim.
them)."
c:
(5)
&<*)
&
AX*
AJKt
^^j.
Raziya-llahu 'arihu.
*'
May God
be
(6)
Eahamat v -lla
'alay-hi.
The mercy
curse
of
God be on him."
(7)
::
<3uJU
^aJt
i'iJ.
La'naf-'llafc
alay-hi.
"The
of
God be on him."
(8)
K = ^Uj
aJJfiJu.
Sallama-hv'llah u
ta'alq
(for
ordinary
No.
1 is
No. 4
is
No. 7 for Satan; for Yazid.* the assassin of the Prophet's grandson; or for anyone specially obnoxious to the writer.
etc.,
when
alive.
The form
(9)
of writing the
^1, for
first
above Arabic abbreviations varies slightly. " and so on " (when the ByM' ^f, etc., in the sense of
of a quotation are quoted)
.
Also jlsuf^and
;^-^L
By
Shi' ah s
39
5-
for
+^ plural
f
<j
(also in the
-^ for
6s*
(11) (12)
for
<&>.
geographical works).
(13)
" " name of a for (geographical works). +sc place ^ " " town small works). a for t<& name of
(geographical
(14) &
Lsy~*?
* (15)
^sufc
9
JLcU
"subject"
(gram.).
(16)
(17)
(18)
u - Asu-i "note." Fzde 17, line 13. ^ = ^*>" " and so on." = ^dS* and y>*> "first," and and f
the order
'
'-'last,"
first
i.e.
'reverse
(read
,
the
word
with f over it
for
and with
over
it last)
"subject," and
^L
"predicate": vide
also (23).
(19)
(20)
(21)
-ftx:
u**
(jj
=
=
(22)
(23)
(24)
(6)
f
-j
ot*A)f ^i^ii-o (a
fcL5
u^lifcjj
well-known dictionary)
.
(a
well-known dictionary)
in
in origin
(1) An initial alif followed by a quiescent consonant is frequently elided and the jazm being removed, the consonant is then pointed by the same short
vowel that occurs in the second syllable of the original word, as c^f aknun, "now," ejjtf kunun; afsurdan &*j~i\ "to freeze, be dejected," fusurdan; " a &*&>< used women
:
," sifidaj rf by isfldaj ^itioAwot (obs.) paint (m.c.). If the initial alif is pointed with kasra, the short vowel of the first letter
of
the contraction
()*&**[
or istandan
c;JoUu.i
" to take," sitadan c^UU* or siiandan &&&*. If the initial alif is pointed with pish and the second vowel
first
is
fatha, the
:
zir or pish, as
uftadan
fiiadan or futadan
&*& *
or
^Uj.
(2)
Ishkastan (^Xi[ (m.c.) for shikastan i^^&b. Long vowels are sometimes converted into short
vowels
as:1
nigah
<*&,
shah
etc.
A^>,
digar^^, shukuh
*, budan &*>,
for
nigah
&, shah
^,
digarj&t,
(3) Examples of other contractions not subject to rule are: mar,)^ for bimdr jU# "sick," for madar } "mother", and for mayar jk* ''bring " " not chi, (vulg. and m.c.) for chiz, 3*^ thing" mi-ram, pj&o (vulg.
40
SUMMARY.
m.c.) for
,
',
mi-ravam fjj** ml-khay ^^i* (vulg. and m.c.) for mi-khwahi " happy ^fjA-x* sham p> for skavam (*j~ [shum, for Ar. shum] nusha A<y for &&yf anusha (old); chunuj**-, forjl cjy*. chun u 2t for ft'At ^y^ (tahi or " " $tt& (mod.) shdndan, ^(& for nishandan &^(&', a T (mod.) for empty and mi-dad are vulgarisms for mi-ravad, mi-shavad mi-shad tff; mi-rad, dqd
and
( '
and mi-dihad
ustaioi ustdd (vulg.); shazda for shdhzdda. are contractions for ftg-g/t sunduq, ru-yi mlz.
;
Tu sanduq and
19.
Summary.
be seen that the learner must take
From
(1)
it will
special care
to discriminate
;
between
^ an
(like
English k and
c& in stuck
M (latter pronounced
in the
like ch in foc&)
(2)
to
;
make
<J
a guttural
when pronounced
throat)
with the half-bleating sound when it occurs in the (3) to pronounce middle of a word and when it begins a middle syllable to make a pause before pronouncing that syllable and when it ends a word to omit it or half omit it, and to pronounce the word with a peculiar drawling intonation.
:
In such words as
(4)
toj,
the
must be
slightly
alif;
last letters of
words
like JjLk>
o
(5)
to aspirate the
&*>
words
like
Tihran, and
mih
(final silent
As a rule every letter in a word must be distinctly enunciated must be no English slurring of words. An uneducated Persian learning English would have little inclination to fall into the objectionable
Remark.
;
there
'
'
habit of
' '
' '
clipping
his words.
must be made between fehe long and short vowels. have a passion for making the short vowels long they also expend a good deal of energy in shouting and putting the accent on every syllable. For accent vide 21. The necessity for enunciating every letter will be discovered in distinclear distinction
to
guishing between such words as Ai^wo sirishta "mixed," Ax)^* sar-rishta " a ec good knowledge or experience of a thing," and sar-i-rishta &jj"* the
end
of the thread."
(b)
The pure vowel sounds are a, t, u, and a, *, u, besides the diphthongs 1 ay (generally pronounced ey) and aw (generally pronounced like owin cow).
1
In India ai as in
aisle
and au
as in the
German
haus.
EXERCISE IN TRANSLITERATION.
There
is
41
majhul vowel-sound
o. 1
26 (/)], hamza, in Persian, usually (c) Except as a sign of the izafat [vide occurs between two vowels (i.e. vowels according to English ideas) and thus corresponds to a hyphen.
(d)
A peculiar
it.
stress
letter, i.e.
a letter with
a tashdtd on
20.
(a)
Exercise in Transliteration.
are merely an exercise in reading
an
(
&[ in
&1 un
t^ an
Long
Jf
(for Jf
<5l
t)
&
dl
cX>J.
'in
il
^
J^
or ol
'un
J/f ul
<ul
Jb
Diphthong
Jjf
cl*c
J*c
tZ
ayl ayl
Jy awl
Ji* 'awl
Remark.
All Arabs,
*-*c, etc.,
The
following
is also
an exercise
is
Special attention
in reading, but all the words have directed to words that are apparently spelt
The learner
is
recommended
first
arose
earth
gain, interest
tribe, family
gul
gil
JZ clay
khdk
sud
qawm
bid
a willow
a hair
vine- stock
mu maw
young
of
u young, or the
for
anv thing
bachcha
bi-chi
what
in <^jt o-l, oh There are many words in Persian pronounced differently though to the eye the same ; these have different significations.
1
!
As
spelt
42
blood
the anus
TRANSLITERATION.
khun
kun
,
khan
it
'
khwdn
ru
face
go (imperative) * self
=-
raw khud
khud
dbru
l
a helmet
honor
gutter (for water)
db-raw
K*
become
shudan)
9
shaw
of the verb shustan)
wash (Imperative
J
shu
for
him, to him
(for jl AJ)
bi-du
bi-daw
one grain].
ju
ju
a follower, attendant
a
little
pas-raw
pisaru
son
a pledge
if
giraw
garu (for agar u
l
he (poetical contraction)
j\ j>\
a defect, vice
Ar. broken pi. of
ayb
above
'uyub
a day, Ar.
Ar., pi. of
yawm
above
ayyam
ruz
a day, P.
hope
table
umid
miz
or
ummid
Or bi-shaw "become."
is
used
&*"-/
these words.
TBANSHTERATION,
lion
43
Mr
shir
milk
with
without
f
ba
U
puf
pufak
month; moon
c
mah
mahi
ism
Tchwab
pi. of.
*
fish
name
sleep
mean, low,
,
o*~J
pastan
pistan
khawarij
(sing.
khwahar 2
khwar
u daqq 'l-bab
Civil
'urf
an eye
(A. head) a
>
'ayn
cape
chief
varaq
banda
ydvar
'Arab
vaqt
(pron. bande)
an Arab
time
t
pi. of
above
awqat
Ichurak
3
food
pleasant
custom
of
the vowel
(e)
in
these words.
*
s
2
).
(j
).
The J
The^j
is
it
generally pronounce
is
common
2 under
Note the
half-bleating
under 9*
like short u:
1
8
This
2
is
is
pronounced
vide
under
44
TRANSLITERATION.
ftf
Adam
harm
Ar. standing, erect, firm
difficult
Adam
zarar
)j*> loss,
pjti
(c)
qa^im
The following
ma'nq"
ait *lxfcf
x*
atibba-and
*s
jamd'a-ddr
na'uzu
bi'lldh
bism^lldh
o&i*
or o*5oA
hay^at
Saldh u 'd
Dm
banda-yi u
Ichubi-yi
mashjiad
az,har
insdniyyat
(d)
As already stated in
1 (a),
hand.
(2)
Remark.
The
solution to No. 1
is
uu
No. 2 begins
(3)
6wa-*
What
is
till
the
word
at last he says, khar-am (" I am an ass "). khurram, etc., " *> is anchi gufti hasti vali in mst ^. ^\ ^y-A
The guesser says haram, jazm, jurm, jirm, The reply then what you have ^^
*^
said
you
(4)
are,
it is
e^<i?^*^ j|
ixjiu>
(.5^**^
Ox^J^fiAa.y S$
^^ c^**^.
The key to the answer depends on the various significations of ja'far The first Ja'farjA*^ is man's name, the second signifies " donkey," a J&AS*. " and the fourth " a a the third i: parsley bridge."
1
*
Practically
word
is
gener-
ally
pronounced
*
y, as qayim.
Ja
1ar is
and
one of
"river.'*
ACCENT.
(5)
45
A man
named Badri
The
the last
first is
Badn-yam
sad riyam.
word
is
21.
(a)
Accent.
is
The general
Ex.
:
rule in Persian
falls
;
on the
last syllable.
MsA " a led horse (old) " "a glove (m.o.)." means "an assistant to a falconer"]; (fit o^o^
*^
pasha
" a mosquito,"
;
to
'
o^
darakhtdn
' '
trees
' '
:
j,i*
handz
"yet";
'done"
3>
(Past Part.);
" better
^y
v>^
^^ kardani
da$z
' '
karddn
"
:
cA^a
l
"that has
to be
done
"
;
^T kardd
bihtdr
Remark.
The accent does not fall on the izafat nor on the affix tj. b ci^;^ "the trees in the garden"; darakhtdn-ra
Exceptions are
(1)
of
falls
strongly on the
first
bi-kunid
Ex. ;f^ bdr-ddr "take away"; " " " do bi-ravand &*> md-kun, *&* md-kuriid "don't do ye " " " let them let me do." bi kunam go ^AV (2) The accent falls on the first syllable of the Aorist (or Present Sub;
:
^y
and
Ex.
" I was j**^*^ mi-kardam doing, etc." p&>*> ndmi-kunam c^_^+> ndmi-kardam. the accent seems to fall on the u, In the phrase ^'^ & td na-gu^i
*ixx9
mi-kunam "
;
kunam, ^ am
I
bi-kunam " I
;
may
in ^AXJ
t>
td
na-bim
it
seems to
first
say
<f go*e.
Should these tenses be preceded by a preposition that is part of the verb, the accent still falls on the first syllable, i.e. on the preposition.
bar mi-daram fjl**"^ ddr nami-ravam. fjj*+ij$
Ex.
' '
I will take it
' '
away
p\**+>
j bar nami-daram
is
(3)
it is
on the on the
penultimate of
when
it is
amddan
is
obsolete
amada karddn
is
used instead.
46
last
ACCENT.
syllable.
:
" ordered
"I asked":
AJJ^*' farmfidld
Aiate
"they gave":
^^7* farmud
the accent
^^ "
;
guftim
"we
said,
etc.
"
"you
;
but
falls
mentioned in
:
(b) (2)
" he did not fell," jiU%i ndyuftad on the preposition. Ex. aU't fall," but ^Ua^ j$ ddr na-yuftdd. not take the accent. Ex. cAM^P darakht(5) The affixed pronouns do " " his trees " kitdbhd-yitan your books" c> <^t^< madahd-yash khil-ishan "their income": owt &\S*> bds-i-tdn ast "it is sufficient for
: :
" he uftdd
c^t^
you."
(6)
falls
on the
^ ^
of unity
[but
it
may
fall
on the
demonstrative ^].
Remark.
rule
and formed from adjectives and Abstract nouns ending in that are formed from nouns, follow the
and take the accent on the last syllable, i.e. on the ^. Ex. ^Q niki " " << (from nlk ^& "good" and dust friendship goodness" ^^^ dusti 2 o*jj> "a friend"), etc. It therefore frequently happens that there is nothing but the accent to distinguish between two words which are spelt the " or " dusti same; thus ^i*^ may stand for dust-i a friend friendship ", " " '* may mean a bride" or nuptials ( arusi}.
: :
'
(7)
The following
:
first
syllable
(
" " yes " L>f " or d'rii is to say or vdli 6 but yet, however ^xcf, yd'rii " whether or " not," etc." dyd (an interrogative particle) <^f dn yes, very " " (C *>JL bdlki well" *J**\ inak here is, behold perhaps, moreover, on the
U dmma
" that
"
"
^^
:
" here I am." Idbbay (in Persian generally lobe) contrary " In the preposition ^f^j for the sake of" the accent is on the second f< 1 Khuda for God's sake." Ex. bard-yi syllable.
6
: :
"
tM
vide
(g).
^ 3
dost, etc.
*
5
The Afghans and Indians say lekin, the Arabs Afghans and Indians wale, or wa-lekin.
"Here
am, yes"
for
Arabic
-jJ
ktbbayka.
Ldbbay
is
common amongst
Indians" say bara,e.
women.
7
Pronounce the
cS'Ltf
slightly as a consonant.
bar ay
Impera. of
ACCENT.
(8)
47
have the accent on the first syllable: ashamldan " to drink o'*t^ khwabidan " to sleep" c;^T dmadan "to come." take no accent, neither do the particles *$ (9) The simple prepositions and &* or the conjunction ^. As pronouns, & and *. may take the accent.
The following
Infinitives
:
o&x/cl&f
The
when
it
forms compounds, as in
chunan, chundn
(c)
A correct
i.e.
by
they must be caught orally. The rules given above have, however, few exceptions, and if carefully studied will prove a great aid to
ear,
the learner.
It
say pidar-i
first
another piddr-i man. Dr. to Rosen the only Persian noun with the accent on the According " a sdnndr is jlx* penny," a contraction of jli>a **c sad dinar. syllable
man and
This remark probably refers to the more correct modern Persian spoken at Teheran. In Shiraz, however, and some parts of southern Persia, the accent falls on the first syllable of the following common Persian and Arabic
nouns
l(
j<$ pidar
father
"
:
;,il<*
mddar
''
sister
"
:
value about three rupees or about four shillings) dinar "(an imaginary and infinitessimal coin, 50 of which go to one jtxja to one 'abbasi and 1000 to one qirdn) ^U* 'dbbasi (the fifth of a 200 shahi,
c>^P tumdn
(a coin, in
gj
qirdn)
^/AJ qdssdb
In;^
is
on the second
syllable.
There are probably other exceptions to the rules in (a) and (6). (d) In the old-fashioned classical Persian of India and Afghanistan, the
accent does not follow the above rules.
1 In the Past Part, the accent falls according to rule, from amdda " prepared " vide note 1 to 21 (a).
;
as,
amadd,
to be distinguished
*&;
2
the accent
is
on the second
syllable,
mashshaq
a drill-master Colonel."
.d of
*~
a house
jr* J* war->
stallion
" and
'
mare "
CHAPTER
22.
II.
Grammar
is
divided into
t^_
^ Sarf
EtyO^A)!
l^yt j-=cu^l
is its
f^\
f\
father."
Etymology vJL*.
Aqsam-i kalima
*
PARTS OF SPEECH
*U>\
There are according to Arab and Persian Grammarians three parts of which includes substantives, adjectives, numerals, (1) ^-f ismf speech
:
(2)
J*J
fi'l,
the verb
(3)
J^
of
speech, viz.
adverbs, prepositions,
conjunctions, and interjections. " and murakkdb " comThe harf is divided into mufrad "single, simple pound." The former consists of letters of the alphabet that are used singly as
particles, as )
and
for
the prepositions
-
jt
and *
-
twelve
^
It
is
1*>
^-
'
24.
The
Article.
customary to say that there is no article in Persian. There is, however, a means of rendering a substantive both definite and indefinite vide 40 and 41.
:
either
In the absence of any article a substantive like *->\j " wine " or " the wine," according to the context.
25.
l
sharab signifies
The Substantive 8
*Jy^o
^ti)
**l
Gender
^ju.
'
).
(a)
Alam
a proper
name
and
Ahmad
****\ 9
,
etc.,
but
titles (khitdb
ljai>>
Zogofr
noms de plume
(
(takhallus)
" accidence or 1 etymology (gram.)"; ishtiqaq j(sd^\ "derivation of Arabic Sarf " " cause of " words deriving words from an Arabic root vajh-i taamiya (lit.) naming
;
:
is
*'
derivation."
*
(
'
j**^ ) sentence
proposition, etc.
Kalima
)
also
means the
fafz (
Muslim profession
is
of faith.
is
The
distinction
between
*+&
kalima and
&& )
(of
word
3
may
be a
adjective
noun-substantive
and noun-adjective were the terms used. Ism-i 'amm ( fl* f~I ) " comr
(
*JLc
'atom ) Or ( j"(aL \~j&**~~* noun; ism-i ma'nq proper noun." Ism-i zat consonant. The Afghans and Indians sa, /*' " an abstract noun. /
' ,
THE SUBSTANTIVE
GENDER.
,
49
surnames or nick-names or epithets (laqab) of famous people as Euyin-tan er* eX&j "brazen-body," i.e. "invulnerable" (name of Isfandyar); any
s
by which a person is commonly known, alias ('urf J^ ), as Kalian (Indian) for Kola Khdn, Ma'rafi (Persian) for Muhammad Rafi, Mirzd; and the filionymics and patronymics (kunydt) of Arabs (which
contraction
common
bin Yusuf. include 'alam (mentioned above) ; nouns (1) Definite nouns ( p>\ ) ordinarily indefinite that become definite by construction, as ghulam-i Zayd
Muhammad
any common noun given as a secret epithet o**^ "the (our) friend," dushman ^j+Jo ^A) ^t*^), "the (our) enemy" any common noun used as an epithet and commonly known (ma'hud-i khdriji ^5^;^ *^**> ), as Ghuldm-i Misr j*&*> f&e tl the slave of Egypt (Joseph), KhalU* ~lidh *JL/i JU-k the Friend of God" (Abraham) the muzdf of a pronoun and the personal and demonstrative pronouns vide 40
AJJ
p&c
of
Zayd
1
"
(ma'hud"i zihni
as dust
(6)
Remark.
(2)
Indefinite
nouns
jXi ^,f
) ;
mu'ayyan
Remark.
indefinite
(6)
In kas-l rd shunidam
(***
\j>>~
the object
is
considered
rd.
Persian.
Grammatically speaking it may be said that there is no gender in 2 Males and females are either expressed by different words, as:
and dushiza >xw ^ zan na-dida *:<x> mard " " lord, etc.," khdtun ^y ^ man," &) zan a woman"; khwaja^^"lady": or else they have the words y nar "male" and *^U mdda
dlv j>& ua
and pan
"
female,"
etc.,
added, as
^^ or J^^ nar-gdv
" lioness "*
'
Jblxs^j^ shir-i
JJ^J
mdda
b$
cy [bwa
(m.c.) is ['
cow" y^shir-i nar mard-i btva *&> zj* and zan-i bwa means widow only and zan-murda it>j*> &j
;
" a
'
\*$
&j
;
"
beggar-woman."
feminine
Remark.
gender
:
,x^
tl
distinction of gender."
\)
Asp
ra farujchti <J^Jj*
y^*t
sell
the horse
"
;
asp ra
is
Vide
4
26 (h)
Rem.
II.
Arabic nouns are either masculine or feminine, and when in Persian qualified by Arabic adjectives, distinction of gender is sometimes observed, as will be shown later.
8
Pronounced vulgarly
*jtf.
gab.
word
with a hamza,
4 Nar-shlr
Nar-i aab in are not used by Persians. and mdda shir " " " a great fat narrakh.ar-1 in m.c. means the yard of a house vulg. m.c. means ^j*> " the yard of a jack-ass.*' Nariyan and nar-/ khar vulg. means blockhead," but " stallion " and " mare " in m.c. madiyan
j& ^
j^ 8^
;
^y
50
THE SUBSTANTIVE
(c)
GENDER.
Arabic nouns form the feminine by adding ah (in Persian the " *JU> malika P. " a l to the masculine, as <-l< malik king ) imperceptible l "a queen" ; &&&* sultan; ailkL sultana P. (class.).
Many
Remark.
*G
is
called
id
marbutah
words
vide
is
+*&
remarks on
*.
This termination
).
Ex.
*^>
(d)
Khdnum
^^
is
the feminine of
,
cM
khan
*
"a
is
squire"
(at
present a title given to almost every officer) and begum Grammarians call this f , mim-i ta*ms. of beg ^#.
(e)
^J
the feminine
lady, a princess," (a
word sometimes
also
"a
" female guardian of the cy^ csy^ bdnu-yi haram harem" (specially for the Shah). Vdv j must not, however, be considered a " Persian feminine termination >f|j zdlu "a leech >j zanu "the knee";
neat house- wite" 8
;
:
compounds, as
not the feminine of e^, a wo id only used in bag&-ban "a gardener," etc.: thus >b <*f kad-bdnu
In words like j^-J pisaru and j>y^o dukhtaru the j words are distinctly vulgar and should be avoided.*
is
diminutive
these
The
wordi^
khalu
''
a maternal uncle
"
is
l^
and has
Remark.
the uneducated, j is sometimes added in familiar talk, as maharu bi-gir "take hold of the camel's mahdr (nose-string)"; " the fellow came and said" o-of j; U ydru dmad va guft ; (ydru is here
By
used in a
In Arabic the
of
* is
jn
"wife
*
Shah."
;
mode n
8
Turks, also Afghans and Indians, give the e the broad majhul sound Persian the e is pronounced short as in the English verb *' to beg."
Also Icad-banu shud <X& ^ib
<i
but
the
girl
is
married,
i.e.
became a mi
added to
of a house."
4
In Kirman a vav
(^),
and
in
Teheran a ya
names, as
6
Ahmadu *+**) and Ahmadl is*+^\ for Ahmad *+^l. Khala *)^ is properly the feminine of khal Jl^ Ar. "a maternal
In India yarn
uncle
" w!
is
is
jt|
DECLENSION.
51
" little in Kam-tarin ttfjU, the superlative of quantity," has in modern Persian for its feminine &*** kamina, which in modern Persian " I " or is used as a substantive by women instead of the pronoun "me," when writing to a superior. Ex.: or) >i** o^c aix^ kamina 'arz
(/)
'
(p^**
ml-kunad
c^jlojhi
&>& mi-kunam) "I (your slave) make petition"; " oU&| bi-in kamina javdb iltifdt bi-farmayid kindly inform me
(or
is
^^
^U
(i.e.
your slave-girl the writer)." Kamina &*+ the contracted superlative kamin.
(g)
in the imperceptible
Arabic past participles, used as substantives, make their feminines Ex. * [vide (c)]. v-^j/o mahbub-i man "my friend
:
(male),"
&}**"
mahbuba-yi
man "my
marhum
"the deceased (male)"; &<0j**j* marhuma (female): <j>j*/o and &jj** a 8 1 "a divorcee" (set ma'shuq and ma'shuqa "beloved": aMk* mutallaqa
free).
(h)
Vide also
43
(t).
Real feminines,
are called
^5^^
* '
nouns expressing living things that are feminine, L*\ **i^, as opposed to ^Afl^ or Or ^J^x> {J j&
i.e.
^^o
* grammatical or irregular (Jit. heard') feminines," such as ' the earth," which are feminine in Arabic. the sun,' arz o^l
' '
Remark.
jannat
un
;
^^ [fern,
26.
jjljy
or
cjjyj
).*
There
(a)
is
nominative
(b)
when definite I; ra is affixed to the nominative. The dative is formed by prefixing the preposition
by
affixing
f^
*J
bi
to
the
nominative, or
m. 6
is used as a positive adjective signifying used in the plural or qualifying a collective noun to
1
'
In
classical or
mean,
vile.'
In the Panjab
followers."
signify
"camp
*>))* f***>
^ J^*
40
j*
e^y^ A|/
*$ e/f *****
^^
quit jfcamwo
an ki murad-i kj^af^r-i yaran barmasalih-ikhudmuqaddam darand (Sa*di). " he said the least (of their qualities) is that they put the desires of their f iends before an izafat after kamina is wrong. Here S'adi their own comfort, i.e. they are unselfish
:
used
*
AXk+S' as
a masc. superlative.
l
Vide
(a) (2).
or
v^
3
In classical Persian (jpil* ashiq is generally used for the male lover, while Jfj^** 25^ the beloved ' is generally considered to be feminine of necessity, and is not
'
therefore distinguished
vide also
43
(t) (5).
In Arabic
(3
^s
*
6
" These, especially gardan &\*jf, also signify conjugating a verb." Seldom written separately in its full form unless the word following
begins with
6.
52
DECLENSION.
Remark.
The rd
-
\)
of
is
bud
c?^
&>UJ|
J?
(class.),
be
expressed by
t)
j**
khar-i yak-i.
formed by prefixing ^5! ay or b yd the interjections calling attention. For the vocative in 27 (e) and 118. rhetorical language vide
(c)
The vocative
is
' '
oh
' '
,
or one of
aiif in poetical
or
(d)
cases
are formed
by
prepositions.
no proper Genitive in Persian. This case is expressed by coupling two nouns together by a short i (or kasra r-^) called by gram" marians the kasra-yi izdfat oA*! \j~$ ("the i of annexation" or the The thing possessed t of joining"), or more commonly *l^f izdfa or izdfat. " ! malik the son the *->&> of is first. Ex. JXc
(e)
1
' '
placed
jXc
kitdb-i
king j~i pisar-i " the book of the son of the pisar-i malik king."
:
j~>*
Remark Grammarians enumerate many kinds of izafat (1) The izdfat-i tashbihi ( ^^^ eJLot ) 'the similitudinary
:
izafat,'
and
as
izdfat-i isti'dra
(2)
The
'
c^ V
(i)
the metaphorical izafat,' vide (12) and (2) (iv). ' the izafat of qualification/ ) tzdfat-i tawsifi ( &**& Here mardis termed the (noun) qualified.'
>l*iw cuiLef
'
^^
'
The qualifying
'
izdfat
is
subdivided into
The
The
i>j^f>
(ii)
^ft^P
where
the substantive
is
qualified
privative adjective, as darkht-i bi barg cu^.5 " a man deficient in sense." kam-'aql cl^ f* *j*>
(Hi)
^>
'
a leafless tree
"
by a
mard-i
The o-&*y (j***j> ^lt where the substantive is compound agential adjective, as mard-i sutihan-chm (.&<*. (^u ing (fault-finding) man." Vide (vii). where the substantive (iv) The t^tf"** s^*^
qualified
li
by a
*j*
criticiz-
^^
is
qualified
by
^i
et
the stony-hearted
(v)
c<*/y
c^
(j***)*
In modern Persian
is
this i is often
is
pronounced
ol*A*o.
like the
e in bed.
The second
In modern colloquial Arabic the two nouns are placed in juxtaposition without any sign of the genitive case, as, ibn malik " a ** the son of the king," etc. son of a king"; ibnu'l-malik
noun
in construction
and
called
*(
DECLENSION.
(vi)
53
is
The
e^^Ls%*H
oA#
t5
oJLe|
is
qualified
by
two
adjectives.
(vii)
tJ>*j+J|
a substantive to a compound adpart of which qualifies the second part, as asp-i tiz-raftdr
c?i^
v^jUel links
jli^^x) ^*>|
(3)
asp-i
tiz
Jx> -*-().
1
(
F^cfe
)
The
izdfat-i zarfi
^j& cuLt
'
<&* "bottle of rose water, or conversely db-i shlsha a^-w vjf gulab " tank water." " bottle birka dbi-i water," &?j>
v^
"
(4)
The The
The
izdfat-i fa ill
"
^^
vsJUi
"the
as
agential izafat,"
as faru-
seller of
books."
),
izafat-i maf'uli
^^*a/o
cJLa
sukhta-yi dftdb
*->\ti1
l2a^
izafat-i
tamliki
izafat" or the
izdfat-i haqiqi
hakim
p*> J
"
"the
^^ oJUf ^^ cuUf
<c
)
)
"the
' e
Shah-i Iran
^t U
sage's treasure (i.e. the 1st chapter of the Qur*an) " the Shah of Persia." Vide also No. (8).
(^^^asj vsJU|)
*->
(
izafat,
the butcher's shop." *a-'te. or ) izdfat-i baydni (^1^ o.*Uef) "the (8) Izdfat-i tabyini ( t^-HtV Cf Xb ou^U tild sd'at-i as a watch of gold." descriptive izafat," the The descriptive izafat includes ^Uj o*j'Uc( which shows posses1
as dukdn-i qassdb
<&* 0^,3.
"
jji*j
sion of the
jjj|
1st.
kitdb-i
man
'
&*> ^(\f
'my book";
v^9 ^^ <y '-?
the
^o
^IxJus
^Uj
(i.e.
ma ^ v-jlK
' c
our book
' '
the
^^
shows possession
oJU^I shows
u j\
wltf
"his book."
' c
all
be
included
under
the
possessive
izafat"
Theizdfat-i tawziJil
' '
^^J^y
'
oJUcf
"the
izafat of manifestation,"
which
is
Gvlistdn
&\Z~>& ^JSS
the
izafat of specification (No. 7),' as, kitdb-i ' ' book Gulistan ; ruz-i shamba <wi^ )y
^Saturday."
Remark.
The
difference
is
second compound can be reversed, as Shahr-i Mashjiad *r Shahr yfi <i^x> ; but in the first they cannot be reversed.
^
(.
,
bdd-i
(
v.
(
as bi-'l-jins ( crisJb oJUf ) "the cognate izafat," " c ^j ) the morning breeze." " the izafat of 'Ati it-i ibm J^\ o.iU| filiation," as Abbds-i bas son of Ali." " as nargis-i tashbihi cJU| " the izafat of
izafat
l
zdfat-i
^^^
simile,
chasr
J
fj"
.y
(i.e.
B " a vessel."
nargis-chashm
is
nargia-i
54
DECLENSION.
The
izafat-i
the izafat of metaphor" or the " the " the o>Lcf , figurative izafat ,' as dast-i 'aql J&* o-*o
'
daftar-i shikayat ji&. The distinction between that in the former there is an implied simile, in the latter there is
^&
For
the
falck-i izafat
oJUi!
^j>'
and
izafat-i
maqlubi
<^&o
cu'l^f
" the
117.
If
first
(c^-^-l),
or in a
~^
pronounced yi
it
is
and
is
but
as follows
(1)
After silent h
written
s-
or
*,
as,
^*
of
hamza when
it
^
^Jy
of
unity,
After aspirated
8 it is
written ~^~
as, (j*Jy<M
*^>~#
6*5/
After
alif or
vav
it is
in
foot of the
man "
<^,* without *, as
of the
$\**>
or
$, asjl
ru-yiu,*&
sada-yi buland
cases as
correct. 6
also
* is incorrect
in such
is
after
in
final alif
way,
as ***
' '
;
hadd
' (
In these two examples *Ua stands for *(** " " streams of blood," pi. of blood," and *U for A +~* (pi. ot^l.) vide also 4 (e). As however the final * of Arabic words is often disregarded in Persian, such forms as (?* ^^j commonly occur for &* z&j.
1
f<
But not
after
an aspirated h as in mah,
yofc
"a moon;
to
&*
The hamza-yi
After a final
;
izafat is Persian
*.
^U ^ do
is
another fish."
*"'*"'
c^
*,
the
e*2a/a
of *,
after
but
C5 in modern Persian though so used in India. * In order to distinguish it from the ^5 of unity vide
yi izafat.
5
41
(6).
This
ya-
jlji)
etc.
They
also
state that
J;
<5
Atx3 C5
L;a
incorrect.
DECLENSION.
(3)
55
<j? it usually written in the ordinary way T, as, " the fish of the mahi-yi darya sea"; but according to some grammarians it should be written t (or * ) as (^ As however final with * is liable
After final
is
^U.
to
<_$
of unity
following a
weak consonant
(vide
is
preferable.
(i e. alif-i
After a silent
^ preceded by fathah
<jr,
ma'na-yi an "its meaning." The Arabic ^U/o i is also pronounced in Persian ma'ni and may therefore optionally in the genitive be written of ^i** (or, as above c/f c5 ljjt>c )expressed by
as, c/f c5 lijt/0
*
oJU
it has the same meaning would be pronounced da' vi-yi ishan. Proper names, however, should not be, but often are, changed; thus
may be written
>}**$ &*}*>
cfhambar
Muas
C5^
XJ
5
Musd-yi Pay;
"Moses
^l~
for
f~*> ^f^c.
but
'Isi-yi
(2),
izafat^^^
is
omitted
expressed by prefixing the " of or property.' belonging to the " " mclnz mal-i ast this is b;i JU ^t darya imported (belong. " the ing to, or coming from the sea) to the question, "whose son is this? answer might be e/ jl*> mal-i man "mine," or fj&tj* d(* mal-i baradar-am
is
in writing and printing, it being a short vowel. (4) In modern Persian an absolute genitive
c '
'
Ex.
j^
"
my
brother's."
In m.c. this word mdl Jt* is frequently inserted unnecessarily, especially the o ^** Jl* d~*9 qunsul mal-i Sistan " the Seistan vulgar. Ex. by Consul (i.e. not the Kerman Consul) o**f *j^ J^ mal-i qadim ast (for qadim
:
' '
asi)
"it
(g]
is
'
(1)
and
(2)],
The Indians and Afghans do not pronounce the izafat like yi [vide (/) but whether expressed by * or ^5- they give it the classical prooy ^^ khana-e mard, Ijp ^fcU mdhi-e darya. After the semi- vowels and silent h, the izafat is by them generally
:
written,
if
written at
all,
as explained in
(/)
(1)
and
(2).
kasra ij~$
of
however a company *or ^, as f^ 2*^1 banda-e Jchuda " the servant 3 " oj the place of the father "; or instead of a jafe padar
^^
is
J>*t amwal
is
"
possessions,
wealth, etc."
56
EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION.
as, <J
^U. 1
This form
is
common
In practice the
tioned in
41
/.
(d).
is
Remark
' '
In^
div
' '
clamour, lamentation
~) for the izafat.
II.
" a " demon," ^*^ khadw Khedive," gharw and such words the ^ is treated as an ordinary
i.e. it
takes the
Remark
ism-i-'am
(
Nouns are
)
;
called proper
ism-i-khas
(
( <j"*^ f~t ) that has a concrete something zat) or si ma'na existence as opposed to an abstract noun ism-i ( ^i** fat or oJL0jt). The term abstract is specially applied to that class of nouns )
;
U ^ ^f
collective ism-i
is
jam
&*.
^^
^oj
common
generic
the
name
of
is formed from adjectives and denotes character, as, "goodness" and more generally to all nouns that do not name concrete things, as, <^*->, jAl^b" kingdom."
which
also
'
"
primitive
'
"
(
**l+
)
f**l ),
and "derived
'
' '
"&*
*^o
).
p~\
).
definite
ma'rifa
*J^
or
'
indefinite
40-2.
nakira a
definite
and
When
common noun is
definite, and, by an allusion that is understood, is used to supply the of a proper noun, it is called ^i^i ^.n** md'hud-i zihrii, thus an dust place
5
made
cu^j^f meaning
a
"
whom
we're talking."
When
common noun
noun,
is
definite
it is
used as an epithet or nickname, i.e. as a proper and called <^"; thus Khaltt JxU- "The Friend (of
^^
God)," an epithet
for
Abraham.
Vide also
25
(a) (1).
(a)
Singular
Halai (oJI^)
case
"
N.
(J^\* d-Jlak
mard Jy man or the man. dast-i mard AJ* O-.A the hand f
-j
of the
man.
G.
CA>0f
oJla*.
Jchana-yi
V pa-yi
1
mard ,3^0 <xjlak. the house of the man. mard * t>j* ^b the foot of the man.
S.
The
izafat
o'^t
that,
in India.
Note
is occasionally expressed in these manners in old M modern Persians would saybanda-yi khuda, f<^ I<^J J
written
j'a-yi
pidar
Fa'il (cbk') subject." Maf'ul ( Jj*^ ) "object" is applied to &ny case governed by a preposition. 3 Of two words coupled by the izafat O^Lif the first is called the muzaf (
2
ilayh ( *J| oLaxs ). In India and Afghanistan pronounced *y <XiU> Jchana-e mard and Sj* For another form of the genitive in m.c. vide 26 (/) (4).
^^ pa-e
EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION.
f
(
57
mard-ra
bi-mard &j
\j t>f>
l
to the
man.
to the
man.
C
5
mard-ra
\>
*+* the
man.
( mard ty man-
V.
*l^ vsJUk
or
a^
waw
c^l
oh man.
mar da
az
Ab.
^^ oJU*
ward ^yo
3'
The remaining
Remark.
by adding the
also called
AJ
*<,*
The accusative
case
is
ablative
is
The dative in Ij is considered the accusative. +* ) is declined in precisely the same manner. (6) The plural jam' ( In classical Persian and in modern poetry the particle j* mar is (c) sometimes added to some of the cases. It is generally redundant but
occasionally restricts the
' '
e/fx
meaning to the case in point. With the nominative it is emphatic; as &^j* mar jan* "the mar an that very.
' '
life
itself"
(d) Vulgarly the accusative sign ra |j vowels, thus marda, mardu or mardi for
is
mard
In asbu ra biyarfyt l;^*t, the $ is a vulgar diminutive. (e) A form of the vocative chiefly found in poetry is formed by affixing f( " <a to the nominative, as X*lj bulbula friend." nightingale "; Iwja dustd This form is found in the singular only. If the nominative ends in a or in
a long vowel, the euphonic rule in
IjlAi
28
still
(c) is
applied.
DanghjH ty*
' *
alas
"
and
in a
c$f
)
Khuddya
"
O God"
are
used colloquially.
thus,
The vocative
t-Ul?
izafat,
This preposition
Fa'tt
(
JrU)
seldom written separately except before a " "subject." Maj'ul (J^*^ ) object" is applied
*J
is
v
to
any case
overned by a preposition.
Har ki daru dad mar jan-i mara Burd sim u zarr u marjan-i mara. Mawlavi. Whoever will heal my loved one He will get from me silver and gold and coral."
' '
license.
o bulbul of Persia (Sylvia luscinia) is a real nightingale and must not be with the bulbuls of India and Turkish Arabia : its song in the writer's opinion
ior to that of the
English nightingale.
58
" oh bulbul," but bulbul-i bagh-i ma U> xU cUb " oh bulbul of our garden.'* For this vocative qualified by an adjective, vide 118. Nouns ending in silent s do not admit of this form of the vocative. 1
28.
*^
Classical Persian.
) There are two numbers, singular and plural. Old Persian ( p?.** ^j* had a dual later Persian had none. The following are the rules for formation of the plural in classical
:
Persian
(a)
&].
Ex.
pi.
B^jb'j
aspan
^Iw
"a
cA^l^U padshah-an;
pi.
i_**l
asp
"a
"
it
horse,"
Iraniyan
Remark
I.
If
the
noun end
in
as
^^ hakl
" a narrator
:
follows
c/i^
^"
king
hakiyan.
oU*', etc.
Remark
other words
(b)
II.
The
origin
of this plural
termination
i.e.
is
stated to be a
pronoun
c/f,
by adding U
*'
Inanimate objects and sometimes irrational animals form the plural ha. Ex.: kitab "a book," pi. t^U^ kitab-M] -**f asp
^X
a horse,"
pi. l^*l
Remark I. There are exceptions to this rule. Sa'dl uses the plurals ^ULkp and cAii^. This is perhaps done to confer dignity on these nouns, the Still under this supposiplural in c;f being more noble than the plural in I*. tion it is not easy to account for such plurals, as eJ>H^ ofjjl* o>U^ and The plural in an &) ,is frequently used both in prose and poetry for the ejUJj.
sake of rhyme.
Remark
creatures,
(Iqb.
II.
is
as:
namburdaha U j^
"the
(people)
mentioned above
":
"
Nama-yi J., p. rid ed. Bib. Ind. of Beng. As. Soc.). Remark HI. In a few words a distinction is made, as saran &\j*
:
(m.c.)
chiefs," but
sar-lia
Rukh
;
has in modern Persian either rukhan c>^> or rukh-ha similarly angushtan cjtxi^i, and angushtha t LXi! "fingers"; akhtaran and akhtar-ha ^A>J^ " stars " abru-ha l*jj/>t and abruvdn &\jj*\ "eye)
l ;
(i
cheek
U^ "
" heads."
brows."
this
form
to
of
vocative.
2
"God"
(also
Izad
*j>\
is
said
corruption of a Pehlevi
59
if
"a
sage,"
pi. &\jti\t
dana-yan;
the
pari-ru (for
<j
fairy-faced," pi.
After a final
final,
^ is omitted.
Ex.
jjk
1
arm,"
pi.
&\j^ bazuwan,
abru
" the
abruvan*
plural of
US
Remark
niyagan.
I.
The The
is
Remark
II.
* are occasionally met saliyan and and mah to. These are Jl* exceptions and rare. The these words are to be preferred.
plurals e>y
^^
into
in an obscure *. this is, before ol, generally changed " " ^, as *j>y> murda dead (past partic.), pi. murdagan. this is Sometimes, but rarely, the * is retained in writing, as &tf
If the
word ends
^^
8^
incorrect.
is
employed contrary to
rule
Qa-ani says
(e)
If
the noun
is
h, this
^ usually and
lf*lj
**>b
nama " a
letter," pi.
is
namaha. 3
its
any ambiguity
likely to arise, it is
it,
thus,
*lsu/o
mahalla*
"a
l
quarter of a
l*"> 5
town"
*
has for
alsi/o,
n preference
plural
to the correct
of
JUuc.
generally
Must be distinguished from the word j^?T The plural of^i div and similar words
26
(ft)
ab-rti
is
" honour."
vide
Remark.
Modern Persians
and
van eJ^yl .
3
As
If-*!.*
may
namha
4-*^
IAAX5U
<
letters,"
it is
^ ^^>
for
I*
plural namajat
otavcli
is
preferred.
^^
"houses"
for
instance, might in
orthographical
sign
this
ambiguity
The
final 8 of
60
Nouns ending in * preceded by a long vowel l follow the ^ aU^lj; ; rah "a road," general rules in (a) and (6), thus aUob plural la Both the letters s shouldbe pronounced, i.e. the word should pi. *!; rahrJid.
be pronounced as written. Arabic words take the Persian plural or the Arabic broken plurals Ex.: v 1^ kitab " a book," Pers pi. l^lfe* kitdb-hd, Arabic broken pi.
(/)
a
;
kutub
J*U
^
)
^JUU
'amildn and
*JU.*
amala. s
(
Remark.
are
The broken
in Arabic
jam
~i
mukassar
J~& &*
x-
commoner
to both rational
and
irrational beings.
than the regular masculine plurals, Some words in Arabic take the
more broken
plurals.
There are two kinds of broken plurals recognized by Arabic grammarians, 'the plural of paucity' and the plural of multitude,' vide Arabic Grammar but the distinction is not observed in Persian except by a few
'
pedants. In the rhetorical style, almost any Arabic word and its broken or inner plural can be used. Sometimes a word has several bpoken plurals if such a
:
word be used
in different
" a house or Ex. from o#. bayt plural in one sense and another in another. tent, a verse in poetry," we get o># buyftt "houses," and oUjf abyat "a "verses"; cUlc labourer," pi. *JU^ "labourers" and J^ 'ummal
:
meanings
one
gtf^
"agents."
(g)
regular feminine plural in Arabic ends in of, which is an the regular feminine affix * ; thus, masc. p. of kanm un "kind," expansion
The
fern,
pi.
oU^/
karimat un
kanmat.
by
obscure,' but aspirated. Called also inner plurals because they are formed, not by affixed terminations, but internal change. They are really collective forms, and in Arabic are treated
1
This h
is
of course not
'
silent
'
nor
'
grammatically as feminine singular, even when they apply specially to males. These broken plurals are a difficulty in Arabic and only a less difficulty in Persian they are so irregular and various that no rules really help the student. Arabic
grammars
measures of these plurals which however give long tables of the various only bewilder the beginner. The broken plurals of all words met with in reading should be written down and committed to memory. If this be done, the learner will be
' '
surprised to find that in a short time they cease to be a serious difficulty. S In m.c. this word is used as a singular and the plural is formed by the barbarous
'
'
plurals
'
pennies
pence
so
much
value
fishes
'
and
fish
'
'brethren.'
61
rU^ hammam
t
un
"a
bath,"
"condition,"
.
pi.
e^|U>
haldt un
pi.
a
oU>U^ hammamat un
sama un
1
j
JU. hal un
m
*U~
"heaven,"
pi.
f e>fjU~
common
beings
is is
plural of Arabic nouns with a neuter sense is of occurrence in Persian, but the regular feminine plural of rational " an " rare; thus, j** 'aduv enemy (masc.) takes in Arabic the
and
word
Remark.
formed
of the
I
by
affixing the syllable
^-7 and
t " Mecca Co " a person feminine, or the dual and plural signs. Ex. */o t5 of Mecca." has no tashdid. In Arabic from the In Persian this final relative adjective a collective plural may be formed by simply adding the
' '
:
feminine termination
as
who
n Persian dahri "one ^j** dahriyy^ (in matter and denies the resurrection or the world
^^J
who hold
this belief."
This collective plural in Persian (without the Arabic article) is AJ^AA ddhriyya. Only a few plurals of this description are used in Persian, principally those
of various religious sects.
reigning Shah)
(h)
is
<*J;l^li
Plurals of plurals
(W
t^)-
An
is
in
1 This plural is rare in modern Persian hammam-ha f*>A, is preferred both in speaking and writing. 2 In classical Arabic the alif with madda would be given the ordinary sound, then the hamza would be pronounced and finally the tanwln 4 (e) Remark. vide The modern Arabs have simpli6ed the word into sama, while the modern Persians say sama, In dtjU* the hamza is changed into j in Arabic also slightly prolonging the final alif. f
:
'
'
written
3
ci>|
U*.
*><**
may
occur in writing.
of
*'**!
J^
4
'aduv-i
a' da
"deadly enemy"
(lit.
enemy
enemies):
dushman-i
dushmanan
i^U^ij (j^-^o has a different signification, viz. the enemy of (my) enemies, i.e. my friend, " the but dushmantarln-i dushmanan &\*+& &iJ (j^**o is used in this sense of
greatest
latter is
'
is
Words
and
*
naqliyyat and cijU*Aj wahmiyyat meaning "things narrated," things imagined," are the regular feminine pi. of the Arabic adjectives
(vide relative ^s)
oUUJ
and
^aj
its
has for
broken plural
62
yad
u*
" a hand,"
pi. of pi.
L?}
ayadl
"
hands; benefits."
Sometimes the regular feminine plural is added to the broken plural, as bayt "a house," pi. o^j buyut "houses"; pi. of pi. o^j buyutat "a, cluster of houses ";^A^ jawhar "a, gem, jewel," broken pi. j*>'j^ " jewels of various kinds ": jawdhir "jewels," pi. of pi. e!y*l^ jawahirdt A is the Arabic form of the Persian gawhar^^. 1 jawhar J
The shade
is
of difference in
of a
not always observed, thus there is apparently no difference in plural " meaning between <jj^b turuq (mod.) tfre broken plural of (Jo* tarlq a road" and the double plural oUr^t turuqat (class, and rare), though the latter ought " to signify many roads and ways."*
barbarous plural is sometimes made by affixing to an Arabic broken plural the Persian plural termination IA, thus ^jje zuruflia from " vessels the broken plural of zarf- 8 ^*UJ| " many kindnesses from zuruf
(i)
' '
' '
altaf
o^Wt broken plural of lutf. These double Persian- Arabic plurals occur only in nouns with a neuter
,
sense.
A few words purely Persian have been adopted by the Arabs and Arabic broken plural, and the Persians have in turn borrowed the an given broken plural of their own Persian word ; thus the Persian word ol^j farman
(j)
becomes fardmin u
vowel
c^y
" The word anagur j^\ 6 grapes word Persian the of angur ji^t. plural
"
is
Persian words, vulgarly arabicized in this manner by the Persians. Dastur ;y^a a Zardushtl priest, pi. dasdtir ^>Ua ; Khan e^, Persian, a title like squire, Arabic pi. ^j*> khavdnm (m.c.), used only in Persian.
(k)
In imitation
at is
tion
of
orders,
commands."
^^l
and
^^\
only occur in
high-flown Persian.
*
may
singular in another.
8
*
Zarif
"
witty, ingenious
is
" has
w*
for its 9
common
'*
plural zurafa**
Such a word
is
said to be
^j** mu'arrab
or " Arabicized
"
:
this
term
Similarly a
word
is
said
to be
6
o^, " made Farsi," i.e. adopted into Farsl or Persian. o*;*^ mufarraa Anagur is of course an imitation broken plural the correct form would be
:
anaglr.
29
(i).
63
When the word ends in a silent h, the affix of this bastard Arabic plural " a written combecomes oU> and the h ( disappears, thus *iy navishta the munication" (past participle of pure Persian verb navishtan "to write") " a f ort " becomes olaJLiy navishtajdt, and the Arabic word **1* qal'a'1
1 )
becomes oksud*
sense.
qal'ajdt.
An
exception
oUJUc
This plural occurs only in nouns with a neuter : vide p. 60, note 3.
clas-
Remark.
have different
pi. *J^if
Sometimes the broken Arabic plural and the imitation plural " significations, thus from b* dawa AT. medicine," the broken " Arabic in but in modern Persian medicines," adviya signifies
e*^!^
davdjdt
signifies
in
modern
medicines.
' '
(/)
or
/J^
is
*^>
).
The
**. ( f*^ue in masculine classical Arabic has two cases regular plural
x
and
tw
for the
terminations.
is
Thus
these are an expansion of the singular Arabic in classical Arabic, the regular nominative pi. of JUU
&jl*\* 'amilun*
" workers."
In modern colloquial Arabic the second affix only is used with the omission of the final vowel, thus tr>J^.e 'amilin (for all cases) "workers."
In Persian, Arabic plurals in un a
classical
Arabic.
The modern
(in
^^Ux)
by
the
mu'asirin
only in quotations from the however is occasionally used. Ex. plural and writing speaking) "contemporaries."
:
^ occur
).
The dual
in classical Arabic
is
formed
^ ayn
in the other
cases.
&
The
it
is
formed by adding
ayn
to transform 8 into
*-*,
but the
suffix
being Arabic,
is
^ and
64
PLURALS
MODERN PERSIAN.
4 '
In Persian this termination ayn only is used. Ex. " bi-cornous (an epithet of Alexander the Great)
;
' '
yj
barrayn o bahrayn
Vide
two continents and the two seas "the two harams," i.e. the shrines of Mecca and Medina. (.fr*^ haramayn
Sovereign of the
;
' '
29
(n)
(i).
Akh
akh-l
l
as akhavi Husayn mi-guyad instead of akh- % generally say akhavi my brother Husayn says ." Hence akhavi has come to be regarded as one
:
^^
^t
Ar. "
my
brother."
The Persians
' '
word, as
(polite,
akham-yi
man
* '
vulg.
my
brother
' '
in letters).
The broken
plural ikhwan
brethren (religious), as: ikhvdn-i safa, i.e. ham-dman. The plural of ukht oA.f sister is akhavat olyu
is
akhavat-i
mukarrama
an address
in preaching.
29.
Plurals
Modern
Persian.
In the modern language, spoken or written, the plural in U> is by far the most used it is applied to nearly every substantive, animate or inanimate,
:
official documents or in rhetorical writing, the plurals as well as the Arabic broken plurals and the Arabic c;f used, regular feminine plurals of inanimate substantives Mullas, and travelled or educated Persians, frequently use these plurals in speaking, when ordinary
Arabic or Persian. 8
are
still
In
in
I*.
Remark.
of
I* is
dropped.
for
Thus instead
bachcha-ha
is
khudha-mdn cjU^^L
(a)
WJ
tff
Khudaman
The
plurals
>Ut
"horses,"
iyfjyb
" curls
Various reasons are assigned for this epithet one is that it arose from the pattern another that it signified that he ruled for two
:
a saying of the Prophet ten qarn c>j* make a century, but qarn &j*. According to according to others the word means a space of ten years or any multiple thereof up to In m.c. it frequently signifies 30 years or 50 years. At this time the life is in 120.
danger
:
d)'A eJj*
*f^
.
etfl
life
of this
child is in danger."
*
3
In modern Arabic
c5^f akhuya
*'
my
brother."
sliiran
cyf^-, pisaran &\j~^i dufchtaran c*[y^^ etc., are plurals in ha. * In m.c. generally pronounced asban.
6
common
Gls
i_j""i*
or gr?SM f~**
zulf
is
also applied to a
woman's long
hair.
The
side locks
are called
vJiJj
and the
fore locks
^ia.
chaiar.
PLURALS
MODERN PERSIAN.
65
or long back hair," e>^x? "slaves or servants," e>U^ " trees" and others are still used by the professional story-tellers. 1 Muzhj* "eyelash" is in m.c. muzha y> and the common plural is
muzhaha
IA
y>.
The
old plurals
muzhgan
&&)* and mizhgan &%$* came to be regarded as singulars form muzhgan-ha ^(fyo or mizhgan-ha Ifjfcyo.
(6)
The
28
(*>
(e) and Remark) is often neglected in modern Persian, thus be written for l^laL and Ufj for A *;.* may
(vide
IA Ai(<L
(c)
A few Arabic
"
" thus *Uf ashya,* things ^t ay^aw "days" (plurals of &S> shay* and are never used in the Persian plural: the word yawm] (*! oij-aa. hazarat
"sirs,
gentlemen"
(a
word common
in speeches) has
no Persian
"people"),
plural.
"poor"), ^Uf
>\
aAaZt
(pi.
of
aW
e^^
of sultan),
* '
zavvar
,
(pi.
of masjid
mosque
"
)
of zaftV "pilgrim"),
^1-*
masajid
by the uneducated.
In the m.c. a few broken plurals are incorrectly used as *JU* cj yak 'amala " one workman," c**t *!*> ^f tw /a^a^a a5^ singulars. " this is a labourer." * For ulu (= zawu pi. of zu) vide under Zu.
Remark.
Ex.
'
'
Na*ib
-r^5^,
its plural
nuwab
>>'
by a change
of the first
<->\j*,
nawab 6
used as a singular.
Arbab
rabb
v_,j) is
in m.c.
:
" Lord
' '
(d) Some Arabic regular feminine plurals are also used in speaking (as well as in writing), as e>UJt* "tracts of country"; e>!jU* 'imarat (m.c.)
"buildings." Persian words with the imitation feminine Arabic plural [vide 28 (k)] are also used in speaking (as well as in writing), as ouUb bagbat (rare) "gardens", t( e>U>^ dihat "wishes, desires", villages", c^UUl^a. khwahishat (m.c.)
:
or ^*
ma'ralcagir,
rectly
4
5
also
&$
collects a
crowd."
is
often incor-
The
correct plural ^*
Wj
preferred in
modern
Persian.
In Arabic
zSftr
has
also
the
aJLc broken pi. of J*Lc, vwie 28 (/): *!** plural of In India the tashdid is usually omitted.
66
PLURALS
MODERN PERSIAN.
When however the termination is ola. 1 the farmayishat glftjU^> "orders." silent h of the singular is often retained in writing, thus e^U* ^o* (instead
of
eU^>
(e)
mivajat "fruits."
28
(/&)]
Oy ? umur broken
6
pi.
The double
also
plurals,
in
28
(i)
are
used in speaking.
Remark.
In
is
m.c.
'
the
'
plural
oUaJL^
:
"workers"
28
(k).
occurs,
though cUU
(/)
not a
noun
vide
The
word
<Jl>t
il
" a wandering or
nomad tribe"
is
oUi?
(g)
iliyat
e>&>l ilat)*
t(
The substantive
biqsumat*
biscuits ",
" rations, requisitions ", are either singular e.L.jjj;- suyursat or oL^** sursat or plural. The termination of is not the plural termination.
Arabic plural, masculine, is occasionally used by (h) The regular educated Persians in speaking (as well as in writing). Ex. <j~k^ e.*y^ 6
:
hazirin-i majlis
;
' '
' '
gentlemen
(addressing an assembly
lit.
those present in
(Shah's
the meeting) &*&# U> ^.M^iU x+^ jami'-i multazimm-i " all our retinue were Diary) present."
(i)
ma budand
The dual
eH^r-le
is
Ex.
fy
^^-^ Hasanayn
its
tion
"a
transfer
consignment"
in
the plural
euty^
in Persian
e*3ll^ (rare)
used as well as
Hal
<4
state,
condition ";;
;
raqlm
^
is
Jt>M
"
letter
tablet
"
(in
^aqcfam, and
Pers. raqimajat.
(also
8
oL>U.
o*L>c
(1)
*JU*
workmen,"
double
(2)
and
U*U*
is
-workmen"
'amilin
(bastard
plurals):
(&^\*
( isJtjJA
(^^
'amilin-i divan
(m.c.)
which
g^LoU
is
classical Arabic.
t%5**
man
of the
Iliyat
^^f
" and
and
has a plural
ta^^
js
plural.
PLUBALS
i.e.
MODEBN PERSIAN.
'Alt
:
67
Hasan and Husayn, the two martyred sons of two kingdoms," etc. vide 28 (m).
:
daulatayn
is
chu mushk;
(0.
lip
K. 137 Whin).
lar,
or j$ 9 as,
i.e.,
For an imitation broken plural of a purely Persian word vide one curl on each side of the head behind the ear,
28
(j).
CHAPTER
30.
III.
PRONOUNS.
Personal Pronouns
Ism -i Zamir
y***
**\
).
is no distinction between the personal and possessive pronouns are of two kinds, separate and affixed. they The separate personal pronouns are less used in Persian than the
There
personal pronouns in English, as, except when emphasis terminations sufficiently indicate the persons.
(a)
is
The
:
zamtr-i munfasil
<J*AAU _>A**
pronouns N.
Dat.
V
.o
man %
3
ma, or
UU
maha we
(also
mayan
Ace.
[yo ?wara
me, to
me
Afg.).
N.
Dat.
Ace.
}
S
tu*
thou
shuma, or
^ ^ shumaha
(
(m.c.),
!/
you
B
(also
Afg.).
or
vo
ne
poetical)
.
ishan, or
e;'-*^!
N.
classical
and
is>LLj|
Ishdnan Afg.).
;
is used instead of man &* as, Jfa raftim p>&) U. Vulgarly, Give us a for the penny give me a penny.' vulgarism, English Compare The vocatives of the 2nd personal pronoun are ay tu ki a^y ^$1 and ay
*
ma U
'
shuma
ki *t
classical
^\ such forms however are unchaste (g&ayr-i Persian however ay anki <j>T ^t occurs as
:
fasih).
In
cu** s
^*
fj
o^jJ
^-)Lc
j^y J
^ *-^t
^5-1
Glram
ma ham n%st ?
(Gul. chap. I, st. 13).
pi.
j5U*.
f~t.
!the
It
must be
recollected
that
all
of
"ism"
*
3
For
vocative of
man \&
as a possessive
\)
Sometimes vulgarly
is
in m.c.
(y).
man-ra
u^
32
^
(b).
unity man-i-ra
correct: vide
41
*
5
Note that the j is pronounced short like .. p?A. The Afghans often say o. The Afghans say eshan, oshan and es^anan mafhul sounds.
;
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
The preposition
occasionally used:
*J
ISM-I ZAMIR.
69
with
j and <^
is
generally written
^ and <^
>V
is
but
very
e^V is classical,
,
and and
^5^
bi-duy.
if
In m.c.
rarely,
The
preposition bi
when used
Vay
eJtf
<_? is
for the dative case is called ba-yi maf'ul J^*^ ^.. used for u $ for the sake of euphony in the following sentence :
,
(j-jj^t
and
classical).
To avoid the
repetition of the
j\
second pronoun u j\ the vulgar also say u bi-an guft cJtf ^U him." It may be said that vay is not used in m.c.
" he said to
Remark
I.
The
first
personal
-*.feliuo
the
second
v^ ghayib
34
pronoun is called ^iSXo mutakallim mukhatab "addressed" or _,<*(*> hazir " absent."
ii>f
For the third persons, the demonstrative pronouns ^\ In " this " and an "that" with their plurals iriha (m.c.) and anha (m.c.) [or inan o&f
(6)
class,
and anan
(b)]
are
sometimes used.
c/f .
Also
j\
is
Ex.
Andarun az ta'am
khali ddr
Ta
here j!
is
bmi
(Sa*di)
34
(n)
No.
in
10.
Remark.
not u ki
and
modern
writing)
is
"he who
' '
banda the slave and third persons singular, vyo mukhlis "the (your) devoted"; J^S ^>^\ ikhlas-kish* "the (your) most devoted;" vij>* kamtarin "the least " and for the feminine *xj-*r 25 (/) ] Jjjtf kaniz 3 <{ the (your) handmaiden or female slave," etc., [vide are often used when addressing superiors, and sometimes to equals out of
(c)
Instead of the
first
' '
respect.
In classical Persian (and in India and Afghanistan) these words are always followed by the third person of the verb, both in speaking and xixx> leave to represent" writing, as ijbj* %u banda arz ml-kunad "I beg
f
:
the slave makes petition), but in modern Persian (except in official documents) the first person is more usual even in writing, as u^* **V " I the slave make **; petition ^\ in banda chi taqsirdaram ? fj\* J*A&
(lit.
:
' '
^V
(m.c.)
"what
With^*
(1)
committed
jl
"
fear
az
"from,"
etc.,
)\
generally
barlahan,
azu.
Chunu
is poetical.
cW kteh
Also
(classically fash) is
"
:
in
compounds
Ex.
(_r^
*^j&
70
(m.c.)
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
ISM-I ZAMIR.
&
the
first
(in writing);
^U da'i
(in
person.
by the
third person singular of the verb fi&* u^^xa^. haqir 'arz mi-kunam (m.c.) "I this humble individual make petition " djte j*p-x*~> 4,5^^ *<*. chi dakhl-i bi;
"what has
this got to
do with poor me
"
etc.,
Remark. In Persia, a friend writing to an equal would use banda with the first person to use the third person would be too abasing.
;
>^J
suffi-
*Jl^
fidaw ^)**, jan-nisar ;& ^U-, khdna-zdd A common etc., are used.
signature is (^Hj) d*&\ Jjff aqatt" 'l-'ibad (fulari) " the least of the slaves (so-and>J " so) Sayyids sign "aqatt u 's- Sadat" e>|*UJ( <JUf and Rawza-khwdns ^j^\'^\ Jff
:
"
Hajis may sign gU^I d&t aqall^l-Hdjj. After cyoa. ^a?m< " Highness," ^U* Qibla-yi l 'alam "Qibla of ^Lc the world," and similar respectful terms, the third person plural is used
aqall
:
u * z-zakirin"
(d)
In m.c., however,
(even when addressing people present), both in classical and modern Persian. " the second " after a ^J^janab-i 'all Your Excellency
^U
person plural is preferred (but not in formal letters). (e) As the plural is used instead of the singular in addressing people of standing, its place is frequently taken in m.c. by the double plural. The double plural in ejf of all three persons is used by the Afghans. In the m.c.
of Persian Ul* plural of c^Aft is
(/)
are
common;
U.U
is
less
common,
these
while the
The following
of
polite
forms
of speech:
*&
aw
^^
Jk-t
e^a.
or
Honour's meaning."
Remark I. Man o- is the only one of the personal separate pronouns that can properly be coupled to an adjective by an izdfat. Ex.
:
Chand
1 ' *
gu*t ki bad-andish
u hasud
How
Ayb-juyan-i man-i miskin-and? (Sa'dl). wilt thou say that the malignant envious seek to find fault long
me ?
' '
&U*
of the qlblah, the direction of the face in prayer, especially the direction
Ka'bah
Mecca
Janab
v^
1
signifies
"
maigin,"
etc.":
etc.;
hence
"a
place of
^General in attracting attention would say to a Consul, Janab-i Qunsal (-U>>> 8 Hazrat v^r^-^ is from the same Arabic root as^y^^ Tiuzur "presence ", and
<^
"high."
Even a Governor-
li^f ajatt
it
is
cUU.
jcdU
'
glorious, illustrious
"
of death or
doom."
71
man-i mazlum
"
(m.c.)
jv^
eX
I the oppressed."
JW^J er*3
;
and generally
in
am
ffMttff a**t
^ c/
is
omitted
man banda
(Sa'dl).
a'za/aZ is also incorrectly joined to the pronouns of the second the first and second person plural as, *i;ld ;l &* \) yi ^y and person singular, * ra chi kdr ddrand (m.c. only) "what have they to do with tu-yi faqir " i*xi^< o^ii \jj*&& ^IA U maha-yi bi taqsir ra aziyyat you, poor creature ? " mi-kunand (m.c. only) they are punishing us though we have committed no
;
In m.c., the
fault"
*tf
*^ u**^
?
'>
^f^i^
l>
*>^5Hi^
^UU^
are
shumaha-yi bi chara
ra,
chira
(m.c. only)
"why
8)Uuo
you
here?"
Instead
ajUuxj
<jr^Jf
of
is
ishan-i
bichara
^(^
(not
ariha-yi,
bichara
i
JJjlsuj
^^ ^
,
writing.
Remark
II.
Man utuj*)^"!
.
' t ,
" both of us
-
is
an ex-
poetry
y j &M
^}V^ c^l
3'
:
ftojj^r
s
.
man u
tu
tu. s
The
affixed
Pronouns
:
The
affixed
pronouns are
Singular.
Plural.
First Pers.
ft
am my
me*; to
;
me
to thee
^
&$
it
~^
i
{
man
tan
Second pers. e| at thy thee Third Pers. <j! ash his, hers,
;
its;
him, her,
it;
to him, to her, to
&&
~ ishan
was in all probability formed an to the singular, thus ff the termination u/f by adding plural regularly, am " mine, me, etc." would result in the plural ^U) am-an. However fatha
Remark.
plural of the affixed pronouns
i.e.
The
has
to kasra.
<ji
and shdn
c^ 1
^ were used
for
animate
also.
things only.
Bar j* " on " and bad iU the wind" " to tr. bar bad dadan &*\t destroy."
1
'
()
:
A^ij
to be destroye d
In m.c.
U^ >>
local.)
8
" " without perhaps a corruption pay, impressed In prose this would be tura.
|JAj fy
turd bi-khuda
tuv khuda'i
(vulg.
and
of muft-i &huda*i.
72
(3)
In pronunciation these affixes should be, but seldom are, preceded by a slight pause in other words they do not affect the syllabic accent of their words, thus c>b^ JA.X> )& <^b *.U5f ^ ^yu* o^j/j ^A*f gj& darigh dmad-am " I felt a disinbi-tarbiyat-i suturdn va d*ind-ddri dar mdhfil-i kurdn (Sa'dl)
;
:
the
it
blind";
"
as in the example. In words (4) terminating in the vowel *, the final letter becomes " his nose " or " nose " as blni a consonant, (_r-*^j bimyash poetically but it is Sometimes the affix is written separately, as: <jl binish.
:
" came to me
and to hold up a looking-glass in this quarter dmadam f^T would be "I came", but dmad-am f'^f
^^
^j
Words terminating in alif-i maqsura *)y*A*> -A!| change the & to alif then insert the euphonical y, as: &)** da'va, Jtyje* da'vd-yash "his and claim or quarrel, etc." in m.c. often u^fy^: ma'nd-yash J^^i** and ma'ni(5)
;
yash
cr-jji*^
Remark. By poetical license the vowel of the affix can be omitted, as pidar-sh <Jy*J " his father."
as After Arabic words ending in Tcibriya*, the alif of the affix should be retained, thus <jt *L>^ o* ^' is poetical or modern colloquial. forms of the singular are written in full, (b) In classical Persian the full
(6)
,
1
A^
:
*>!. Jchana-am only after a word terminating in silent h. Ex. ft " cases the alif is omitted, as f;aU> mddaram my mother."
! :
in other
Remark.
Shaykh Sa
dl writes
Here
(c)
at could
t
After
' '
01
^ ^
' '
not be joined to **", but for the license of poetry. " is inserted for euphony, as a ^b pa-yam my foot
' '
"
;
-yat
thy hair
bdzu-yat o-j^j
thy arm
' ' ;
"our hands."
is often omitted, as In m.c. and in poetry, however, this euphonic bdzu-sh "his id dasthd-mdn e >Ul t (Jj$ diram-hd-sh place": jd-sh o^^ "his magic," also diramhd-yash) <Jj^ jddu-sh (better (J^^j*
;
; ;
.
jddu-yash.
(d)
Examples
(1)
(2)
of the affixed
pronouns are
^ ndn-am
(J^J
bidih
"give
I told
(to)
me bread."
him forward."
jUiit? guftam-ash
"
him."
"
(3) j*>
bring
rarbiyar
So written (probably) to indicate that the h is not sounded. ha du ash ra Uyar, or )\# b LTb* J* har duyath In the m.c. \) c/2l^ " both of them," the <^ is omitted or inserted indifferently
bring
i*$)*
j* har
du-yi t8\an.
73
is
' '
(lit.
' '
(and
1
is
not
her
',
possessive).
(5)
(6)
fM>*LJ
(m.c.) sadd-'t
j*i^ of
(7)
(8)
(m.c.) sadd-at kardam "I called you." "our father." padar-iman cA/ojAJ cAk^** sarhd-yishdn "their heads" (but v^^t
|4X*>
^ j^
A
sarhd-yi
(e)
Also colloquially sarhd-shdn. ishdn}. In classical Persian the plural affixed pronouns are not
much used
the separate pronouns are used instead. In classical Persian the affixed pronouns
may
be joined to almost
any word
*&lif jl \) crixL [vide (h)] yak-t rd az kardand bd man-ash dusti bud (Sa dl) " one of those who mutinied had a friendship with me."
the conjunctions
ki ghadr
^ ^"^
^^ ^
f
and
to
some
of
dndn
be noticed that the plural affixed pronouns are preceded by the case of (c) by a ^). If, however, the noun end in (or &>^ khdna silent h* the izdfat is in modern colloquial often omitted, as
(/)
It will
a kasra
in
"their house," or o,U &li. Tchana-yi shdn. In classical Persian this would be u>U*|t iiU* khdna-yi-ishdn or ^l^iiU^ khdna-yi shdn; also in modern Persian it would be better to say c>^t &\&> khdna-yi ishdn than khdna-yi shdn
or khdna-shdn.
sMn
The kasra
is
Examples of both
Zi-andarz-i
man
Ki andarz afzun kunad dbruy (Shdh-Ndma, Book I, sending message from Salm and Tur to Farldun, p. 21). None turned his face from our advice. " Because advice
,
But if thou canst not, then like the date palm. the epithets karim pijS and azad t>\$ are frequently applied the conjunctions poets to these two trees. Note the affixed pronoun at is joined to "If thou canst, bo generous
' ' :
and vagar 3 if and and if." Final silent * is considered a vowel by some Grammarians. silent 8 in Arabic. 6 In modern Persian sometimes written (j'^^- (without the *)
gar
*
"
"
"
There
is
no
final
74
^-f <>J3fy G e;l Bi-farmud-i shan id nawdzand garm Na-khwdnand-i shan juz bi-dwdz-i narm (Shdh-Ndma, Book I. Pddishdhi-yi Tahmuras-i Divo-xilj-iu
-^ o&
band
si sal
bud, p.
8).
(Shah-Nama, Book
I.
Bar
takht nishastan-i
Zahhdk
Buvad khanahd-shan sarasar palds Na-ddrand dar dil zi- Yazddn hirds (Shah~Ndma same page as above).
t
Remark
to verbs,
I. In modern Persian the plural affixed pronouns, when affixed " retain their kasra, as &{&&{ guft-i-shdn "he told them cA*i# ;
guftam-i-shdn
"
I told
them."
be noticed that the affixed pronouns, when the
Remark
II.
It will
of the verb, i.e. when personal pronouns in the Accusative or Dative case, are not followed by \) rd vide 32 (a) for i> in m.c.
clear.
am might mean " my porter " j^*ij <&^L>* (XlU^/o A^xi oJ^j ^li js^y i^jJi ^y khwdhar-i tu az
9
:
i
is ambiguity which even the context does not make " you spoke ill to ^ft? {** bad-am guftl in m.c. would mean me", but it might also mean "you said that I was bad" in ** IA> ^Jb)A darbdn-am rahd na-kard " the porter did not let me go (or let me in)", darbdn(g)
Sometimes there
:
Ex.
'
^^
<-& c^Ht-^
>\
y ^lA
(^
1 Isfahdnl panir-rd tu-yi shisha karda nan-ash rd pusht-i sh'isha ml-mdlad (m.c.) "your sister who in miserliness is the equal of the Isfahan merchants,
* putting her cheese into a bottle and rubbing her (or its ? ) bread on the outside of the glass"; here nan-ash <_& instead of "her bread"
attached often omits tj. a Here the ash would probably not refer to bottle and therefore does not belong to the bread. either her or its.
is
' ' '
cheese
'
as the cheese
is
inside the
mean
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
(h)
75
fre-
(e)]
quently are, affixed to some of the simple prepositions, as {j*>\j* bardyash "for him, her, it"; <j2j| "from him, etc." <jfy* "in him, etc."; oJ& for " " to him, etc." (Jfyj zir-ash under it" ^b fi bi-am <Jt *j, colloquially
:
dad
to
(m.c.)
"he gave
;
it
to
me "
at a
o^
bi-at
dad or oj
(m.c.)
" he gave
it
in kdr az-ishdn? thee"; az-am fjl az-at e>j> ''from me; from thee " are of this." not ^Ujj jf J ^Ji (m.c.) doing (Such expressions they capable are still considered vulgar, but will probably soon be recognized as correct). " " b " " without ba " with bi ", They are never affixed to j bar on " " " " 15 td and some others. J*. juz up to yj za&ar above except
;
,
"
' (
' '
When
are possessive,
person is called mim-i izafat oJlt the third shin-i izafat vrJl^t ^^i. When used for the dative or accusative of a personal pronoun, the first /0 the second td-yi maf'ul Jj*JU ^U, and the is called mim-i maf'ul J^*** third shm-i maf'ul J^xj ^.^ or shin-i zamir-i maf'ul J^o^^a (1^.
^,
the pronoun of the first the second td-yi izafat o^'Ui ^G, and
modern vulgarisms that are creeping into writing " shumd tishnatan ^^] c> lx *i-/ L* "we are hungry Ma " ishan ast ^^-f && ^^ U^ "you are thirsty garm-i shdn ast o**| ^Li*^ c>^t " I feel cold. feel warm man sarma-m ast ^~\ "they (*l^-*> er* Persian the affixed pronouns can take the place of the (?) In modern reflexive pronouns when the latter are used as possessive pronouns vide 33 (h) i^A l^jUT ^i "the &\ (k) In kitab-ha hama-yi shdn khub ast o~*t v " = **A in kitdbhd hama khub ast of these books are
(i)
The following
are
gurisna-man ast
' '
>
1 '
whole
ow-of.
good
v-^
4^ e^f
The
in the pre-
vious case; in kitdbhd hama-yash khub ast (m.c.) o*[ <-tj^- ijt **a> l^^ (^-jf " these books, the lot taken as whole, are good ", but in the sentence mikh-
sar-i
tiz (m.c.)
<>Jf
cr^J J ^^Hi' the singular 05^ jjj ( ^UolAj*. or) j- ) could not be substituted as the various pegs give a scattered idea.
*& v^J ;W
Remark.
Vj^aix!
" attached pronoun, nom. case "attached pronoun, ace. case, etc."
^/
JL^al/e
^x^
"
;
ctalo j***
32.
It will be seen
Possessive Pronouns.
31
(a),
(a)
from
and
(/),
Examples
5, 7,
and
8, that the
affixed affixed
is
pronouns
are
pronouns when
when
their
Ex.
^xj
f;
^io
my
or dast-am
1
be.
Ex.
third only used after the affixed possessive pronoun, person^ Yak-l az hukama* pisar-ash-ra nahl kard az bisyar kjurdan ki- 1; <^7~v *!***! J cr^
is
."
76
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
classical
at
The dative and other cases are usually formed by prepositions, both in and modern Persian (and seldom by f;). Ex. *wof i**~. oJ^> } bi-gushrasida ast "have you heard? " pisar-asJi ra guft cuK } o^-J (Sa'dl).
:
Remark.
stantive,
it is
pronoun
Ex.
:
refers to
am" my
dear
life
^"j* pushak u
is
Ex.: o>j_)c
"
! :
vide also
Remark
to
(6).
possessive pronouns can also be expressed by the personal separate pronouns coupled by the izafat, to the thing possessed. Ex. t-y ;AJ father (lit. the father of me)"; cjlAfl &l^ khana-yi ishan 1 pidar-i man
(b)
:
The
"my
shan
"their house/'
(Pidar-i
&\J
^ and khdna-shan
&(
*JUk
(m.c,)
same meaning).
In the accusative, the separate pronoun is put in its accusative form with f> Ex. ^*j> \j*> o*o,> a dast-i mard girift " he caught me by the hand."
:
The dative can be formed with dddam " I gave it pidar-i u dddam f*\* jt ;^ *J.
Remark.
I;,
AJ.
Ex.
fj^t
more commonly
In a continuous sentence,
to
(a)].
etc..
come
last [vide
jJUr^Jux)
(^
Remark
^M^
Ex.
j\
#* $ J*>
oJij
^^
J^
j j&
^**^
u har
fabi'at-i
demon
The vocative
exist, as pidar-i
(c)
used to terrify all." of man <j/ as a possessive (not as a personal pronoun) does
,
mand U*
" oh
my
father!
"
In m.c. the affixed pronouns are preferred, but in writing and correct
possession.
<xUx*o^f
J(
<k
a3
cu^U*
^f
in 'imarat
na az shuma va
you nor to me."
vide
na az u mi-bashad (m.c. or class.) " him " in mdl az man ast 3 ou*f
:
JU ^f
"
(m.c.)
this belongs to
(e)
pronouns
denote
possession,
33
(a).
"
,
'
(/)
thine
"
,
"
his
"
,
etc. , are
*
3'
l^i
man
(affixed profioun)
ast
c*f
i*y*
JU ^|
77
j!
as
^^
j]
az an-i
j>y
tf
c/l
az an-e
wi
it
"
tafifa-i
(K. Rub. 334 Whin.) " Each sect miscalls me, but I heed them not, I am my own, and, what I am, I am."
Sometimes
jf
is
omitted as:
here an-i tu
(g)
zamm-i, hama waqt an-i tu nist Digardn dar shikam-i mddar u pusht-i pidar-and nist vju~jo y ^/f means " does not belong to you."
Ay
ki dar ru-yi
In m.c. "mine, thine, etc." are generally expressed by JU mal-i man "mine" ,y|jj "property." Ex. U&^
:
JU>,
(
lit.
a
^*y
^ JU
c5j^*
mal-i
man u shuma
"
i^jj/h-?
tawfir na-ddrad
:
gdv-i az an-i
^^f
er*^y
bull
The
8
Remark.
Possession, in classical
sometimes be expressed by the dative case, as " the ghuldm-i bud king had a slave."
33.
^^
(Ism-i mushtarik
(a)
^j&> p)
also
tX/Uy^
Zamir-i
ta^kid.)
classical language,
,>>*
khud* (Ji<^ khwish? and v^j**- khwishtan, meaning "self": they are indeclinable and as a rule can refer only to the subject of the sentence they take the place of the personal and possessive pronouns when they refer to
:
Khudis
is
applicable to either animate or inanimate nouns, and the most common. The following examples will explain their
j^ &Uu jf
u
b%
own house"
bi-khdna-yi u
"he went
Note plural verb after har. Note that JU> need not be repeated before I-*-* yj*^ taw/ir, A. increasing, etc." in modern Persian has come to signify " difference." S Broken pi. **A|y Barahima. * Note that the u is short, vide remarks on on ^ 2: khud signifies "a helmet.'* From bbrtd " self " is derived the Persian word Khuda " God " (the self -existing). 5 Note that the In modern Persian 2. j is not pronounced, vide Remarks on j " khwish means also " a plough." The Afghans and Indians say l&weah for self;'*
I
78
a.
ma
t;
bi-Tchana-yi
&l- >>
^J; ^x>
' '
khud raftim " we went to our own house " ; maw Za?/d ra oar khana-yi khud-ash dldam " I saw
Zayd
in his
own house
but
man Zayd
\)
&j (^
&1&. would mean " I saw Zayd in own house.' f&t, &jo* is used in classical as well as in modern Persian, as :
my
'
Khud-ash
"
A
In
home
will
make a
death- vacancy
St. 7): in
j^
is
for
the
"
myself, I
went "
<2>>^
raftam
yii>;
forcibly *u>;
v*)U^|
I;
cJtf
" I went j^ myself ", or more forcibly " *j^ khud raftand they went themselves", or more ba khud burd t>^ J "he took it away with khud ra kusht
^ ^
in these
^"
he killed himself":
is reflexive.
$>L Jac tj er^ **A Aama ^as-m 'ag^-i Mwd numayad (Sa*d!) "every one thinks his own brains perfect," and similar sentences, the reflexive pronoun is necessary hama leas u*^ *+*
JU?
bi-kamal
logical subject of
With immaterial
The phrase
his, etc.,
things,
"
,
etc.,
khud
{i
or khwlsh
^>^.
^j-iu j>^k
khud bi-khud
"
,
signifies
spontaneously
"of
my, thy,
(6)
own
accord."
^yi^j
bi-khudi or
^^^-^
oJla. halat-i
bi-khudi signifies a state of religious abstraction or ecstacy in temporarily leaves the body.'
of
lines
Khayyam
*
:
*3 **
f^r-*
g
chi
SjLJi^ ^^LbjJi
?
c^^f
Farda
ki zi
khud ram
khwahi danist
Thou who
whilst in possession of thyself knowest naught To-morrow (i.e. the day of Judgment) when thou leavest thyself
"But,
(by death), what more wilt thou know ? if you know naught here, while still yourself,
of self,
To-morrow, stripped
"
suicide."
the
Khayyam "tent-sewer," the taTchflllua (poetical profession of Umar in either case the izafat.
*
;
'
nom de plume
')
or possibly
For Jf
poetical license.
79
A^
OM|
v^f^-
Asuljl
;l
IT
Ma& gashtand u
!
ghubdr
Bi-khud shuda va bl-khdbar-and az hama kdr Ear zarra zi har zarra giriftand kindr
ruz-i
shumdr
and
Their sundered atoms float about the world, Like mirage clouds, until the judgment day."
Remark
rdy
"
I.
Khud
colloquially, as:
<^
^ ^
J>
;
(0.
is
largely used in
compounds, both
;
" posure" esA^ khudi (rare) egotism." Remark II. In the speech of the vulgar, khud U^i. before the affixed pronouns, which is contracted
^^
:
classically
and
^la^
man
&\*{&zjs>*,
and khuddmdn
<JS
personnd
yM^b
^, etc., for
<*~ftij
speaking and
(
Ex. <**>* ( ^tiJl or) khud-ash rd biwriting. ^ o ' ' I saw him in his own person *--&ij *j^ ^Uo| nafsih or bi-n-nafs) didam tshdn khud bi-nafs-ih raftand "they themselves, personally, went." *xiiJ; (c) Khwish cAl^ can be substituted for tj^ in places where the latter
' ' ;
^
:
persons, both in
signifies
possession, but JS^^ rarely -like &j*> stands substantive. It is also classically used in compounds, as
alone
without a
<^# <JV.j^ khw%shbtn. As a reflexive pronoun tj^tj^ is not used in m.c., vide (/). Example of khwlsh Jb.j^ standing alone
:
Chu 3
dil bi-dustt-yash
Chird bi-dusJimani-yi
man
"My heart affection's flag for him displays Why should he then a hostile banner raise
' '
(East. Trans.)
But Ichud-rcfl subs. \) &js* The Persians usually follow the modern Arabic pronunciation and say bi-nafsih As already stated, the in the first instance and bin-nafs <j"JU*ta in the second. For the doubling of the n in the final short vowels are omitted in modern Arabic. In *~&? the final hi is the third person masc. affixed second instance, vide 10.
" : in Arabic this final * 4 he, it pronoun would be changed to agree with the this point subject or object, in number and gender, etc., but the Persians often neglect of Arabic syntax. In writing they, however, also do use the Arabic dual and plural
pronoun
forms bi-nafsihunia and bi-nafsihum,
8
Chu ^-
is in
speaking always
chi.
80
Khwlsh Ju^. is applied to persons only, but cannot be employed to emphasize a noun or a pronoun man khwlsh raftam p&j JH^ w* cou ld not
:
be said.
(d)
Khwlshtan ^y&jja.
is
compounded
of
"
body
"
;
Jk^
:
khwish and
it
tan
it is
can stand
alone and can emphasize a noun or pronoun. Ex. oJ*' I; c&* j*> khwlshtan rd " he killed himself " kusht Ij (^y^o^ &$)\ (jj*> har has awldd-i ajla** khwlshtan rd dust ml-ddrad (m.c.) "every one loves his own offspring":
;
o^a
^=~*t
errft-
"
(class.)
e^*i^ ^^ l> ^LH^f ddaml-zdd man holds his own life dear", or "
Tarh-i dunyd bi-mardum
his
dmuzand
' '
To
Khwishtan slm u ghalla anduzand(Sa,'dl}. others they teach retirement from the world
While they themselves are engrossed in collecting
grain."
silver
and
^y&^L is applicable to rational beings only. In modern (e) colloquial, although z^ is occasionally used alone, it is more usual for it to be coupled with the affixed or separate pronouns singular and plural. Ex. +M& (^ ^^L. khud-i man guftam* (m.c. only), or /*ii^ f&j^
:
Khwishtan
khud-am guftam
(m.c.
(m.c.)
"I
myself said"
ojjXfif
(+
only), or
**&
"
said";
^; u*^
"that
khudash
uf
(m.c. only)
man went
himself ";
^^
khud-i
only)
j**
Ya'nl ki man kiyam bi-murdd-i khud-am rasdn Khasm-at kuja-st zlr-i qudum-i khud-at figan Tdr-i tu klst bar sar u chashm-i man-ash nishdn
(Hdfiz, Letter
Nun.)
stani,
Note that (^s adaml "man" has three syllables and not two as in Hindubut adam-l " a man" also that fehwishtan &&?.f^ does not here refer to the
:
*
grammatical subject of the sentence. However in sentences of this kind where no ambiguity can arise, "his own, etc." must be rendered by a reflexive and not by a separate personal pronoun. Note the m.c. position of Wivd t>- and the izafat o-*Uf : classically
man
kh.ud guftam.
81
In ordinary conversation the rule that the reflexive pronoun should be used when the pronoun refers to the subject, is frequently broken if no ambiguity can arise from the violation of the rule, thus *a>t^iujA>
I.
:
Remark
rd bi-shuram "I wish to wash my hands," PJ&J !^*X,A mi-khhwdham dastam instead of f)>& !/*>>* ^"** f**!* "** mi-khwdham dast-i khudam-rd bi-shuram khudam bi-chashm-i khud-am didam (m.c. and (m.c.): f*?.t p&>=^ jo^k
3
my
is
very
own
eyes saw
"
(it)
vide last
two
examples in
(a) (1).
Remark
U
is
^ &Uu
III.
II.
Though khud
The advantage of using the affixed pronouns with khud *j> shown in the last two examples of (a) (1).
Remark
again," while
vide lines in (a)
^^
(6).
is usually used as a substantive only, signifying (/) In the m.c. " a relation " khwishan u dustdn &\L*j*j cjl4?y^ " relations and friends " khwish u gawmi na ddrad "he has no kith or kin."
;
^^
va hukama* gufta and baradar ki dar band-i khwish ast na barddar ast va na khwish ast (Sa'dl) " and the sages have said that a brother who is wrapped " in this extract from the Gulistdn up in self is neither brother nor kinsman
:
there
a play on the two meanings of khwish *^>^J7? without the second ast].
is
[another reading
is
barddar-i ki
Khwishdwand
modern.
(g)
*>j(&jjL.
subs,
"a
relation,
kinsman,"
is
classical
and
the
Khwishtan w**>^
(d).
is
(in
ace.)
In modern Persian, spoken or written, the affixed pronouns can take the place of the reflexives when the latter are used as possessives, as " 1 want to wash mi-khwdham dast-am rd bi-shuram ^)^> fj my p>~* ^A^.iux/0 hands" (for dast-i khud rd \) (t^ o~-o or dast-i khudam-rd \) )
(h)
{^ ^o
^wi^
ylijf
U^
your verse
J^frXao
' '
so used.
It should
be noticed that
stand either for dast-am rd or dast-i mard, but tyo ^~* represents only dast-i mard. (i) Yak-digar jA^j and Jwm-digar j&.*+* "one another; each other"
may
^y^
I)
(Gul., St.
1
IX, Chap.
Hama tawdi'-i yak-digar U-kunid to each I) "do you all bid farewell
82
other."
For
misl-i
ham
p*>
JA* "alike
(like
Adverbs of Comparison.
Simple Demonstrative Pronouns (Ism-i ishdra " this" (ism-i ishdra-yi qarib (a) The demonstrative pronouns are <^l in " " A ba'id an that **& x;L( ^.i) they IjUi p\ ) and e/T (ism-i ishara-yi refer either to persons or things, * and precede the noun they qualify. When
34.
;
qualifying a
e)j
etf!
noun they
"this
are indeclinable.
Ex.
&>.\
,y> i^l in
mard "
this
man
' '
in zan
i
woman";
^^
is
in kitdb-Tid
Remark.
(b) A more ancient form of e^Jt was im, which perhaps remains in J imruz "to-day"; JL~<| imsal "this (current) year"; v*** imshdb "to" this time " 9 "this Imsubh night"; and inject im&ar (old). ft
/*!.
'
morning
In
' '
"
^f*
also occurs,
but
is
not chaste.
inan
cjlxjt
are used for rational beings (zi-ruh jj?.& ) sometimes as a separate " and substitute for and in the sense of c^l " they IfM inha and t^Jf anhd for things ghayr-i zi-ruh These plurals are used only when the j>jt*
those
"
j-
pronouns stand alone as a separate substitute for a substantive. Ex. AJJ lif those who existed before ***>&* ^ Jf <-!*$ ananilci qabl az ma mi-budand 8 us," Note the relative a^aw. In modern Persian 42 (</)] after c^f [vide
:
' '
these plurals in an of are rarely used even in writing and then only if followed " by the relative ki **. Anha lei ** l^T, or anhd^i ki A^jJl^t =" they who
(ishan ki a\JLl|t cannot be used).
Anhd
(ki) is
however
classically
"
:
zir-i qadam farsudand V'andar talab-ash har dujahdn paymudand "The sages who have compassed sea and land, Their secret to search out and understand, "
(O.
and
e*^
frequently in classical and in m.e. jihat are used in m.c. ; but not bi-dan mard*J
* '
bi-dan zan.
The demonstrative pronoun for ** that must not be confounded with the Arabic word c/f '" time." The is) of these pronouns must not be pronounced nasally a common fault amongst English that are accustomed to speak Hindustani. In m.c. an
frequently pronounced un.
4
is
^f
iUwk y
*$
e/f Jacu
its (of
thou art
here jf
is
vide also
30
(6)
8
and 34 (n) (10). In modern Persian budand ^i^ would be used. Har du jahan &^jbj& i.e., this world and the next.
t
SS
l^f
dmadand dar-jush shudand " have come and run their eager race." Many
ki dar
(c)
Anhd
jjf
aU*
tnM "he
sa/?d
"
' '
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 237.) only, is used. Ex. j x>Ju l^i these (things or persons) are white
dushndm
For phrases
txuf^j (^oaj
"some
32
'
(/).
as well
vide
" former
(/)
(e)
In
:
^
>
also
latter
"
(i.e.
e/f
"the
Ex.:
c<
vide
Example second in
(c),
and Syntax.
**
f&
b cx<<=w
^f j
"
my
so also
'&y*
;>^
*>jj*-
tt)t^Ju.(
8
*$
o^i dt
J(
c;U/o
A^
^,
^i^
Humdy
* '
bar
hama murgJian az an
sharaf ddrad
t>0^ Apparently
i$
Ki ustukhwan khurad va jdn-war naydzdrad The Huma * is exalted above all birds because It lives on bones and injures no living thing."
c/f
jt
stands
\j
in
such
7i
sentences
for
ojlj
e>f
31
fjji/o
Uj
^f j&su
mi-guyam
ki (m.o.)
"
(fijA>
^f
vide
harfhd rd bi-khdtir~i
an bi-shumd
."
I tell
you
all this,
Remark.
(g)
Compare
*S
Uuf Ji
Compound
^\^ M "
J:>
|/
*$ -=-^f
is this,
B
of tr* ouxU.
ki az
hdjat-i
man an
mard
;
dil-shdd
e/f
^A ^jjf ^
wound
1
my
need
make me happy"
&
f#
of
blm-i
an bud
the
(lit.
In modern Persian *$ c
After the prepositions J.
used in writing, but seldom or never man e and jt, the alii of these demonstrative pronouns
to their preposition in one word.
Ex.
(jt.jb
for
)*
3
e^r?
etfjt
1.
No
wo/ctf after
&*A
mc
.
The huma UA Or humay <^UA i s the bearded vulture or lammergeir and is not a fabulous bird as translators have supposed: vide Jl. As. Soc. Beng., Dec. 1906. There falls will are however fables attached to it; one is that the person on whom its shadow witl occur will death his kills one if rise to sovereignty it, another that any ausicious," etc. uaun " auspicous days from this word is derived the adjective elM ** humayun 6 The izafat cannot be omitted after blm.
*
; 1
:
84
\
^Uy
(S'adl).
Gar kushi var jurm bakhshi ruy u sar bar dstdn-am Banda rd farmdn na-bdshad har-chi farmd*i bar dn-am
"Whether thou
slayest or pardonest,
;
Thy
slave
(I)
has no will
laid
resignation."
2.)
^f j
c^-a*? ba'zi
bar dn-and
"some
(h)
common
occurrence.
In mystic poetry
c/f is
that can be felt rather than defined, grace, individuality. The following two examples, which the writer does not attempt to translate, exemplify this
obscure meaning
"
JU)
a;fa
w>>J
jjx
}
ka. j^ta
i;ta ctft
o~*oi
***f
t5*f
**
of
lab-i la'l
dn-i\
ddrad
Shdhid an
Banda-yi
nist ki
c
mu*iyyu
s
tal at-i-dn
in
In m.c. in u an signifies various things, as (i) u an shud "we talked of this and that (different & "neither this nor Na in va na an c/f &> j
<j/f
>
^\
o^3cu suhbat-i
topics)."
the other"
Sufi shuda-i, in na-khwuri an na-khwuri? Dar-khwurd-i tu sang-ast; bi-raw sang bi-khwur (O.K.) " Sufis, you say, must not take this nor that,
off
the plain."
mi-ravam
to start, or I will go
"
;
(m.c.)
^^ &
in u'st
"
o~y
^
:
^o ^\
(or
am
^j\
" here he
6
;
in u'st ki mi-ravad
is
"he
:
is
just going."
Var
am
at the
end
is
license
"one hair."
* '
;
-&
also
there
is
a double
meaning.
5
am."
86
you,"
In the following m.c. sentence f**~) &*> ** o kar bi-kun va ilia in ast ki man rasidam " work or else I shall be down on " here I in ast is used in a dramatic sense and i.e. I'll
signifies
am,"
-xl
&i.j|
in this sense'
this is
ast ki ba
shuma guftam
p&
**"
ut
l*</ c>f j in kuja e^f colloquial and classical phrase va an kuja " where is this and where is that," signifies 'you can't even compare the two one is so much the superior to the other.'
(I)
The modern
"
is old,
Jt
but
still
in use
ijjj
mara yad
remind
ji &f t*l I
when
' '
.
am
at leisure
am engaged in,
me
(of that)
(a) it
(m) In
nouns, but this rule is violated when emphasis is necessary. Ex. )\j~ * the horse I rode o~ijf %*, asp-i ki savar shuda budam in ast jo^>
' '
^A*.|
this
is it."
(n)
of
fi^o ^^ j|
b c?&l~
^J &ti )*
J va
ilia
dar in panjah-salagi
ba
mine
A
<^*i
rasidid;
arrived;
A^WJ *>.***} U^ UlAi| ittifaq an shuma waqti-ki nazdik-tar shudi an ham chara na-did "by chance you when you drew near, he too (the other party over there) saw no
ajU.
p*
elf
^^w
^j^
help for
it
."
Remark.
Nazdiktar j&.ty means "nearer than you were " better u. Note the use of e)T for jf he ;
' '
when you
rasidid
(3)
<uiij \)jj*t *Z
**>*)
&]** )
&*j& &j&jtk**j
l
.
"
(class.)
killed
the girl."
now";
^
also
Panjah-sala *JL.
panjah-aalagl
3
^U
" behold, lo" used in writing and in m.c. l^b a dj. from t^J "fifty" and "year": subs.
;
JU
Jjl-^ij
Gbayrat
"a
o^ here jealousy
and means
honour; jealousy for the honour of one's womankind." Bi-ghayrat &j**X (m.c.) is used as an abusive term by Muslims. In modern Persian hasad *-*> " " or rashk <-; would be substituted for ghayrat &j in the sense of envy in the
nice sense of
above example.
86
(4)
**J
cs*^
chand-i
and
"
;
**f
amad
ddrad
(class.)
(5)
*& ow^
" a few days passed after this." ^jj AJ e~k&i A>" e;T clixj ^|^S
y (^ ^
oj
m.c.)
= f^***.
j|
jjy
<.$#) rwz-
^l^U
" she
has
Angusht
is
fj
(6) o**o
Ub a
Jti)
ls<..u
tila *st
"and
here are
fifty
pieces of gold."
Remark.
fa
is
izafat after
dana ;
dana-yi
(7)
A^ ^ly
^^t
baray-i
."
(8) 4>U*|
Aa.
t/;^
^ia.j^
ai"
(*t^lx eJt^ip-
"I
how
No.
have
fallen
' '
:
vide also
Remark.
(9)
The
JU
clause after *$
f^
is
tejf
Jftfcl
VJ^
karda
vtf ^) (^^ ^3 Z^6a khanum zud an " Ziba Khanum suddenly and violently
with both hands bursts open the other door of the room
(10) AJU/ \)J ty AU^ <_^a. erAJ pish-i man " I had a few girifta (Afghan) rupees by me; taking
8
."
^J
:
chiz-1
it
rupiya bud
u ra
." This
Remark.
idiom
is
Note
\^\
u-ra for
tj
e;T
common amongst
the Afghans. 4
(11) j e/f oJj e/f )& j f*j* j'< \^.\ u* o^j e^' )* dar ^n vaqt man * n kar mi-kardam va dar an vaqt an Mr (Af^an) "at one (special) time I did one
aUi
not."
i.e.
* o~| ^jf Jix misl-i m ast ki na-bashad "it "not worth speaking of, contemptible."
is
as
if it
were
an indefinite quantity; some a little while." Panjah ashrafi (now a two-tuman piece) or panjah lira or some such phrase would ordinarily be used instead of panjah dana tila. " a little.*' In m.c. nazd-i man 3 Chlz-l (sJfc*- m.c. and classical for <_>*' qadr-l chand rupiya-l or chand dana rupiya bud.
1
Classically chande,
j>\
and ishan
U^t
except in
2 to
This rule
For
34
(a).
classical
examples of substitution of
for cut
vide
30
(6)
and footnote
87
td inki
and
af
13
anH
"until, before
had died"
^ ruz bi-ruz bar *j^iu t^y'f vlr* jtf ) p*jj*\ " dnki shardb asar ta nami-bakhshld miqddr mi-afzudam every day (m.c.) I increased the quantity (a little) till (at length) wine lost its exhilarating
:
"
jt
^j^S.
effect."
(13)
In bud
ki
&f
^ ^f
that": an
ki.
ki
*&f
(classically
(o)
and
in
modern
writing)
not u
" behold here, here is," and anak J^f "behold yonder, there is," the affix appears to be the diminutive affix, but the signification is intensive J&f "behold, here I am " inak ml-dyad *jf' J&t " here p**> he is coming ": 'Usmdn Aghd (inak ndm-i u) ( j 'Usman ) l*f ^Ulc j*l> " behold here am I." such was his inak-am
In inak
cJouf
:
^1
A^ia
(for
name)"
"
! ;
ft
whXjt
(p)
Ant oJf
is
;
"bravo and ant o*if or anat oJf, for an tura\j* of " also int bravo " and mt OA>| or in-at of &\ "this
!
Hamm
very one
of
' '
u-h**
"
Emphatic Demonstrative Pronouns. this same one, this very one" and &{+* haman "that
l
more emphatic forms of the demonstrative pronoun and are more frequent use in the modern language than in the classical. They are
are
ruz
simply the demonstratives strengthened by the particle = ham dar an ruz j$j of ^>, etc., etc. jj) cA*A j^
ham
/**
dar
haman
illus-
(a)
" as
when
O^jt &*j*j
c^
o^^f &jj
."
2
as soon as he
was bled
my
"no
This idiom
is classical
vide also
" the same." Ex.: also mean oU* ^\ " " this is the very same one you saw &.$ o*| in haman ast ki didM " we came >* jl ^2; Tiamm rah amadlm by this very road, this is A the same road we came by." j^j &*+*> e^ u^ [^ khwahish-i man hamln bud
Hamm
o **
1
"
my
desire
was what
I too
wished"
he
man
ham dn-am
&$
a>Ujk
<j*>
(m.c.)
" I
am
am
"
:
*^i** ^
^UA ma
we have been, we
1
same."
;
for
^1
f*>
and of f*,
jf
88
(c)
o^ j]
f **f
*$ (^i-*^
(a)].
hamm
ki
dmadam u
raft (m.c.)
" as soon as
hamm yak dana, " only this one " (classical and m.c.). f <x &L^ U ^x^ hamm ja kushta shud, " he was killed in this very (e) "= the spot"; t^j* e^** hamm fardd (m.c.) "not later than to-morrow
AJb <->
<irt+
English vulgarism
(/)
" to-morrow
as ever is."
&
bud
hamm
hamdn va sukhanhd-yash " such was his conduct and such were his words." (m.c.)
(j-i**
t&ty&^j
36.
" are like, manner, etc." Compounds with the adverb u^ chun " such = like and churiin ^am this) ^is<.+a> c^ (1) (.^ia. chunm (for " also adverb " in this manner." a one as this " such like that ') and c^? -** ham-chundn (2) c>^ chunan (for of c#*" " " in that also adverb manner a one as that ts*j* &&%- J cH^ chunm " so did so and va chunan kardl ^lU. j i^- J^ ey^e surat-i Ml you chunm va chunan bud the matter was so-and-so
(a)
'
' *
' '
' '
here chunan va
chunm
i^^-
'
(&**-j D&**
is
contemptuous,
cjlia-
Oh
So-and-so.'
Remark.
n^f *w
chumn s and
*
emphatic forms.
& chunm shakhs-l suhbat na-bdyad kard " one should not converse with such a person" cx*f n^^> chunm ast? (m.c.) " is the case so is it so ? " here chunm 1^3. is an adverb. 5
(6)
j>y
<xiUJ
'<
Chunm &***- can be combined with <^l 6 as, ^cj^ ^f *A*>J ^^^ *^ *i^w pish-i man in chunm chlz-l na-bud ki 'iwaz bi-diham " " I had no such thing with me that I could give in exchange
(c)
;
^^
^ixj
15
f&*) f^J*
^^ ^
(m.c.)
c ^ un^ n
travelled a farsakh
1
"
;
ya ^
' '
here
m chunm &&*
(m.c.)
is
in
this
manner we
an adverb. 7
2
3
*
5
Chun cJ>^ also means " how?, because and when." Tu kaun hai ay aise taise ? (Urdu). Dar talash-i In chunln jcir-i budam f^ tP^ LJ*^ L^' U*^J^Or 65 chunln ashMLas oclsxAt ^t^ ^ (without (^ of unity).
Chunln ert^- and chunan c>^Similarly chunan
are asma-yi kinayat.
^^-
with an.
Ex.
va
faivr-i-ki
an chunan gah-l na-shunlda budam j*^J js^iij^(f ^lisJf ^.^Cjxj Jt^f l^* ^f j I had never heard birds sing as those did." (class.) 1 The <^ of unity can be added to chunan &&* and ham-chunan &(^+* (but rarely if ever to chunln or ham-chunln) vide page 89, note 2.
'
:
^^
&\y
-*
Lc^b ^^l
/o
jf
*<jol
AA.
ki az madar-i parsa
(Shah-Nama,
Jild-i
Avval,
Birzayad, shavad bar jahan padishah Ra 9 y zadan-i Kaywus dar kar-i Sudaba va Siy 9aush).
89
1 chundn u chunin kardan (or guftan) &*j* LrtJ^ J o ^crastinate, evade, have recourse to subterfuge."
to pro-
(e)
Chunmhd
lf*i^
and chundnhd
l^^ "such
like things
"
ham-chunin is merely a more emphatic form of (&**- chunin. (/) ^isufrA "a Ex. cWf Lwijf ^-aiu* <.>*+* ham-chunin shakhs-1 mjd dmad (m.c.) person
:
act like
" this
an adverb
&
^^AXSU^A
fj]&
/A
{.}*
man ham-ddram
(m.c.)
"just
as
am
I too strong."
:
him "
"
Ex. ham(g) Similarly cjtisi+A is merely a more emphatic form of c)^-' chundn ddam-l rd dnjd didam p&z l?of tj ^af ^^+*> " I saw a man there just like him "; ham- chundn shakhs-1, man dar 'umr-i khud na-didam (m.c.) ^* " I have never in my life seen a man like ^AJJJ &j*> j+c )t> v* ^^s^i. e)^?
1
:
^^
(J*jz
ty *^USI*A ^/o
man ham-chundn
(or as
ki
bud
'arz
kardam
(m.c.)
I related it exactly as it
happened
Remark.
It will
s f or
near> an(j
ham-chundn
(h)
may
be considered as demonstrative
pronouns and deserve notice, viz. ^-*A hamchu "so (in m.c. pronounced hamchi), such," and e*!*^ and cJl&x*- chandm* and chanddn "so much."
Their use
(1)
" the work must be done like this " *$ 6 bdyad kard (m.c.) o~*j^jJ,> j^f f&+Sb " ki he is ddam-i dilir-lst such a brave misl-ash nlst (m.c.) *s^*ojj ^ixc hamchu " 6 hamchu ruz that there's none like
:
^ ^U^sw* ^
\j
kdr-rd
hamchu
man
him"; iy^*^
(class.)
clear as
daylight."
Remark.
<^f^ hamchmis
is
also occasionally
used in m.c.
:
The
follow-
^aci+A j ^SL+A va hamchun hamchln-ash khusha &w^ crM^** hamchin, (vulgar) "he does it like that and like this, but this is the way that pleases him."
ing vulgar saying
1
an
illustration of these
two words
*
3
For *aFA. chunanchi and <*<a. chunanki, vide under Conjunctions. " I made a 'Arza daahtam in
^*li
is
&*>jf (m.c.)
petition
writing."
The
C5
of
unity added to
ham chunan
or
chunan
ki
occasionally
4
by
Persians
** )^i
:
imprisoned)
there
vide
*
6
Instead of hamchu ;&+*> the words hamchunan &\*XL+*> or hamchunln ould be used here.
6
In (m.c.) misl
cU
WO uld
90
be better.
Chandan oN^ " so much as that; so many; that amount; all that " all time," and chandin (&**<* this; this long time,'' etc., are used with or
1
(2)
without a substantive.
Ex.
chandan
ol^ia.
*>"
chandan sharab bi-man dad ki na-tavanistam bi-khuram (m.c.) " he gave f)j^i me so much wine that I couldn't drink it (all) " chandan misl-i u narm" danam ; jf Jx* ^|<xia. (m.c.)- "I don't know such a lot as he does
;
pl~J\j&
&]&
^v
f^
ut^
p>\**+>
chandan dakhl-^ bi-zaban-i Farsi na-daram pj\*> t5r)^ ^iV c$*^ " I have not a great knowledge of Persian."
ell***- (class.)
To chandan
murdand
ki
-
&>
Chandan-i az ta'un can be fixed as " such a number died of >^^o e/^UDjt ^t^^plague that ."
iy|<xia>
the indefinite
Chandan-l az
m malikhulya firu
**
ki
guft
na-mand
so
much
(GuL, Chap. Ill, St. 21) ^'^^9 did he rave like this that he ceased from mere exhaustion."
UJ^iuJU) ^jjf
yf^
'Umr chandan-i
^iLj Chandan
..."
kam bashad
life
'"
also
means
fold"
&\<x*- *x*
chandan
ki
man
dar In
sad chandan az an ziyada-tar istirahat hasil shud (m.c.) " in comparison with the oppression I underwent there, my ease was a hundredfold (lit. as much as
I
was oppressed there, a hundredfold more than that was ease obtained)."
(3)
jjX)6J
Chand/in
|j
(^^^
chandm
(e
sal ast ki
shuma ra na dida am
(i.e.
(m.c.)
^<^-
l*t
you
"
:
it is
so
many
many)
o^x
(^j|*iJ
bi-chandm
jihat (m.c.)
Remark.
o!<*i^
For chandanchi
Asuf^ "howmuchsoever, notwithstanding" and as, as many as, insomuch, although, as soon as,
(/) For bi-chandm martaba afzun &j_j\ the more/' vide Adverbs and Conjunctions.
*^
^^^
(class.)
"how much
With the
of
unity
chandan-i
vide (3).
2
3
In modern Persian
rabt-l
firu
^f*^" means "such a quantity" and not "such a long time." s be redundant, but I think it is meant to emphasize the fact that he raved jj may *
Chandan-i
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
37.
91
Interrogative Pronouns
Ism-i Istifham
:
^S^\
f\*
**!
strongly accented in speakthe verb or come close to it. for and immediately precede emphasis ing, which ? " both forms are used in kudam or eJ^ A > kudamin % (a)
***>
There are four interrogative pronouns or adjectives ' are ? and &* chi. 1 chand " how
kudam;
ki;
many
'
They
' '
fl*S
animate or inanimate, singular or plural. Ex. oaiv f\& kudam shakhs " " which kudam rah (m.c.) " which road ? " ^jl^A) tij j*l^ (m.c.) person ? b <*j bi-farma*id bi-bmam man ba kudam pi*? pte cui, j tWf slf/ojsuoti f\*t be pleased to say let me see with what na-mahram-ha amad u raft daram " unwarrantable people have I comings and goings ? erf & ? /*c$^
:
' '
p)<*
o*f^>
f\**
3 vjXo nami-ddnistam ki an
I
ast (m.c.)
river it
was."
[In the last example the Imperfect " " I was not knowing (all the time I was gazing)
(b)
ast cuvoi is
f(<3/
g*
hich
kudam, "none, not one of them," has the same -& but Tiich kas ^y **** means " nobody (at all)." g*&
;
:
In the modern language ^J yak-i^is generally added, as ^~~+-> /t^ kudam yak-l-st " which one is it ? " v cJ ^^.^ j*f^ kudam yak-i-shan khub ast " which of them is good ? " The answer might be ftc
:
of
of
<tf
Remark. Kudam p\* can also be used instead of the accusative plural " who ? " vide Remark to
:
(h).
For r tATy, or "every," vide 39 (?) and (k). The (e) Afghans wrongly use kudam f\*!> in the sense of the Hindustan i <{ oAf Ex. some woman told me" t5 A * \) cr^ j*'^ kudam ko,t. jj+3 &j
(A)
: :
" each
j*t4>5"
kase-ra
dldi
^1**"
jjj^
'
w* &**$ 39) 5
b ^>a. ^j\ j& tj ^UJi az roz-l amadan-i man ila imroz kuddme insan ra fjjj " dar in jazira na-dida budam, from the day of my arrival till to-day I had
tdJdJ
For chiguna
*>f
38
(a).
In the accusative
kudamkar ra
kardl
4< " kudam ra dadl " what work have (m.c.) you done ? ^td \j f\** (class.) to which " m.c. The *& in one did you give it ? or bi kudam kas (_r& j*t^ bi-ki dadl i&\&
Ncirmahram
fysutflj
"unlawful man," i.e. one not within the degree to enter the " haram."
unity.
is
of relation-
Kudami c^f^
used in
class.,
in
writing, forkudam.
kudam
or
kudaml insan ra
92
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
:
never seen any man in the island" some one " (for vJJw |j kas-i rd
v^
\j*^ kuddme-rd
?
bi-talab
"
call
^^
;
~bi-taldb).
(/)
Ki
*f "
who ?
"
ace.
|>
"
;
"whose (property)?": <^A) (X Hra zacK \jf JU " whom didst thou " strike ? ^l^ *& or)l/ Hra (or fo'-H) dad? " to whom didst thou give it ?":>/ & ki kard " who did it ? " ^~l i*&~*\ *$ ki istdda " " " % ast who is standing ? i}*>^ * ki budand who were they ? " ** \> Jl~* " <>^-*> ** ki hastand &/ ckj sag ra ki vayl s kard " who loosed the dog? " who are they ? hikmat az ki amukhti * jf (or klstand *~*t " (Gul.) "from whom didst thou learn wisdom?
or A&. 1
Ex.: *$
ma?-* &t
:
1 '
) :
Remark
istifham
(
I.
^^ftLof
'
^
it
is
called kdf-i
When
used (interrogatively)
(
imply a negative
:
is
called
kaf-i
istifhdm-i naft
^&
(
^l^ai^i
o(^).
Ex.
^wU
The
^lx)|
J&*2*
*^
lA^^/t
:
(Sa'dl).
particle
o^
tf is also a conjunction
Remark
II.
is
Before
j*l
all its
persons, the
are
6
:
of ki is
changed into
4^ for euphony.
found: ^'^-J^
are they
' '
y
it,
tu ki-i
"who
he
?
thou?" but
&
bi-t is
also
who
is
"
^^ o^l
ishan kiyand
"who
similar change
may
:
who are they ? and Ex. jii^ klstand (or ki hastand) persons. In the third person singular o**a> & is not used. [The contraction ^~~*f
all its
' '
vide foot-note.]
6
The
plural
cA/ kiyan
is
still
in
of course
also written
I;
formed as usual by the simple prepositions. The *>\ but in this case care must be taken to
*
kuh
&"
of
hill."
is
* It will
plural.
3
The
Also pronounced vel to rhyme with the English bell.' is vulgar for ast. Vulgarly, *** kiya is also used final rather than of o~-a> *^. be the contraction of o*|
*
:
6 6
(
^.
the old Persian word
In modern Persian
e>^
is
kay
=Shahin-shah), the term applied to the ancient kings of Persia before Islam.
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
colloquial use
<io.wf
l amongst the Afghans. Ex. o&c eh!^ ^ dar in fikr u Ichiydl bud
:
93
ji
kujd bidin makdn diiU^ "he was wondering m.c. and amadand va kiyanand (class. Persian,, Afghan) whence they came and who they were."
ki ishdn az
is
of frequent use.
Ex.
amadand va
'
:
" what
Remark.
did you strike
The accusative
' '
\j penis." j>$ speech it might kasdn ra zadi (m.c.) might be used, or Jjl^f j*f^ kudam ddamhd-rd
" what <^j l^ kihd rd zadi people though correct is by some avoided in talking, as in quick " the &<*. chi Instead Tcir (j(<~ sound like
plural
l>
^^
In
AJJ>JJ
A*"
would probably be
^jbj
^Uuil
signifies
ashkhas-i
ki zadi ki
budand ?
A;i
(i)
bi-kist
"who
is
with
whom ? "
raftid
*i s
?
shuma ra navazish kardand? Na khayr ki bi-ldst (m.c.) " ^H> ^ ^f when you went there did they Aid/ u43'y L>
you
well
No
j|
they were
sag-i kist
all
in a bustle."
is
(y)
o~~Af
of
cX
"whose dog
he
"
in m.c. signifies
" he
is
The idea is that a dog has no respect on its own nobody, has account, but merely some respect on account of its master, and ^^f sag kist consequently means 'he is the dog of no one of any account.'
no account."
Similarly f*~
(k)
pt^f
^~ U ma
great!
sag-i Tcistim?
*a.
chi
how
in
what manner
or
kind? why?,
Chi *^
*L?-
etc."
Ex.:
used for the singular or plural, generally for inanimate objects. ci^jolj^ &a. chi kitab-i'st ki mi-khwahi "what book do t you o~~*^ or better, want?"", ^fjw^o a^lir kitdb-i ki mi-khwahi chist? : &*. " cu l^Utf in chi kitabha-st " what books are these ? **J!>> AA. LJL.|j.iu x3
is
iHiXJ **
^
:
budand? (m.c.) "what books did you want? " &*. j| az chi jihat "for what reason?": &*. ^ty bardyi-chi "for what?": chi nishini ^^^ *** (m.c.) "why I wonder are you sitting " chi nishasta*i &^J &. ditto. here ?
&<A(^(i
c^
Note that
this first
&$ ki
is
really
For
this connecting
2
*\
Or kudam
'I
kitabha-ra nii-khwasti
^W^iu/o
boxes"
-
knew what
bud ty
^^i^ ;i
^)Jj^
*t
^AMJI^ (m.c.).
Though
would naturally
would say kudam
in
^-i^ and
say danistam
:
(ki)
dar
^5oi^ )& (if) pi~*>\& ( O r chiha \^- less common) chizha ^J**- i*? instead of '^U^ ^^ chi chlzha.
an Afghan
94
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
Remark
as, chist
I.
lei
?
is it
how
"
:
chisdn
e) l~^-
how ? chiguna &j*Remark II. In m.c. az chi &* j! sometimes means " of what substance or material ? It usually means
* '
'
'
1
"
The dative J^ chir a "for what?' is only used as an interro" why ? wherefore?" or as a causal conjunction (tf |^ chird-ki) gative, "because that." The dative formed by the preposition can however be used. Ex. SU bi-chi jihat "for what reason ? "
(1)
:
Remark.
[^
is
commonly used
in the sense of
"
certainly,
(m)
{tctf
An
is
is
taken by
l
kudam, as
i<xjJU>
bi-anjdm rasdnida-i pleted," or chi kar ra bi-anjdm rasanida-i i<xoU) ^Uo| AJ (; jfe &*> (rare). " which book do Chi kitab mi-khwahi ^tj^-J-* v ^ *^ (m.c.) you want
1
kar ra f^uO \> f\*f " tell me comwhat have work (m.c.) yourself you
j&
o,^
khud-at bigu
kudam
"
?
of
mi-lchwahi?
\t>f j6
' '
book do you want ? ", but ^ya.** " " which book do you want ?
*>*-
\j
V UT j*t<^ kudam
Remark.
taken to mean
(n)
what
&<*
fault
is
In m.c.,
" " work ", or word, matter." Ex. harf " " what is he then ?" (i.e. nothing"); p%*?*. ** " are we hich-im
o^
o^f jj^
kar
chiz ast
chi chiz-im
(i.e.
/*jf
*$*>
nothing").
(o)
The following
4
are
?
common
colloquialisms
I to
8
:
&*.
?
business
is it of
mine
what have
do with
also
it
"
it
^^
:
bi-man chi
:
' '
what
*^^ etc.
ya'm
chi
chi
"is
chdra "
to do?
"what
guft ki chi
1
chi hdlat mi-kashad <x^* oJti. how aT oif miserable is he 6 !: state he is suffering," " he said what ? ": <^x^ tf o^f ^t* a^ 4 u chi sag-i ^J|b j
The ra necessary
Plural ace.
after
kudam
|j
1
3
kudam
kitabha ra
:
Vulgarly ^5*-
cM
(^
*^ cM
&*.
c^*
what
"
or
'*
is
common
vulgarism.
4
t*j
?
^iij^a, AJ|^J
(Sa'dl, verse)
A^
of
bi-kushad
6 6
" what
J|
(yo
u jan darad ?
^^ ^
~^
baray-ash mi-guzarad
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
ast ki
sar-i
95
(lit.
bala-yam
bi-nishmad
he
?)
to
above
"who me "
?
t)
is
he then
what a dog
is
(p) &*.
What? Ex.
^t* ** jj^y>
^ <-M
a*.
mi-kuni
* '
day ?
,^^
jyHj^Hs*
olo
chi
*T
J.A
^U
cAt
"what do you want to do"?: ^f^o ml-danam shayad ki u ham najat ydbad " what do
' ' :
^
I
know but
that he too
(m.c.)
am
shud*
may escape ? ^.t ^itA>i warn? ddnam "I don't know what became of my horse"
*x
:
asp-
bakhshidam; kamzak ra (j c^i* fyxAiu^Ij sii/a/fc ^iT " " the I do with the girl? is but can what (Sa'di) negro yours
ra
fti-fat
chi
U* fj kunam
Remark.
** "
direct questions.
(q)
; '
How
how
fearful,
" " what " Ex. &# ^'^ >** *^ chi-qadr* hawlndk bud " &*. ^^o man chi kambakht am how terrifying it was ^fv^.io^'
!
! :
' '
unfortunate
(r)
&^
am I ": v^ J-^ *^ chi ma-nzil-i khub "what "How? In what manner? why?": i* J^U
!
'ashiq shuda-i
:
^
* '
&>"
J ^% &>
said,
?
<s
" it
o^
&*>
e^U d
fy
arf
'
Why
J*j1 Afu S^**^ (3r^ jk* ** **& I) t*m*&~\ Iskandar-i Ruml ra Alexander the guftand ki diyar-i mashriq u maghrib bi-chi girifti ki (Sa'di) Great was asked how he had conquered the East and West, because " (lit. " oJkx) " ?) they asked, In what manner didst thou conquer ^b aTy
:
AT
'
^^&&j
what
tion?
^)\i*
(Sa'dl)
"for
afflic-
(or how) can you return thanks since you are entangled in this
"
:
**!
a^. aXI|
' '
Praise be to
God
What
a wise and
^M^i &? J&& fulan some one said to him, Why do you remain seated here because ."* chi budi 6 (classical) would to God !" p?^ (t* or)^| ^AJJ A^. 6 chi budi agar (or ki) hakim mja ml-amad " would to God the uuii Governor had come here (or were to come here) This idiom is still in use amongst the Afghans.
&$*
**"
(^
(Sa'di)
' '
' '
Foibala-yisar-am
(V^CS^J
man &* $ j* ^.
" I don't know what
(sickness)
($
(without hamza)
" a
\
ball."
6 But C5> f* J*^-* J *^ chi bashadagar bar-i digar mutarannim shavl, " chi bashad or ehi mishud what " how nice it would be if you were to sing again would it matter if ." 6 Chi budi mja birya yad *?\# ^?<-^l <^AjJ *$ (class.) " would that he would come &* or chi Tchjlah bud &}* <jj^ *% is used instead of chi budi in m.c. chi khub bud
'
!
'
^ ^^
96
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
t>
>\
shudi?
(Sa'd!)
"
?
The
plural of
&*.
is
it is
In
plural
is
also written
Ex.
<>l^&x>
I*
<*^
chi-ha
IA &*. miguyand "what do they say, or what are they saying?": *$ *+&&&? (ft j tj& chiha Tci na-kard va chiha ki na-guft (m.c.) "there was
&*.
signifies
"what
does
it
or
the
whether
murdan
Ex. ^^LSJ)J* *$" ^*J* ^^j* *^ chi ." khdk " what matters it to die on a throne or on
it
is
j**>\
the same thing to die on a throne as on the bare chi amir chi faqir (m.c.) "whether gentle or <*<$
;
" * gadd (m.c.) o*^ *^- )* **- chi dur chi sadaf whether simple " " a pearl or an oyster shell Q^J &* j **-*!}> A^ chisharif u chi wazi' as well high as low."
chi shah chi
:
"
Remark.
examples.
This chi
is
f^ khwdh
musdvdt (c*tj^
&*.
"the
of
com-
(k),
that
^ animate beings, as things. Aa. ^\ 3/ Shah pursid ki in chi ddamhd mi-bdshand " (m.c.) the oib l^f " in addm-hd kistand ? Shah asked who are these men ? (instead of
however
is generally
^^
'
In the former case, however, &*. has rather the sense l^ojjf " what sort of &*. of ," whereas *Z merely asks who are they? ^-^ yo ^jf " what sort of man is this ? " in mard chi kas ast mard chi kdra ?
(MwjjT
^i)
'
'
^
"
,
(m.c.)
j^il
[in
ast
e~!
?
tyK
?
&s*-
"
:
tj*
(m.c.)
"what
-
sort of
man
is
is this,
or what
?
is
his
profession
chi
*a.
" what
8
your work
also
= 6i-^
to-
>w]
(S*y*j*
n)
-^'
man
"who
is
art
wards
me ?
' '
(w)
Chand***-
The substantive,
if
used, must be
1 Note that the final letter is doubled durr J and must therefore in prose be pronounced with a stress on it. Here by poetical license the word is dur. " Hindustani 2 The distinction that exists between (vide 81^ and SteppingStones ") in Urdu does not exist in Persian between Bl^ and *^.
y ^^
*% would be too
by ihsan farmudi
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
97
Chand *** is also an interrogative signifying "how much ? how many ? how long? to what length? etc." Ex.: axA<il^j| <xU. tS &\*>+> namiddnad ki cJiand az shab guzashta " he knows not how much of the night has " (Sa'di). passed (i.e. how near morning it is)
Pd-yi miskin piydda cJiand ravad K-az tahammul sutuh shud bukhti-'
(Sa'dl)
the weary foot-man go For the camel has no more endurance left in
far can
5 e>*ot ***$ jij&U^o
How
it
"
\y
(Sa'di)
"how much
often
?
is
your
pay?"
' '
He
long
said
"nothing":
?
^^
**&*
how much
is
how
"
";
j^. ***.
chand bar
oia.
13
td-chand
for
how
' '
Like chi
&*.,
chand *&*
years
I.
In composition: *JL
of
how many
Chand
years
"
"of few
II.
xxa. is
and
<u^.
means,
measuring
five
^i by
five e
will this
"
mentioned
is called
by
villagers *-*&$.
by various names
chi-mi-khwdhi
A*,
?, is
(2) Chim-i istifham-i nafi ( ^ftJ ^itx*! p**. ) implies negative interroga" " what does he know ? tion, as an kas chi mi danad <MJA*> **. ^^'^ nothing
:
Chim-i nahi
l***
p**.
implies prohibition, as
Lf'* *^
(4)
(^
(m.c.)
such a noise
Chim-i mubalagha
a*JU*
:
adjective
and
?= don't do
intensifies it , as
^(^4x5 Uj)
the
nicely he reads."
(5)
Chim-i ta'zim
st
in chi mard-i
(6)
^~~J.^<
^^
this;
^*
?**
c<
*. of
"
Chim-i tahqir (^a=3 p**. ) the **. of disdain" implies negative interrogation combined with contempt, as: o>W JbUi a^ ^| in chi qdbil ast " This chi " how can he do how is he fit for this ?
(m.c.)
business
^.
is
Chim-i tahayyur
^-
chi mi-guyi
" the Aa. ^*su ^. ) expressing astonishment," as: " " what is this (m.c.) you're saying what do you mean
(
! !
A strong
7
t^^
***)&
98
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(8)
CMm-i
tahassur
(^~*J
Falak bd
man chi
kardi
^^ **
me
' '
!
^
(*>*>
'
" as in " the ** of regret danghd ay b JUj ^t wheel of the sky, Alas
)
U^
how
'
(u).
(10)
j*>&
p**-
or
"the **
of
diminutiveness
"
,
vide
Diminutives.
38.
" Connected with a^, are the inter rogatives <w^ chiguna how? in what " from &*. chi and & and e>^ apparently state ? guna colour, manner
l
' '
' '
derived from
(a)
e>T .
9
Chiguna.
)
o~jj*yf AJ^a.
^^f
st (classical
and
vide
m.c.) (or
chi-kdra ast
example
j*af
how arej^ou
?
"
?
,
chiguna
&*.
\j
is
an adverb. 5
^^
^ 6e-ma chun-i
what
el
away from
?
' '
^X* ^f*. o7^ J -* t^*^ ^ cf^'* darvish-i za' if hdl rd dar tangi u khushk%-yi sal ma-purs ki chun-l ? magar (Sa'dl) "don't enquire from the poor darvish during a famine year how he is, unless ."
6
1
find yourself tf
<
(lit.
how
art thou
art thou
"
ji
J^ ^^ Jij^^
us,
how do you
39.
Indefinite Pronouns
^^>
#>\
).
(a)
is
called.
The defect
from the
supplied by the
list
of unity or
:
by
following
of
examples
Guna &lr,
also
gun &j*
final 8
like
e,
tejf^ chigune
*
& *j$
>^
various"; also
Chiguna
'
p~$
is
*
J-*^^)
man "),
as in chiguna zan-l
she?
Note the
"
I
difference of
meaning
two sentences
T*^^
Man
u-
*^
saw him in Basra; how can he then be a pilgrim from Mecca ? " chiguna " what sort of a pilgrim is he ? " Guftarn-ash chiguna-l dar In halatl hajl ast " " I asked him how he was *jla. (Sa'di) %^$feeling." * Chun is also in some districts vulgarly used for kun v)j& " the anus." c!^:
&J^- t5*^
V^
-^
'
U>' (i^
^^
^^ e&x which
(>&*, etc.,
is
certainly a
>**-,
commoner word.
chand
chandan and
^?^.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(1)
99
"Other, another," digar j&.&, precedes or follows its noun, as: digar ruz )jj y^D, or ruz-i digar j*t> jjj "the next day" also "another day"; " another road " digar bar jkj&t, or digar rah *}j j&* or rali-i digar *.& " bar-i digar .* j* "another time; a second time, again dlgar-gun \y j&i* "in another state, altered"; jj> J'+S namdz-i digar (Afghan idiom) "the
9
!;
afternoon prayer digaran <jlj&t> or dlgar-ha lAjfc^ "others, other people 1 digar kas (class.), or better with J&A (class.), or kas-i, digar j>*
' '
' '
% of unity the kas-i digar " another person, some one else <^s.t (^ " " another the other 'azvha another (remaining) "; Ujapyo^ digar person, limbs"; digar barddardn-ash {*\)dj* j&i* "his other brothers" (Gul.,
j^ ^^
"
"
^U ^j^d oJ>
the
is classical
as well as m.c. 3
j&.&+*>
Yak
other/
'
digar
^^.
are
reciprocal pronouns
each
one another.'
I.
In classical and m.c., digar j&& is frequently used as an adverb signifying "otherwise, again, any more, why then," etc., as: ,i^Lo ^jl^J j j*U jj^^^j va digar kas nam va nishdn-ash na-shinavad (Gul., Book 3, St. of the Boxer, No. 68) "and no one ever hears of him again" here digar ^.^ is an adverb " again," and does not qualify kas : digar paytn-
Remark
Remark
"
\s>
J>* digar-gun
*
Bazarcha-yi qasab-farushan digar ast* store of Cairene cloth or silk have we."
(0.
^U^*
*-*/AJ
^j'3
"no
is
K. Rub. 58 Whin.);
another place."
lit.
Remark
III.
For the
vide
41
(p).
(c) (1).
2/
ofc -*
" one
other, another
:
"
;
two words
chlz-i
c5-)4^ chlz-ldlgar " " the dlgar-l should mean thing of some one else
also in.j&.
C7^O$Instead of
in m.c.
however
it
often incor-
rectly
means "another
thing."
rule.
chiz-idlgarj&.3 csOi^j 2/a& chlz-l digar ^.^ (J*?*- tJj could be used; vide also
to
(6).
3
Remark
j^5 j t)}^ j
)
o^^ijji
ju
A&T
^
.
^iX**
i^J cUc j
oAyof
*&f ^ic
Qasab
y'^y x^ii^j j** j *>*j* Vn^? #*) Here LS^&Z could have been used.
{
u^ >>
in
of
modern
100
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(2)
is properly a substantive (pi. aghydr "strangers"). Ex.: j*& ghayr 1 mdl-i ghayr "some one else's property" cJ ^^s. ^ai^ shakhs-i
:
j* JU
To
ghayr-l guft
"a
stranger,
some one
m an ghayra hastam
zdtl
1 l
(m.c.),
" I
am an
outsider.'
Dar umur-i
own
va Tcdrhd-yi ghayr bd man kunkdsh namudl - j ^\& >y*\ " he used to consult me on his er* -?^ c5 *>(< (Tr. H. B. Chap. V) " " another affairs and those of the community ghayr-i ^sj** person, a
4^
' '
stranger.
Remark.
Ghayr
" un-, im-," etc., to form adjectives. participles, with the privative sense " or cc uninhabited" " uncultivated Ex. ghayr-i dbdd &$ j*P gltfiyr-i insaf
:
is
and Arabic
oUflJfjjA*
"unjust"
(but
if
the
manqula
i.e.
^^l
compound
(class.)
;
is
is
illegitimate (wife)";
^;^*^
mod.
*^ j*
Per.).
Va-ghayra
;^,
and
<~&)'&j**)
;
va ghayr-i
but ghayr az u et cetera" ), and ghayr-i the exception of him." in compounds is izdfat vi*jUe| in modern Persian after gh.ayr
an cA j^- = "
perhaps a
ghayr
11
corruption
,
of
u&^j& t
khdlis in
(6)
Mod.
Pers.,
**
impure."
(l)^jA^j yakdtgar (one word) classical (numeral) and dlgar >.* "another." Ex.:
dust
" one " compound of yak -& ra p*)\*y> ^*j& \j jj*&. yakdlgar
' '
:
j&i<& iiliu ^i^ raftim " we went to each other's houses." bi-khdna-yi yakdlgar Yakdtgar J&A& is used in colloquial only by educated people ham-digar
other
:
mi-ddnm
' '
we
^J>*A
is
Remark
j***
This
reciprocal
with
^-
dlgar-l
fi;*
The expression
;
Uw
Persian
3
-i*Ll
is
used after
ghayr
j*
in
compound
adjectives.
o^^l
omitted
in India
and Afghanistan.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
101
is
Remark
It
II.
used collectively.
would
(2)
also be correct,
ba ham-digar nishasta and <y " (m.c.) j' cws aqab-i ham-digar (s*j&* f* mi-amadand (Shah's Diary) they (the ships) followed one behind the other." One " " some one " " any one and " a person.' (c)
digar (m.c.)
C
"
^^
v^
' '
' '
'
(1)
"one"
with the
$ of unity).
Ex.:
j xxxU^^ cA^f 0""""?^ 'J ^-- ^ &jjB* (^j* ^iuw sukhun bar in muqarrar shud ki yak-i ra bi-tajassus-i ishan bar gumashtand va (Sa'dl) "it was decided to appoint some one to spy on them v^JU J| yak-i az muluk " some one knocked " one of the dar zad
1
' '
'
'
(Sa'di)
kings
*j)t>
^X* yak-i
(m.c.)
at the door."
anyak-i ^i e/f (m.c.) "that one," " this one." Ex. j*x p& )* ^. vd ^~"$ pusht-i and in yak-i &$ (m.c.) an yak-i dar qcfim shudam (m.c.) " I hid behind that there door."
colloquialisms
"The one
an
the other"
is
yak-i
^&
classical Persian digar digar-i ^j&.* uf. for digar-i ^sj^. Vide foot note 2.
In
j^
Remark.
Yak-i ^Xj
is
also a
numeral
Jto
"what
is
one in ten
(cartridges, etc.)."
Note the following idioms xi^j p*>^ "they were all of one mind, unanimous (
:
<w>
hama bd-ham
budand
yak-i budand
*>2j> J.b
man-yak-i-am
^^*
e^!f
3 (*"
1
^ ^
^1
yak-dil
-^)
.^
(Sa'dl)
9
"
For yak-i
^&
;
place," vide
Adverbs.
Yaki
^
^
is
For yak Jo
vide
41
(a)
"unity, oneness, concord." as a substitute for the indefinite article, vide also under Numerals. Man yaka u tanha j * er* (m.c.
the numeral,
only)
"I
alone."
(2)
^^f
"one"
is
unity), though practically the same as yak-i <^, verb in the negative, vide " No one " (d) (6).
l
at,
but that
4
Note the Preterite tense is used to signify that not only was the decision arrived it was carried out. Hakim-i guft Mbilaf-i In 'ajab budi ki an yak-i bisyar-khwar bud fjaqctt-i bi-nava*-i
^ j*
3
ISa'di)
the former
(or latter)
was a great eater and could not stand was accustomed to abstinence.' "
" a philosopher replied, 'the contrary would have been strange because the fasting, so he died but the second
;
102
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Remark.
duals."
The broken
:
plural of ahad
(^$)\*
*M
j
l
is
indivi-
Ex.
f/o
yJ
**
\j)
&.}*
*^ ol^*-
^ j ^^ e^T"^ y cJ^
&*
mard
(Sa'di)
chanddn jafd u tawbikh ravd nami-ddri ki " he said you do not treat the sons of any one of my
^ij
^K
(3)
{&*& 1j i^f jl <^<^\ " I never ahad-i az ahad ra na-didam ki chunm kdr-i bi-kunad (m.c.)
you use to
my
son
"
&y^*
else
do such a
t
(disgraceful) thing as
}
or
u~
."
31
kas or kas-i.
Sa'dl says
*
:
Ex.
"some
body
said that
fi
f*jiJ
^a
e~*|*.
^Uj
^j*>
^^Lot;
Rastl mujib-i raza-yi Khuda-st Kas na-dtdam ki gum shud az rah-i rast
Rectitude (or truth) is the means of pleasing God. Never have I seen an upright man forsaken."
Gar
bi-ja-yi
Td qiydmat
^^J
*&
**\t>
&1
^+te\->
an
ki
ddnad ki
to
bi-kas
what he knows,
in
viz. that
(a) (1)
:
vide also
u^^
' '
V-^^
^*&
Remark
*$ ki
sukhan juz
bi-hukm-i zarurat na-gufti va mujib-i azar-i kas bi-zaban-ash na rafti (Sa'dl) who never spoke unless it was necessary, nor unbridled his tongue to
^ )^
Kas
instead of kas)
;^
ijf
aiif
*l** j
j\
\jr^
bi-jdn bi-ranjand*
Wj"^ <j& J o^
Remark.
dread of four other people " J! Ij^ qaza-ra az kasdn-i u yak-i hdzir bud "by chance one of his
^
~
is
(i.e.
a 'some-
^^
"
ignoble,
mean"
Jcas
In m.c. kas-l
^|
(j**^l In
"this person."
(^
"a
Kas
* '
(jr$ is properly
' '
a substantive,
^f an
kas
would be used for kas jj^ in the example. \j ( dast"that person." Ex.: &jjf J^l*^ ^ ^j ^^r^ (J&vt led to and him he took him by the hand bi-manzil-i an kas dar avard
^^
'
Bi-ranj
pi. of
fty "in
affliction"
and
**\
"are," or
:
else
3rd
person
&**^)
both correct.
INDEFINITE PBONOUNS.
103
Nd-kas
"
How
An
bi-tarbiyat na-shavad, ay hakim, kas (Sa'di). can a man make a good sword from bad iron?
ignoble
philosopher, noble
by education."
(m.c.)
ast wi*i
A~
^j^f
" he has
Bar khud
dar-i
kdm u
drzu dar-bastam
Vaz
"
I close the
Nor sue
for favours
'
Kas u nd-kas
El-kas
^^
^
*'
tju
signifies
friendless, destitute,
an orphan."
Kam-tar
"
scarcely a person."
,
nd-kas
^^,
and
insdn "man"; (jc.s& ddam, ^tf ddaml, f&f "a shakes* ol^o o^*^ ^^f ddam hayrat mikunad ki "one person.", Ex. insdn could be substituted in such sentences (lit. a man) wonders that
1
:
"One":
^M
' '
the scent ji^x fj ^cjj bu-yi gul shakhs rd mast mi-kunad of the roses intoxicates one shakhs na-bdyad in, hama subuk bdshad ^lj C^XM. a^. ^f <xUi (JO.&& (m.c.) " a person, (a man) ought not to be so
' '
:
v^^c
(j&s^ Jl
l '
impatient."
Remark
I.
*A-\J
or^j
'a person, some one." Ex.: single <>&j ^t^iu^ j& i b xa.tj ^afcuA shakhs-i vdhid bd dah nafar nami-tavdnad o**f bi-jangad "a single individual cannot fight with ten men":
"a
^&*
(to
me)"
but^iui
shakhsi adj
(note accent)
means
Adam
(*<if
"man"
as opposed to
'*
latter is also
not a savage.' of, possessing politeness, good manners The following classical sentence, Mi-tarsam mabada bi-dast-i adam-i jangali bi-yuftam va In ham-churian ast ki bi-panja-yi shir giriftar shudan (^$*&^ ^^liT **"&) (i>U<c ptaji** ^jjXii j&j j** ^^^ *J *S ^**\ viAJ^ -** e^!t ^ *&%. (class.), would in modern Persian be
rendered
Va
In
chunan
ast ki
giriftar
shavad c)^^
er^t
*
3
The
plural of shakhs
*f or
is
In m.c.
glj or glch
in this sense.
104
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Remark
II.
The
indefinite
pronoun
"one"
'
in English, or
:
may
often be rendered in Persian by AS^A har-ki whoever" " the nearer one c*M|j3 eiL&^ har-ki nazdik-tar ast panshdn-tar ast
the
more one
(v);
*>j*>
is in
anxiety,"
lit.
whoever
is
nearer
is
nan-ash
<J~ck
i^
1
"when
man's bread
death."
is
not eaten
is
name
is
The following
often quoted
" one" can only be expressed by putting the Aorist or the second Past into verb, Habitual, person singular, as, gu*i
(6)
The
indefinite
pronoun
*&&* ty*) <**?*j ^**>j &j <^&>\**\ \j&* izdihdm-i zan u mard chundn-ki agar sar-i suzan-t-anddkhii bi-zamm na-rasidl " such a crowd of men and women that were one to (H. B. Chap. XI) throw (or had you thrown) a needle's point amongst them it wouldn't have
f*\
"No
^/^
:
grJt<fc
Jiich kas>
citiuJ(
or
Sa'di says
^J
^u
j
"
;
kas,
Ex.
' *
.$'
^j,*
na-kard
31
ta
no
me
4 <>jl~jo
^\ &$ UUw
hich yak az
is
&$
business
Idyiq-i
^i^J eX ^^Uaye
$
*
\A\+
jj
fit
for this
^^
of
shumd-hd
man
^i-^.|^ii
^^
:
5
J '
you deserving of my hich yak mdjard rd qalam-band \) (^^ "I was unable to commit to writing any (Afghan)
riistid
(m.c.)
"none
->
^
"
*^^ o*^ J ; lx> c5 J )j* ***$ chaslim-i mur u " none has kas na-did ever seen ant's (modern saw) pd-yi mar u nan-i mulld 6 eye, snake's foot, or Mulla's bread."
1
oj&
'
^XA
hich na-guft
:
' '
he said nothing
(/) (2)
hich kas
naydmad
'
no one came"
vide also
and
116 (m).
1
'
Note
*
this
method
'
Nothing
is in
Grammatically, of course, this should be nlst ^^~~&', this 2nd person plural is an example of the slovenly thought so noticeable in modern Persian. 6 In m.c. this sentence would be hich yak az majaraha ra naml-tavanistam qayd iJo bi-kunam p&-> iSuJ* |j Uf^lo j(
6
Mullas
'
and
ls\j
&c
is
almost the
equivalent of
stingy,' etc.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
105
is
Remark.
Hich
-*;*,
which
is
As an
adjective,
it
pre-
(2)
"Some, any."
"
:
In composition,
times implies
Example
Bi-hunar-rd bi-hich
(Sa'di).
" Even should he become a Faridun in wealth and possessions, Do not consider the ignorant (mean) person anybody."
^o^jAa. ^a> ($)***& (^i* tu-yi sanduq hich chiz hast "is there anything hich ddam-iinjd dmad "did any man in the box?"; **1 lavi-}! <y^ ^*A come here?": ^^ ^s^r* g& hich mard-i naydmad "no man came": " " is there hich Teas hast one there? *
g*>
dnjd
any
oJj
^A
"
hich vaqt
mara yad
mi-kurii
"do you
ever remember
me ?";
?
;
bidiht (m.c.)
(3)
^\ ^l^iwo a^ ^j bi-Mch vajh mi-tavani "can you by any means complete this work ? "
m kar-ra anjdm
negative.
mi-kuni " what are you doing g* " who is there ? "the answer nothing." To the question, cu^r Isuf might be ,***> "no one."
Q.
and
its
^s&*
&*. chi
"
Similarly \n
hich chiz nist
;
hama
&^
A^f-jf, signifies
**>
" this
is all
nothing
"
;
(chizri
^^^
or) J**.
"it
is
nothing"
J*J C5t.T'
In hama hich ast chun mi-bugzarad Bakht u taWit u amr u nahy u gir u
ddr.
"This is all naught, since it passes away, (viz.) fortune and sovereignty, ordering and counter-ordering, empire and dominion." (Sa'di.)
1
^A
ever
"
;
grJjA
"never."
Ex.
ghulam
ty
t&>
rilst
The
o~~oj
^5^ gri*,
or hich mard
' '
;
rilst
^^^
Zj* ^i
signifies
4^^
manhood
(poUtely translated
" he has no
").
106
INDEFINITE PKONOUNS.
Dunyd
V'dn
]
" You
And
'
all
'
He
is
less
than nothing
hich-tar ast
JLJ JA*.
-wk
jt
(m.c.), or
u az hich
Remark. It must, however, be borne in mind that hich ^-AA properly means " anything," and hich-na &> *& " nothing " thus, " eating nothing is better than eating bad food would be rendered by hich na-khwurdan bihtar az ta'am-i bad khwurdan ast o~-t ^^^ ^ ^Ut jf j^ &d)j&j **>*> while hich
;
' '
khurak khmdan
at
all,
&y^ ^t^
ever?
' ' '
:
^
:
(Indian)
would mean,
better than
if it
meant anything
"eating anything
(or something)
is
."
(4) all
;
"At
all,
In interrogative phrases
implies "ever, at
in the least.
Example
Ay
ki hargiz fardmush-at
na-kunam
(Sa'dl).
" Oh Thou
whom
all
never forget,
Dost thou at
<y fi
*j
])j\
"
(Sa'dl).
^-Sao -XA
do you play the guitar at all ? hich mi-shavad u-rd bi-binim (m.c.) fl would it be (or
"
:
is
it)
at
all
him ?
'
'
Remark.
futile."
(5)
^J ^
^^>
hich
u puch
c<
signifies
contemptible, anything
silly
or
Hich **A
(like
(of
"
either
harj&) can be joined with kuddm f\*f, as, hich kuddm two); anyone (of three or more)." With the nega-
Remark.
Ism-i
Hich
(
^
p*\
(?')]
are called
p%&
o^ or
j*^4*
o^.
mubham ^x
( '
is
Indefinite Pronoun.
(6)
No one
:
"
(m.c.) AJ
(c) (2).
^A*. ahad-i
na
(m.c.)
(i.e.
in the negative)
vide
Example
^iu
p&j
barham na-khurd.
(Shah's Diary)
"no
For Va an c/f
>
o.*l>A
2
^
1)^
(m.c.).
-J^
(rare).
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(7)
107
CMz J*.
or
chlz-l
c>*$*
followed by
negative
verb
signifies
"
"So-and-So, such and such, Snooks, what's his name ": e>& fuldn (in is a designation of an undefined person or thing, present or
it
1
absent; as an adjective
precedes
its
&%*
va
"such a person."
Ex.:
pt&f
<^*>j*S*.
oJj>j
tj
**Ajl
^j^G tf
^yf
e>;lijj
"
' ' :
fortress
&*. tS
oJif
fj
^lo^b
(
eJ^>3?
3'
dbid (Sa'di)
man
asked a pious ascetic what his opinion was concerning a certain religious " <vof (^acuw or ^^) <j*? &&*, or ^*f ^JU fulan amad, or person &~* or ()&'* (kas-l shakhs) dmad "So-aad-So came"
; :
"on
is
" ho
Fulan
Yd fulan such a date in such a year." also used to indicate the private parts of
etc., is used.
is <*i^,
I.
as: In
fulan
The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used with fulan "this So-and-So" and an fulan && of "that &%*
So-and-So."
Remark
came "
II.
In
j^Lj
is
used for
men
or
women and
sometimes for things, as: ydru dmad **f j^ "So-and-so (man or woman) " ** (or the goblet or gaming ydru rd biydvar >jUj Ijjjlj bring the wine
;
i^J
fuldrii
is
refers
\)
to persons
only,
An
exception
;(#
^M*
A caller,
In poetry fuldnl
^^3 sometimes
signifies
a mistress.'
Fulan u Bahmdn
adand ^/of &\+^ j && " So-and-So with So-and-So came " fuldn u pashmaddn guftand *&s& ^!^*^ j o^ (m.c.) "they said such and such things."
;
j o^* and vulgarly Fulan u Pashmaddn ejt^^+^j ^ o^' are also used for persons or things when there are more than one, as Fuldn u Bahmdn dm:
1
i
In m.c. gushadan
cJ^
(not kushadan
^)^
and
;
'abid *-'^
'56*cZ
former
3
^^
signifies properly
signification
the
worshipping (God)."
Note the
^ of unity.
ooHij
^3L?
(
The
cent signification.
108
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Fuldn
the former
that
is, if
()&*
is
^^
cannot.
Also
;
indefinite
referring to a person
(nakira *j&) and the latter definite (ma'rifa *(>** ) known to the speaker and his listener, fulani,
tJM would
bistar (or btsdr) ^i-^ j for generally things, rarely for persons.
'
Fuldn u
o^'
is
also used in
modern Persian,
(3)
What's
-
his
name
' '
;
JAA. &$.
M
:
Lcf
^Uu
jAa.
chlz,
' '
bi-Hdji
Aghd
"
(m.c.)
Ex.
what's his name, I mean Haji Agha ^-^ f JU, ^*>f e>* o^->*S- **$ c^li z " pish-i man dmad-ghuldm Hasan what's his name came to me -Ghulam
^ =
J>&>
c>O J*&
j&*^.
If* L^t
ma'shuq.
Bastar u bistar
$~# )
Remark.
^ ^ ^ J* mar * n (.5*^ lr*3 j^ dard ra dava-i nlst magar zahra-yi adam-i ki bi-chandin sifat mawsuf buvad. (Sa'di) "for this disease there is no cure, but the gall of a human being who
has such and such qualities," the word fulan could be substituted for chandm e,^^ without materially altering the sense.
(/)
^j o?-^c o*j
^^ W ^
of two.
"
(1)
^*J
* 4 *j&j* har-du "both." Examples: \>j& ;^ a/.>;b \> *&) j* j*> har du linga ra bar-i shutur karda mahar-i shutur ra girift (m.c.) "he
its
' '
;
^^^T C5^ J^
' '
(Sa dl)
of the ship
perhaps the rudder) guft biglr an har du ra id \> j* j*> \y j& ^.A^jjUu^ " turd sad dinar bidiham he said save both of those two and I will give you a
"
(or
13
v^flf
^ md
relative ^5.
(j).
2
S
Yorharj* "every
Linga *&)
is
", vide
" one out of a pair; the load of one side of a beast of burden,"
the camel leading-string attached to a
for instance) the
etc.
Mahar ){\*>
is
wooden key
in the nose.
In
certain districts
(Khurasan
mdhar
^V
is
The
classical expression
nose-string) signifies
j^ ^j^*
<shutur-i
dering aimlessly "; commonly used in India. 5 Formerly a coin of value. At the present day a dinar is an imaginary coin of infinitesimal value Note to, fifty go to one shahl or to a half penny of English money.
;
for
4<
and "
3 would be unidiomatic.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
In m.c.
109
l " we <*$>>>*> har du-yi ma dmadim following examples p>*1 or or ejlkf har du-yishdn, or har e/^ j^^** /*, <^j& j& " both of them " 1 )(# (j <j2( jay* Aar du-ash rd du-shdn, or har-du-yi ishdn biydr (m.c.), or jU? I; <Jb)*j* har du-yash ra biyar (m.c.), (or har du shan ra
j*^*
:
is
and
affixed
pronouns as
I*
eA^
biyar
lyU-
^ j&)
"bring both
of
them "
is
for living
things only.
Remark.
In m.c., hama
si
si
(2)
"Neither
(of
* '
of these
two
mentioned
" Both."
is
' '
(Sa'df).
(d) (1).
ithnayn
"both", pronounced
in
Persian isnayn,
(4)
by Mullas, or
in legal documents.
Indirect
:
ways
of expressing
"both"
examples
I* ; (you and me) go l^if ^ "let us both (us and them) ^jjj^ " <c go you go with j^j jt U l*^ shumd bd u (or shumd va u) bi-ravid (m.c.) 4 " him, let you and him both go ^ ^f p& ham in va ham an &* J/f rd biydr, or more commonly in u an rd-biydr j# \jtf j e>Jf *' bring both this and that (i.e. both)."
pljjlji ^
wwn u tu bi-rdvim " let us both md u dnhd (or md bd dnhd) birawm (m.c.)
e/
:
"
j& har du taraf also expressed by the Arabic " the two dual sides, both sides; the con^- jdnibayn or u&jle torafayn both tending parties, parties."
(5)
jt>
:
e^
Remark.
etc.
du "both," are
A^yfc
har
si
"
all
three,"
Ex.
of
p**-jj*
^ &j&-
V^ T^J*
"
I sold
all five
my
"
books."
Some, several, sundry, few." Ghand ***-, or chand-i ^^- "a few," signifies an indefinite quantity; it precedes or follows its substantive, of unity. which should be in the singular, and may or may not have the
(g) (1)
Or har du
(m.c.).
ta
man amadim
' '
p>.**
a)^
ji^A
(m.c.): or har
du
ta
shan
*> na. nor are expressed by &> na " You have not these both." * Note that the order of the persons is the reverse to that " and the " I and thou " say (or you) English you and I."
3
'
Neither
Lit.
in English
the Persians
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
p
jjua.
1
:
^b
J
a few times"
<*f
chand ghuta Tchurd (Sa'dT) "in short he sunk " a bar dmadfi&'dl) vt^.jj) *** chand ruz bar
bdr-1^
ai*.***!* kalima-i chand (Sa'di) "a few words "; few days after this"; " " I went a few ^U. steps (Sadi) x5o* J^A* qadam-i-chand biraftaim ,-frXJjj " a few cTwmd years." sdl-1 (Sa'di)
;
CTkwd
indefinite
is
an adjective.
'
If it follows its
<jr.
Remark.
ten.
Chand
\***-
a few
'
..
Shah-Nama Book
(2)
4, Oiriftar
In modern Persian, chand^t*- precedes its substantive, which is in of unity, and the verb is generally in the the singular with or without the chand sarbdz raftand 8 "a few soldiers went ": Ex.: ***>>j 3^ j~ **$ plural. (^>^ chand-l murdand* (Afghan) "a few died"; jl&xi. *J^ chand
to&jto
khidmatgar "some serving men," but IAJ(&/C,>^ jf ^oia. chand-i az khidmatgdr hd " a few from amongst the serving men." verb is frequently put in the singular, Colloquially and vulgarly the
(3)
there were **? chand nafar Isfahan* nishasta bud the verb should be in the plural (budand some Isfahanis seated (there)
Ex.
*j*
ai~io
^^^1
' '
' '
^^ f* j&.& ^\AJ*
*j$
***
IJJA
(4)
The Afghans
u
(not the Persians) in speaking frequently use a plural Ex. c^j AJL^J 7 cjUs^U ^ 6 \sJlj*& chand
:
^jf
budand (Afghan)
"a
*** (m.c.) " a few days." Ex. i^jjj (class.); also ^j^) *^ o**| e;f cui/ws^o maslahat an ast ki chand ruz-l bi-shdhr dar-ayl jz jf-> ^cjj) i^^ " it is (^n.c.) proper for you to come and stay in the city for a while."
Or
^^J
e^r?
2 3
The hamza
Chand
is for
the
^5-
of unity.
is
o^
the singular
4
5
Or bud d#.
Also kuh
*^
t&jirj+j*
is
the commoner.
This
is
^^
kothi.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Ill
sitting
(there)
finger- rings of
"
^
***.
chand
chand
'
several times.
LS***- chand-i, or yak-chand-i <^*i*. u&, means IA? Ex. : *~ **>* <jr*^- *?* -^UJ(
' '
alittle
bud injd buddida shud (Shah's Diary) " the Hakim- u-l Mamamlik " 4 Mamalik, who had been here for some time, was interviewed by us <joJ^. " I have been here for some Usuul e A chand-i hast injd hastam (m c.) ^iL*A
ki chand-i
;
^^
while/ Haktm-^l-
time"
J>3
c5^a. j|
T^
J.*j
little
*I
r"
o~ J^"
^'^ ^***& chub-i ki dar dast ddsht chand-i bar sar-i u zad
Af.)
"he
struck
I.
him
hand."
is
Remark
chand-gdh
chand-i c5"^i^
used for
& ^II.
and
m.c.),
***. (classical
and
m.c.),
chand bar
(m.c.).
Yak chand *^*>. is used in the sense of "a few" <**&> " a few chand persons were present." nafar-i budand (m.c.) L$J*> yak " tan-i chand (class.) signifies (6) cxva. sundry persons "; ^^ ^i3 " certain indivi&<*> O*ASI^> tan-l chand dar suhbat-i man budand (Sa'df)
;
mine";
^^ li-^^?
t;
JtoyjT
--^
^^
A*^
c;lyojl
M^.
^u
<JAA.
v4^^^
l5
tan-i
dzmuda rd
chand az mardan-i vaqi'a dida va jang " certain jabal pinhan shudand (Sa*dl)
experienced veterans were sent to hide in a ravine in the mountains." In m.c., instead of the classical <Ma. tan-i chand, j& *\*. chand nafar
is
used.
(7)
For chand
&**.
as an interrogative, vide
ti
37 (w).
(8)
"a few, a little, somewhat." Yak-chand ^aaxj and chand td vide (5) Remark II. singular noun, but a plural verb td tf is added, however, the verb is in the singular, as yak chand td
<xU*
: :
mard
" so
36
bud.
Yak-chand-i, adv.,
is
"
vide
(5).
Compounded with the demonstrative pronouns, c^<^ chandin much as this," etc., and chanddn &)*'** "so much as that," etc. vide
(9)
:
(b).
For chanddn
vide
ki
a&l^
etc.,
92
(d) (13).
I.
Remark
1
Chand
***> is
*Jt,
and andak
Or
singular.
In the m.c. of Persia, aqsam (*^f the broken plural of qism f~-* might occasionally be used under the impression that it was a singular word. 5 Title of the Shah's physician.
2
* i.e.
6
&
^^
chand
ta (m.c.) is used.
112
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
only used for things that can be counted. and ;*&<* are used vide (h). For quantity that can be measured For para a/J " some, a few," etc., vide (p) (2). " Somewhat, a little quantity," c>^ qadr-l. Ex.: (h). (1)
//.<*ia.
Remark
Chand
is
^^
gadr-l db bi-dih
"give (me) a
little
water"; jv *>^
Vide barkh-1
much,
"
quantity
^y,
j**
etc.,
'in
gadr-i
jaw biyar
is
^1
qadr.
c>f
an
(4)
How
vide
"
Remark.
c>**,
measured "
(i)
Remark
II
whole"
(1)
&& hama
<UA
also
(har).
In classical
8
Persian,
marduman
precedes or follows its substantive. Ex. (class.), or <*+* c^^y* marduman-i hama (Indian)
^^y "
all
***
hama
;
the
men "
*&j UA
the
^U^/o
or)
j*,y
mardum
(or
marduman hama
(class,
and modern).
In the Gulistan, Jiama <W* generally precedes its substantive (without an izafat), and the substantive and the verb are in the singular 6 or plural
according to the idea conveyed. Ex. *-*& *+* hama shab (Sa'di) "the whole " " the whole of one's life." night j+* ^*A hama 'umr
:
t;
** c)\*fc A
*A ^_j))l_AJ
; |) uflJU
j*
Naml-bml
^^ X ^J ^
"
?
Biyalayad hama gavan-i dih-ra? (Sa'dl). " Dost thou not see that one ox in a meadow
Can contaminate
Ifaf
is
;
all
<&&
hama 'aybha
is
the plural
1
(class.) "all the vices" (i.e. every vice there here used in an intensive sense 7 to signify numbers).
Qadr-l; qadr, A.
and
P., signifies
"quantity, value
'
'
and qadar,
' '
signifies
Hence csj ^
4
who maintains
2
as opposed to
cri^
jabrl
predestination, a fatalist."
To be
distinguished from
j**-
ju or
'
c^
'
'
to seek
c^
jav-i
" a
is
a collective
.
as a plural, though
it
has also a
plural
5
$
c^^"
noun
is
singular
^
ages, long
g^
*^ muddat-ha
times"
is
stronger than
t i me)
'
^t^o muddat-l
^
UA^ ^J,A:
he was
for
a long
but u*
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
113
*+*J
(Sa'dl)
"they say
'
' '
perish
of the
here
'
:
'
guy and chi gham gar hama 'alam murdand. what concern of ours is it, if the rest of the world alam is a collective noun signifying all the people
f*
*'v
'
&*
world
Dar hama
(Sa'di).
and gold come from stone Though Not in every stone is found gold and silver
silver
hama
"
When
every
(single)
Then only
C5***
is it
~b
3
ojl/o
^ ^1U^
y*.
^^^
hllat-i
dar
mdnad
silsila-yi dustl
bi-jumbanad
(Sa'di)
"when
(your)
enemy
has failed by every single stratagem (to injure you), he then tries to make friends with you." In the last three examples hama, with the
is of unity
' '
signifies
each
' '
or
* '
' '
every
considered
separately,
It is difficult to say
whether
*+*>
hama
is
a substantive or an adjective.
In classical Persian
follows
it
it
an
izafat or
in
**?$
without an
izafat,
as
In modern Persian, though the same confor hama A+A to precede its substantive and be usu$l
J|. t ; (^.
coupled to it
by an
its
precedes
obviously a noun. treated like an ordinary adjective, i.e. substantive without an izafat or follows it with one: it
izafat: in this case it is
is
*+*>
with
the izafat. Ex. <y>j/of l^J) <*. hama-yi zanhaamadand ^or zanhahama amadand) " all the women came." However, hama zanhd amadand is correct (though
^
3
For
zar)'}',
Or mand ^U
" the whole of the j^Z <Ua> hawa-yi shahr sukht city (sing.) was burnt," but *+* hawa-y shah>' of the all the (Sutc&ta shud city say." **t)f&*.J1e" ml-guyand people could be said instead of sukht}.
4 c^jLyvs
<
Tamam ^W>
8
izafat.
114
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
" shab " the whole of the night and jji) *+* " " the whole of the day but hama shab v** **A (or hama-yi hama-yi ruz shabhd l^x &**) and hama ruz jj) *+*> (or hama-yi ruzhd Ujjy *A ) mean
rare)
even in m.c.
v^ &+* hama-yi
"
every night
o-*i
^ ar hama<l shahr-i
' '
s qassdb ast
incorrect)
(collective noun).
In modern Persian, hama **A with a singular noun is equivalent to har j*> and should be followed by a singular verb, but vide end of (4).
Remark.
(3)
6
Before the affixed pronoun <jf there is no izdfat. Ex. <j! <**A " the <>Vf j Jf ^ ** I? /w%ra hama-ash bd safd u zabz u dbdd ast (m.c.)
:
l
valley, the
whole of
it, is
hama
**A in speaking.
(or
Ex.
l^f
H*J oLw
6
)
&+& or
cjl
*A hama-yi shdn or
hama-shdn
hama-yi dnhd
**
bad-and "
all of
them
are bad."
this izdfat after
Remark.
Even
omit
hama
*+*
the omission
Hama-yi
in
mardum fty
^
***
is,
the educated.
:
mardum f*j* A^X>; (m.c.) is ambiguous, as it may people" or "so many people." In hama mardum jam' shuda budand ki
digar jd na-bud d^w
^^&^
there
/i/o
**&j*
*<***
many
people
had
collected that
was no room
in hama-yi
mardum
^^l
&*a>
"
all
more"
However,
(4)
it
in.
Hama
hama-kas
Jj^
"everything," hama-jd U.
oJ?^
&+^\j\
AA
&+&
<<
'every where,
"
A**
"always "are
followed either
;
by a singular or
kas
plural
verb
hama
dmad
<x*f
every day."
*
3
No
izafat
hama
sang-i
^&
*^A jj,
hill.
4
5
nlst
Abad means " cultivated " and hence "populous" '^^^ c^dljf ^^jl injaabadi means "there is no cultivation here," or " there is no human habitation here."
;
in the verse
fj
^^
^ UA
occurs as a
durr-i yatlm-ra
hama
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
116
&+* (m.c.) "
all
"
everybody came
vide
(i) (2)
"
;
3o**f
the people
came,"
(5)
Remark.
The Afghans in speaking also say hama kasdn ejUf &*&. (6) The m.c. expression p*> c^-y *+A hama tu-yi ham means "all together, indiscriminately" (= {*?>(**)* *** hama dar-ham bar-ham); *+* e^t ^ " with all bd in hama (classical and modern) this, nevertheless, in spite " this is not " ^*jxJ &** i^t in hama mst of all this all, something remains.'
'
;
Remark.
It
will
***
hama
is
generally treated as a
The
hama
c^*
hamagan
is
old
in
m.c.
Hamgindn &&*&
signifies the
whole collection regarded as individuals. As the diacritical bar of \^ is omitted in Persian there is nothing in " fellowworker, comwriting to distinguish the plural of ham-kun I^*A from &{)+*>. hamgindn panion (8) L5O> hamagl is a substantive, signifying "all, the whole, entirety,"
,
' '
l jumlagi is from &U^ jumla (vide 9). Ex. " " out of all the women az hamagl-yi zandn (m.c.) ; ^jj* jt <^*A az u kuchak namt-tavanand khudhamagl buzurg
C5^W
" ^l^a. man hamagl-yi chizha-yi khud rd dvardam I brought all also, like hama &*.*, can follow the substantive my things." Hamagl
(*^f
t;
^a.
^^
in apposition.
collection.
whole regarded as individuals, but to the whole regarded as a " all is generally followed by a plural verb, as oJu*; <^i*fc " but ^~>\ " all of it is *->j*> went, good." Hamagl is rarely used. " Jumla &U^ sum, whole, total, aggregate" is a substantive, and is (9)
It
:
^+6
;
y a>^ &+*. jumla-yi wujud-i u (Sa'di) usually followed by the izdfat. Ex " ^U*. ^ ty o-*f *^L the whole of his body tj ^GUl-* ^b^ cuif guft du'd-yi " he % u rd turd Musalmdndn ast it is a prayer of said, jumla-yi (Sa'di) khayr
: ' '
'
welfare for
you and the whole of the Muslim people j&) &.!**> jumla-yi of the whole "the oluK &L^ jumla-yi kd*indt " the lashkar army (Sa'di) " 3 that all creation the
;
' '
'
"
whole of
things
be,
^^^
az
e>**-^
^^
is of
^'^ ji &*^
y
1
*$
agar
man
Arabic.
Khuddy
ta'dla
chunm
Hama
**^> is
is
Jumlagi
[
course a Persian
noun.
a
Kkayrj***
^.
is
<*s
**,
There should be no
izafat after
Khuday though
colloquially
it is
116
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
budaml
(S'adi)
" had
1
I feared
my
"
;
God
cx*t
as
of the Faithful
firaq-i
Testifiers
^i J& $ <3yj*
^W
va az jumla-l ki dar
(Sa'dl)
is
an extract from
all
that I
llai. jumla khata kardand separation (his separation from me) "; &* *& <-aU <*!+<* "the shud (S'adi) "the whole missed the mark"; jumla talaf
^^
' '
Jumla
substantive in apposition.
Remark.
"out
of the whole, as
l
an
example";
"in substance,
<*JUsJi
fi-' I-
jumla
There
is
(also ^t-JU^ jumlahl, rare) "universality, totality." Jumlagi properly a shade of difference in meaning between jumla AJUa. and
^^^
jumlagl <^&+^
or nearly of the whole of the women came," but jumlagi-yi zanan " the totality of the women came, none was left." c>lij ^^U^
Ra'iyyat-i
an
farman gashtand
"the people (peasantry, etc.) of that district became " to him in a subject body (at once and without exceptiou) j&J ^^+* jumlagl-yi lashkar "the whole of the army"; I$A! ^j^Ua. jumlagi-yi aspha " the whole (m.c.) body of the horses."
(Sa'dl)
;
Remark.
hama,
or
" All came," can be expressed by hamagi (or jumlagi, tamaml jumla <*JU^) amadand. Hamagi, (etc.) yi-khurak sarf shud
all
'
Some
are vulgar,
Persians maintain that these uses of hamagi ^2+& and jumlagi and that the two words should be considered adverbs,
<ijjcf ^^JL*.^ &\jj
**
as
Jaml
:
in a body." the followed is ^4-^ "all, whole, universal,' always by an iza" A+A, jami'-imardum " all men, or all the men 1^3 ^4^ jaml'-i
the
women came
'
army
is
or all the
women"
^-iJ
j^
mardum
jaml'
of the people
came,"
Majmu,
occasionally used for ***., as ft^suo " all the sons of Adam, mankind."
majmu
-i
banl
Adam
ftf
Siddiq &.&"*
SMiq
2
3
"sincere, true."
Note the
^ of ^
is
pronounced short fL
&*>f
^5^*^ c)^
(m.c.).
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(12) Safir
117
properly signifies "the remainder, the rest," but " it is the whole is frequently employed in Persian to express always l followed by an izafat. Ex. j &j& *> ^sj& j ^l** y ^ jf <^U> ^s\**- &U^J|
J^
' l
i ^aa. j aS" ^gjZ*** fi-l-jumla chiz-i na-mand az sa*ir-i ma'asi vamunkar-i ki na-kard va muskir-i ki na-khurd (Sa'df) " in short there was no sin nor forbidden thing
that he had not committed, nor intoxicant that he had not tasted."
jki
(13)
1*1*}
*&
kdffa
"all, universal";
and
<u.kU qatiba
"
altogether,
all."
&K
kaffa-yi
race
"
;
^ the sciences": kaffa-yi p\j*j c^l^j' f ' (Sa'di) everybody, high and low.' These two words are not in common use.
' *
^
gy
^ &K
kaffa-yi
'ulum "all
anam
az khawass
u 'awamm.
Remark.
totality."
#&
an
kaffata
and
^1>UI qatibat
an
are adverbs,
<c
all
of them, in
2 ^U5 "complete, entire, the whole, all" is both a substan tive and an adjective, and has the same i2a/a<-constructions as hama
(14)
Tamam
it is
Ex.: )^ fUS tamam-i ruz 3 (m.c.) hama, " " the whole " day," and IAJJ; (*l*3 tamam-i ruzha (m.c.) every day j^ (*U3 " " tamam-i shahr (m.c.) all the city <3^ j*U3 tamam-i makhluq (m.c.) " all the people"; &*> j*&*. IA^ ^U'J tamam-i chizha (or cAz) M^V 5^wc? (m.c.)
also used, like
in apposition.
" * every thing was ready J^A. ^1*3 tamam-i chiz tayyar shud (Afghan) )\ the same; f\+t j+5 qamar-i tamam (rare), (in m.c. mah-i tamam] "the full
"
;
moon."
U3 U
^1^
ujUyoi
'
tamam na-tamaman darand And clumsiest workmen own the finest tools."
Asbab-i
(0. ^T.
141 Whin.).
izafat
In
when
it
precedes
I.
its
substantive.
Remark
as possible."
The phrase
:
as possible," as
har-chi tamam-tar yxjUi &&. ^A means as much " as u i c bi zudi-yi har chi tamam-tar ^LoU'J kly Q </^-^
*^^
Remark
II.
Tamam
;
ended, finished"
(15)
shudan o** fU-3 "to be completed" or "to be tamam kardan e^/ fU3 " to complete, finish off."
Instead of
tamam
^amm
(class.) is
sometimes
' *J (^"Ij v^i-J; |j o^f; rasf ra zinat-i rastl tamam ast to the right (Sa'di) j* in itself." ornament and sufficient hand is the its fact the of (hand), complete right being
o^t
izafat).
118
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
used in writing.
Tdmm
plete";
(16)
ftf (^Uliusf
istisndyi
tdmm
Tamdmi ^U^ (m.c.), substantive, is also sometimes used f3/ ^U3 " all the men." tamdmt-yi mardum (17) Tamdmat o*<Uj (class.) is a substantive, old, but is still used
by Afghans and Indians " all the
(Indian)
in writing.
Ex.:
cu^Lj
o^U-> tamdmat-i
pilau*
elephants."
Remark.
(18)
l*U>
tamdm* n
is
*j
Kull J^ substantive
in Arabic phrases.
common
Ex.
universal, the whole, each": it is +9 *9 " all the u <jU/f JS kull -'n-nds people," LW
and in writing,
as
kull-i
zandn
kull-i
women";
Kull c&,
^&
like
kull-i
&
'dlam
<c
all
the world."
hama
*+*,
Classically (and in
Indian Persian) kull JS precedes its substantive without the izdfat. Possibly the izdfat after kull in modern Persian is a corruption of the final vowel of
the Arabic nominative case kull u
(19)
.
From
the Arabic kull L&, the Persian abstract noun and the Arabic
are formed.
adjective
'
^$ kulli
;
Ex.
' ' ;
'
men went
J&
l
f*/
mardum U-kulU
ihtimdl-i
kulli
' '
raftand, P.,
J *ia.i
every prob-
ability
Arabic adjective.
I.
*
Remark
and
^g&s bi-kullt,
'
adv.,
"altogether,
generally."
KulliyaV
:
1"
different meanings, as
Mardum
;
^e (m.c.)
" he
is
"all the
men came"
nlst^^ ^\)
tyt j] (m.c.)
(Ar.)
quite dissatisfied."
of
Remark
II.
^1^ kulluhum
it is
"the whole
them"
is
used by
'dmma
tff
(class.), j*j^c
From the
Arabic root
adjective
m.c.,
^
c
amma "to
be general, comprehensive" is derived the MO??> (m.c.) "common, universal" (as opposed to
o^
al-'dmma
(class,
and
rare)
Emphatic,
'*
most complete."
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
or the people in general"
119
^e
"
(m.c.)
universality
"universal";
in Persian
^^
H*j rf ^ f*** <-^* "his universal liberality." Hence &cU amma-yi mardum (m.c.) "the whole of the people";
^
";
^oj-**
am(m}1 'umumi,
(m.c.) adj.
"
"
vulgar
e ;
j*j+*
'umum
(class.)
adj. (m.c.)
and
p***
amim
^G
pj+e
'urnum-i mis
;
(class.),
'
and
^.L) <toU
'amma-yi nas
(class.)
"the whole
of the pea-
of the
people"
c*x^ <lcU
'
amma-yi
ra'iyyat (m.c.)
"the whole
of the women." amma-yi zanan (m.c.) " these and (21) i^U Jj^U^o ^t inmakhluq 'am(m)i (class, and m.c.) 2 people are ignorant, uneducated"; ot yo ^jf \n mard 'dm(m)i-st
*if
i
" this
^U
man
is
common, uneducated."
also means "noble and plebeian"; pU j u khawdss 'awamm. u[>^
c
(22)
Kkass u
is f f>* j
amm
u^
the plural
'umum-i mardum "the people generally, very nearly all (23) ^i/o the people" (but in (*j+* (&^* "a common matter," umumi ^fj+* is an " this is common adjective but in 'urnum-i darad ").
^c
Remark.
general,
i.e.
From
the
as a rule
"
C>JUJ/XA>
Uj+c
'umuman mi-guyand
"it
is
commonly
said."
(24)
^^J
yak-sar (m.c.;
"
(or
har yak-i),
(1)
^j*
where" "
etc.
:
time"; t^ ^A har ja "everysal har har J *^, waqt oJ^ ^*, har shay ^j*, etc., ))jj*>, " " or continually," " every thing, time every day," every year," "every
j* har.
;
har kas, f\*j*> *har kuddm. Ex.: j*j* har bar "every
1
har ruz
(t)tj!>c5*ky
**>
^> jL& ^^
sukhun-idigarbi-gu-
let me yam, agar rasl na-bashad bi-har 'uqubat ki farmafi sazavar-am. (Sa'dl) if it does not prove true, I am fit for any (or every) more and word one say
"
InmakMuq 'awamm-and
' '
liof
educated.
*
^l^c^^e^l
word
(m.c. only)
Not
^1 ummi (Ar.)
**T ummah "people, nation, sect, etc." 3 i^.| jA far ahad is not used in modern Persian, and
classical Persian.
*
6
is
rarely
if
ever used in
For hlch-kudam (*l^ with or without negative, vide (d) (5). g*A of the of unity (?), which could, of course, be <^
?**.
inserted.
girls)
(jfej*& H har yak-i badi'-i jahan va mumtaz-i zamanwho are one and all such as are rarely found in this
' '
120
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
& punishment you may command"; j-^Ltf J>j& 0-J+& bi-har zarf-i-ki sar-i-tan bi-gunjad kila-yi an zarf barabar-i sar-i shuma-st " (m.c.) any vessel that contains your head will be the measure of a quantity " az to har taraf o^fcyfc jt " from every side." equal your head
;
Harj*> is properly a distributive and precedes its noun. It is emphasized the of unity, as har mulk-i zaban-i ddrad *j\* (J&j ^Q* by "each _y* separate country has its own language."
is sometimes used instead of hama &*& "all," just as hama *** sometimes used for har j* "every." [This confusion has probably " " arisen from the fact that "every man says = all men say '].
"
all
Har " is
'
Remark.
Har an
c/fyk,
and
' '
every one j& har kas? " " har kudam ^5^^;* liar yakl (or har yak) and f]& **> liar everybody kudam take the singular or plural verb according to the idea in the speaker's or ) -J^A mind, but the singular is the more correct. Ex. _$%*
(2)
j&> (or
^j j&}
liar
yak
;
(or
har yak-l)
' '
^^
ml-guyad or rni-yuyand (m.c.) " " &> every one says something different c>^ *&>^ j &)&> ^i j*> C^AJ^O ^) Axiftf J^LJ ^ ar yak-! 'bazla-'i wa latifa-1 chunanki rasm-l zarlfan bashad ham-i ^4.4,
*uj$*
or
chiz-l
guftand (Sa'di) "every one told some good story or pleasant jest after the manner of witty people' (here the plural is used as the writer had in
'
his
mind, a number of people in the assembly concerning which he was writing) *}** ^. jijf^ <J^J ^>j*j va har yak-i bar vifq-i danish-i khud
;
opinion"
33ilj &Lf,i
ijo ^xf^^A vijU $}* agar gusfandha dah ta budand bay ad har kudam-l> yak gusfand dashta bashand (m.c.) "if the sheep were ten then everybody should have one sheep apiece ' (here the plural is also for the same used, reason).
'
^^
one, according to his knowledge, gave not be in the plural), tf Jb (*>**&* j>\ the verb could (here
"iand each
(3)
HarjA
also
Ex.
*f uU^*
fchey
o^jbiiJi
&&% *Cysuyk
"we must
act in whatever
(lit.
in every
way
It is
perhaps this
eS"
is
to a relative clause
2
3
when
the antecedent
preceded by
har, vide
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(k)
,
121
*'
"
*$ &$
f\tf j* liar
kudamki,
of j*> ^haranki,
.^
A+*>
hama
kas-i ki.
(1)
Examples
A^.
(Jib Jl
^^ ** -f-
#ar
(Sa'di).
Whosoever sowed
vain and foolish thing.'
(2)
'
evil seed
and expected
8
(to
gtrand (m.c.)
&
^tA>yfc
harkuddm
ki asp-i
darand in'am-imi<
take whichever you please bi-girid *lj** *x*tjiiyo t$ \) WA^A (m.c.), the ra \) would be taken to be the subject.
(3)
Remark.
ra ki
ml khwahid
Har
in the
same way.
girad &j*f*
*&O^A, /^ar^' a^*, suidhamaka-s-i ki A> ^^^A are used #ar ^as-* A;i (or har kas-ki * o^^ 7A ) biyayad iriam-i mi^^^Ji A-J^J &** j& (m.c.) "whoever comes (or every one who
kas-i ki
"
^^ ^ j*
[
**
V*.
u&
cf^^ *?
?
Lr^
7* *r
>
C5;
170
Mar-i
Ya bum
<;
bikanl?
(Sa'dl).
?
sittest
thou destroyest
:
'
Remark
I.
is
understood
Remark
II.
Har an
(I) (3).
ki -*&f y> is
in
classical
language applicable to
Remark
"
(1)
III.
bashad
;<
whoever he
'
may
;
be."
har chiz,
Whatsoever, whichsoever, whatsoever thing A^yfc har-chi, jA*-j*> har kuddm, & e/f jA liar an ki, &* of y*> har an chi, f<& j*>
'
an
(1)
chi.
.^^A har chi (classical and m.c.). Ex.: A^y jt* J^ ^.b har ki dast az jdn bi-shuyad har-chi dar dil darad bi-guyad
Note i$
>ugh old
2
3
y j*
har u ki
is
not used;
it
Har an
ki
is
not obsolete.
is
Har Har
kas-l ki
kas-l ki
better
It is more emphatic than j&* and more common in modern Persian. in m.c.
would be preferred
122
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
''whoever abandons hope of
life,
(Sa'di)
says whatever
is
in his
mind (without
fear)."
can also be used for living beings (in classical and modern 1 ^^ <,* uA^I jt * ^l^&iy **/* j <* Persian), as \) isAlf *^A oJi? guft har-chi darvishan-and Man ra vdm-i bi-dih va har-chi tavangaran-and " he such of them as are chlz-i bi-lchwah
Har-chi
A^A
^i
&&**
az ishan
'
(Sa'dl)
said,
poor, give
" as ; complete as possible ji*U3 A^fc har-chi tamam-tar ^LoU5 A^-y* Isjf " let the utmost endeavours har-chi tamam-tar sa'i karda shavad (Sa'dl) *j
them a loan and such of them as are rich, ask a loan from them* (lend to such of them as are poor, and borrow from such as are rich)/' The following uses of har chi A^A should also be noticed &&> ^t Aa^A an ml-raqsad (m.c.) "as this one pipes, that *<A*J>Q 12/f har-chi in mi-zanad one dances (i.e. in whatever method or time he pipes)" or "the more he " " " plays the more he dances y & AA^A har-chi zud-tar as quick as possible ;
;
:
"
^^
be made " t^Ui^jl -JA. v* c ^j* har-chi gasht 'aqab-i jaw, gir na-yamad " however much he sought for barley, he couldn't find any (in spite (m.c.) find any)." to he of all his seeking failed
;
(2)
Har-chiz
jfjLUj
J*^^>
fj
(classical
and
m.c.)
^jj|j^
&&J
&+*>
^ ba'd az m har
^yb
&)%*
chiz-i
girifta bi-kinara
$ *** <;** j* ki mar a zarurat bud hama ra I took whatever I had need
ty
it
&
on shore."
8 ^**>1 ^.u Af pj.*> )&* &1 j*> har an dlvar-i qadim ki pish amadi bi-quwwat-i bdzu bi-yafgandt (Sa dl) "whatever old ruined wall he came across, he cast down by the mere strength of
his
arm."
Har an
djy
ki A&fjA
&)
v^aJlyo
dushman
" because mukhalajat ziyad kunad (Sa'd!) whatever enemy you treat kindly, he increases his enmity towards you
ki ba-vay ihsan
^f
Ex. A&f ^Csu also applicable to living beings. * & U an-ki har an bi-hukm-i ^U^i ^^ (.j+A,* (*rt jA
is
:
kum
his
enmity
6
vide
Har kudam
\*Sj*>
"whatever, whichever."
Ex.:
c5>
1 Note the plural of the adjective : the plural here makes the adjective definite harchi darvish ast would mean all the poor of the world."
AJ _)*^yfc
iS
the following
Or
A^A
^j**
*5j*
(m.c.)
(kinar ml-
gu&shtam ^t^A^j^). 8 In modern Persian, har dwar-i qadvm-l ki A^ ^s+t** j\ji j&. * Or har dushman ki or har dushman-l ki ACxi+Aj;, j& or As" ^.^^
used.
6
jib
might be
Or har kudam
(
ki
AXjj^^A
m .c.),
or bi-har chi
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
bi-har
123
dast
kuddm
kdr-i-ki
kuni (Afghan) " whatever you put your hand to you spoil": t^Jljt ff**yk o*f ^^L <jrjx& [#(& har kudam az in kitdbhd bi-girl khub ast (m.c.) " whichever one of these books you select, it will be a good business for you."
(5)
Har an
Aasuf j*>
&)**) *~&*J.
+i.&j
*b
\t>(s
"we
let
happen what
l
An-chi **uf (classical and m.c.). Ex.: ^& dn-chi (or har-chi) guftam qabul na-kard tl in spite of
will."
J&
all I
f&
*
iacof^A
har
said,
1
no matter
J v xi "and rd va dvurdam dnchi shud tamdm (Afghan) dastydb f^Jjt \) fU-> whatever I could lay hands on 1 brought (the whole of it)" AAI^** *$ a^uT
I said, he did not agree
(lit.
how much
whatever I said
)."
*^ *^
^^o
dnchi ki
nu-khwdhad mi-kunad
*ap.Jf
tl
(m.c.)
dnchi ghuldm u asp ddshtam farukhtam (m.c.) ) f^U f*&ji;J "whatever slaves and horses I had, I sold " ***>> b **fj* *^^
;
^b
-^l
&
r^
^&
I got dnchi safar karda mulkhd* rd dida budam U-ffiida bud (m.c.) no benefit from all the travelling and visiting of countries I had done =
j5A5tfixj
"
I got
no
advantage."
(m)
"
(1)
great number,
many, enough
"
;
bas ^r?.
Ex.
Bas ndmvar
bi-zir-i
Kaz
6 '
hasti-yash bi-ru-yi
(Sa'dl).
Many a famed one have they buried beneath the ground, Of whose existence not a trace has remained on this earth."
Bas gursna 6 khuft va kas na-ddmst ki kist Bas jdn bi-lab dmad ki bar-u kas na-girist 6
(S& di).
"
Many Many
45)
:
a a
man man
Bas-i jy-j
(vide
"a
1
has been in death's agony over whom none wept." " alif of excess"; many," and basd U? with the
f**"
jyt
C5--J
^ va bas-i dilhd az
u shay da
(Sa'dl)
of
by him
' ' ;
bas-1
mardum mi-guyand
Or better harchi
^^
2
3
also
or harchi
is
necessary here.
**
U az.
:
but nigarlst
^ "he
looked."
perhaps the only instance in the Gulistan where bas-i ^5^? occurs in the prose portion ; and it is folio wed by the plural as in modern Persian.
7
This
is
124
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
" bas-i zanan " many women," people say cA>j j~> (m.c.) ! (bas zan or bas zanan not used) v_^y u~*y az bas-i farsang (Sa'd! verse) ** from many a farsang ."
(m.c.)
"many
' '
Ki khar-i lang jan bi-manzil burd (Sa'di). Oh how many a swift courser has flagged and failed
When
(m.c.,
C5^3 c?~^ bas-i zanha-yi fdhisha dar Kirman hastand but uncommon) " there are many loose women in Kirman" &l~^\ 8 t-*> " **&yj* basa ihsan farmudand (Afghan colloquial, and rare m.c.) he (respectful
;
with great kindness &# jjTjj) (<jJ } or) <j*J j\ u bas zirak bud (Afghan and Indian, written and colloquial) " he was very intelligent." Ex. X <vol# j> <^ bas-i bar na-yamad (2) Bas-i <^~j is also an adverb. " a ki time did not before ^^/J ^~S bas-i bi-gardid (Sa'di) long elapse " " he wandered about backwards and forwards a great deal (or a great while)
pi.)
treated
me
"
' '
(3)
Basa
U*J is
-^)_)J
basa buzurg
(classical old)
(n)
(1)
very big," vide 88 (1) (3). " Many of them, a large number."
the adjective and adverb
"
From
of
the substantive
(with
^[^ bisyari
p^j
1
j^bisyar "much, many" comes " " (modern Persian), and bisyar-i^^^ a many
bisyar-i
unity).
mi-guyand
(m.c.)
;
"many
say," or
of the
^J>^
c5J^
bisycir-i az
*j*>
[;
bisyari-yi^
mardum
rah na-bud
mardum mi-guy and (m.c.) but az "from the excess j*d^ isjf*~* ) (m.c.)
crowd there was no room to pass." Ex.: f<yo (2) Guruh *jj "a troop, band, class." az-mardum or mardum, (m.c.) guruh-i guruh-i fsj* j) (3&} number of men"; *i>j* ^ &jj guruh-i mi-guyand 5 (class.)
certain
^^
(class.),
or
number
(of
people) say."
fyj they are
Remark.
Guruh guruh
mi-ayand
1
^T
%j3
"
i^
signifies
coming
bas-l
in crowds."
In the clause
(j~>
J va
shukr guftam
(Sa'di), it
it qualifies
is
not clear
whether
"bas-l qualifies
"a great
deal, a
good while."
**"
This
is
not the
alif of
*lj
^
J
(m.c.)
<4
prob-
ably."
5
wa
zari-yi
t5j'3
^**
Cfo^H
3'
*^
^*)ti
^5-**
fy
\)
8<*V (Sa'di)
of
my
6
Note accents.
**&
l^ty*
c5
7T
guruh-l
marduman
ra did
'
(Sa'di)
he saw a collection of
f
people
"
:
unity.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(o)
125
it
" Most of
them"
e>l^>
jfy
"
;
,-JUf
etc.
(1
)
^UiyT! aksar-i-shdn
(j^fri aksar-
" ash (m.c.) "most of it." Aksar-imdl (or better amvdl), Jf^>o| O r) J^y^f most " aksar-i of the property zanhd "most of the women" ^j>frl &\~j&\
;
;
Teas
^ ^\
-
not used).
Eemark.j&\ aksar
(2) *-J^t
means "
for the
most part."
aghlab
(p)
"Something, a
used as aksar.
-
nothing
^f
^-k
-.>>^
i>b
a thing "). Ex. 'ilm-i dar muhasdba chunan ki ma'lum ast chiz-% danam ^i(^ ^5-.^ (Sa'dl) I know a little of accounts as is known to you *lj.iu c>h^ tx jt az man
(1) Chiz-l
(lit.
:
1
^^
{{
'
' '
*'
ask
me
for
something
(for
a boon)
"
a little further "; oJjjU^wo chiz-1 sarbdz " has of in the soldiers started? raftl (m.c. only) anything way (i.e. has any armed force been sent there ?)."
chlzi dur-tar (Afghan)
*
^^
^ ^c^^
Remark.
^t
Chiz-i
&**
signifies
na-khwanda
am
\&\
<x
am
unlettered
4 '
"
(Sa'di)
j\
(*^C>
(m.c.)
" no work.
^c>x^
^^
az
^ c>^
!>*
hawa
chiz-\
kam shud
plural.
Parari I;U subs, "a piece, bit, patch" is usually followed In m.c. only, it signifies "a little." Ex.: (J&4g>& /*&*!<>
by the
5
^^
x;*J
"I had
a few words to
say to him
";
;
*'&*)
Ujl^s
para-i sarbazhd
pdra-i tafsil-i andarunl ^^\ d*-afti> |; b (Tr. H. B. Chap. XIV) " small arrangements of the harem some "concerning &j i^b /*i^ ^.f^ ^^ ^j^e (H. B. Chap. XXIII) "I used to see some women in the court of the Hakim, but."
;
(3)
Khurda-i
"a
also
^yX>
yak-
Aksar
j\
and
^^l
aghlab according to the regular rule of the superlative are Theizafatis, however, sometimes incorrectly omitted after these
3
(.s)^
Or
sarbaz-i chiz-lraft? o^J^a. ^j(jj~ (m.c.). In m.c. i^ bad would be used hava \j&> signifying "air."
,
use
hawa
5
for
*'
wind "
as well as
"
air."
Or
better
W'^
^5*^
ba'zi harfha,
and
ba'zi az sarbaz-ha
^^**J
126
khivurda (m.c.)
(or
aft) fo'efo'^
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
"a
give
little"
(m.c.).
Ex.
**j (vJf
Lj
"
f^y*- khwurda-i
jaw
(4)
little."
Kam-l 1 Kam-i
^ ^
me
"a
*
little
' '
and m.c.) from kam, adjective " few, could be substituted foi Tchwurda4 1^^ in the above
little
,/ail
(classical)
"a
little,"
or
"a
little
time."
Ex.:
' '
;
till he gained a little strength titaandak-i quvvat ydft (Sa'di) bih az bisyari-yi* mal (Sadl). JUa. ^<x>( andak-1 jamal
"
and andak-i ^/^i " a little." <-Jf is an adjective, pure and simple it is according to some Grammarians the diminutive of and oJ| but according to others and <^t is a
Andak Andak
c^wl ''little,
few"
vide also
Remark
in
(r).
I.
Andak
also
means
Ar.
,
(classically)
' 4
first
example
'
Remark II.QalU
JUtf,
few
"
;
and
qalili
^M
a few
"
^ ^lM
i^j
jjti-x-o)
(6)
Taraf-i
ji
^j>
"
a portion (old
classical).
ma^'A;
to the
king"; (J*~j&
Ex.:
*l/oUx
something
5
(7)
Barkh-i
^j
(classical
and
&5
f
31
^j
31
****** j\ o/AJ va barkh-i az 6i^ az qabza-yi tasanuj-i u badar raft (Sa'di) xi<Wf t5 i r barkh-i amadand (mod.) "a few came" ^3 3 t^^ barkh-i az
;
"a few women"; **)(a Ijy J-.^>^ e^^> v.^j e;f ^(>! ^^^1 " if an barkh-i tahavun u takasul rava darand (Sa'di) ^ar they agrar add-yi show even a little slackness or neglect in performing (the duty) ; j &*\^\ az umar-i giran-maya bar-u kharch 31 va barkh-t j+s. )j ^j^4J ^A. namudlm (Sa'di) "we expended a portion of our precious life on it." Barkh-i ^5^ is lit. " a portion, a share." It is not followed by an izafat,
zanha (modern)
' '
^j
'
as
an
izafat
This
is
is
Compare
ba'z~t
of unity
also
kaml
Andak,
^JJf
*
AJ
adj.
\)
^^l
(_r->f
(Sa'di);
bi-andak
muddat
(Sa'di)
"
in a little time."
iJ*~** as might logically be expected. As jamal JU^ has two syllables and mal one, euphony requires bisyarl-yi mal J^ c5 -r&*"'^ to balance
Not
bisyar-i
>
This
first
az 3' omitted in
some
copies
uneuphonious.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Juzv-i
l
127
(8)
c#.>
:
(Persian)
section of a
book"
and
juzv *> = Ar. &* juz*, "part, portion, c5A>^ is either juzv-% for J$j*> "a little," or else
\
t_$l>^
"partial."
Ex.
^!d J^c5J->^
bi-qimat-i
juzv-i
"I had a
little
"at
trifling
little
cost"; *f*f/
;
"I
took a
rice"
' '
;
^JA> ^?>?V
at a partial
word
^Jj-J
^TV
"at the least word, " at the least nasim-i (m.c.) wind, at bi-ju-^i
bi-juz*i harf-i (m.c.)
u
juzvi
(m.c.)
6nw/
giriftam
a partial wind."
**
Remark.
juz*i <^b**j
adjective
(9)
^s*>
Kull u juz* s^ j J^, or Mft' w juz*4 " $ i n whole and in part, entirely." "
juzvi
J^j <J&
or az kulli
is
[There
^*+**\.
also the
^y**
Lakht-l 3
piece,
^^
&
' '
(old classical,
lakht
"a
a portion,"
etc., etc.
Ex.:
vr*j>
j>y
"he
considered a little";
andar in
(10)
lakht-i
andishid
(Sa'd!)
" he considered a
little
about this."
a pinch
(of
Shamma-i
:
"an atom,
particle,
c<
snuff), etc."
ty
&+>
' '
^
;
vazir
an inkling
' *
of the matter
o^x>
&+
^ ^^
va alMaq-i u dar hazrat-i malik shamma-i mi-guft ki well (or so) the wazir was mentioning a few of the good qualities of (Sa'dl) the boy in the presence of the King, saying ."
Remark.
tion,
Nabza
a<^x>
much
but
(11)
is
rarely used.
From tyi zarra " an atom, a mote in Ex. B-V *)* JL> "one atom, the least part." " (m.c.) give me just a drop of water."
:
(12) Bi-qadr-i
^^K^^
^^
(
(m.c.)
"a very
little.
"
Ex.
' e
cxwt^ o^JI
tjs*
^^
^r!
it
' '
(lit.
Ex.:
Ar. (lit. "a portion"). } ^*j ba'z-i "some say"; ^J3't5^ ba'z-i az zanha ^^x* C5 mi-guyand "some of the women"; *)J^ C5^*j ba'z-i chizha (m.c.) "some things";
"Some";
^^
ba'zi, Per.
ra
dadam
*'
(m.c.)
gave some
of unity
in writing also
9
}^
juz'-i.
But f&jf
tj
*jj* tjt*
^i
(
yak juz
-i
"
took a portion of
the rice."
8
phorically
O r dil
J3)
"a
'
jJiaa,
petal of a flower
' :
<
of unity.
128
of
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
my clothes
"
;
ba'z-i
"some
persons say"; c^i-ly^ c5^* ba'zi khavdnin some of the Khans. nin ^!>^ ji cs^J
' ' ' '
ba'zi az khavd-
by
is
Ar. substantive "portion is not used in m.c. it is followed the izafat , and by a plural noun or by a collective noun, vide barkh-i (^^j. Ba'zi u*&** is an adjective and therefore does not take the izafat, but ba'z
(ja*J
;
Ba'z
"
a substantive and
'sometimes.
5
is
correctly followed
by the
.
izafat, as
ba'z-i
awqdt u^*
otfjt
The
plural of
^^ ^^
is
j*^
\)
^^
dadam jofa
j
l
saw some
is
birds (indefinite)."
ba'zi rakht rd
dadam
\j&>) <.^*J
^ot^
of the clothes."
Much, many,"
a
i^
bisyar adj.
and adv.
Ex.
(^4.^ U*
v^<xif
^jjU*-vj dvarda and ki sipah-i dushman bisyar bud va inan andak "it is related that the soldiery of the enemy was much while the (Sa'dl) " *t yj latter (were) few uXjyuj j*Ux> U J -^ f;^ ^^i o j
olij|^
!
^^ oo^
shikayat-i ruzgar-i na-musa'id bi-nazdik-i man avard ki kafaf-i andak ddram va to me of his wretched state (saying) that 'iyal-i bisyar (Sa'dl) "complained
'
"
large family'
;
(Sa'dl)
^^
)\*~*
yak-i
tawbat-i bisyar
^lo( '; &j*jfe^j*& dar asnd-yi rah shutur bisyar* bud (or shuturha bisyar budand) " on the (m.c.) way there were many camels"; AV^** )b?~* c^^j zanhd-yi
;
Tcardi (Sa*dl)
"a
certain
man
used to repent
"
Ma-kun takya bar mulk-i dunyd va pusht Ki bisyar kas chun-tu parvard u kusht (Sa'dl).
" Place no reliance on
this world,
For many
like
you
jt
it
(m.c.)
passed"
c^*f ^x
(
or)v-A^;l-A^j (m.c.)
;
nights passed," or
^&&
j&j
IAJ^J (m.c.) bisyar qism paranda-hd giriftam (m.c.) "= Uof (m.c.). kinds of birds r
^
)
"
^^.
Bisydr-i (az)
jt
dance" "
say
:
bisydr-i az
^ ^^
of
bisydri
<^j^
j\
:
"abun-
bisydri-yi
wrath
"
many men
(5)
also (p)
and
footnote. 4
1
In Urdu ba'ze
is
an adjective.
2
s
^**
fa~*j/&,
In prose kasan
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
(s)
129
by
were a substantive
Ex.
:
bdqi (adj.).
of
;
(m.c.)
"the
remaining days
Imshab-am dard-i
*'
dil
tamdm na-shud
Bdqi-yi ddstdn bi-fardd shab (Salim). To-night I could not relate all my suffering, The remainder of the story stands over till to-morrow night." Baqi pul rd chi kardi or baqi-yi pul rd chi kardl are both m.c.
^b, on
all
(2)
and
;
m.c.).
Ex.
U**
o>
baqiyya-yi
)jj
of the
day."
(3)
Lx
ma
Ex.
:
baqiy
is
a
,
Ar.,
lit.
"that which
remained."
substantive.
This
used in modern (and perhaps in classical) Persian as a " the remainder of the jjj md-baqt-yi ruz (m.c.)
^^
day."
Remark
for the
I.
&*Ii
is
used
The
Ar.
remainder or balance of an account, as ^L*^ <u> tatimma-yi word e>f>>-/ mizdn has the same signification.
II.
Tiisdb.
Remark
of food
;
Pas-mdnda *^l*
^i
is
bdql
what remains or is left behind 8^1* ^b 'aqab mdnda "to what remains over" (of an account, etc., or of people,
i>Jlx} i_*fl*
mdnda
lf
to
CHAPTER
40.
(a)
IV.
If
*V
the noun
I;
There is no article properly so called. ). the accusative case, it requires ra. Ex. " but wf ab-ra bidih " give (me) the water &^ vT ab bidih " give me
Harf-ita'rif
l
<-*^ o,^
and
in
is definite
water"; du asp-ra didam "I saw the two horses"; but fxi *-~\ j* du asp didam " I saw two horses," and 2 j*^^ *_^t X*| ^ 3^*1 imruz dar " bazar asld* asp na-didam (m.c.) to-day I saw no horses in the bazar."
Remark.
In the nominative
case^^
3* du lashkar can
mean "two
reflexive
Proper names, titles etc., the separate, the demonstrative, and the 3 pronouns, the interrogative **"&*, <*4U and ^^U, *+*, ^+*> 3 etc.,
9
Lrf a*A f *U^, <^U^, ^*A.,yU, ^J> and *-^^A, j&j*, etc., are considered 4 definite or ma'rifa ( so *yt* ), and require tj, especially in modern Persian
;
pronoun yak-l ^fy In modern Persian, the affixed possessive pronouns when affixed to a noun in the accusative case, are also usually followed by f>
.
In
\j
is
The
Syntax.
t>
For further
rules
on
of the accusative
and dative,
vide
under
Remark.
(1) All
also definite
article Jt
as )d&J\
"The
(2)
Nouns preceded
tive pronouns.
(or
Ta'rlf
-AJ *J ) also r
means "
definition."
*
3
For
aala*.
and fulanl c5-^> (subs.). In the Gulistan and in classical Persian the f> of the accusative is often omitted, contrary to the rules of syntax. As a rule the reason of the omission can be traced to
Fulan
(adj.)
4
&^
the exigencies of the rhythm. Imitators of the style of Sa'di, especially Indians, syntactical mistakes of this description, but no ordinary modern Persian does.
make
131
The
oU*
:
as
(4)
a proper name or of a pronoun (affixed or separate), lir etc. or of a ^'^ ty**>, as c fX*y v
of
;
:
Some nouns
in the vocative, as
U*^.
1
(5)
o^A:ix3
),
and
(d)
In sentences such
as, ^>Jjl>*>
j&
U*}^
sarbdzhd) du hazar budand "the soldiers were two thousand", the plural makes the noun definite; but du hazar sarbdz $)j* )]y* 3* signifies "two " or " the thousand men two thousand men " vide also example in Remark
:
to
(a).
Remark.
(e)
plural noun.
In relative sentences, a demonstrative or relative ^, often confused with the of unity (sometimes accented for emphasis), in conjunction with the connective *t makes the noun definite vide 42 (6) and (g) to (r).
If
the noun
is
^ (or
*)
vide
42
(p).
(/)
In the sentences
heard of a
^M^ J^^Lj pddishdh-i rd shanidam (Sa'dl) " I have certain king," and u$ &J* ^s^ ,J^ix> jf ^j> yalc-i ra az mululk
ij
<c it is related 'ajam hikayat kunand (Sa'di) (they relate) of a certain one of the kings of 'Ajam," the objects are to be considered definite though accom-
of unity or so-called indefinite article panied by the affix t> in such cases, vide under Syntax.
(g)
dmad
<*-*f
AXJ^XJ)
Anmardki amad <Wf ti .y uT the man who came" hence the reason
;
that Persians
"that man
who"
instead of "the
man
who."
41.
(a)
The
Indefinite Article.
(
oiX=^
The numeral
article.
^b
or
j*& o^.
).
of the indefinite
Ex.
c^^
guzashta mi-kardam
here
(Sa'dl)
JUG *-**> t-io yak shab ta*mmul-i ayyam-i "one night I was pondering on olden times":
^x
shdb-i could
v*
-^?>
Vide also examples in (m). In m.c. this yak meaning. for the indefinite article than is the <^$ of unity.
<J*> is
Remark.
certain person
Yak "
:
-X>
of unity, as
"one, a
OA-.I
^f
C5xj u$^U>
az jumla-yi dddb-i
Poetical nom-de-plume.
132
" and
this is
companions
is
of the kings."
There
or the ya-yi tankir ^., and the yayi mawsul difference in signification. When the signifies unity
j&
J>^
o^j ^b
can be taken by the numeral yak it is known by the first name. When the is used before a relative clause and is equivalent to the demonstrative pronoun,
it is
known by
Remark.-
The
e? that follows
j*> is
ttft
The
ya-yi tankir
^^ (^t or ^
of indefiniteness acts as
is
an indefinite
emphatic,
article.
more or
less
was
in classical Persian
pronounced
In modern Persian it is pronounced *, and with with the majhul sound. 40 (e) is unaccented, in order to distinguish it the exception mentioned in from the suffix <jr of abstract nouns. Thus in classical Persian mard-e <*j* but mardi "a man" or " a certain in modern
man",
<^yc "manliness":
"manliness." colloquial mard-i ^sj* "a man", etc.; but mardi This c5> is supposed to be derived from the numeral yak ^o (or yag
of
^^
<->
which the
last letter
has disappeared.
^, exists
&vj
still
' *
in
some
Yi-qadr songs in the dialect of Mazenderan. " is common in S. Persia. a little water
aw
bi-dih
jf ;jj
give
me
it
it
If the
noun terminates
is
in silent
<.$,
the
symbol hamza
[vide
26
(/)],
as
&j
a
bachcha-e (classical)
If
the noun
is
pronounced *, and bachcha-i (m.c.) "a child " or concrete and terminates in <^, the ^ of
* before the
<^$
noun
is
generally represented
(or
I
by
of unity, as
^U mahl
^U)
:
mahi-i
tc
a fish."
(1)
If silent
precedes
^^t
ast
"is", the
may be
e*l written
vs^wt.
Ex.
Var shakar-khanda-ist
Astm-ash
' '
shirin-lab
bi-glr
u sham'
bi-kush
(Sa'dl).
But if she be attractive and sweet-lipped Take her by the sleeve 8 and put out the light."
4,
Vide foot-note
page 141.
With
Astin
*-&^X
*^
and pronunciation.
3
ert^f
is
still
worn by some
darvishes.
133
may
be written o*ot
<xv
or ow*t s^v,
and
mdhi-lst
may
be
c
this
Remark.
' '
One and all need each other, Even a small spider can hide a great prophet
' '
the
first
is
j**^
<^l>
yd-yi
tahqlr j***^
<^L>
"the yd
of
the yd of respect." contrary meaning is called ya-yi ta'zim ?*&*> the For the names of the relative definite article in relative (expressing
having the
' '
sentences)
(2)
vide
42.
is preceded by a *, to disAfter final alif -&(, yd b, or vdv j\j, this ' but J^ of the izdfat o**Le| as tinguish it from the ^5^ bu-i a scent
" the scent of the flower " bu-yi gul ^HJap oJji ^ia. chunm dawlat-i 'uzmd-i *'such a should be inserted as bearer for (m.c.) very great empire." A this hamza. Some Arabic words end in a hamza, which may or may not be
;
( '
'
^^
written in Persian, but before a suffixed ^c, the Arabic *must " desert, or jungle as opposed to cultivation ", ^5^^^ ' " a great desert.'
.
fall
<
a desert
(3) If
or without the
:
tanwm, the
for
v
changed to
l
alif
^+e\ a'amq
j^l ) "blind"; ^U^f a ama-i "a blind man." The word <y^ is in Persian pronounced ma'm ^*, or ma'nq ^j^uo; its final letter may therefore
in Persian
be considered to be either yd (> or alif-i maqsura j^ft* or ^U^x ma'm-? (m.c.) "a meaning."
^
^A)|,
thus:
Remark
I.
The
^
'a
is
little
^ JU,
vjefe (/) 9.
In old Persian, the is added to the noun when it is qualified by an adjective, and not to the adjective, as: mard-l khub <->j^ <**j* "a " dar andak zamdn-i (class, and mod.) good man ^JU) ^<*l j* (class, and " for a little is generally added to while." In modern Persian, the mod.)
II.
;
Remark
(e)
The
of unity
combines with
written
vi~*l
in pronunciation, but
ast.
may
be
written separately in
full,
Ex.
khub mardl-st
*->j*>.
" he (m.c.)
is
a good
man "
o*t ^ty
v^,
or c^*j^x>
134
Examples
5f^
*
<_$
are
(1)
^dl*
cgr"^
<^* t
[ ' '
pddishdh-l
pisar-i
bi-adtb-i
dad (Sa'di)
king handed over a son of his to a tutor "; pds-l az shab " one watch of the *-*-" J' cr* ^ night passed." guzasht " U^> I have no special business (2) fjl^ (^ft kdr-i na-ddram ^ A|J** " I want x>< khidmat-i kunam mi-khwdham bi-shumd (m.c.) ruju' ptf 9}*-j t5^
certain
"a
^'*$
to entrust
(3)
you with a
(special, or
*j*>
ctf^
tft*
hwh
tadbir-i
' ' ;
*t e^**=
f^ ^-
c^L?^.? ejIfaij^JLi
jt
u hawdshi khidmat-i mu'ayyan ast (Sa'di) "for every single one and attendants a special (or a separate) duty is appointed." (4) ^Z ytf IsJjf jt is)j*> Jt^Jt *$ o^t ^\ (jtyv bihtar-ash in
bi-tawr-l az
ast ki al-hal
mjd
kindr kashi
(m.c.)
is
you
at once get
(5)
<wf ji
^j
elapsed after
this";
i*L. sd'at-i t5
' '
bar-in bar-dmad (Sa'df) "a short time " a short time " or "one hour";
^t)
va
arose
in
little
time
"
;
U^
1
^*
!x
ham
pay da shud
(but
ki
mabddd
(m.c.)
"also
<x
a bit of a doubt
"
lest
va
f^j ^2^ +* j
"there
was doubt
AT 6AxT
");
ci <XlC j
JM^A ^^Jela.
vyUiJi
o ^^;^ ^*^ ** l -if jl ^*f j ^>T t>*^ <^j) AUUx) dngdh ruy bo-man kard va guft az dnjd ki
1
himmat-i darvishdn ast va sidq-i mu'dmala-yi Ishdn khdtir-i hamrah-i man kunid ki-^- (Sadi) "he then turned to me and said, 'on account of the gracious
magnanimity
attention to
to his
of dervishes
for
'
and
*g
C>
me
"
:
pay a
little
he gave a
slight twirl
moustache."
(6)
& ^ pv <y^
Ki
j^kf *Z
td
<J*
J*\j>
13
(>*;
tavdm
dil-i
(Sa'di).
" Distress not, if thou canst avoid it, a single soul, For one sigh to God (from a broken heart) can destroy
even a whole world."
1
5
there is yet no confusion as to sense. \j in this sentence, has the adjectival sense of "a certain" and is followed by an explanatory clause, its noun may be considered definite, and if in the accusative case 40 (/). requires the affix ra, vide
When
More common
*j^.
In m.c. ruzagar )^}j) 6 It is this sentiment, the fear of the distressed sigh, that so often prevents the punishment of a convinced malefactor in Persia. Some irresponsible person intercedes,
and the Governor, to hide his superstitious fears, professes to be overcome by The idiomi s biham kardan (and not Icandan),
pity.
135
o^
x^UJt
e^.t
^Ua.
**-jJ>)j
'
into
fallen I
(8)
of thinking (into
what kind
Wazir
^f <5-*
0*1
<Xx&*
' '
isfo? afat-i-st
" love
is
a great calamity."
'
&x
->>
eAjlj
is
ti
ji
In despair
many a hope
dark night
The
For
(9)
close of a
is fair.
bas-i
<e
many
" a
vide
39
(ra).
Wf ^
(Sa'di)
' '
or so passed after
a couple of chapters." j* fasl-l du (Sa'dl) For (^ with the plural in modern Persian, vide (k) (2). " " a Phararoh (10) t^-yy Fir'aun-i ^l^ (i.e. cruel and overbearing ) Hatim-i* "a Hatim", a man generous as Hatim (but Jiatimt "genero1
;
^^
^^
sity").
(11) ^\j>
AfesJy>j
-?
^fyk 1*^
Af
^.suuo
^7^
LJ^i
3j>)
^^
amddl
O^o^J
c^^^ *!/
1
**
<3o-~jL
<^jU-
x^^
^ AJ}
?ia giriftdr
bi-dast-i
javan-imu'-
jab, ki har
dam
hava-% pazad
wa har
"you
lahza ray-i zanad va har shab ja~i khuspad fell not into the bondage (of marriage)
with a youth vain * * *, who at every breath starts a fresh fancy, and each moment states a new opinion, and every night sleeps in a different place, and every day takes a new love."
(12)
^y
x
ujj^t^k
li
na-tarashida (m.c.)
"a Calendar
U Jtcy oJm) fct'Tiaf 6ar misZ-i shumd Musalmdn-i " curses on (13) ^Ui oi*^ ?a'7ia< bar musalmdn-% misl-i Muslim like you" or U Ji* UJU*x3^j
;
(14)
<^iCMJ ;Kj>>.
eH er*
f
^ ot^
^
javan misl-i
' '
man in
' '
jur Tear
namt-kunad
t^!^- ex-
(m.c.)
is
(&
presses a considerable
javan
a)\j*>
and man
same
idea, but in
and brag and lays a stress on man-i hamchu javan ^XAJ^SV** vy^- expresses the there on the word javan o^. would be stress no speaking
amount
;
of conceit
(g)
its
preceded by the
later ones.
Fir'aun dJj*j* a title common to the ancient kings of Egypt, as Ptolemy to the The Pharaoh of Moses' time is known to Muslims as Valid. Fir'aun has
come
to
mean a
In Persian sometimes
Hatam
lived before the Prophet, but his son, who died at the age of 120 in the 68th year of the Flight, is said to have been a companion of the Prophet.
8
^^
of the tribe of
Tayy who
is
)\$ is
a man-friend, or a
mistress. ;
136
indefinite
^,
oj <.>**.
->
Ui
dghd yak
chiz-i
"
gentleman, give
l
me
trifle
"
;
0^1^
from
ddsht "
^U*
it
:
^jT-c cjj *r
so that he
was
ill
quite
an age"
JL>J
(more emphatic than muddat~i alone). of unity does not admit of the izdfat after it, thus (h) The i
vt
^AJ
barf-db (Sa'di) "a cup of iced water (i.e. water and ice mixed); s " he saw a certain A t5 ^/ guruh-i mardumdn rd did ki f; cjko.y (Sa'di)
knot of
men
who"
vide also
(/) (1)
*#\)tf
safid dvarda guzardmd (Jehangir's Memoirs) Cheeta and presented it to me. '
'
^yf <*>* ^c^> <M; Raja yuz-t "the Raja brought a white
in
For a
(b) (5).
classical
95
In classical and in modern Persian, a noun before its qualifying adjecnoun in construction, even if indefinite in meaning, "a sometimes discards the ^AU> dustan of
(i)
party of friends
4
"
;
unity, as
&&j*
bd
ta'ifa-yi
(Sa'di)
but <ylX^i Jt
(
^Lb b
td'ifa-i az dustan
" a (Certain learned owAf,>jl^j yak-i az ulamd khuranda-yi bisydr ddsht (Sa'di) " 6 man had a large family vi,s' *x-^to <>y C5 ;^ u?-*-^ (*^ ^ ^5*^^^ pddishdh-i bd ghuldm-i 'Ajami dar kishti nishasta bud (Sa'di) "a certain king was
;
"
;
king with his vazir ", but pddishdh-i bd-vazir-i a vazir (perhaps the vazir of another king).
^'^
jt
t?
^^^
it
"a
king with
Remark.
Note that
' '
one of
' '
requires
(1).
after
in all cases
it
izdfat.
Vide also
(<^) 1
unity but the first in writing is usually represented by a *, as Sufi-i bi-man guft *zJ (.j+j ^*y* in such In m.c., however, the indefinite *J^> usually takes the place of the
cases.
^ do not
admit
of the
^ of
unity
In modern Persian the ^5 of unity is generally added to the qualifying adjective [unless the adjective end in ^c, vide (m)] following the noun and not to the noun. Ex. ^,^3 qushun-i khub-i budand
(1)
:
^^ ^^
(Shah's Diary) "they were a pretty soldiery *>*j$ L$^J <3^ nutq-i kardand (Shah's Diary) "they delivered long speeches."
;
"
ziydd-i
t^UjJ
2
3
mean he kept a
'
sick
man
in his house.'
In m.c. qadah
is
a basin.
is
Here ra
\J is
indefinite,
because of the
A> following.
*
6
O^ nan
and
kishti-
137
to
The
"
Diary)
sense. (Shah's ^<*ij* ^M*^* chakushhd-yi ghanb-% " zanha-l ddrad Kirman they are (were) a strange lot of hammers 5l ki zarda-yi tukhm rd az miyana-yi saflda mi-duzdand ^iu b;3 *t c$ tO &Ux> jt \) (m.c.) "Kerman has a class of women so tricky jjjjojuc x<xjjL
collective
'st
l
;
refer
to a
plural
and seems
give
it
^f
that they can steal the yolk of an egg from the midst of the white." In English, the indefinite article is still common before a general
noun
denoting a
sum
of
money
or a space of time.
The answer
to a question,
#*& (me.) your pay?" * * * * to his deathbirth "From his "nothing; a paltry two tumans" of stroke on the field Jena, what a seventy-one years" (Carlyle),
is
"what
<^*y
j*
o~jJL
j ^UiA AA. IXAA. y)fe )& (jj* f& 13 *Jy Jt az tavallud td dam-i In du farsakh-l btshtar wist dar kdr-zdr-i Jena chi haftdd u pan) sal-ist. marg-ash t-.Aiy&.>j ^au*jf J& (m.c.) "it is not more than a couple of farsakhs,"
,
the
(3) If,
is
of the simple
noun,
the
is is
mard-t-st
'-'he
kind that can precede the noun. Ex. o->^ v>^ Mwb
pir-i
mard-l (m.c.)
"an
old
(1)
^^*
,
c^*4"^
jam* -I murdu-
didam
(h)
f^
(i).
or jam' -I az zanha p*$* ^) c?**^ of women ", are used. Vide also
and
is generally added (m) In modern Persian, as stated in (k), the to the qualifying adjective if, however, the adjective itself end in <_$, the
;
numeral
C5
is
" an Abyssinian
milk"
slave girl
"
>j^ uj
tX>
^^^ ^sJ^
1
kamz-l habashi
(a)
"a
spoonful of
(m.c.).
(J-^UI
yak
qdshuqshir, or (b) j*#> ^^UJ qashuq-t shir, or (c) " "a glass of water gilas-i db-i, or -/f ^f
"
^5^
^^4 s
^^
qilas-i db, or
<j^
cXi
t-f
yak
(n)
gilds-i
^
a
o^b
^b
"
;
zakhm-i
p3*.j
"he had
(the)
wound from
a leopard
1 i.e. the women of Kerman generally are of such a class. tense with the idea of " can (and consequently do) steal."
For gashiq <3^*t T. Here zakhm is used as the description of wound and it therefore becomes p^-j az definite. It would be also right to say za]chm-i palang-l <^^j ^J, or better zakhm-l
3
palang
^Jj jt
138
xa
did
(Sa'di)
possessed of
is
^. wound of ten. Similarly (o) The construction ^AX kitdb-l " it seems to mean "a book, a good one dddam (m.c.) " I paid a thumping sum."
mean the wound of one leopard; it might be o~t Jfcb J^A hanuz tifl ast " he is still a boy."*
khub-i
j*afd
^^
is
occasionally
met with
<^Ifii.A
^^
digar
pul-i hanguft-i
(p)
As
dlgar-i ^cj^*
other" does
yak
fiot classically
^ of unity
8
:
chiz-i
j*$
_j**>
or
As in m.c. the distinction is not observed, asp-i digdr-l <^&d -**t " may mean " another horse or "another person's horse": but as already
stated the former
is
a vulgarism.
*\&
vide
For an example of ddgh-i digar-l ^sj*.s 94 (i) example from 'Umar-i Khayyam. The following are m.c. cu**i ^Uaj^ 8^-J ^j|
:
"another misfortune",
" this pisara shaytan ast
' '
;
m
;
boy
is
a devil
' '
,
but <-^t
v\k*Z> Lsj~i
l '
he
is
a devilish boy
^*-
pisar-i shaytan-i-st
"he
is
adam-l khar-l-st
;
or tn
*if
adam khar
ast
o*t
ptf
^] "he
is
an ass "
*i\
tej*
^^, or in mardum
It
is,
Tchayll
khar and
^ <J*. ^^
Remark.
<_c,
kitab-i digar-i ki
(q)
however, correct in modern Persian to add the *^ ^ e other book which (or that) c5^>
relative
v^
' '
"
.
The
AjlAx:
\\
is
1
(class.)
"in a road
(lit.
in a
road of
the roads)
"
;
tj+*
jt
^sj*' )*
(class.)
"in a place
**
of passage, in
JlM
jt
tff^
^*> ^1*^
^^
numayad va dar-i az darha-yi ruzl bar ma bi-kushdyad (mod.) "it may be that God on High out of his gracious good.
nagdh az
ness
j*j;
LS)*J
** +>
l
^*^
cA^
Wiwish
lutf-i
may
jf
suddenly open a
way
ot^fct
"
In m.c,
Also yak
Shaytjan
2 LSJ^* U^
"
is
common vulgarism.
*
6
L&fS- ^lt
(D^^
is
really
Erroneously
t.arf
o>fc.
is
the
taraf
is
"a
side, extremity,
margin, etc."
139
:
The
is
jj^y .-*xy
ma
of
hazar-t az ta'dm
something
what was ready in the way of food here ma is the relative hazar and Arabic "that is the 3rd person singular, which", j**^ pronoun Pret. of "to be ready." masc.,
(s)
When
only
^^
at
*Jfj
of^
va
3
is added to the last 1 *f da* j J^*l f&j& &\j<)i>j> fj tot} J*>s* ^*b*jp4*j J>>~^
UgMamish
11
didam
ki
aql
u8
kiydsat-%
(?)
fahm u
"I saw
officer
description";
i&f ^Csu ^f/U ^ IsJU ^ <>i.^j j^yf ^a^&Jjt xx/o Ai^Ls bi-hukm-i an ki maldz-l mani az qulla-yi kuh-i bi-dast dvardd budand wa maljd u mafvd-i sakhta (Sa'dl) "because they have taken possession of
c
o-*
^iU
of a
it
a place of
In m.c. the first substantive may, however, be preceded by yak t-j, as: kdrd u changdl-l bi-dih * ^Ki^. j &jtf***, or kdrd u changal-i bi-dih * *>k yak a. " give me a knife and fork."
Remark I. Similarly, in modern Persian, the ^c is added to the second only of two adjectives qualifying one noun, as: safar-i dur u dar5z-f ) ))&j*~>
^jlj^ (m.c.)
of
.Remark //.For an example in classical Persian of the added to both two adjectives qualifying one noun, vide last example of (c), 125.
(t)
When
its
the ^c of unity supplies the place of a simple indefinite article, rule take the t; of the accusative. Ex. ^s~$ o>^ u**i^
:
some one to his father." aULy In the sentence Axif^^j ^JtLo jjjj^ \^ ^^^ zamin-i ra kanda sang barddshta " (Afghan) the sense requires the definite sign I; having dug up a (certain) special plot of ground and removed the stones." Note the distinction in meaning between the two following <^j>3 LT^ " but khdna-l atash zadand (m.c.) "they set fire to a house *>*) J2of \>
pish-i pidar-ash kas-i firistdd (Sa'di)
"he
sent
khana-i ra atash zadand " they set fire to one of the houses." In the following *&\*j ^)3>. b i^***~^ f <H^ shumdam gusfand-i rd buzurg-l rihdmd (Sa'd!) "I have heard that a certain elder released a
:
sheep
,"
the rd
is
make
the sense
Probably a copyist's omission; sarhang-zada-l ra \) l<itj *&dy If sarhang-zada ttf) be the correct reading, it means " the son of *S*&j referring to a local celebrity.
l
" an
officer."
the Colonel
"
^
&
The son
of Chinglz
Khan
140
clear
:
first
Remark.
unity.
1
I;
(u)
&i\je
The
^^ ^AJJ^J ^Lo
me
(m.c.)
like
Ex. &;* f^f " a man adam-i chun man-i bar zamin nami-khwdbad (m.c.) adam-i misl-i tu-l *vot ^jy Ji*> does not sleep on the ground
:
dmad
act
"a man
*tf
like
you came"
**i&
eH^ ^^
"
a
cf-^-*
<-&
(**'
adam-i
chunm bi-kunad
thus"
^ ^ ^|
e^f ^^
(m.c.)
man
u-i
"a
to
man
,
like
j*j>f
him won't work." In these examples the ^3 could be added it must be omitted after the pronoun.
not added to
The
(;)
is
U ma "we"
?/a&-
nor to
u>&>t
wAaw. "they."
{i
J*' it* 1
fk
"
c^
but
man-am
yak-l
dar in miydn ki
ff
man
am
(Sa'dl)
am
&*> (m.c.)
"I am
alone,
a negative proposition the must be translated " not a none." Ex. d^xi (^^-^ laJf anjo kas-i no bud (or anja hich kas no-bud " there was no one there " c -) ) ( *& cT^ fi& d^*i c^L^^ " there was not an animal there." hayvan-i na~bud (m.c.)
^^
^f
(a?)
The
' '
indefinite
chunm
can be added to the substantive qualified by " or by e;l^ chunan such an one as that
k
'
' '
or to of***, chandan
much ", as: ^U* &i^ <j^ ^ ^^^ dar just u ju-yi chunm ja-i budam ki (m.c.) " I was in search *>o^j ." of just such a place as this ^\ AjUi ^/Aiui ^lia. chunan \*jf )j shakhs-i na-bayad in tawr karha bi-kunad (m.c.) "such a person like that
"much,
so
& pty
^^
man
ought not to act in this way" fJ&J ^^l* o^j *J c$^J c>U^*- chandan rabt-i bi" I do not know a zaban-i Farsi na-daram (m.c.) great amount of Persian."
:
This
^ can
c/f
also be
an chunan,
^\^^
ham-chunin,
e>^ ^
qualified by A ham-chunan,
e^^
e*?'
but not
For the
chandan, vide
(y)
definite or demonstrative
(relative with
&
42
(s).
The personal pronoun 1st pers. sing, man "I" makes its accusative o*-o_Hi*t I) u^j?** hamchu man-i regularly when the ^ is affixed, as ra asir-i dast-i tu kard "he made a person like me a prisoner in your
:
^y
magar marduman-l ra
H-;
14+*
c*
'^
modern Persian
of a
modest
141
hand
will
"
l :
^ ^v
^
lijif
c^**i
l>
<j*
&*"*
**>
by
as
:
me
as a
|^.
gr-iufc
' '
Prophet." This could also be expressed In neither case could mard \j* be substituted.
' '
' *
(z)
The
^vift? jt;
can sometimes be added to the infinitive used as a noun, but rdz-i guftani a telling of a secret a secret rdz-guftan-i
,
to be" told."
Yak-didan-i
(i
one
visit
"
t:
;
yak-kushtan-i
one
"
killing
(of
one
person or of many).
(aa)
42.
HARF-I
(a)
MAWSUL OR HARF-I
3
( ) .
SILA*
*!*>
o,*. or Jj*V>
).
Jjj^y <-J^ '' The man that came yesterday, came to-day ", would the English sentence, From this it will be be " The man that (ki) he came yesterday came to-day.'
'
,
ki is
used as a connective
seen that in every relative clause there is a pronoun expressed or understood. If this pronoun is the subject of the verb in the relative clause, it is usual
except for the sake of special emphasis or for clearness. In oblique cases it is often inserted. In m.c., however, it is oftener omitted than in the classical language, as <jr>* j'>-* oly **$*' asp-i ki bar an savdr " " the horse that ride on it horse which
to omit
it,
:
^
it
mi-sham
(class.)
you
(the
you
ride)
in m.c. the c/G? would be omitted. a Persian relative clause (6) The noun that precedes
may
often be
article
is
:
made
this
specially definite
it
by
affixing
a demonstrative
^
P.,
^ connects
Marii
(^/0
is
also
a subs, "presumption; egoism; also the quality of the seminal fluid also man-*, as in, mani, Ar.
' '
* *
' '
' '
Persian
poets frequently
play on these
various
meanings.
2
Sila
*A0
:
conjunction
&
is
not a pronoun
s
considered a particle
*-J^*
and
&&. chi is
also
considered by
it is
some grammarians
of
a connective in
relative
sentences.
As, however,
*-H
omit
" the
found joined to j* or cJl, as *^j* and relative ", the author has preferred to
it
*^T
pronouns.
if
only to inanimate objects in the singular: the antecedent is a plural noun, rational or irrational, *& is the only connective. have * Thus "a fool who lights, or the fool who lights, a wax candle by day"
Anchi, harchi,
the
much
same meaning.
If the
is
to
142
ki.
As however this ^, unlike the of unity, 1 admits of the accent in modern Persian for the sake of emphasis, it is perhaps an extension of the Ex. ***&* shakhsi-ki (nom.) izafat that connects an adjective to its noun. " a man who " or " the man who, the man that, etc." &f \> (^ii-i shakhs-i " a whom." It will be noticed that the demonrd ki
:
(ace.)
(or the)
person
strative
^
;
English
(c)
compare with
This
is
^ of
' :
qualification
pronoun
that.'
This 4.5, however, in such sentences as o^f ^J^A kitdb-i ki ^jjiuA> A^ltf ml-khwdham ham-in ast " this is the book that I require ", is distinguished by some grammarians as ya-yi mawsul J^* ^b ) or ya-yi muzmar ^a* ^b " the yd of the pronoun (the noun that is kept in mind)," or ^Jf <^L ya-yi dm " while in such sentences the yd equal to the demonstrative pronoun an
(
' '
:
as
* <J;* 3' ^*yi J j such a and call it to be the equivalent of chundn " the further lj of For remarks on yd description."
&
*$ )t>
fj
o*
*lw
' '
' '
130.
In writing, this
thus
Axjj-Asui
or
Remark.
The
'
after
'
is
^,
in
but the
of unity
as in *$ ^JjJ
f&*
Pronouns.
(d) The pronoun in the relative clause may be either expressed (but is seldom expressed) or understood. It is better to omit it unless necessary to
(/)].
In the following examples, words in parenthesis do not belong to the examples, but may be inserted to show the complete construction
:
Nominative
sham'-i kdfuri
8
day"
^A^/O
<y nihad
:
^M
(Sa'di)
)
***
cA)
JA>
t5^'
lights
&&*-*
r&z-i rushan
" the
^l^f
fool
who
wax
candle in broad
{ j\
;
if
^jg
(
"the cow
mashq
k^
that gives
milk"
AUA/O
^^
drill."
*
^?
e/
t5*#
^^ jj) **
:
<^
** e;T
an na man bdsham
of
However
i.e.
45-
and the
41
(6).
^5-
sound,
ft
vide
For ki
camphor." The adjective is frequently applied to anything white. Falconers even apply the term to a variety of hawk that happens to be unusually light
3
From
kafur
"
coloured.
4
<t/
*^
143
man
of
* '
(Sadi)
;
am
man
"
whose back
ki habb-ash
day
^jj
^j a$u5U)(w " the stars whose &\& sitdraha-i ki partav-i shdn rawshan ast (m.c.)
ill
;
:
cc
" battle
^^
me
tatiib-\
Dative
&f+>j*a-
oJ^
<>I=EU
(:
(Sa'dl) (shakhs-i
*,iia
man
turn)
^\ ay ki shakhs-i man-at haqlr namud " oh thou to whom my form appeared mean
9
;
Jjj (JW;AJ
LSf~i
dddam
I;
(m.c.)
"the boy
'
:
money
^t
*&/ v^
*A
^AJJ
UiJ(>.j
axJU^
" the
shahrhd-l ki bi-danjd (for bi-dnha) raftam hama-ra ab cities to which I went, have all been washed away."
Accusative
/<^
fj^f
ce
the
person whom I saw" (lit. that I saw him) ;-^>*^ anki chun pista didam-ash hama maghz (Sa'di) "he
like the pistachio-nut
U*
whom
"
]
;
kushta
budam
\j
oAj^'
had,
" ^t^> a&oUw " the snakes which we killed yesterday " he sold all the things he *** asbab-i ki ddsht hama ra farukht (m.c.)
(m.c.)
:
jOjj
*&$ jjj&
aCxJbkjlc
all his
property."
:
Ablative
khatar ast
"the
proceeding in
)
aw Mr A;i <Zar vay* mazinna-yi* ^>^ *^y^ e>T which there is a suspicion of danger " *&
;
&
^s^
cUti (c;Tj^
khdna-i
ki (dar
(
an
"the
"
;
^ix-SJu/o
^f^^ )*r
whom
Locative
o^t*i| aja
^-^
gillm-i ki bar
an
he was
(or
thief
would pass
5
' '
eA*>J
e*f jl
**> *^ t>to s azan bustan ki tu (dar an] budi ^+*>\jf ^nji ((*fi jt) jj* md-ra chi tuhfa karamat avardi (Sa'di) "what rare present hast thou in " generosity brought us back from that garden in which thou wert ?
(S^
turned out to be skin on skin like an onion," had sterling qualities proved a fraud.'
1
'*
'
i.e.
the
man whom
thought
2
3
or az vay.
pile.
A pd&
gilim
is
*
5
traveller, passer-by."
ki budi.
144
<.$
v^
(
c5
r~^
ast (Sa'di).
thou wilt never reach the K'aba, oh Arab, For this road thou goest leads to Turkistan."
ghulam bdshad. [This common construcnow but construction has led to the following erroneous tion *^j W.JA. jjycf &$ \j*s* mard-i ra ki imruz chub zadand duzd bud,
i.e.
u bashad, or
iqbal ura
^^
t^^
where
mard-l ra
is
is
vide(e)].
another means of declining the relative (if in the dative or (e) accusative case) commoner perhaps in modern than in classical Persian. It consists in putting the noun first in an oblique case and then the connective
There
&f
its
relative clause, as
place
is
:
Examples
'st
taken by the substantive in the oblique case at the beginning. ** I; kishti-i ra ki Nuh nRkhudattA^-b jt ^v *^ -=~l \*^ *
"what
^^
fear
is
Noah
"
?
case at the
in the dative In this example, instead of placing kishti-i and the it in the could be nominative; commencement, put
^M
pronoun in the
relative clause, expressed or understood, in the dative, as: **. c*w| lai. lj *$ iJ&^S kishti-l ki an-ra Nuh nakhuda ast ul^-ijt tSb ^.^J tjif tf \> chi bak az tufan ; ty*> jjj*\ 00^3 mard-i-ra ki diruz chub j.a.
^^
(/)
An
I
expression like
better omitted.
relative cannot
^x^
*r
^aT
man
whom
sense,
(q]
saw", though
The
correct, is
heavy: as u-ra
it is
1 Ka'ba, lit. "a cube." The cube-like building in the centre of the Masjid at Mecca it contains the black stone (hajarVl-aawad), white as milk when it first descended from Paradise, but now black from the defiling touch of sinful man.
:
2
3
The broken
pi.
is
v^'
the
pi. of
<^j
is
^j*.
Poetical for *;
^|
&? ki in rah.
*^ ki tu (dar an) ml-ravi. ( df J* ) -*"* This sentence, though grammatically incorrect, the noun at the beginning being the object of the verb in the relative clause, is not uncommon in modern Persian. The
4
6
L?r**
construction in H>!3^
bi
it
(
(**
*~^# **
^^
H/T -&^j'
t
cS^r**?
t5^*J A dust-l ra ki
'* to a friend whom chang arand na shayad ki bi-yak dam, bi-yazarand (Sa'di) has taken a lifetime to make, offence should not be given in a moment " is different,
umr-l
farci
is
^c.
145
an
and In ^t, nor to har j* " every." It is best to consider an-ki an-chi *^T, m-ki <*&*!, har-ki *$ _>*, har->chi A^^A as single words. However the plurals of the demonstrative pronouns andn uW anha
c/f
,
fJf
take or omit the L c, thus a^^f ariha-i-ki, or l^ijf, may *** Ifif anha-ki, etc. As the demonstrative pronouns are already definite, the definite ^c is a pleonism and may be omitted.
and
maw
e>^'> inha
1
definite in themselves
relative
(m.c.)
^;
vide
41
(u).
raftand
^(^
tshdn-i-ki
should
be
avoided.
As the relative " ^ before &t is used to make nouns definite, it can be omitted when the noun is already made definite by the demonstrative pronouns [vide (g)] or by^ har. Ex. cu-Jf ^jj tXJJuj +ty &l^ p #> ^i*^ e/Tj va an
(h)
:
" and those skins pusthd ki dar khana-yi gazh-dum bmand asr-i an-ast (Sa'di) " ^Ji? that are found in scorpion-holes are the sign (remains) of that p*&9 8 4 * k-^Ju iiA va *-^In man &^* I^UA fulan-am )* ^( j gf^/< <>*) a?* J** j- f^-)^
;
'
sang
*
haman sang
bar sar-i
man
zadi (Sa'd!)
"he
said,
am So-and-So, and this stone is that very same stone with which you struck me on the head on such and such a date " j( ^& cfi^^jy y ^^A*- ^t o*if fj^ii ^ fj^i^ ar l^jf guft ay Sa'di tu mz sukhan-i bi-guy az anha ki dida-t va
I
'
shunida-i (Sa'di)
"he
said,
*** i^ A*Af^ c^^ ^j 31 cuiuyf *-&j* bidan band-i gharib ki az vay nihan dashta bud ba vay dar avikht (Sa*di) " he closed with him by means of that tricky artifice (or throw) which he had kept
:
"
^ ^b
&
&^
to
himself"
5
;
5JuUJ
j*t<^f
^i^^io
^ af ^
t^
liar ja ki
ravad bi-khidmat-ash
;
" " wherever he >& it laof j iqdam numayand (Sa'dl) goes, he is well served lj>**' vo ki ast vs*^.( jt^i. durr-i shahvar nihang-i mardumanja ^L^* j*^^
^V
khwar
ast
(Sa'd!)
"and where
lies,
there too
is
the man-
devouring shark."
i Sa'dl generally omits the <_$ ; az anan-ki ghadr kardand ba man-ash dusti bud (Sa'di) " one of those
' '
In
tar ast
<X>lj *ixj^3 j ASict^j v^^.fy j^)/^ A^U^j' ^^? 2/^-* va mardana va zurmand bayad ki (Sa'di) "any one of you
*$
*/mma
is
dilavat-
who
braver than
the connec-
of
arm
"
,
ydk-i though
it
has a
before
If it
be required to
ki az
make
*'
phrase as
U&3t *^ LST^J^
^ r nafar-l
shuma
the
one of you
who
is
",
would
be used.
s
If the
c.).
*
6
Or dar
**
c^
i-jjlj
But compare
10
oJb o^,^
ya/t (Sa'di)
to-day by
^&vJ<> ^lV3-?y*' Mnrffis bidan daqlqa-l bar that one single artifice he overcame me."
^j
mandast
146
could be inserted. In the above examples the the following examples the ^ is inserted: (i) In oj ^ ^Lui JLj ham-chu an nd-bind-i ki shab-i dar vahal uftdd va guft (Sa'di) "like that blind-man who one night fell in the mire and exclaimed ";
1
o*i
^Jli. *+&)j&-
o2**t
u*x
^5*
** ^sj*^*
(Mod. Pers.)
<x5^ja jf
of this girl that you see is ** xj\*>b <X^AJ o^i^x* *$ y> har kas-i-ki mi-
"the name
khwdhad bi-pushad bi-anddza-yi qadd-i u bi-burand (m.c.) "let according to the size and figure of whoever is going to wear it
har
Teas ki,
it
:
be cut
s '
or
*>
y> har
ki,
or
instead of
har kas-i-ki.
In the above examples the could be omitted. are As names definite, they do not require the ^c unless some (j) proper oj **f Jj^a *> tj+*n.> Mahmud ki diruz amad special distinction be required
guft (m.c.)
Mahmud, who came yesterday, said "; but ^^jis ** ^zj**^ Mahmud-i ki diruz amad " the Mahmud who came yesterday" (it being
is
"
of this
name).
.iUi^lj
Similarly in the
o&<^j v^L^
ki
^ c^;_# o^'
'avayib-i
'
^**j
U|
amma
bi-i'timad-i
akhlaq-i buzurgdn
zir-dastan bi-pushand
(Sa'dl)
trusting to the breadth of nature and magnanimity of the great, ' the defects of their inferiors cJ^)_V buzurgan does not require
,
*&^x>
(k)
buzurgan-i-ki
If the
would mean "those who noun with this-^ is qualified by a simple adjective that can pre(that section of the) great
."
cede
as:
its
noun
(vide
under Adjective)
it is
*y*
v'^
^-^tf cJ^t^r*
ishdn tdkht khwab bud (Sa'dl) " the " the J^' avva l kas-i-ki (m.c.)
** tj+*>*
^x-^
first first
enemy
them was
"
asleep
;
**> ** person who' &J* )^^> **<#-* j*i " dildvar-tarin zan-i ki dida am (m.c.) "the bravest woman I have seen " ar the greatest ^f Jij^y J>^ buzurgtarhasrat-ianbashadki* (Sa'dl) ' &*. will &f *$ be that J^ *AiU na-bini-ki regret f&y ^j^jf
:
^b
'
^^ ^^
^uw
bi-andak ranj-i-ki burdam chi maya-i ganj dvardam (Sa'dl) " dost thou not see what an amount of gain I have brought in return for the small stock of
trouble I underwent
"
by the former friendship that we had ." cannot precede the noun (vide under Adjective) it (I) If the adjective follows it taking the relative ^, as: <Wf j, *&$ u*^ j*^& dukhtar-i
khush-gil-i-ki diruz
"
^**b
**
<^j** &jUj
amad
:
(m.c.)
girl
Similarly
' '
,
dashtam (m.c.)
had
2
: do not require the anchi asp u mal-l ki anchi asp u mat ki dashtam) " whatever horses and property I appears to be a confusion of two constructions.
(for
In modern Persian
ki.
this
would be
*>>
o~| ^t
in a^t
147
hukamd* gufta and baradar ki dar band-i khwish ast na barddar ast no, khwish ast " the wise have said that a brother who is wrapped up in himself
is
neither brother
nor kin."
*&i)*\j>
Possibly Sa'di considered )&\j* baradar in the above sentence as a generic noun, or the copyist has omitted the ^. The reading in many Gulistans is a&^fjj barddar-i-ki.
barddar-i-ki.
it
si
can accompany a substantive preceded by a numeral when *&$ is required to make it definite as j<xi.< ^fjb j* j| fi-C \j of " I broke sanduq-i lei az sarbdzdn bud dn-rd shikastam (Afghan colloquial)
(n)
The
the three boxes belonging to the soldiers," but "I broke three boxes belonging to."
(o)
**"
cb ^* a ~ *
4
sanduq ki
The phrase
is
" as
^^
:
&*** *tyj* $ az
qardr-i ki
it
indefinite before
^Uo ^f ($(&'>\ ittifdq dtj&* l&*> ** <*xoy dar an miyan javdn-i bud ki miva-yi 'unfavdn-i shabdb-ash naw-rastda (Sa'di) " there was in that assembly, by chance, a youth, the flower of whose youth
the connective ki, as
1
i>^
<vof
^ ^^
A*'
^V
"an
oppor-
Sahmgin
'*
db-i ki muryjiabi
safe in
Its smallest
off its
banks
Vide
"
;
in this
example Remark.
(r)
understood after
db-i,
hence db-i
is indefinite.
(r)
of
jamil-i Sa'di
baslt-i
ki
dar
afvdh-i
va
sit-i
sukhan-ash ki dar
it) is
zamm
in the
mouths
of all,
of his
wide world
."
^1^
^+*)j
^T j*j*> ^ A>
har du
it) has gone out into the o^a^. ojUc^i dar 'imdrat-i
hazrat-i sadr-i
of
a'zam ki
md
dmad u
raft
ddrim
(m.c.)
:
H. H. the Grand Wazir where we both have free access" ^jlb ^ AJU. ijj ^ur j* IJ&&9 jur u ajJU c^3 <*&&*j ^J-X
(
AikU o^t jlk ^^> ojwc ar Uy faA; to)b qasrhd-yi khub va kushkhd-yi buzurg u kuchik az ru-yi saliqa bd kamdl-i qashangt dar kindr-i rud-khdna va
^l
1
*
Should be
tj
^f
anha
'
ra.
;
2 i.e.
"a
certain youth
'
the
noun
is
hardly indefinite.
148
kuhhd ki mushrif bi-rudkhdna ast sdkhta and (Shah's Diary) "here and there on the banks of the river and on the sides of the hills, which
bdld-yi
(and they) overlook the river, are erected fine palaces and summer residences both large and small, all in good taste and of exquisite beauty." In the is not added to kuh-hd, as the hills are not last example the restrictive
particularized;
^
The
hills
that."
Remark.
as
:
o*t
Diary)
yak will also make the noun indefinite, *;> tX yak naw' zird at-i ki ism-ash rap ast (Shah's
l
is
called rape
."
indefinite article, as:
^ULut ji~jb ,>^ ^O-J^SA. ja *&r~^ (J*jt )j**** ja dar huzur-i u misl-i pisar-i ki " he stood in his dar huzur-i pidar-i khud bi-istad istdd (m.c.) presence as a
"
:
Jb^'f
e^ ^/
*f %tf
<Ji*>
y^J
^Uj
t^U tamdm-i lashkar misl-i galla-i ki gurg dar an uftdda bdshad ^Ajt az ham pdshidand "the whole army scattered like a (that) flock of sheep
attacked by a wolf
(s)
."
Chundn ^^- "like that, resembling that, to such a degree, in that " and chanddn cM**- " as many as, how much soever, etc.", may, manner, so in India and Afghanistan but not in Persia, take the demonstrative ^c with Ex. y( 5^/f J>ji^ eJ^<va p** J^li , o-i v lsou^o ^U^Ifexj ^Ip^ **\ or omit it.
;
jj^siyo
^f
&>
\*fa$-
xi^U du a-yi
l
is accepted and the cry of the distressed heard, even though they be infidels, as was the case of that prisoner (previously mentioned)" here instead of &Ua. chundn ki, A&^a- or <*apJU. could
;
mazlumdn mustajdb ast va ndla-yi sitambdshand chundn-ki dar haqq-i an mahbus (m.c.)
be used
nazd-i
<xUyo
o^ijj) Jx>
^AJ
***
vi^cfjj
t^
^ ^ A^oUa.
chundn-l ki dar
shumd zird'at ast plsh-i md niz zird'at mi-bdshad 1 (Afghan) " we have " <i"cT just the same amount and quality of cultivation that you have ^U^Jk ^J^A. \jl* Ji A^iUa. tufdn-l dmad chundn-i-ki dil-i md-rd khushk kard s " a storm came such as struck terror to our hearts " (Afghan) (Afghan)
:
" howevermuch guftam qabul na-kard (m.c.) I said, he did not agree; in spite of all I said, no matter what I said, he ."
t>j& J^**
p& A^JfAXA.
chanddn
ki
An Afghan might
For
with the
cAi-a<_
Hamchundn-i-ki
of unity, vide
noun
is
necessary here
to indicate
2
3
Chunan-i-ki A
class.
rarely used in
modern
9
Persian.
In modern and
<^f
^e>
would
be better.
THE ADJECTIVE.
(t)
149
40.
(u)
of the demonstrative
40
(g).
As with the
of unity [vide
41
(j)
in
the singular do not admit of the relative ^. Ex. Javdn bi-gfrurur-i dildvari ki dar sar ddrad ^*s")t*f ^s)#3)jj** c>'>^ (Gul. Chap. Ill, St. 27).
The
relative
45-
as: cu*f ifojjM Ujf A&jSlfjjUy li ndfarmdriihd-i ki xJ tojf U^ Ax5lfAJyk khublhd-i ki shumd karda id.
ma
may
as:
^^:
ji
**
^n
^"t
^x^U
*' (Gul.).
When
is
added to the
magar ikhtiydr u 'izzat-i-ki Khan Mid bi-u ddda ast kifdyat-ash nami-kunad? ->i&4J ^^ijljif o*| a^a^U ijl^ ^UL *<AJ> j ^^\ j^ (m.c.) " but the authority and importance that the Khan has already given him are they
not sufficient for him
' '
CHAPTER
43.
(a)
V.
The Adjective.
is
Ism-isifat
)
The
(
adjective
).
called sifat
oJLe
qualified
mawsuf
o^jA5
In conizdfat,
asp-i qizil-i
(b)
izdfat.
u/ J>* my grey In old Persian prose, the adjective preceded its substantive without the In modern Persian, some few adjectives may precede their nouns, and
1
man
^f
This construction
).*
is
called the
inverted
epithet
izdfat-i
maqlubt
^.^ ^Ui
<
the
"^
of unity."
tj\*
Examples:
man";
l^ijf
cP(j*
^^
khub mard-t (m.c.) "a good 'ajab havd-l Injd ddrad (m.c.) "this place
/0
v^
^
has a fine
" and
bad
"bad"
"
frequently precede
manner.
good
inverted epithet
'
is
modern
emphasis
in the last
signifies
"a
^^
"a
bright,
cheerful,
woman";
sharir
mard-i
(m.c.)
Can this be a translation of the Arabic rummanl "scarlet like Qizil, T., "red." the flower of the pomegranate," the epithet for a nutmeg grey, or is it applied to a grey horse because in Persia the tail and legs of a grey are usually dyed with henna ?
2
Vide
117.
150
THE ADJECTIVE.
Ls&j*jtj
etc., are
emphatic than the ordinary collocation. (c) Arabic adjectives and compound adjectives should follow the nouns they qualify, but vide 117 II (e).
Turkish adjectives precede their Turkish substantives, as: <J^ Jj* (m.c.) "red-head," a name for Persian and also for certain other settlers in " the 1 golden eagle" (lit. the black bird of Afghanistan: tyi qara-qush prey);^ty qard-kahar adj., "dark bay (horse)." In JjL? ty qaraqaval,
lit.
uV
"a
pheasant," the
first
word
is
The
of
;
adjectives Ichayli
many,"
women"
Ichayli (or
zan ( ;U~j or) ^$1^ " zanha niany bisyar) 1^3 ( ;^~-? or) csVj, but not zan-i bisyar zan-iziyadis,
Ichayli (or bisyar)
J^
its
noun.
it
;lj~*J
"
jahazha-yibisyar-ibuzurg
^^> jl^
^s
ambiguous, for
may stand
either for
many
For examples
of bisyar as
an adverb,
Ghand ^i^ is followed by a noun in the singular, vide 39 (g) (1) to (7). has many meanings; "many, as much, how long, (/) Chandan e>f^" " etc." When it signifies much, many it is followed by a singular noun and in Modern Persian always by a negative verb, as chandan sarbaz anja no-bud " Uof jbj*. cjt^va. (m.c.) there was not a great amount of soldiery there ":
:
chandan sar-rishta-i dar zaban-i Farsi na-daram o\* oVj >t> &)j* &\**" I don't know very much Persian." (m.c.) Remark. Chandan sarbaz anja budand &ty l->f jb j* ^**> " there were many soldiers there", is old. (g) In modern colloquial, one or two adjectives sometimes precede their
substantives with the izafat, as pir-i
:
^^
ffir-i
mard-i
The young
Pir
is
of the
Golden Eagle
is
black.
:
any religious sect cu&J jb AJ plr-i t&riqat " a Sabza-Maydan, a square in Tihran, is vulgar for Sabz Maydan. spiritual guide." Sdbza >Xvo is also used as an adjective, "dark-complexioned," of people; rang-ash
sabza ast o**l
L>J(
" he looks green, ill." <J*^) (m.c.) but surat-ash sdbz ast: 4-U \) ^*A t i3XA kJU3 ^A* cJ^J Ij^f j-UJ ;i i^JJ >J^f ** There was not a dark face, bad-looking, in the whole of Ind.
*)***
;
^'
'Twas as though Ind were created of salt." " [The word green," sabza,' adj., is applied by the Persians to a dark complexion, while a pleasant or good-looking face is said to be " saltish" or " "ull of salt" ^JU or
_
:
is lost
in English.]
consider the
mouth"
THE ADJECTIVE.
iJ
151
" the grey-headed old woman" " but " *j a and class.) pir-i fartut-i (m.c. decrepit, worn-out old man " the old *J pir bdghbdn, or ^u cjUcU bdgkbdn-i pir (Afghan and m.c.) gardener" fo^lJ^u pir nd'khudd, or^u ^I^IJ nd-khudd-yi pir (Afghan and
"an
old
man"
pir-i
zdlj\)^
JLs^u "aged"
is
an Afghan expression
L
er j))
**4ji* dirina-ruz,
marhum-i shah
J^
' *
' *
^y
*aeu
Jy
(for
^3
is
<Xapj
bachcha-yi
117, III
(6).
t'za/al
in
omitted,
thus
i&j* j**
:
etc.
Adjectives, without an izdfat, may precede or follow nouns to form " compounds, as <_&; <j^ khush-rang "of pleasing colour ; toj ^d dum-zada ' " " docked " (of horses) j^ long-tailed, i.e. donkey jl;^ ft dum-dardz
' ; ;
vs*^K ^,^5 commonly u*^ 3 ^ dardz-gush donkey "of strong-back (in a vulgar sense)"; also "a man of
1
"
"
^^
power, no weakling."
(*)
When
several
adjectives are
noun they
:
may
(1)
Be connected
is
to their
tansiq
'
construction
called
u'
noun and to each other by the izdfat this s-sifdt ( eULJf <JHr^ ) "the stringing, or
:
Examples
Ojj
(.5&U*
vUj Bjf
C>AJ
J^^lj
tion not
The adjectives may be coupled by the conjunction vdv j common. Examples Ja *> fj ^ o*-f^ f&= ij[y 5
:
tt
a construc^-JU t
^t
" B., Chap. XXXII) though he was of a fine r^ ^ ^ Tr> soldierly appearance, he was in reality the most timid and pusillanimous r^r
e^3
*r*3
of
men."
Pledged to a
ti^ &*-jk
itoj-i^
\)
-fj*xo
JU
" what
From
!Xi.jU
*
.
In modern Persian
-ft*
*^^
';
152
THE ADJECTIVE.
does he see but that Ayaz has opened a wooden chest and taken out some old
and dirty clothes." (3) The adjectives may follow the noun
junction
j,
vide
139
did
(b)
90
*>p
(a)
(5).
Example:
l*l**t
shakhs-i
siyah-fam
za'if
andam
(Sa'dl)
j-liaU*
^^iuS,
feeble-looking":
fall
^b ux~ j jj3j~
Remark
I.
o***j
LS^ )^ifi
*^
hot-tempered and
"
(Sa'di).
In modern Persian
it
\)
^iui
shakhs-i, otherwise
(j)
affixed to
by an affixed pronoun, the pronoun is to the noun, as the adjective awqat-i 'aziz-at eUjy " e>)4j* [or awqat-i azlz-i tu] thy precious time." The I; of the dative or of the accusative is added to the last adjective
If
is
the noun
l
and not
only, as
(***})*
L>
' '
' '
If
izdfat
is
a predicate after the verb " to be " (in English), the of course omitted, as barf sard ast va atash garm
an adjective
is
For a predicate plural in English (substantive or adjective) and qualified by an epithet, vide 119 (o). the predicate is a noun qualified by an adjective of the class (I) If
in (6), the adjective may, according to ordinary rule, either or follow its noun, as: pidar-i tu mard-i Tchub-lst o^j^. precede ^3 ;<>j, or pidar-i tu khub mard-ist ^*~ j&s ^ n sucn cases the noun of the >*
mentioned
v^
}*v
^ of unity.
in the plural, as
ast in
:
*\^v
is
c>^^?
of the
"the sages say": o*t ^t^^l<| jj az alcabir-i Bagjiddd influential people of Baghdad." In such cases the plural
this plural is not rigidly
gilJia-yi majlis
is is
"he
is
an
usual; but
Jchush-
adhered to
in
speaking:
^^^
;
c^M^AA
m.c. and incorrect: W^JJ buzurgha properly "big things" sometimes in m.c. applied to persons for size (soldiers) as opposed to
t^y kuchak-ha;
(3)
buzurgan "the great in rank forefathers." In English, adjectives may occasionally take the place of nouns; vide
but
c>(f;JJ
(p)
and Remark.
1
'
The
an
indefinite
sense
either
or
'
the horse
was
stolen.'
Many
are
carriers
Turkoman tribe whose head-quarters are said to be in Azerbaijan. nomadic and live on the produce of their camels and flocks. The men act as and the women weave carpets. Nadir Shah was an Afshar.
scattered
THE ADJECTIVE.
(n)
(1)
153
modern
In a few instances in classical Persian, sometimes imitated by writers, a plural substantive, Arabic or Persian, animate or
is
inanimate,
(2)
qualified
The use
noun
in imitation of
4.
in Arabic, all
collective nouns,
and may, therefore, be grammatically feminine singular, and that the commonest Arabic feminine termination is * sing., and oi>f pi. 1 (4) and (5) Examples: &u~^ j^j ^^jt ^^z &]tyo (Sa'dl) "the brave
men sprang out of their ambush": *i;U? j t; ,MA iyLfexL* (Sa'dl) "they appoint coarse ruffians ." Bishtar-i ishan dilavaran va bahaduran-i kar-azmuda*1 j o^jita e>lil ^i&jj *^xjT fi cJ^altf (Trans. H. B. Chap.) here eJ^ Jb dilavaran and u^ltf bahaduran are treated as substantives and predicates to olijf ishan, and are qualified by
,
:
lty$ j.
uliiA| (mod.) "persons, grandees,"
vide
(7):
construction],
Qasamha-yi ghilaz
l*jj^
^(f)^
^fxi
^ ^l^
(m.c.)
strong and harsh," and this probably accounts for the plural Arabic adjectives being (incorrectly) used
after \&&&j+*
and
l^*-*^.
Common
nesses "; (jj*
and
(or
flk*
^tjijj.
Shuhud-i muvassaqa
Jl^.;
,^w
wit-
"
strong
(6)
plural of adjectives
:
sometimes used
for
b men, but always in the oblique case, as Ghuzdt-i mujahidin ^<^A\.=SUO %e " "true warriors of the Faith Icubaraf-i 'arifin ^>jU *\ji "great mystics."
may be
qualified either
a regular Arabic masculine plural or else, less frequently a masculine broken plural.
(7)
in
Persian,
by by
Or K>rjf J6
)*(tf
jj$*
(I}
\J)JM
or
S^jf
^ )^> j )* c^^iy^
bishtar-i
ishan dilavar va bahadur-i kar-azmvda or blshtar-i lahan dilavar-i bahadur-i kar azmuda.
&
Shidad ildA plural of ShadU *?.**, and ghilaz &%* plural of ghattz But (*fj^ J^; is used in Persian.
pi.
154
qualified
THE ADJECTIVE.
by an adjective in the masculine broken plural, " the Imams." &*5(
tahirin)
!
as:
A*imma-yi athar
;l(J
As stated
in (3), Arabic
:
grammatically feminine
tybUe Li\
;
it is
but *>y JU;, however, does not appear to be used in Persian, though correct Arabic. If, however, the broken a singular plural is not applicable to rational beings it is usually followed by " the 99 = *U*l husna asma*-i as a broken &*>*=* feminine,
hukkam-i 'azima **AC
etc.
;
,
^,
rarely
attributes of
lp cjUjf, vide (4). exception a!> is usually qualified by (9) An Arabic regular inanimate feminine plural a feminine singular, less often of a masculine singular, and very rarely by
-***""
;
by God; *&**
plural,
"
s>\+)*
still.
high ranks"
is
commoner than
as
' '
:
^U eA*), while
olaJL*
the
ei>UJ'b
However, by a regular feminine plural, " eUM* c^UlA/o high places pious works that are permanent
cs*la>p is
oUH*
rarer
in a few instances a
is
qualified
' '
t <
dual denoting rational beings may be qualified by a dual, as " noble ^aJfj wdlidayn-i mdjidayn parents."
(10)
^^U
dual
denoting
irrational
beings
or neuters is
rarely qualified
by a
masculine singular, as tarafayn-i muqdbil Jjlo/o ^i^fc. but generally by a dual. (11) An Arabic feminine singular denoting a lifeless object is usually
followed by an Arabic adjective agreeing with
it,
as yad-i bayza
'
white hand
ulya Ule &>; It does not, however, always agree, as yad-i vdhid <3^ *x
(of
;
Moses), a miracle"
rutba-yi
of highest rank."
"monopoly."
is
If
the
noun ends in
e*, for
is,
the adjective
usually
masculine; thus
^U
CXA, vide
(t)
When, however, an Arabic feminine rational noun is followed by an the relative adjective ending with (ya-yi nisbati), the adjective w feminine: if irrational it is masculine or feminine, as: isyj*" 1 ^ ut
v^
*jjXJ^
^J^
^l+e O^^CA.
but
*JjiUl
oJ^,i
(12) If a singular
adjective should always agree with it. It will be seen that the concord of Arabic substantives
and adjectives in Persian usually follows the rules of Arabic grammar. (0) Summary of rules of concord of substantives and adjectives other than the ordinary Persian concord.
regular Arabic masculine plural denoting rational beings can be qualified either by a regular plural or rarely by a broken plural.
(1)
(2) A broken plural denoting male rational beings may be qualified by a broken plural, a regular masculine plural, or rarely a feminine singular.
But
*0!/e
THE ADJECTIVE.
155
(3) A broken plural not of rational beings is usually qualified by a feminine singular, rarely by a broken plural. (4) A dual of rational beings is qualified by a dual agreeing with it. A dual of irrational (or neuter) things is rarely qualified by a mascu-
by a dual.
(5) singular Arabic feminine of lifeless things usually has the adjective with it, but not always. agreeing If the noun ends in o for the servile 'i, the adjective is usually masculine.
An
(6)
Arabic noun
If
adjective ending in the yd-yi nisbati and qualifying a feminine rational is feminine in form; irrational, masc. or fern.
always agree with it. Persian nouns should not be qualified by a plural adjective, neither Persian nor Arabic.
tive should
(7) Plural
Persian adjectives are also treated as substantives, as: " *>** jfjjt) 5 (thou wast ibyojf fUf *j*j f,/J **** &\& j *J^ (Sa'dl) most fortunate that thou fellest to the lot of an old man) experienced and
(p)
(1)
A few ^j cJUi
travelled, one
downs
jy
of life,
,
bad."
so used.
(2)
The
adjectives &ij
& and
,
*z**\)
and tried its good and and ^xb j o~J are often
,
may
ot>|
(pi.
oo)
:
also
(3)
An
' '
:
vide
(r)
and
115
(r).
qualified
adjective, as
sick son
^ u^j
*b*
<*$r*i
t>
ot^
cd';
^#2>
&1
(Sa'di).
Remark.
" the past."
In English, -adjectives occur as nouns, generally in poetry, as: " and the "irreclaim" George Eliot talks of the painful right
able dead," but only a master of English prose can so introduce an adjective
qualified
(4)
is
better, or as well,
is
known
"
as the substanJ>j
'
;
and hence
used alone, as
<J.u BNJJ
^ j ^^&^
for
'
tlgh-i
Hindi.
Compare
"my
Toledo
my
Toledo
also,
as: *|f (*tjf ;**-** kishti bisyar aram bud (Shah's Diary) "the boat was (^*A' 4< this chair is very calm, did not roll ": o-i o^.!; ;U-j ^^i^ (m.c.)
comfortable."
considered
as
adjectives
and
not as substantives forming a component part of a compound verb, is shown by their having in modern Persian a comparative form dram-tar and
rdhat-tar.
TamizJ+>
(for
signifies
"clean."
156
THE ADJECTIVE.
(r)
(1)
The noun
of agency,
and
as in English
With
adjectives in a.
(2)
The noun
of
agency
is
not
much used.
*ii^;a
JJ-xL^
In modern Persian
^iJ*i.j
it is
nearly
liberal
(m.c.)
oaiw
"a
man";
^; "a
ata-kunanda (m.c.)
Ikp
bright-looking,
cheerful
Vide
Even
classically, the
noun
of agency
rule.
0.
K. Rub, 49 Whin.
is
Remark.
obsolete verb
from an
t
The
Pers.,
connected with
"
and
rukh, Pers.,
"
Pers.,
fromy
far,
cheek, face."
4
In charand u parand ^jj j <H>* "grazing beasts, and birds," the a is " dropped. In m.c., charand AJ^ alone, is an adjective, meaning' bosh, rot
Manand,
"
prep.,
(in
is
to be like, to resemble."
A few
agent form, as
(3)
other adjectives, possibly derived from obsolete verbs, have this " slow to act. " diranda (m.c.) a-*^
: :
Present Participle
"
I
o|>^ er'
you are
I^A**
said
who was
seen fleeing
away
in its haste."
:
Past Participle
fj^l
ibU**'
lt>(M j
table
spread"
(Shah's Diary)
them":
^j^J^ ***} f* {&*& " the cherries too were ripe and (the trees) well laden with kar-i na-pasandida kard (m.c.) "he committed ^/ j^j^UjlJ
&U?Jf ^AJ** ^-' \)$ his house with open door or gilds-ha ham rasida va pur bar bud
&^
^^
a displeasing
(5) According to Platts, mast, dust, and a few nouns and adjectives were once past participles. (s) (1) The Persian adjective j* appears to have a feminine s^u
:
e>3
' '
*j%
w* j
LSfy'
j^
**
(^
j>
jj)
e^;^ c5^/i
(Sa'di)
treated
me
roughly in these
days
When
It
woman."
Pira-zan &j j^xj is also used in m.c. must be recollected that Persians sometimes express or emphasize an
THE ADJECTIVE.
izafat
157
*
by writing
it
as
*.
may
vide
(g).
"
" or In modern Persian, AJ^ is used by women for the pronoun " I me when writing to a superior, vide pages 51 (/) and 69 (e). In classical Persian, <*W" kamina is generally used as positive masculine,
(2)
"
"mean,
vile."
,*xx
J
o^tioj
*-ft
j&
li
^ij,
f*-i
(Sadl).
&
$"
^(OJo
(t)
(1)
"Permit me for I am just a humble person To rank and sit amongst the slaves." As stated in (ri) (3), all broken plurals are grammatically feminine
.
singular,
and the Arabic feminine termination singular is is frequently added to Arabic participles and (2) the noun even if is Persian. Examples masha*ikh-i adjectives qualified
This feminine
:
(class.)
4*^09/0
^Uj
"the women described"; fyjf** e*UUK3 "the duties mentioned"; w&o {>s>aj& &oj5j* mulcataba-yi marquma bi-dusii (class.) "correspondence written
in friendship."
(3) If
the
fern,
rational beings, or
<~U*J,
if
nounis Persian or Arabic, singular or plural, and denotes the qualifying Arabic adjective is of the form cUl or
is
the adjective
^+**
of
or
(perhaps incorrectly)
man's
power and
(4)
it
&*&
or
If,
ej*> of divine power; vide (n) (11). however, the Arabic adjective is separated from the Persian noun
if
qualifies,
it
is
a predicative adjective,
<-Ul*
it
^l^
-
&) y\
>
"she
is
In
)^^' j<f }t> &j e^il "this woman would be better to substitute ;>^ /0
tXw
(5)
It
appears that
it is
to Arabic
adjectives and
writing
writing)
it is
>!J* x^Ua> (m.c.), or ?>!j* IJ^A (in writing). There seems no sufficient reason for adding the to faJchir in the previous
" rich
generally inserted.
Examples
^l
apparel'
';
example, as libas
in
is
masc. in Arabic
is
in
*j*>
^^ the
cu*JbL
is
^U
o^LL
is
the
correct,
as
Ichil'at
has
itself
termination.
used as a substantive signifying " a woman (in m.c. especially a married woman)," the feminine termination is only added to -**** when
As aA**^
the qualified
1
noun
is
c^U
is
madiyan-i
za'if
"the
adjectives
The author is of opinion that it is better to add the 8 when they qualify a noun, Persian or Arabic, that
grammatically.
158
THE ADJECTIVE.
weak mare," but madiyan-i za'lfa " the mare of the woman" " the feeble lady" is commoner than *AX*-C ^iU>. (m.c.)
In
AjJ*i^
word
is
generally translated "a court of justice." the second noun formed according to rule, from the relative abstract an Arabic
jjJL^vxs,
adjective.
(6)
The advantage
:
of
adding
from the
of
following
&Gy*j#
())
S
:
the
" the river Jjl^ deceased intervened," but *# o;jj y &^ *?; here <J^ could be (mod.) "the intervening river prevented an assault" substituted, but Atfl^ clearly indicates that it is a qualifying adjective and
"
^^
is not feminine. not predicative, though or Arabic participles that are adjectives (7)
commonly used
is,
as adjectives
seldom inflected for gender. Persians that pride themselves on their Arabic,
in m.c., are
There
will
even when contrary to Persian grammar and idiom. The Arabic past partic. in m.c. means "pretty," and hence is rarely inflected: however
is
'
girl,'
as well as J^a/o^i<^.
(8)
(m.c.), there
appears to be no grammatical reason Possibly the explanation lies in the fact that
'
most
of the
common words
x
' '
in Arabic for
conversation
'
are feminine.
*
(9)
Musamma
&+"**>
named
' '
(in
and
<^+~*>
musamrm} has
' ' ;
musammdt
U-c
is
+ oi>U-~x>
cc
but
^ ^
l
b Isof (m.c.)
*ili
j-aw
>>>
^iui
^ ^ ^l^.
almost every
l
oi,U~/o
prefixed to
Mrs., or
Madame,
is
or Miss.
ulya-jah
(10)
9
Ali-jah
l-suJU is
l
women.
Vlya UJU
^\
the elative of
to
to be Arabic,
'
rank."
it
Nikah
conjunction
and
its celebration.
is
applied to
The past
as opposed to that of **^ (lit. usufruct, engagement), which is a marriage contracted for a fixed period and for a fixed sum a kind of legal prostitution. In Persia the word
**^>
used only by the learned, the term ***** sigha being substituted both for the ceremony and for the temporary wife. The children of a sigha wife are legitimate, but
is
*A^X) mankuhah
'
wife,
'
temporary wives
its
as
the Shi'as
in Persia,
them unlawful.
Kirman,
**"
sigha
women and
of its prostitutes.
THE ADJECTIVE.
159
In India, and probably in Afghanistan, U ^l(e is still an address for nafib valdls, etc. persons of position, but in Persia it is used for J*?j is often used to qualify a feminine noun, (11) An Arabic feminine elative " " the most Persian or Arabic, as dawlat-i 'uzma ^k* oJ>^ great empire smallest sister" <M*c j fc*&* O*AJA> ^i j& o!*xu* ^ d^f
^^
'
J<^
*?
a^
ofy (3*y
~^
** **
^^ Iq- Ndma-yi
an
J.,
Remark.
If
an Arabic adjective
of the
elative
but
t
if it
denotes colour or
fern.
deformity
its
feminine
fern.
is
as^i
"
yellow,"
,"
(u)
make
(male)
their feminines
in
* '
according to rule,
friend (female)"
jj^iAxj
:
(^ v^
:stx3
' '
niy friend
"
;
er^
and
ASJ^JUO
A*>^
&&^
my
;
In
of
classical Persian
and Arabic,
it is
while Jjy^*^ or
necessity,
v^ ^
5
^U
is
and hence
to distinguish it
as feminine.
In classical Arabic, it is a rule that " nouns which by their nature can do take the females not feminine termination. to Sa'di, neglecting apply only
this rule,
writes
(
AL/oU.
it
in the
:
word
"mistress."
vb
j.
ft.
vi^
^'
tell us,
Houris dwell
:
And
fountains run with wine and oxymel these be lawful in the world to come,
'tis
klf
(v)
Surely
right to love
them here
as well."
0.
K. 185 Whin.
(1)
Mushkil J^kxs
(pi.
mushkilat)
is
stantive
and an adjective. In modern Persian it is generally used as an adjective only, Jfc^ ishkal being usually used in writing and in m.c. for the substantive.
, (
both a substantive and an adjective: t***J-*5- **an excellent thing"; ^y p&jLL* |<X*P jfjt (mod.) "he was one of my best
(2)
is
Umda
***
Great offence was once given to a Persian Governor by the Afghan interpreter of
official
a British
ignorantly writing to
him
as 'ali-jah *^>
^^.
160
THE ADJECTIVE.
*\)j)
customers";
t**^
3'
"
fo.**
my
real object."
(w) (1)
Two
^ O^^OA+A ^.xxJUjfor ^
,
o^/c
' '
: ;
jjjb
oj#
was endowed with high aspirations a noble ambition U (Sa'di) " by the previous acquaintance we had " ajj
e;U/o
tf <^y*>
"he <&U
O**AJ
'J^-^
(Sa'di)
"by
fl?' Jfclj-*
(m.c.)
"former
days";
the felicity of the companionship* of dervishes and the purity of " their nature, his evil qualities became changed to good ones Lc$ (m.c.)
(Sa'di)
"by
is
necessary for a journey "; ,/#<x> LCJ$ (m.c.) "what planning is " O.AXU* " what is the ; (Sa'di} proper to right course to take necessary, <{ ^**>i ( a is wonderful this ^Jlax^ y or) good companionship";
"what
^K
^^
exploit"
^-^
health"; JUT
"
oy> j
AJJ^
"
^*>\j
complete error."
j*9
(2)
jx
jj-^
^K,
fern.
an Ar. adjective.
sf
*<,j**
^
+>
' '
JUia.1 (m.c.)
" there
is
",
kulli is
Kulliyyat **& is also an Arabic abstract noun also use kulli in the same sense.
o
totality
the Persians
*
its
(3)
antonym
of adjectives
*A5Us
^i
JJ
f
(
o>^ti
this
^jJb
^Je
.?~A.
(Sa'di)
"he
highest opinion of
sect"; vJ^JU
'
^^-.^
"upright conduct"; v^
jjUjf ^ir-
3^
"
fLkLt ^y-A.
is
"good
is
ad-
ministration, a/so good discipline, etc." " " the good thing about him is this
m.c. phrase
*&*!
er*^
used.
bi-kar-l sabiq
of **^ the fern, of <3?'** ) "precedents " based on a precedent." 2 In m.c. o*A:x\*e means " mention " conversation, also " he terms about him." in strong (m.c.) spoke (P 1
-
"
Jj^*
CS^i"*^
masbuq
*^-*t^
o-ksu
^uiu-^t
j\
Zama 9im
)
(pi.
of
A+J^)
(pi.
of
" laudable
actions or qualities."
in ^** distinguishes it
direction
" or
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
Similarly with 5r " bad ^
:
161
e^
<JU*^
*y* or
t '
"evil
*y
'
doing"
(x)
*y~
plight"
"
;
" rudeness
pa*
' ' ;
*y*
indigestion";
' '
^f
^t
' '
;
&$&>
f?~>
"evil end
<J^ ty
^
The
in
classical
^U
^s^
<<
common
>
or well-known matter
or
"
is
not so
common
Persian, as ^*?+* e>-, fb ^iua (m.c.). 'Umumi is an Arabic adjective. A few Arabic adjectives and some Persian and Arabic participles are (?/) before a substantive, followed by an izdfat instead of by a preposition
modern
ow J
'
JUt/o (Sa'di)
"it
is
oHi
(m.o.)
"
;
^'
A-^^J (m.c.)
" this
is
Muhal-i
mumkin ^+*
Jlax/c (m.c.) is X
na-mumkin
(z)
^*.x)6 ^ Jlsxx;.
but JU means " "smooth, level"; c>^ *J -, however, is to strain %mcZ through cloth," and <J^*o j ^b is " clean." " Indians and Afghans use u*b in the sense of "pure only, and oUe in
l
the sense of
' '
clean
' '
;
also
( '
completely wholesale
(of
a thing)
121
' '
.
Remark
(aa)
I.
^ andy ^ vide
(6).
The addition
ana
*i.'
and to
" adjectives forms adverbs, as: **t<^o manly, virile ": " " " muluk, pi. of king") Ai[^Jd bravely, boldly 108 (a). also
wa^
"royal (from
ailawuf
-
ai&U
After a 'vowel,'
etc.
is
made,
as:
dandyana
ai|alLf
adverb
is
"in a more masterly way" seems to be an exception, as the here formed from a noun.
44.
Compound
Adjectives.
**>
.
Any noun with a particle prefixed may become an adjective, or a " the man whole phrase may be an adjective Jl/o b ^x> possessed of
(a)
:
property: ow^Ajj^li (Sa'di) "poor-spirited": dar manda: [>A;^^- sar dar hava (m.c.)
ear bi-ginban ^xjjJo^o "full of
Jtf^U pa
:
dar
gil (m.c.)
=
:
kun-ma-kun
&* (.f
<
' '
"fearing none":
a?so
command
" out
' '
:
o;i*>
kas ma-tars
outlandish
ma-purs
of
the
way,
Jlsuo^)Aa. "impossibility."
11
162
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
^."
"on
In
sar-i
dast e~;>
^
is
"ready
at
hand,"
sar-i
zabdn
practically a preposition.
:
of a whole clause, as " " slave with a bi-gush (Sa'di) ring in his ear
u>&
:
AfcU>
<u*/
Aw&i tj*&f ^j+X) country taken in isrfjdilAj (j*jjj " **-*& (Sa'di) a merchant whose ship has been wrecked and an heir who has " associated with Kalendars
jang girifta (m.c.)
: :
war "
Jl
*J
JJ
-J^ji
lgA**
0*9,} UftT
Itol
jj
Uj
XA
^t
(Sa'dt).
"
Oh thou
owwl^xu
kuchak-i
mam
si su-yi basta-yi
Chap. XVIII, "he called me into a private place, closed on three with its door opening into the harem."
sides,
Note the position of \j in: p\ **& jfe h ^2** ^l <J$\j*t>Jtj* " I have never encountered such a difficult law-case as this." (b) Compound adjectives are formed
:
(m.c.)
(1)
i t, A broken-hearted
4.
>
of gentle disposition
.
-)
in
wretched circumstances
>
j
^
of pleasant voice
- : ill-tempered
|^
mixed elements.
Remark I. Compounds with cJ^i and ** are rare in modern colloThe compound j*t* -^ is common. quial. Remark II. The adjectival member can qualify two substantives, as: JU^ JL. ^y jt^ fj;4- (^- -B- C'Aop. FT) "a muleteer stout and fG^Ui " here strong, 'All Qatir by name Jlj j JLj ^y stands for Jb ^y j JL In modern Persian the former construction is preferred.
(2)
kf
and
or
UUW C*J=
and
(pi.
^UJ
Jl^.
of toAn)
infin.
{<
chanting."
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
*/
jl)i
(>]***
'
163
Remark.
j or
(3)
The members
*jJk
of the
^j
"grey-beard, old
vide also (16)
:
inverted, thus
Two
nouns
lion-hearted on-earte
,.
.) >
an ~V
[both
Arabic.
an S eL
JUL
,j)lkx
<-*J
diabolical in thought
J*J
ruby-lipped
scattering pearls
.
!
...
...
J-
munificent
)
[
^J oyt|
Remark.
as
2
ruby-lipped
v'^T
(4)
ertfl.3R.A3
Rarely the compound consists of two Arabic broken plurals, " vide also " ^jcUfci^f people of exquisite manners (16).
:
root
scattering
fire.
~\
^ heart- afflicting.
Isubstantive Persian.
^ world-conquering.
Ik*,
fault-forgivmg.
\subBtantive Arabic.
assembly adorning.
"Pardon
K. 884 Whin.)
(<*.
This
compound has
:
often a passive, not an active, sense, as: <_. God": i/&"*J!> ru shinas "known by face,
:
i.e.
J ' " tamed acquaintance jj./of ^*& dast-amuz (of wild birds, etc.)" " pay-mal trampled under foot."
JU ^b
1 *'
In modern
as
well as
classical
Persian,
shir
' '
lion
' '
is
often an adjective
brave."
*
Mahaain t^la^/o p i. o f ^^^A., beauty, any good quality; the moustache and beard": adab v'^T, pi. of adab ^if manners.
164
(5)
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
Adjective (P. or A.) or adverb prefixed to a Persian verbal root
.
sweetly-singing.
well-wishing.
f
-*J
quick apprehension.
thinks after the deed
is
^prefix Persian.
who
...
Ut
in
Arabic. ^-prefix r
i
Some
of these
signification, as
j^f jJ
experienced, a beginner" wlj f> ''difficult to be obtained, scarce." (6) Of substantive (P. or A.) and past participle
:
^
a.
experienced.
tried in battle, proved.
,
I
j
substantive Persian.
^
Y substantive
i
Arabic.
is
dead (abuse to
dropped, as
is
^f
*-&j
ato l<^-
"rusty" "given by
God."
Compounds
(7)
of Arabic
*J
(^
-^ -^3
ji)t
tc.
irreligious.
unjust.
cowardly. unwise.
imperious, tyrannical.
subordinate, oppressed.
jfe useful.
^felj
JtV
jj
wealthy.
t b
with
salt
pleasant-featured
pleasant of conversation.
possessed of sense.
a Persian verb from the Arabic root
khajlat.
From
c^-fc+f*
Properly
olsu^
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
(8)
165
** bed-fellow.
>
Persian substantive
.
p*
fellow-traveller.
*+c +*>
of the
same
age.
}
}
Arabic substantive.
^ Persian verbal,
_,
f
5j
school-fellow.
J
"I
/* travelling together.
/*A
JV
(9)
playing together.
J
]
A substantive
OA==U
^ as a privative
"|
^
^
,*?
unfortunate (contemptuous).
weak.
inexperienced.
_
J
. ,., ,,
.,
,
,
^.>
^Arabic substantive. J
U* prefixed to adjectives, substantives, Persian verbals and past participles (compare with 12)
(10) 2V
:
U displeased
(mod.).
LJ
(class.);
unwell 1
!
impure;
(of
k jJb
l
.
not liked.
v ^U
>
S,
>
3
A adjective, Arabic.
,.
,.
,.
rough.
k of
U inconstant
IJ
"1
useless.
)
I
various compounds.
U out of place.
li
of
mean
resolution or ambition. J
ignorant.
not understanding.
G rude
L>
;
rough.
unpraised.
unabridged.
j^j
viA-J^
^L^a. j^
lxf
S^
l>
Was
Li
e'er
man born
>!
unmanly, coward.
worthless.
hopeless.
l^
IS
121 (6). For the negative use of and vide f f*, In compounds usually na and not na. Before an infinitive either U or
*>.
166
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
In modern Persian
&
is
li
as
*ioi
o~^
in
modern Persian
is
preferred to
*io
IJ
o*~^
*<xx>
j*a
(after cooking)."
In negative compounds, when part of the compound is a verbal root, the r< Godless v!^ a^U negative should immediately precede it, as (j^Sli \**> "not having slept." Sa'dT, however, has <^l* jf^O for (jji^lj J^.
' '
:
Remark
(11)
/.
In speaking, na-ghafl
l
is
The privative^*
yhayr-i
:
and
o^p
ghayr-i tahqiq
absent.
A* unconditional.
&
J.P
ou ^
i/o^jjp
jjp
unmarried
(wife).
uncultivated, etc.
.AP
involuntary.
not allotted.
uneducated,
ill-bred.
** (m.c.) unofficial.
^-J^
*
sp
' '
^i ojj ^o (Shah's Diary) men and women without number were everywhere drawn up in lines on
' '
'
Remark.
In 4-o^xaxj^Ac "not taken possession of, unappropriated" and ji "immovable (property)," the participle is feminine to agree with
viz.
:
^JU.
In *yiLc
^
X
it is
not clear
why
the
used.
f ollows
r**
the use
in
modern
# In Arabic j*p
t
oi^f
is
is
rare
is
followed
by
is
"impure."
ala.
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
Sometimes the participle has the
inherited."
(12)
167
it,
added to
as:
^))y
j*?
"not
Arabic
})
"no, not"
;tj
<_jib
$ belonging to
'
no one.
3J
unique.
>
->
A*
helpless, without
remedy
'
;
ijLa*
Remark.
et
Ld-ubali
^U
"-.'*
il,
adj.,
careless,"
),
is
really
an Arabic verb
J#U/o (root
*(,*
wfe
(15).
*'
void of
"
and
"
(*><***,
^A^JI fjAc non-existing. y^i fj<*t* (m.c.) lost to ken, disappeared (of a thief).
A~:sJ| ^cxxj ^oVi
(as the
*>^y
i.e.
fabulous
"
Simurgh)-
Remark.
UjJ>
,
<4xc,
Ar.,
The substantive f <xc is used for forming substantives, and ^ .*xc Per., " want of fidelity."
5
as
(14)
Compound Arabic
-
adjectives,
compounded
]
:
of
an adjective or a
JUU
tjAj*
(15)
known by name
2
only.
*jJf
v
Arabic
phrases,
as
AJ^I
t^>c8
"
K
9
31
U
' '
"
beyond expression
' '
c^
^1
"immortal "
:
'
(lit.
"
)
:
Jj^
uncultivated
(lit. it
i^M/t^
(lit.
"boasting" what he
"
you
:
will
not see
me"):
<-&
x
,
'
possessions," subs.
cj-'U*'
possesses)
Ja*->
J(
^Jbftij
$ "unceasingly, adv.
Jjj^l
[lit.
adv.,
"as
for-
merly";
o^^
mast-i la ya'qil
nothing "].
Remark.
ta'alq
Uii *JJt
When
"
the phrase contains an Arabic verb, such as in Allah God, may He be exalted," the Persians, if the first word is
vowel of the genitive
is
The
final short
omitted.
1
Many
10 (n).
In m.c.
ilayh *
muml
ilayh'
*\
*
^*J'-
Mushar un
ilayh
**l,*
&
}'
Lam
168
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
:
Khudawand-i
ta.'alq
mast-i Id ya'qil.
(16)
like
li*>
L^ ^j
L
shaped
like
a boat.
a h ouri'
like the
is
with a face
moon
beautiful.
&xiHxj;
Manand
*siJl,
adj.,
"like",
derived from
and, affixed to a
t;j>
Rarely, a broken plural is used, as: haza*ir-i falak-naza^ir jtt& t-Jj^5lfe^ enclosures high and inaccessible as the heavens ty&i JU.J falaJc nazira (or nazir) would also be correct.
:
(17)
is
prefixed to a
noun
very
&.
alert.
;
four-cornered
square, oblong.
U.
four-year-old; vide
98
(b) (4).
Remark. Adverbs and substantives are also so formed, as: &&} (JS " to to sit tailor- fashion ": go at full gallop": ^i^o y|j ;U. "a market-place."
(c)
y^
;^
The following words, chiefly Arabic, are frequently attached to substantives and adjectives to form compound adjectives
:
(1)
*j?.*t
"receiving,"
as:
jj*j J^A*.
"possible";
jjlw
;
ji*$ j*+*>
(m.c.)
of buildings).
slu
pandh "asylum,
ma-ab
lit.
refuge,
shelter", as:
ci^ft*x:
"asylum
(^ or
of
pardon"
(3)
VU
*r
"
c; t-^
kin^gs).
place of
return": J(*
ized."
(4) ){*& shi'ar,
lit.
"outer
garment; anything
envelops
the
body"; ; UA
from kardan
}&j? ,
doubt, error."
of
Hurl LS)^
is
Pers.
Hur }j^,
:
Ar.,
is pi.
^, ^^
fem. of
)^is
In Persian
huriyya
*
used as a singular
pazlru/tan
*
though Ar.
pi. in
From
From
^^0
or pizruftan
"to
receive."
*-Vl
VI "to return
INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES.
(5)
yiif
169
;L>T
o^/o
"
(of people).
e^j.c
(6) (7)
'
nishan "sign,
W<SM&
mark"
^^
= o> ,_^U.
:
31
vi^t
"arrangement,
(of things).
manner"
"
:
v_^.U>f
ytf
0-^
(8) ;ty>
"well-shaped" "
^aroV
j
(9) ^acui^c
mashjiun
" "filled
in Hell."
(10) ^ri***
oj&i
"
of returning,
going":
(11) ^f^/o
centre of respect."
(of
(12)
"
place
:
&&*
Muslims
only).
(13)
v*^
naslb
"portion, fate":
v*^ o^a.
award
of Paradise."
(14)
*^oj pishd
(15)
^^3
qarin adj.
"trade "
"
:
*AJ
la^
(k*.
"
"
tyrannous."
c)jj7^
joined, contiguous
and
maqrun
past. part.
&**
Note
oJj.i
also
"fortunate, wealthy"; CJLJ^= o^l*** = oal*** U. the following qarln-i maslahat ^y*L6.& ^jS "advisable":
j*<o
The verbal adjective in alif " jddu-kund (obs.) practising- magic ":
(16)
desert."
i5-
Intensive Adjectives.
is
(a)
(1)
An
intensive adjective
jective a
alif-i ta'ajjub
v ? ^N ^
;
<Jt-*
Kbushd
is
bi-hdl-i
sulh-kunandagdn
c^*u*
ct
This intensive
which
alif
;
and
is
of
rare
occurrence, except after the adjectives o-A - ^ and ^. usually precedes the noun it qualifies ; but ' vide basd Adverbs of Quantity (I) 3.
In old Persian, the substantive so qualified has often a as well, as khushd Shwdza " oh delightful is Shiraz! " <&> j& ty tjy
(2)
:
final
alif
J<*
^.^
(6)
(1)
intensified
K ^^sJ
tJJ
,
^ e p.
12
170
tive, as
INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES.
:
cU*^
:
'
^Axk
(m.c.)
"
very pretty"
V;^
;
"
very bad
:
"
"a
great eater,
"a
perfect fool
"
jt^li
oi^
"very
^2 oicwo y u sakht shad unpalatable" Jt^*> cJoJ (class.) quite easy" <x " he became sliud (m.c.) ^*> very delighted": ojl^iji p"*^. Jrlf-*' Jj* c^VK)^ " the c**a in j>j+xxx j vs*&xj my eyes extremely terrifyprecipices appeared 45: y>xh$ ing "; vide (m.c.) "an accentuated ass, an ass and an ass
^^
*
again."
C5~^
For
L5 J J
!
O*
t$~*#
<J?L>
C5
CT"^
<JT
*^!
*^
f**
(3).
^k*
U*^
"
this
(I)
(2) It
is
may
be intensified by the
" =
of unity, as
*J
^; u*A ^ ^
' '
what a very
Repetition
may
^tAfL j
give a continuative or intensive signification, as: j)t>j)jt> dur u daraz "very far
;
away
(a)
"
:
*i^
(lit.
this
meaning, vide
140
(3)
^li^xj
fuqara*
The repeated adjective may be in the plural, as mast-i mastdn OM~XI "dead drunk": faqir^l^Aft^jjaJ faqir-i faqirdn, or tX3&kji "a
:
In the
title
pauper of paupers, very very poor." ^UlioLL modern Persians and Indians insert the
izdfat.
Mons.
" Raymond, the translator of the Seir Mutaqherin," Indian holder of the title, used the izafat. 3
who knew
at least one
is
title
equivalent to
Amir
'
I-
(d)
(e)
117
(j)
(4)
Remark.
form
an
ism-i
The
j&*>
prefixes
p**\
),
*js
-ji& to a
substantive
mukabbar
*tj
(of
etc.
"main-road": *^ l "a big cup or pot " ^ " " a large variety of mulberry oy l wing) y^ *&,
"flight-feather
j;ti
'^,
^*-jJ
Ui,
Khar-magas ,j*Xo^L
' '
' f
"horse-fly":
' '
:
pavilion
._i*yk
a large stone
^^"
"crab":
lf^
"
large tent,
' '
:
*-^Jj=^
**
much
2
8
"
prettier.
He however
Khar ^^
in
'
title).
171
&&j*& "a
large kind of
wheat":
"
hearted."
(2)
large clod":
"whirlwind, frenzy":
u^.^
"
brave, hard-
khar-as
^^
j*
j&*
"
signifies
' '
ass
,
' '
ass-mill
' '
:
a&a
hog-backed
u
"
large
il*>*
:
JA.
"asinine": c~~cji
very large penis."
(3)
"
vulg. "having an
ass-like or
or " ass-eared
"
is
a disputed
point.
46.
(a)
(1)
is
formed by adding
y
:
to the positive,
" " more pur jam'iyyat-tar j OUA+A. (Sa'di), in (m.c.) y populous Mod. Pers. y e;>c U, "more honoured ": in Pers. Mod. o*!? (Sa'di), " more delicious." eA> t, _y
as
:
^^
(2)
(
The
superlative, which
is
not
much used
in
Modern Persian
[vide
r ) (3)], is
to
(3) The comparative can be used in the plural, as " those greater than us." (4) The superlative has no plural.
Remark. Note that the comparatives of the past participles u^f " more comfortable " " " more humble " " more wlwf y &M+f> intelligent
;
are in
use.
common
use
but not
y awl?
^jL*3,y js^jjJl^jy
in
(b)
(1)
feminine,
as: kabir
f
em
When
lative
is
when
super-
by the genitive, (2) The Arabic elative (so called because ft includes both comparative and superlative) when it is a comparative makes no change in Arabic for gender
,
or number.
(3)
The Arabic
elative
is
used in Persian. 2
vaqt-i
ahsan tj-^
oJ>j
'
The Arabic comparative has no feminine nor Both as a comparative and a superlative.
plural.
172
propitious time": ^^J &**' )* dar as'ad zaman-i "in a very fortunate " as ad~i zamdn " the most fortunate of the time ej^3 ^*~ age."
(
f
(4)
J^Uj^Cjsl
pjftyt&ytfc!
(5)
*M y>
is
fit
oljblfo ai^jji
for
H.
B.,
Chap.
^ ^ (Tr. H. B., Chap. XXI) "no, me who am the most skilled of physicians VII) "I am the most poetical of poets."
' '
:
Generally speaking, Arabic adjectives in Persian form their degrees of comparison in the Persian manner: cL*l* J* diet* ^.y cUU.
tarin is sometimes contracted (6) The affix t^y or "the least": or e^t "the best": &* greatest": <^ .-or &ij*ji "the highest": these words
j
to
%n
as:
3
t^tf.
^J^
^^ or^A*
" the
or
are classical
poetical only.
double comparative is sometimes formed by adding the Persian Arabic elative ci~*!y J^'f p}& ^Ucjf AX^ (Sa'di) "he asked what is the best kind of worship " <^y J-a (m.c.) " the most excellent" cu~y Vj! d)tjf !=&A: cA^*t ;l*> } J~i was? w tabar-i IsTian munqati' kardan
(c)
affixes to the
aula-tar^ ast
(Sa'di) "it is better to destroy their stock, and root it out." Than with the comparative is expressed by (d) &A& jyL^c ^ ^iuwoy cu*j ^t 31 (Sa'di) " you (1) The preposition jf, as have never in your life spoken a truer word J&cm this " jfy A- ^'3' <^2 m cJ^i 6^ar (m.c.)=y ^t *^ ^j}' az w chiaula-tar 3 m.c. " what better than this? "
:
Remark.
Note the
3;
signification of
3'
" one
B.,
of
"
in the following
cW
me
JU.; *^J&Uf
k$
*& ALJf.i
[Tr.
H.
Chap. VII)i
' '
:
"
that he was a
man
of the greatest
poets": vide
(2)
(e) (4).
Nisbat
o->"~J,
or bi-nisbat
o^J &
as:
nisbat
^**
>V
(3)
)\
ast (class.)
u bihtar-ast (m.c.) ( ^j&is o*>.-> or) ujjjA?*? CUA-S> " in comparison with the rest he is good" bi-nisbat-i u bihtar " she is better than he " vide
;
(w) (6).
is
'
sometimes substituted
for
j\
^jj**t
^+&
dismissal
from
office is better
than employ-
The
plural
pi.
i^^-t, here.
" Mihtar, the comparative, also means, prince, lord," and is the title of the ruler a of Chitral. In India a sweeper is by euphemism styled Mih-tar, just as a tailor, In Afghanistan and Persia mihtar etc., is called Khalifa, and a water-carrier Jama dar.
2
1
means
3
*'
a groom.
' '
or
is
an
*'
norkumm
*
be confused with &^)\ ula the feminine of Jji "first." " it's best for us to hold our (m.c.) tongue."
Plural of
-ksf, elative of
Aula an
Tel
dlgar gu/t u
173
"
is
" x *? ^ty* murdan-at bih ki mardum-azari (Sa'di) thy <^yjt (*^ ' ' better than thy afflicting of mankind
:
:
thou desirest the truth, then it were better that a thousand eyes should be blind (like the bat ) than that the sun should be darkened."
If
l
(i).
:
Occasionally the comparative is followed by an izafat, as bihtar-i u jihtarin guzin-i hama &** <^,_$ '&*jW-j^ (Nam-i Haqq of Shah Sharaf 'dDm, Bukhari the Prophet) "better than the best and chosen of all "; =
az bihtarm bihtar, vide
(e)
(ri)
(4).
and
"I
superlative, Persian or Arabic, is followed by the genitive, * tj o*U* &%**> i^/*& generally by the plural ^iai (Sa'd!} the rule over this country except to the meanest of the will not
(1)
The
grant
slaves
' '
:
*Uxi:
o^t
' '
:
of created
things": sl>>^x>
Jif
(Sa'di)
"the meanest
of existing things."
" the best of In J^5/l <.r~^f shapes, the best shape" and like construcArabic the in noun is second the genitive plural. tions,
In
correct.
"the best
its
substitution for a
the superlative qualifies a noun absolutely, it is treated as " the an ordinary adjective, as pkc- &f) greatest support": ^IjcX-c "the
When
Prime Minister"
or o~-t
u bihtarm mard
is
ast,
ormard-i bihtannast cu
^
tc
**
*'he
the best
man."
"
(Sa'di]
Such a
terrible
it,
Its least
not say I have given a most noble pearl (lady) to a most 8 husband." renowned (3) Such sentences as "go to the nearest village" may be rendered, oUa of jt ^A^ (^jy -^!>>V (class.) but more usual *Al y 2j>
I
will
;
"
^^
(m.c.).
Mush-i kur )j
(j
is
"
4
'~>
But
khilqat-i
This construction
the best creation." ahsan er*^"' is not used in this sense in Modern Persian.
^*^
"
174
is
Buzurg-tar imarat-i
five
ways
&
(ii)
Kirman
ast In ast
(in)
Buzurgtarin makan-i ki
aii/o
(4)
1$ (iv) Makan-i buzurgtarin-i ki ^.j^^. In makan-i buzurgtarin-i Kirman ast (v) " One of the most is expressed by jt
' '
^
"
Rustam
yak-i az dilavar-
Iraniydn bud &# c^-Jyl ^ir* )$*$ C5^ (***"> vide (d) (1) Remark. can be strengthened by prefixing the adverbs (/) The comparative vide Intensive 45 (6) (1) j^JUt j>*~> <^U A Adjectives, ^JUa. and jLjrr etc.
tarin-i
1
' '
(Shah's Diary)
y^j ^^ ^
alone, as
' '
o**
:
*-**>
(m.c.)
"
*>
." is o^ty^j J/( of and Persian The "perfect" (a supersuperlative comparative (h) lative in itself) are vulgar or poetical, and correspond to the incorrect English more perfect, most complete, more unique, etc." The Persians expressions also say y *>j farid-tar, but noty U> yakta-tar.
(m.c.)
**
c^
-^
hamdn
bihtar ast ki
'
'
(1)
(1)
The
positives
ju
AJ - *
&*>
and
parative:
(
f
*^
j^.^
[the
e^l
Jt
e^Up cup(y
^jj
t5*
C5l^
for
3*
jr* ^^
in the
(Sa
di)
"we
king]
will
you
'
by you worship better than this may " this is better than that in bih az an ast (m.c.) o*} ^j] &> ^1 JU^ ^jJ; " * JU^jU-^3 V andak-i jamal bih az bisyari-yi mat (Sa'di) a little beauty oi*.*. t$ & oiu is better than much wealth bazu-yi bakht bih ki
leisure for city, so that
' '
: ' ' :
be obtained
"
^jb
^jb
Vide also
(d) (3).
:
Bih
AJ is
also
"
it
be disbanded,
' '
off.
The
&Jty
(4) Ziiyad
&j
M
is
is
a comparative for
y
;
for
facilitated." properly means Muyassar J 2 Here t^s'fer**. might be either an adjective with the (^ the sake of euphony (number of syllables) Persians make
1
of
it
unity, or a
noun
but
bisyarl-yi.
mat.
3
4i
ashamed. "
175
x&
"
^)
or
a*y
"
abj
give
me more,"
rottft?-
ziydd-i
^abj
(m.c.)
' '
a long
l
people.
" an excessive concourse of speech"; but -^*+^ <**> Jf tobj i^ m odern is a hadd for az jl >kj vulgarism Ziyad ziydda (or ziyad- tar]
J^
az hadd <^ y
<_#
comparatives.
Pish
"before
(of
time),"
has
comparative sense.
However
y
Jf
e>t>*i
^3 iJte
also used.
(6)
also
Jjlau/o
<*'
f;|sj ^1>,>
l^Xi
maw
na-daram
lei
bi-guyam (m.c.)
"
o^x
cJO <^>c
An
English
adjective
:
qualified
positive (as in
Urdu)
by "too"
(
is
expressed
or
)
by the
*&j
1
cjCx*,
e^>!
e^i* ^5^ e^
(m.c.)
"
^(^ ^\
this tea is
is
jb
0^! v
t5^-i^
W^* <^' in qdli-hd khayl^bad ast,baz in yak-l (m.c.) but this one is somewhat better (but still not
is
When
"
:
a comparison
follows
o~vo|
ass is the
or the superlative
^
1
y o~o
Iftj^jl^.
ki khar az
hama-yi
2
jdnvarhd past-tar
o^.^;^U.
:
ast (m.c.).
r o~*j
>
t$ *ujZ
or tf
*v^
A*.
^jy ov-o
is
.i..
(m)
The following
a vulgarism
-- <-6^
^)j*
^
az
oJit^
y ^,
kuchah-tar.
^^
dukhtar dasht, yak-l buzurg, yak-i kuchak, yak-i kuchak-i Prof. S. T. "he had three daughters, one big, one little, one
si
4UA
jt
or
one."
hama
kuchak- tar
(n)
(1)
The Har
.
superlative can also be expressed as follows chi tamdm-tar &*.j& "as complete as possible": o^ofjj b
:
yxU
"
I
in
my mind."
(2)
kiazdn
jj^i l<xu m c .) "a diamond ^;>^f3t fJU ; aa> o ( ^-Ul &b has been found here, the largest in the world (lit. as large as any in the cJOx: ;<> ar world)" *>*y*y cxjlic ^b v lk^ V U^ 31 y^fb
t
^y
buzurg-tar
(or
^f
khitdb-i
l
Rdmrdj,
ki
dar mulk-i
Dakan
bald-tar
indyat farmudand.(Iq. Nama-yi Jah., p. 244, Bib. Ind. Ed. of As. Soc.
1
Adjectives ending in
y^r>
(&j*~j,
etc.
Batar
colloquially used
176
Beng.)
(Tr.
H.B., Chap. XXXIII) "the water-carriers had so sprinkled and swept the roads that their work couldn't have been better done."
(3)
By an
intensive
*
perfectly,
unique,"
etc., as:
^j o**3
li
bi-(jkayat zisht-ruy
:
"*
JU'
of utmost prettiness khush-gil "he excelled all the ^i^U 31 J.x* ;> khushgil: jU*o nihayat "he was most the sovereigns of the age in justice": d#) *z#* ^jf f&\ j* 'Urn yagana (or bi-nazir or bi-qarina) ast dar Muslims": the of pious OA*| ( e^r t5 or j-h&H^ or) *J^ )*" he is unique, or alone, in knowledge":
^a yhayr n 'nihayat
"
^c
o^f^e s^^"
= ^t*?j|
2 6as
<;
he
is
"
<JS^
&
&*.j#
c^?,
Azhadd
<^ji,
^y
(^)
AAJ^/O
JU^;j>,
or dar nihayat-i martaba t^j* ool^a are similarly used. bihtarin bihtar J^> ^(/^j* "better than the (4) ^l
bihtarin,
(5)
best"
(or bihtar-i
i^t?^) v ^ e
By the positive,
*'
4 ) etc (
:
as
' '
he
is the
clever
man
of the city
"
:
e^^t
= |*y ;^^
(6)
he
is the
In
it a superlative idea, as
(0)
(1)
The To participles,
sometimes prefixed to an adjective to give bar buland *&> ^ (class, and rare) very high." comparative or superlative suffix is also added
'
:
jf^jAi^jU (Sa'di)
as:
may
oa/*2Jt*>
is
objection-
especially objectionable
^jy
Jj***> (m.c.)
^jy is seldom added to Persian participles. The comparative takes its place, as in rang az hama girifta-tar ast &+& )\ ^-&> ^Jt o^t ^3 i&tjZ (m.c.) "this shade is the darkest." Asuda-tarm ^.^ J>rT,
superlative suffix
:
The
mahbub-tann ^j*
(2)
V_.^AXL/O
To a few
tr-i^
,
prepositions
or j- (
^lb
"
)
"upon,"^
1
"higher":
or t^jj
:
highest":
"below",
^0 and
c^-ir
^3
J(b, etc.
(3)
To
in modern Persian
and
vulg.)
l
"more comfortable
^^-f (m.c.
^j
(
Uff
Dam-i dar
+& (m.c.)
" threshold
of the door."
*'
that
back, repulsion":
v'^
i)
"a
In m.c.
' '
&&>
means "
mark," and
radd-i
pa ^
&) is
' '
foot-print.
177
(Vazir-i
Lankuran, stage
door
on
J^J?
e>T
"a L>**
little
"Taymur Aglja crosses at back " " a little more this ojJs ^\ <^*$ way " " " more that way more comfortable OA.IJ
"
direction).
:
than a lion": dush" man-tarin-i dashmanan (m.c.) cA*<* <^y (?*& the most inimical of one's enemies": dust-tarm-i dustan &&*jz e^L;^*?^ (m.c.) "the most friendlike of
(m.c.)
is
all
e^(y^x^jf
"he
more
of a lion (braver)
one's friends."
(p)
may
an adjective and substantive, the comparative suffix sometimes optionally be added, either to the end of the whole compound
To compounds
first
of
or to its
(Sa'di)
member,
as:
x<V^
cAf^
;* <^^>
y ^)j>. >^
Jf
*&&
\)
^U?
*jU>
they asked Hatim-i To,** if he had ever seen anyone with a more nature than himself." In this example buzurg himmat-tar cuwb J^>> generous could be substituted for buzurg-car himmat CU*A ^ ^;^, and this latter
"
reading,
to the
modern Persian
suffix at the
ear, occurs in
some
editions
of the Gulistan.
It is
add the
end
of the
compound.
Remark.
The superlative
is
^y
eu*
but
'
ali-himmat-tann
^y
O**A
^Lc
is
correct.
A>
*b ^f
of
*
The comparative sometimes gives the meaning of the superlative (Sa'di) "the greatest regret on the Day j.; ^ J*j~s*j> ^)JJ. " than that a Resurrection will be
(q)
(1)
OV^LJJ'
this,
(lit.
regret greater
others:^
:
O~AXC y J^j o^'^ ^&su (Sa'di) "in the sight of enmity excellence is the " 8 ^>yy>. greatest blemish" ouy^ ^'*> l^ijt j " which of these is the best ? o^l AL[^J:;3 A^^l *y i/j* j j* (m.c.) " the biggest and strongest horse in the
:
stable
A' O~~A> c^^jrt^^ t*/*j**l)? buzurg-tar mard-l dar skahr kas-% hast ki " the ." (m.c.) greatest man in the city is that man who In all these examples there is an ellipsis of az hama &**> j\ or az dlgaran
:
"
^j}& 31.
(2)
Note the
^ of unity.
^.y <J^
y.
Buzurg-tar az buzurgtann
"
:
<s
^;jj
highest
(3)
As already stated
:
modern
Persian.
usually
In compound adjectives, the comparative with az hama &*Ajiis " this substituted as JUJb ^UJi cl JUb &**
o~*iy
^jA^l.^
^i
(m.c.)
Hatim
To,'
I
is
in Persian usually
Hatam.
is
Hatim
2 3
^U ^^.
*8t.
9
Or
o*~o-vxc 'ayb-i
Or kudam yak Or
12
178
The phrase " and what was stranger still, etc." is rendered: y &fj a.- ^jf *&f y (mod.). (class.), and double The (s) progressive positive in English is rendered as follows " " He worse and worse oy<5J j^ )^ (m.c.), or more correctly got
v^
two or more comparatives or superlatives occur together, the suffixes can be added to each, or to the last only in the latter case the clause may sometimes be ambiguous: ^T JtJ-j^ j <^^*' j* &\* p* v^V -' -&*f 3M y ^X&~AD j jj^jjlj (m.c.) he (the king of the gods) is more ancient even than the sun and the moon, and is more lasting and enduring than they." In hhana
(t)
(I)
If
'
'
large
o}y"
j
x*j ^
u%
this
*Jl^ ^;i
may mean
larger
either
"
this
house
' '
:
or
'
house
is
o*;
IfJLk
(jjy
x^
<J^
is
aili.
^i
(m.c.)
open
to the
same
o?
^^^
** e*Lr>
<5^
(m.c.), digar
should be omitted.
(2)
first
may take
LJi/vi*****
^ o'yl
^ ^y ^*Ux
^ ^Uy
j^*.*
-,
&fc*U
^Ut ^^
of
example
but in
adjective
regarded
" Locutions like " the quicker the better are rendered as follows " tlie " farther you go, the deeper the water becomes o**oty ^^3 <-^f LS^J*)^ ^J*
(u)
:
(m.c.)
"the nearer we approached the shore the rougher the sea became"
l
iXi-jj/o^i^jo
lei*
Uja )
^ixiJ
*;^
o~
*^ )**
j* (m.c.):
o,**?
ztrd
har
'^3
nazdik-tar
ast
parishan-tar
11
(m.c.)
is
yJL^.^J
y^J^V *v*
the
is
the more
one* distracted."
are
illustrated
Comparisons
:
between
clauses
in
following
examples
(1)
"
kings are
^lAl&ab *->y& ^IcXi/oijA &' JOjJ r-liaa.'O ijfcMxs^^ OSXA-OXJ ^UUs^lj (Sa'dl] more in need of the advice of wise men, than wise men of associa-
tion with
' '
kings": )y***
&\&jz>
)& *$ cu-t^iJ^f
is
presence":
friends'.
*6
^yS'U-kjdJi
L^i
^^
^t
y,
^/o
^^b ^f
(Sa'di)
"0
"
:
I'm more
t
am
of the robbers
Aj^liJf .-AD
j^k^.^j,
^j,j
is
heard in m.c.
*
3
" takes the Note that &'^& " whoever place ^+J ? " *^***f absence, but
Ghaybat
ghibat
<
pronoun
" one."
back-biting."
him a mile
179
&a> bisyar
;^;
y>>>>l ^ dar
aft
chust
u chalak bud (ki) man bi-an miqdar na-budam (Afghan) " he was much than I was." quicker and cleverer at the business " o~f than die rather "I would beg ^\<^ j( o^/o ^* J^* (m.c.), (2)
or more rhetorically bi-mlrad insan va gada*i na-kunad <*& " " To be like, equal to (3)
:
(J>\*&
\^*~J\
^&j
c;tJ>yc
^0 ^l
xu
&
to
<*f
o**!
c) 1
^-
&*J
c>t*
t^y&
(Sa'di).
"To do
(4)
kindness to the
as
the good."
"She was
much renowned
and
"
:
jiiU (m.c.
incorrect):
now "
I '^y ** c^^j (m.c.) hich vaqt an qadar na-khurda budam ila in vaqi *^;>J >Afiif oJj " he was as brave as Rustam * and as wise as Luqman" ^j (m.c.)
l
:
beauty
" o**^ ; ^y
"h|
has as
i j^
_,
^ ^Lo,
O^UL^ ;^y
6
"he was
as beautiful as
f
Joseph*
and
Majnun" &j*?-*> ^5^5-5 ^^'^ '^**^ ur**^ ^ ''he was as patient as Job and as afflicted as Jacob" u dar tahammul Ayyub va dar huzn Ya'qub bud 6 ^yuj c^;^j v>-!' JUad'^'j*: "the carriages and horses of this carriage city are neither as numerous nor as good as those of
as faithful as
:
Russia
' '
c5^~f "
So
7
<-^
vi
l^f (Shah's
as:
Diary).
(5)
^
1
^J>f
^uol^
by
*}
" Never would a father act so kindly to a son," " As Thou hast acted to the race of Adam."
Or
fehurda
am
+\ *J>;>^.
Instead of
oJu ^jf
it
would be better
to say ^/L^
:
^.
the
Sigzi (^$_j*~ /*i-j Jlj /*i-; Hercules of Persia: his exploits are celebrated in Firdausi's great epic, the
and Rustam-i
he
is
Shah-Nama.
of
is
pronounced hamchi.
of the East, said to
has been identified with ^Esop. Others state that he was a son of Job's sistv a son of Job's aunt, a disciple of David, a judge in Israel. " a second 4 Yusuf-i sarii .IUOU#^ Joseph is the ideal of youthful beauty Joseph,"
Luqman' s
He
adj.,
mean "extremely
:
beautiful."
it is
Majnun
of
Layla
6
signifies
the
name of the
celebrated lover
Tahammul
(J-
*3aj
"
:
The
grief
of
'
Jacob
'
is
pro-
When amongst Muslims from mourning for Joseph his eyes became white. and his sons he its a shirt three was odour, perceived days' journey distant, Joseph's yet said he doted. The shirt was the same that Abraham wore when cast into the fire, and it contained an odour of Paradise: it was on Joseph's neck as an amulet when he was in the well. Joseph, by command of Gabriel, sent the shirt to Jacob for it shall not be cast on any one afflicted with disease, but he shall be whole.'
verbial
'
Khanadan
for
khandan.
180
" such as In this example t$ may be translated ", or ' a of relative connective the sentence. as merely
'
may be
considered
o ^^ &U~ j
1
cJ&J~
j'y
as
*$ t5*A*v5
had
*'
I but feared
]
God
i!^
*5
^*Z* jt
wj\
(Sa'riR)
of the
Faithful Witnesses/'
(6)
oo~J ^*w.< ^IkLo otei* vide also (d) (2): ^iaf "I OA-O H. J5l>b B., ojUsuuj VII) said, Chap. (Tr. compared ;k> to the generosity of our king the generosity of Sultan Mahmud is as a drop
Compared to"
^~*' lj)*
'
to the ocean.'
(w)
(1)
'
how much the less " how much the more must Englishmen,"
:
l^y
y^i-?
Afy
*~
*>*?\
H>W
^j=^
e^;>^ y
^y
$\
(m.c.)].
If
"
(2)
you
how much
tear
God"
"
(3)
mi-tarsi
then
how much
()>~^
chief seat of
(4)
"
^^
^^ &
^y
me who am
seated in
\j*
<*&>&.
"If
coffee
intoxicates
so"
^
4 *
the more
o
must opium do
^
(5)
^ ^AI^
A^AAJ
*s^3 ^J
(^oj^
|H* J*'
less
^t> j ^^j^ ^ly Englishmen ^t (J^li;J^j/ti much the less will coffee how If then will not intoxicate (6) opium you
^iyi^
<x&
how much
can
' '
oJta
iWkt^ski^l
^ojk
^ 8^jl
yi'
C5 *j ow^x>
y ^"by
^ff (m.c.),
mast na-kunad (or nami-kunad) qahwa bi-tariq-i aula mast nami-kunad. " It has been said that there is no reliance on the friendship of (1)
friends,
how much
"
^^^> j
&>l
ns&j
j^
* '
(8)
kill
If
kill
<x
the father
how much
>!^w
the
1
*$
^-? bj*$
the
&jjS)
;
in Paradise
;
first for
the *Uxit
the
second for
the
!i^*!o
for the
^AsJl^.
Or bi-chand
Fa-Tcay1
a
is
(also called pad-zahr j&j isb, from pad a stone found in the stomach of certain rumi^Aj "poison "), " between health nants. Tiryaq-i faruq is the best kind of antidote, or "discriminator " " is and disease. In Mod. Pers.
Tiryaq-i Farsi
"
protection" and
zoftr
opium
generally -^Ljy
Awly ^jf
ft
"
J)
^j
tily
the
fern, of
JjL
181
it
to
move
**AJU)
it
even
how much
c/f
be trans')
ported to the
(Afghan).
*xia^o
(^
&'
^L^
^L^iya
^(X^Li*.
e)f
In Mod. Pers.
(
af
<^U.
**>>+*>*>
o,^
fJI-~^J
an
AiAJjil^jji.
*xiL)
J^AXM
^IxilA
A^
^f
O-^
Id j^>^
jj>;
,
oj'Jb
ci>j^
*a.
js^A.
^ij/ojti^
Aa.
In Indian
and Afghan
less
writings,
Uso
is
less."
drink."
<->\j
lo
v
xi.^
c) 1
(Indian).
is
is
a word to be avoided
it signifies
a kind of
CHAPTER
THE NUMERALS
(a)
VI.
'
Ism-i
adad
numbers (^^ and ordinal numbers ( ^liu) *> p] ^\ The thing numbered is called j^*** "numbered." " The cardinals consist of ahad ^^.f "units 'asharat o|^ " tens" mi*dt oil* hundreds" wZ-S/ o^Jf "thousands." ) (
or <yfi or (Jlk* &**
)
.
(
The numerals,
47.
Cardinal Numbers
l
a dad}.
1
j&*
sifr
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
hafdah (or
v
183
ll
or hivdah\
haft-
{havdah
<3
or
'
'
hashdah
(or
18 (hajdah or hijdah
[d
I
hasht dah)
or)
.
nuzdah
(or nu-
19 Mod.
Pers.
nuzdah,
O-AJ
6s w
?/a&
or)
184
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
KJA
x*
sad hazar
..!
used.
.
kurur
. .
tow = 100
ten millions.
French.
Remark
otiy,
I.
to 10 are,
^f
or *^tj,
&>,
Ajy
llii., AJU.,
**}*.,
<*>iUj,
**~3
}
SSU'>
From
3 to 9 inclusive
Arabic numerals (masculine) are used in Persian as adjectives to " the four elements qualify a plural noun, as: 'anasir-iarba'ah **j;i ^clxc
these
;
"the
five times
of
five
"
;
^$j
"the nine heavens" 'uqul-i 'ashara *j2*c J^ " mavalid-i salasa *&* " the three philosophers) *\j* " and arba'h " the four
;
mineral)
anajtl-i
ayyam-i
sitta *!*
li
fU
God
created the
The Arabic
writers,
ordinals
inadmissible.
The word for 100 is written o^> instead of <x- to avoid any confusion between it and the common Arabic word sadd " boundary." 60 is written for o * which means " thumb fish-hook." Similarly, o*a
II.
;
Remark
In grammar, this
or obscurity."
is
called
^^
**
daf-i iltibas
Remark III.
" one "
;
yeg,
;
shish
and
and more commonly ye or yey for " seven and eight haf, hash for yazza,
* ' ;
duvazza, sizza,
(b)
thousand
1
they say
si
To
'
one million,
Also
^Lsp tuman
la\ch (in
(obsolete)
and c_J
and
(c).
Persian lak} and karor (in Persian kurur) are of Sanskrit origin, and have been borrowed by the Persians from the Indian system of calculation. They
2
The words
In Persian lak
lakuk)
8
is
correctly a
hundred thousand.
numerals assume the feminine form
for the
i.e.,
From
i.e.
masculine,
and
vice versa.
6
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
While
in India.
185
ten millions.
written
The word Idk J^ is rarely used by Persians. In India it signifies a hundred thousand, but according to Dr. Rosen it signifies only ten thousand in Persia. The Zardushtis and merchants trading with Bombay give the
word
its
Indian value.
a myriad (10,000), or a sum of money equal to (c) Tuman &vcy, T., signifies 10,000 Arabic silver dirham hence, also a district supposed to furnish 10,000
;
fightingmen.
The
chief of a
Baluch tribe is
still
called a
Tuman-ddr, corruption
of
jf<x>U> y. In Persia, the word tuman e>Uy is only used for a gold coin, or its " commander of equivalent of ten qiran, or = the word ^Uy } **\ Amir tuman
tumdn-ddr
(a
greatest
first,
the numbers are arranged by having the and the lesser added by the conjunction
.
Example u nuh }
&'>
may occur, they should not be copied]. " is hazar u sad* u navad ninety-nine (1199)
Such expressions as
is
' '
^3
**> j yy*>
8
(
i
).
eleven hundred
' '
are
never used.
The use
of the conjunction^
obligatory.
In the Tilzuk-i Jahangiri (Jahangir's Memoirs) the following **1^ &jj* xU.xx Jlalc ^jo ^ O*A ^A *J^ s$ *)J y,ib ^ x*e^a. chahar sad u panzdah tola ki yak hazar si u haft u misgal mi-bashad
occurs:
Remark.
mm
ba-wazn bar
tola ki
dmad
si
in
Modern Persian
this
(.?"
hazar u
u haflmisqal u
mm* j
noun (without the izafat) and the noun is in the singular, as: &j* jj& hazar mard ** one thousand men", but " ^UwSt^ii to dah nafar ashkhas ten individuals." An hazar mard "the
(e)
cardinal
number precedes
its
thousand men."
adad
5<xc
former has usually the indefinite ya, as <>*T j* * ^U* sal-i du bar " dmad (Sa'dl; about two years, a two years or so, elapsed."
&^
m bar
Vide note
2, p. 184.
2
?
iza/at) is
a Persian
title.
<3*A&
j'^fCj is
numeral yak
*
Notice the position of nlm in the second instance and the insertion of j between
si.
hazar and
186
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
In poetry the cardinal sometimes follows for poetical license, as
:
and
is
In Modern Persian at any rate, an Arabic plural, or Persian imitation " ten workmen" broken plural is sometimes em ployed, as: <*A** te dahfa'ala
l
, ;
v^UJUx
si
*J
nuh 'amalajat
" three forts
;
"nine workmen"
or
"artificers";
ol^al*
all
&*
qal'ajat
bi-sad mushkilat
"; ot^} ;l^ chahdr atrdf (m.c.) "on ^^Ci^ &,& (Afghan) for bi-sad
sides," mushkil, or
definite
In the rare instances where the numeral stands as a predicate to a " the men were two thousand noun, the noun is in the plural, as
'
:
^&}* mardan du hazar budand. The noun may be in the plural after sadhd Ua^ "hundreds"
orhazarha
hazaran
thousands," as f;^ (c5 l t-^ f* or better) ^'^ p* (&)]\& hazarha ham-jins-i'1 (or better ham-jins-ha-yi 3 ) Jchud ra khwahand " sadha award (m.c.) "they will bring thousands of their own people fll*
: :
"
U^
fiL-lia]
hazaran
(or hazarha)
fil
(or fil-ha).
The
plural
probably incorrect, for, as already stated, sadha is rarely used in m.c., hazarha or hazaran being substituted: hazaran kurur. (m.c.). "thousands of Tcrores" hazaran hazar (m.c.}, or hazar hazar (m.c.) 'many " " thousands of a thousand " and "a thousand thousand ") thousands
(lit.
of partridges
kardam, both of us
^/
^j^
I;
number does not admit of the "I shot two and a half brace imruz panj dana kabk b shikar
:
^^
$j*>
t^iU
& j*
" he sent
(def.). *.y> "I sent all three [The dative, however, can be expressed either by (j or by the preposition
(def.)
har
si
ra firistddam
{t&j
"
*^
as
j>^
t^,
j>;"
^^
^f aw
c?w
mard ra
bigu, or ^^J
There
;
is
as singular
2
3
wU^t
a tendency in m.c. to treat some of the commoner Arabic broken plurals 29 (c) asbab, for instance, is sometimes treated as a singular vide also
:
Remark and
footnote
(1).
But u hazar ham jins darad (not ham-jinsha). Here the plural ham jinsha sounds better also
;
it
ham-jinsha-yi Jchud.
*
8
The word hazaran or hazarha is used in m.c. and sadha rarely. Or Tcabg m.c. Or har du-yi man ra, or har du ta man ra, or ma har du ta ra.
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
189
Remark
rendered
I.
A
si
j-oj
"ura
II.
is phrase like, "I struck him three blows with a sword *or si zakhm-i (or zarb-i) shamshir zadam faj-'**"^ ; r
!
"
shamshir zadam
^-^*"*
v^
or )
f^j
*"
(m.c.).
is
Remark
tf
ta or
*ji,i
"a
dah
I7^ is also used in forming nouns of number, as " score ^\\^ <_. yak davdzda td*i (m.c.)
;
^Uu^j
>
c<
^jO
" a dozen
td*i. etc.
^ of
number, as: davdzdah-1 (in " two and two " yak-i is a pronoun
;
unity was sometimes added to form nouns " a dozen" dwvspeaking duvaza-i ) (class.)
:
lt
one,
some one."
as in the case of the
Remark
III.
cardinal
Juft
oJiA. or
j>J
zauj
is
things generally sold by the dozen); " a suit of vJL; ?/& ^as^ ^6a*' cu^i ^">* clothes" J^^j ^U) yak dost kdrd u changal 'one set consisting of 2 knives, 2 forks and 2 spoons' (or
(m.c.)
is
"a dozen"
(applied
to
'
')
J^i= ^~*<i
u>
'
yak dast finjan rialnaki ^^l*j ^l^oj o*^^ uj "a set of six cups and six saucers"; muqamir ra si shash mi-bayad va likin si yak mi-ayad (Sa'di) "the gambler wants three sixes, but three one's keep
plates
and
six
' '
cups
coming up." (i) The emphatic phrase '^ j A^ &*> man yaka va tanha " I single and alone quite by myself; unaided."
;
signifies
(j)
The phrase
Ex.
:
c>x
;l^.
edly."
^vx;U.j>
;
j^ du char shudan signifies to encounter unexpect" we met each other"; ^Ab ba ham du char shudlm
' '
du
u shudam, or urd du char shudam (m.c. only) "I met him." 3 l*^^ hundreds of hazdrdn &\)}j*, hazdrhd U^KA signify (k) Sadhd thousands of." Ex. cu^: <x>U IAJ) o^t JU U^x^ 4 sadhd sdlast mja mdnda ast
chdr-i
; :
(m.c.)
"it has lain here for hundreds of years" 5 (Afghan) "hundreds of kos."
%jj>
U<x*>
sadhd kuroh
'
si
naml-khwaham
linga
want
.single
s
(odd) carpet, not a pair." The plural -an of this word not used.
:
na dah nah Hazaran would be more usually substituted in colloquial idiom sad hazarha (Qa*ani). 5 A kos is an Indian measure of distance supposed to be about two miles it
*
:
however, varies in
districts
and
may
be anything from
H to 4 miles.
188
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
.
.
Sheep, goats
shaJch;
dana;
ra*s.
,
shakh
' ;
' '
horn
c ;
"
;
u-r
'adad;
a grain"
;
adad
dana = "a
1 '
number"
Fowls
.
ra*s
"a head.
dana
qilada
. .
Dogs
"a
dast
collar."
Hawks
dast; bahla
..
glove."
Falconer
bazu
'arrada
..
(classical);
="arm."
Guns (cannon)
Sails
,
..
"a
farvand>
Money
dana
^j-^j*
&
8
tu-
mani
rn an
(m.c.)
pieces.
Jewels, fruit
dana
saub
sardari (also less correctly
Clothes
Guns,
etc.
ing
lisk
:
colly rium
an
obe-
barrel."
S words
daggers.
and
' '
qabza
of
a sword
Books
Shawls or piecegoods.
jild
tiiqa
volume."
stani
wit
word
;
than.
' '
Carpets Felt
or
fard
takhta
" a unit
one person.
to, etc.,"
..
"aboard."
vide
sum
(of
In m.c. dast-kash jj*^ cu^^ s used for a falconer s or any other glove. In India " an assistant " the hawk. this word signifies falconer." i.e., " one who strokes " a 5 Panj hazar )[$& gold five "fiveqirans, but panj hazari ^L**
qiran, bit
nine qirana). 4 Carpets in Persia are woven and sold by the pair, each pair being identical in pattern. Persian taste requires everything in a room to be in pairs the same pictures
(value
:
"
now
even (coloured prints of European women of ample charms only partially concealed), " an account repeat themselves on both sides of a doorway or arch. Fard also means
r '
or
"a
' '
list.
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
189
Remark
rendered
"I
or)
"
is
"ura
II.
zakhm-i (or
zarb-i)
^y*
^3
A ~ (m-c-)' 1
is
Remark
l
ta or
AJt.v
dan
"a
dah
score
^a is also used in forming nouns of number, as " " <-j ^& davazda tafi (m.c.) " a dozen ^5G j$y,fjj>
;
^>
**>J*>.
yak
ta*i, etc.
^ of
number,
unity was sometimes added to form nouns " a dozen" duv-i (class.) )
:
yak-i
is
a pronoun
"
one,
some one."
III.
It will
Juft* oJia. or
>j
zauj
is
is
&j)&
^ yak darzhan
sold
"a dozen"
,JL;
(applied
to
things generally
' '
;
^U)
'
d**o
yak dast
libas
J&a- j
^~*t>
^ yak
dost
" (< a set of plates and six cups yak dast finjan n'alnaki ^>UJ ^\.^9 o^ci u^> six cups and six saucers"; muqamir rd si shash mi-bdyad va likin si yak mi-ayad (Sa'di) "the gambler wants three sixes, but three one's keep
;
kdrd u changal 'one set consisting of 2 knives, 2 forks and 2 spoons' (or one place at table ') yak dast zarf <J^ o*a Jr! " one set consisting of six
;
coming up."
man yaka va tanha signifies unaided." quite by myself; shudan signifies to encounter unexpect(j) The phrase cA^ ;^ jo du char 4( we met each other"; Ex. ba ham du char shudim edly." j,)jA;U. ja ^U du char-i u shudam, or ura du char shudam (m.c. only) "I met him."
(i)
'^x>
*& e^
"
I single
(k)
Sadha s U A:
hazdran
e)f;!>,
hazarha
UjKA
' '
signify
hundreds of
0^' s^U
Isdji
o^t
JU
manda
ast
"it has lain here for hundreds of years" 5 (Afghan) "hundreds of kos."
_____________
;>/
U>^
sadha kuroh
____
______
^^
:
gle
s
In India si shamshir zadam, si chub zadam, etc. Jw/ nami-khwaham; linga mi-khwaham f* [>** ^^^4^^ (odd) carpet, not a pair." The plural -an of this word not used. Hazaran would be more usually substituted in colloquial idiom
" I want a
na dah nah
it
kos
is
however, varies in
an Indian measure of distance supposed to be about two miles districts and may be anything from 1 to 4 miles.
190
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
chunm
hazarhd daf'ah bihtar mi-shud (m.c.)
Carnal
mi-kardam
"had
done
so,
it
thousands of
times
better for
me"
oJL? j* )j> lab-i gur y ;Uj 4*0 sad sand-fold"): " a hundred sick have a sick returned from the bar gasht has) (many person " hundreds of but Umar sadha when death of brink given up)," (recovered
(better
hazar
chandan, bimdr az
"a
thou-
sick."
instead of sadha
The Afghans sometimes (incorrectly) say sadha- yi mar dumdn^^^^^a mard a/ (&**>. " we the For two, both," etc., vide 39 (/) (3), ma du nafar expression (1}
har du & j* ^> or har du-yi man ^U <^o j*>. 48 (m) The cardinals are used to express the year, vide,
or
j&>
^ U,
ma
(i).
This
life is
(
-ij <^f,or
In du ruz-i
umr j+*
haft
the next
*
"
:
qalam
p&
Dar du dunya ^J2 ^i;^ means "in " " is the seven of
styles
this
world and in
writing
cuAA
"
;
haft darya
b)& cufiA
'
'
haft
jahannam
lA
^Xt.^ oJte
name)"
eight.
^A
Kuriy
are
or Falakv'l-Buruj,
Haftad u du j& j
seventy- two
haftad
:
u du
millat
oJx>^>^
religions of the
world
Jang-i haftad u du millat hama ra 'uzr bi-nih Chun na-dldand haqlqat rah-i afsana zadand.
(Hafiz.)
Haftad u
is
si firqa
&*f &^ j
(sA*
is
Muhammad
but
reported to
There are
more.
There are ninety-nine attributes of God called al as na^ l-lmsna or " the excellent names," but commonly Persians talk of the thousand and one names of God. Allah is called the Ism^z'zat or essential name of God and, with the ninety-nine attributes,
'
'
completes the one hundred names recited by means of the rosary in the exercise of The Ism^'l-A'zam, or " Great name of God," is supposed to be known only to zikr.
'Ali is supposed to have one less, i.e. 1,000 names. There are supposed to be 1,24,000 Prophets. The world it is supposed is 8,000 years old, and will reach the age of 50,000 years
saintly persons.
Farda
M az
^^
In dayr-i
kuhn darguzarlm
Ba
haft hazar-salagan
ham
safar-lm.
To-morrow we shall quit this inn, and march With comrades who have marched seven thousand
'
'
years.
(0.
K. 312 Whin.)
THE ORDINALS.
48.
191
The Ordinals.
(a)
The Persian
This
cardinals.
(
termination
turned
^(k*> fx*) or mim-i ta'ym-i ta ddd ( adjectives and as such can precede or follow their substantives
1st
.
by adding the termination urn to the by Grammarians mim-i sifdti alJ*3 e^*-* They are treated as p** )
:
Jji
|*j>
*>
2nd
3rd
4th
fX> or
2
-or
o*-io
^^ M
+**>
or nukhust.
*y> or
..(*; l^
. .
5th
p-suj
.
panjum.
shishum, classically shashum.
6th
7th
f
fxfi*
haf turn
hashtum.
8th
^.i^A
9th
10th
.
^
.
nuhum.
dahum.
si-um.
AJ>
2
30th
(b)
(*l.'t5"*'
When
there
:
more than one number, the formative affix is added to " ^;^ ^ J^a. ^ ^^ sad u chihal u chaharum the hundred and
is
forty-fourth (144th)."
(c)
The Persian
^,
w, sometimes
J^;
contracted to
e^i
as: Ex. nukhustin, c^*<?^ duyyumm, etc. 6 " former avvalin' raunaq-i (Sa'di) brightness (or splendour)."
^-u
Remark.
an ordinal,
(d)
as:
The
ordinals
^fr^rsuj/o
\)
may
be
as:
Question:
^^
f\&$
kudam
yakl-ra
mi-Tchipahi
"which one
who have
pre-
Inn, as we stay only a short time. Haft-hazar salagan " all the dead ceded us " May khur lei 'z dil kasrat u qillat bi-barad
,
And
K. 194 Whin.)
Yakum /?
is
yakum
is much less used in Persia than avval Jj'- In India and Afghanistan Nukhiist o~acu generally used instead of avval for the 1st of the month.
and nukhustin ^-J^ 3^ are classical, and only used in writing nukhust zad " 2 Note the distinction in 3rd and 30th in Persian. writing between
' ' ' '
first
born."
cri/^i J c^-^f
Here avval Jt could be substituted for avvalln cj-irj'. In avvalln u akhirm " ancients and moderns " the terminations are the oblique case of the
192
' '
THE ORDINALS.
:
^
'
^ OU..AJ bist
(m.c.)
'
'
:
(e)
The Arabic
^
a certain
extent used up to
.
"the tenth."
"
measure of
the agent
J^U
(masc.),
and
<*JUb*
(fern.),
excepted.
MASCULINE.
THE ORDINALS. The Arabic ordinal Jy avval " the first" is generally used "the first of Ramazan." &l"4.*) *^ Jj avval-i mdh-i Ramazdn
(g)
1
193
in dates,
as
is
names
of
the
^U^it
is
less
4waZ Jy
substantive.
is
an adjective and
When however
Kirmdn
followed by a genitive, as: &\*>j> (_!, Jy j& (me.) "at the commencement of the district of
is
Kirman."
plural of J> avval is J5.y avasil signifying "the beginning; the first first ten days of every month," as opposed to y^iy avdlchir the part; " the plural of j^T akhira ( and dkhir ends, latter parts; the last ten
The
j^
Ex.
oikU
"
;
Jjty
^ dar
avd*il-i saltanat-i
^tjjj^ty
first
;^ dar avdkhir-i
zindagl
*i
" the
v* Jy
"the beginning
L$)J*^ (r* &.$ y (**^;W Janvari ii-yhdyat-i chahdrdahum-i April (m.c.) "from the 3rd of January to the end of the 14bh of April." * Remark. Via ^(jf, the Ar. fern, of avval Jy, must not be confused with
j/jf
J^
&*)
az tdrikh-i sivvum-i
is
waU
<Jj
which properly " blaze on a horse's a a or be covered by "star too to forehead," signifies large the thumb-top, the new moon, 2 etc., etc." The last of the months is also
first
The
of the
month
is also
salkh,
Ar.,
its
original
flay;
to shed
mon
tin time
phrase
in
writings
is
<Xx-o;
JLo
31
y j+&
lit.
U>
"
its
his
" the
month
al^o
of his
life-
from
the
ghurra to
is
salkh."
The
first of
-d the
(i)
month
Jy
avval-i md-h, or
sar-i
mdh,
mdh.
ordinals are used in computing the year of the reign of a but the cardinals are used in expressing the date of an era. sovereign, (j) The ordinals are sometimes vulgarly formed by adding digar to a
cardinal, without
The
tawdnd
J
(Tr.
an izdfat, as: lily ^ *** j &> j&* ** si-digar tanumand u H. B., Chap. VI) "the third was a man robust and strong."
Ramazan, the ninth month of the Muslim year and the month of fasting. The new moon is hilal J^>, and badr )** the full moon in speaking mah-i '* chahardah te )^ff> -^ is generally used for the full moon." 13
*
shab-i
194
FRACTIONS.
pi of kasr\
(,
after the
numerator, as:
^
. .
).
In mixed
:
Examples
/jjj
mm
chahdr yak chahdr
si
in
m.c.
only
used in com-
pounds.
J.
.
Jo
y^a.
vulg.
^;L$-
chdrak
(used
in
| i
A-c^a.
^_j A<*
^jo
fc-Ai
si
yak
.
i
i
^ij
0*"**
.
panj yak
shash yak
haft
...
^, oiA
AJ
>
<x<5
yak
, ,
hasht yak
da^ nuh
sac?
/*
-J-.1-0
c_j
AJ
/a&
_?_9_
j>y **o
^
d
..
sad navad u
nuh.
ninety and
YoVo"
..
^.^.j*
hazdr yak
.
..
,
^
f
f
da& d%
m.c.
*&*>..)
\JL> uu*.jj
.
dah nlm.
bist
not m.c.
m.c.
yak
For
si
f,
etc.,
The fractions are followed by the izdfat, as w ^-^t & khhums-i In rd bi-man bi-dih " give me a fifth of this" dah yak-i in haqq-i man ast (m.c.) "a tenth belongs by right to me." The Persian fraction J si yak is not used, and |- chahdr yak is only used for
Remark II.
:
" the Arabic fraction weights and measures f or give me a fourth of this ***** nisf-i and not the Persian would be used: similarly half of this' " mdhut. u \f in, but ^ yak gaz 1J yards broad cloth" ci>>tU
' '
;
'
^
:
mm
Kusur-i
'amm "
is
vulgar fractions
"
:
is preferred. compounds in speaking nisi ^-ANlma A+JJ is also used as nlma-yirah (m.c.) ) &+& "halfway" nlma-yi mah >^ A*-Jt*" the fifteenth of the month " nlma alone is used in m.c. for " half a brick": (m.c.)
2J
Nlm
/H^
generally used in
*2-*
H>
vide
117
ejiij,}
(/).
&+# vSAjliT kitabat nlma-yi dldar = olJ'^Jl ^flai wi*jU^ kitabat nisf-ul-mulaqat does "writing (a letter) is equal to half a visit,** i.e. correspondence with friends away with half the pain of separation.
Ar.,
FRACTIONS.
(6)
195
The Arabic
"a third")
and
Examples
l
.
.
cA*ai
nisf
Used
in speaking
instead
of
riim.
9
*Q
| J
..
rub' or ruba
si
1
PL PL
l)t
arba
(rare).
Q
JJj,3
-
<!uo
rub (orruba')
. .
suls
asJas (rare)
also
the
three-thirds).
^iiS
sulsayn
language);
du
T
J
suls in Persian.
u/*^
uo>-o
.
.
khums
suds
st*6
s
5*^
PL uU^t akhmas (not used). PL ^jp|Ai asdas (not used). PL ^U^t asba' (not used).
PL c>^f asman (not used). PL *UJ( a^a' (rare).
4
^
ej*"*
sumn
/ws'
~>
y*^
'ushr
PL
ji^^
'ushur
'
and
;lAc
*'
A quarter to' is sometimes expressed, thus: chahar ilia rub' four minus a quarter," etc., but the expression is perhaps incorrect.
(c)
In m.c. <jy^jj
-ft*ai
u^y^j
^^
ji
az
(d) In Modern Persian, nisf *Jt^J is generally used for the substantive "half" while mm is preferred for compounds, asijlwui^J msj-i qutr
"radius
asleep."
of a circle
(lit.
v>^
/*^
riim-khwab *'half
as
is
"
midnight," as well
riim-ruz (class.)
midday.'
Bil-munasafa <WUUJL.
<*
two":
"
halfway."
ff*
2
>)
and
(J^Jj
is
used.
si
khums,
etc.,
|,
|.
used for the singular T^th. " so 5 In Arabic, the fractions above a tenth are expressed by a paraphrase of out so parts many parts ( )."
pi.
In Persian, the
)j&*
is
many
*^
196
(e)
ADVERBIAL NUMERALS.
Such expressions
as
"
5%"
&>
are
^
(/)
ft
sad panj.
Yak
bar dah
uXj
^i(in
*o sad panj, or
betting)."
-75"
u
g>\
Decimal fractions are rendered by a paraphrase, thus ^.+~* x*>jf o**~J' sad* haftad u <panj-i inch, or
^Jf
=
^i&* haftad
^AJ^
u panj qismat
(g)
Fractions
of
may
or
also be expressed
as
follows
a jl
^Cj
?/a&-
daA
"one out
ten,
one-tenth"; a^j
d% az
si
"two
out of three,
or two-thirds."
50.
Adverbial Numerals
(a)
The
Ex.
^^ a&f ^&
^ e^ ^ ;U cJo
A[^J
-plif ?/a^-*
duyyum anki tufang u barudugulula yak bar bar man bud, "firstly, there was the heat of the sun; and, secondly, the rifle with powder and bullets was
quite a load for
(b)
me "
The Arabic
:
as adverbs
y
IjJb
amal- a *, "
saniy~
an
,
firstly, in
the
first
place."
"
(c)
The Persian
.J**^
ordinals,
added
to
daf'ah, or jL bar
:
"time,"
^A^-/O
etc., as
Axi/^
fjt>
Jy, or Jjt
*',>
"the
first
time,"
etc.,
daf'a-yi
duvvum
%**&
daf'ah-yi siyyum.
etc.
Remark. Bar-ha U|b (pi. of &o>) means " oft-times." " twice as much," vide Multiplicative Numerals.
(d)
For du-chandan,
The
etc.
same substantives
;
signify
(classical
"once,
only)
4
twice,"
Ex. Ex.
:
;b a^ si bar
j>>
"thrice"
;b
"seldom."
^)j*>
*-
^^ ruz-t
kam-bar
fl
dah
bis'
200
and
fi
2 /Sad <**,
8
i.e. per 100. [As -75" is singular, it is wrong to say -75 inches.] The Arabic ordinal avval supplies the place of yakum. In modern Persian ju *> kam-bar is an adjective signifying "of light weight
or
load."
MULTIPLICATIVE NUMERALS.
.
197
(e)
'
("
bam. by repetition "), or )j* mukarrar, or *>V^>> (/) Such expressions as "twice two makes four,"
:
etc. are
rendered as
follows
2 x 2
ast o**ot
)l&'.j&j*j&, or
5 + 5 joaw?
^j^
^ j> 3*
-.u
te
.u,
or panj td
upanj
td
dah
**
ti
J^
13
5 pew;
ezz
panj hlch
,
&*
J^>
^ ^
j
Jij ^AJ ;i
5-^-5
paw;
c?ar
panj, yak
51.
(a)
Multiplicative Numerals.
:
The
"
Single
"
^iuc mufrad,
tJicUax)
liC>
yaktd,
3
&&
yagdna.
"Double"
A>'fj^
muzd'af, *** j*
cfot
du chand,
a)
<^
^ du
chanddn,
dugana,
^^
jta>
/a.
5*
^a;
o^.
A->
s^
si
"Quadruple"
chand, etc.
^^
o* w
murabba
1 ,
oU^
Aiu;t
arba'a az'df, **
& o^^jj
chahar
"Twenty-fold" ejf*^
6z-5i
o-# &^
muqdbala.
<>^
chanddn,
&?$
ia,
Jjlaxs
OA-JJ
muqdbil,
ALliixj
6^5^
"
A^hundred-fold" c>l^^
:
Examples
this is twice as
much water
as that
' '
:
is
of
wheat
' '
:
parishdm-yi
(m.c.)
^s*j*^
1
ma
increased four-fold": In
is
bardbar-i
an
ast
c^Tyy
p
jl
^ "this
*t>yjt>
(m.c.)
three times as
much
as that
"
si
*j*-j
or)
maw 6i-fe 5* bardbar-i hakim (or "I have given him three times (or twelve times) as much
;
jy <u*o!^ ^&t y
ki khivdsta
f to's
bud
"
(rn.c.)
^t^y
cLlax)
A^
si
^ ^ Aivotyk Asuf
(m.c.)
Jblax:
^ ^x:
man
si
bud
bi-u
(6)
ddda
am
"I have
given him
above, the Arabic multiplicatives are seldom used. In ordinary use are the compounds of U td, V Id, ***. chand, ^***- chanddn and
Of
the
muqdbila.
2
3
is
198
52.
RECURRING NUMERALS.
Distributive Numerals.
:
yakdyak, or <-j <*> yak yak, or " " one or o& c>& ijj ^j yak-i yak-l (m.c.), yagdnyagdn (obsolete) by one also j& }& huva bi-huva (m.c.) 8 ^<v jj> du badu, or *^ du du, or Uj,> Uja du td
distributive numerals are
l
The
-j&
du
td,
or dugan
"
" by twos
' '
*-
<*^
51 si
;
chahdrdn chahdrdn](old)
four at a time
"
*:>
daA daft
:
' '
by tens
'
'
yagan u dugan
^jcxiujx:
"
(old)
Examples
^^
;&*>
&jfj;^j^
^jl^jj.o
^f
du du ddam me-raftem chundnchi du me-dmadem wa du-yi dlgar me-raftem " we* used to go out shooting by turns, two of us at a time, viz.. (Afghan)
when two of us returned two others from amongst us started in their place." The Afghan idiom (&j ({& ^ &j)\* j**> j** k^j^/t-V /^(^ x mannimnimsir,
" I (oaded the bdrud, dar tufangha kardam (Afghan) guns with " half a seer or a seer each would in m.c. be expressed sir yd yak sir yak
yd
sir
sir
mm
sir
(m.c.).
etc.
takhmln an
:
blst sal
shuda ki
*^
JU
^*/*ojj
"
^j ly
o^y
&&U
panj tumdn ki muwdzl-yi pdnzdah ruplya ml-bdshad " five tuman which is equal to fifteen rupees (m.c.) qarlb-i sad (or bi-sad) "there were nafar shutur dnjd bud (m.c.) Isof^xi jk> x^ (*^* or ) vir*
A*J^;
;
^"
(3)
English
And *i; (connected with ^J"^ andak and ^ia. chand), corresponds to "odd," as: x>fj ^Ixy ^^ s tumdn va and (class.) "thirty odd
!
tumans."
53.
Recurring Numerals.
:
" " The recurring numerals are L^J yak dar miydn; alternately "once every ten days" <**VC -l 3j; *^ j* har dah ruz yak martaba, etc. Ijj come every ^U^^ Examples yak ruz dar miydn biyd 5 other day "; "cut down every third tree" du biguzdr siyumln rd bi-bur
:
^^
^ ^
' '
Some Afghans
still
&&.
to be
C;&A
:
haftagan
the
"by
"
(obs.)
eM^ ^^
1
bam-
dadan "
s
(Sa'di)
the
adverb
straight."
or exactly.
In modern Persian
'i
f&*j&j^i*j&J* J
nafar)
6
'
(+'.**
In Indian pronounced j&j* huba-hu. ^*J f&*j*' (^ j&* j&> jt> or) jAJ j* *^=? fi*J.i *j bi-du dw bi-nawbat du shikar na/ar 6* O!M jihat-i (or t^*^^^
"
mi
%t
f
raftim ya'rii
(m.c.).
k*
ghibb
an
,
'
"at
;
alternate days
visits of
a friend.
intervals, occasionally," is also sometimes used in writing for from a saying of the Prophet who was somewhat bored by the daily The Prophet suggested to his friend that he should visit him ghhibb- an
.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
*
&
199
or du dar
miydn
yak-i rd bi-bur
-*>
y>
Approximate Numbers.
:
*jt du si, Approximate numbers are expressed as follows " " U or or U ju ^ rfw s* /a (m.c.) two or three ft- chahdr panj, ^i " " '* A o^ cA-^ shash haft, six or seven. chahdr panj td (m.c.) four or five Ex: o^Jo etc., etc. ij^l^ chahar panj angusht, "four or five fingers'
;
^^
breadth"; du si musht-l bar kalla-yi u zadam ftj " I boxed his ears once or twice for him."
Remark.
{
y fa y ^^^
*~>j* (m.c.)
In du
si bar-l
^t &*>j*
= "a
is
the indefinite
<^$.
13
(b) In the m.c. phrase haft hasht dah td ten," the number nuh is invariably omitted.
^ o^U
a*-Jrf
O^A
' f
some seven or
w'de
39
(^)
^ii
or tdkhmin
bist nafar.
55.
(a)
Numeral Adjectives.
:
Many numeral adjectives are formed by means of the silent h *JU t_r " Jl" of six shash-sdla, p* r- * ? a ^ M panjdh sola, years old l?^ ^ tx*e " " " an old man of 150 seven coloured (the rain*&> O.AA Aa/^ ranga, years " 2 " a ^w bow) sang-i chahdr-ruya, square stone." In *^ji -W3 Aj^^t^
:
tufang-i du-lula,
" double-barrelled is already a portion of the gun," the word lula, " a spout, etc." AAU^A har mdha, " of every month." The adjectives Jjtj^ du-bara ;b *- si-bdra can also be used as adverbs,
;
vide
50
(6)
(d).
jw
Professional
' '
story-tellers
yf *j**
"
ma'rika-gir,
or Jl&i
naqqdl)
often express
AlL, ^liiA U
A*^ e verybod37 old and young by the phrases oJw jt '> *J^ aJu ^ama ^as az haft-sdla td haftdd-sdla, or AJU ^^ jf az panj-sdla td panjdh-sdla, or *JU ov*a G aJL ji^ jf az shash sdla td shast
^-
sdla.
(obsolete)
:
Emperor Jahangir)
^&^l
<
**
;
^^^ &U*jt? ^
jL>
(i.e.
common
wild pigeon
j$^
"
i=o
&**> jt
y ^K
Bjsjlj
they
pair
of
!Tagr*&- *, adv.,
means
**
at an estimate."
The Arabic
adjective
^*
is
murabba'
"square"
is
also
used, particularly in
mathematics.
8
The term
qisaa-fehwan
200
ARABIAN MONTHS.
newly-hatched sarus cranes) are somewhat larger than the young of a goose, or about the same size as pea-chicks a month old": possibly
these idioms arose from the everyday Urdu idiom ikkis bis Tea farq hai, " the difference between them is very slight (lit. the difference of 20 and
21).
(c)
>
"
triliteral,
triangular, treble"
"a
four-lettered
on.
CHAPTER
56.
(a)
VII.
Arabian Months.
!
are arranged to consist of 30 and 29 days (usually alternately), so the whole year consists of 354 days (and 9 hours). In a period of thirty years an intercalary day is added eleven times, i.e. the last month is eleven times in thirty years made to consist of 30
days instead of 29. (Hence the Naw Ruz would fall every year about 1 1 days earlier than the previous year and not, as it does, on 21st March.) As with the Jews, the civil day commences at sunset, and the month
commences on that evening when the new moon * is visible. [Hence the early Arab writers reckon not by the day but by the night.] The ordinal numbers are used to express the day of the month. (b) The following are the names of the months, which do not in any way
correspond with the English months
:
ARABIAN MONTHS.
or
r*^
Muharram
Safar Rabi lu
2 3
_r&fcJ|
L* or
^>
JjVf
$0
'l-avval or
Rabl luni
'l-Awwal.
i'
is supposed to have consisted of 12 lunar months as system of intercalation was introduced, one month being intercalated into every three years. It is, however, related that the Prophet on a certain occasion said, "A year is twelve months only as at the time of the creation," and by There also existed amongst the this saying reintroduced the old lunar year. Arabs a system of commutation by which Muharram, the last of the three continuous
1
sacred months, became secular and war lawful in it, and Safar sacred. " " " 2 Hilal J3U is the new moon and badr j&t the full moon."
in 8 These second forms with the adjectives are used in writing and occasionally speaking by the Persians.
4
Or ayn-iryak ^j ^xc
(
'ayn-i
du
ARABIAN MONTHS.
5
1
201
^i(;
^U.
or *-/A;
..
Jumadq'l-Ulq
Jumadq'l-Akhir
Eajab
y^5f c5iUo*
..
..
.
Sha'ban
Ramazan
Shavvdl.
.
Zu'l-qa'da
or
Z
Zw
qa'dah
'
l-hijjah
or
Zi-hajjah
Remark.
called ^M^j
and the
fifth
S
and sixth
ungrammatically
JjVl
and
^wj
^,>U^
jamdd
u 's-
for
o ^
is
o^ ;^
shuhur
(d)
or^^f
Four
aslihur.
of the
Zu
(1)
Muharram
it
v-
/c
is
the
first
*
month
of
days
of ignorance
and
in the time of
Muhammad
The
first
was unlawful
Husayn,
6
month
(*|^ haram) to go to war during this month. are observed in commemoration of the
is
martyrdom
strict
some
Sunnis fast on this day. very a "to be empty," either (2) Safarj&>* is said to be derived from safar because the Arabs left their homes empty by going to war, or because they
,
left
those
whom
Another derivation
leaves
is
from
first
sufdr,
its
autumn
got
name.
Or jlmriryak
,JL>
^. and jim-irdujt
***..
$j ;
j Jjjlf
& j and
2 These second forms with the adjectives are used in writing and occasionally in speaking by the Persians. 3 In Persian the forms with ^^ are usually used. Jamadi incorrect for Jamada.
* Not month is
word
shahr,
"a
city."
for
mah, which
is
also signifies
"moon."
Mah-irqamari,
Husayn
than FStima
The descendants
of Ali
by wives
other
202
It
ARABIAN MONTHS.
was in
this
month that Adam was turned out of Eden, and it was during this month that the Prophet was taken ill it is the most inauspicious month in the calendar. Hence the month is superstitiously called j*Jf J'SL*
:
or the lucky
(3
month.
Eabi (uni
'l-avval
JjJIi
uni 'Lakhir j^J' *> the first and &>) a,ndRabt second spring months were so named when the calendar was first formed.
&
4)
of
Rab1 lu
'l-avval.
&
6)
Jamddq
'l-ulq
'lakhira
^3lt
cg-^U^
are
" season
or
"dry and on
*
Rajab v^;, the honoured month, the root- meaning signify ing veneration with fear.' Good Muslims spend the first Friday night (the English
tion," for Allah on this night records the actions of men to be performed during the coming year, and those who are to be born and to die. Strict
Muslims pray
(9)
all
night.
ii/Ua*),
Eamazan
the
month
of the
annual
fast, is said to
be derived
from a root-meaning "to be very hot." During this month the gates of Heaven are opened and the gates of Hell shut. In Persia, night is more or less turned into day and a great portion
of the
day
is
spent in sleep
most
irreligious
the fear of being detected by the smell. Some Persians who secretly break the fast, cover their lips with dust when they go abroad, to give them the dried-up appearance of hunger and thirst.
(10)
of this
lit.
" a tail."
/
***
is
on the
first
(11)
Zu
'l-Qa'da
*<xa*Jf
ji the
month
of
of truce
Zu'l-Hijjah
is
(
a^sJtja
is
the
month
of
to
made in
of drinking
Gdbr times.
2
"minor
festival
"
;
fitr signifies
"
203
1
is
Muslims
'flight
ing to
earlier
up Isma'll. The Muslim era dates from the morning after the fc^* hijrah or of the Prophet from Makkah to Madinah, which occurred accordmost on the 16th July'2 A.D. 622. Each succeeding year begins
5 '
hot weather, will, sixteen years later, fall in the cold. years are nearly equal to thirty- three Muslim years.
(g)
The
1st
May
der
answer.
have elapsed since any given the given year) 3% of the remainFor example, to find the number of years that have elapsed
solar years that
of Hijra
is
1330
formula (1330 of (1330 800) i.e. 515 have since 800 years elapsed
A.H.
(2)
- 3%
= 1912 A.D.]. Thus according to the - 15 = answer, 800) = answer or 530 A.H. or 1912 - 515, i,e. 1397 A.D. = 800
[
To
+ 3
find
the
equivalent
A.H.
year
of
an
A.D.
621-54)
of A.H.
is
A.H. or (A.D.
621'54) H- -970225
example, 1330
621'54)
it will
be
is
which
To
57
This consists of twelve solar years each named after some animal in a fixed order. The following old Turkish terms are the names of these
(a)
years
JL>i
^lasixwo
..
sichqan-il
ud-il
..
..
..
2 3
JLjt
ay
.. ..
"The cow
year."
Jjt <j*;^
bars -11
4
1
Jjf
eAay
..
tavishqdn-U
..
This feast
is
known by various other names. In India it is generally called "the cow 'id," and in Persia c^' *** 'id-iqurban. In 1902 the
l
ld-i
naw
ruz
fell
is
called
Vuhammad:
of
Victims":
sacrificial
cr*^
being a
collective
noun
*
of
"a
animal."
Another date
204
5
Jjf
JLjt JLjf
THE ZODIAC.
^y
&&\
oJjj
<jpjl
..
.
lui-il
..
. .
6
7
ilan-ll
..
.
.
i.until
..
. .
"The
horse year.*
'
J/
'
gw-?/
blchi-il
9 10
11
<-t
t$?4J
..
dji
^y>
liu
takkdqui'il
JLt o*l
..
..
M
1
" The sheep year." " The monkey year." " The fowl year."
..
.
.
"The dog
year."
1
12
(6)
Jbtjj&o
In Shaw's
"Grammar
:
Sachqan,
(6)
(2)
Ui,
(3)
Bars,
(4)
Tausqan,
(8)
(5)
Dragon],
Ilan, (7) At
["The
called a
Horse"],
Qoi,
Maimun ["The
Ape"],
(c)
(10)
Each
sal-i
muchal
in
davazda
(d)
Turki.
in the Spring,
first
enters
Aries.
When
(e)
A.D. 1851
commences
again.
Hog year."
j^;
The
Bars-ll J* ^r;lj
.
y naw ruz
of
March
21st, 1902.
58.
The Zodiac.
(a) g jjjJi (J^i* mintaq^ l-buruj (or ^j^t ^'fik^c ). " The Celestial Girdle," the Zodiac, is a belt of twelve constellations about 8 on each side of the ecliptic. extending " tower or bastion." A is called Ar.
single sign
^
.
.
burj
pi.
buruj)
(b)
1
"
.
.
Ram "
2 3
4
>J
Sawr
Jauza*
Saratan
*j^
ejli^
..
..
..
..
"Twins" "Crab"
"Lion"
'
..
Gemini.
..
Cancer
(1st
of
^/
5
<-wt
..
. .
or ii>U~jG Summer).
6
7
<xJUx^
&\yt*>
..
..
,
..
.
Leo.
Virgo.
..
"Scales"
^7^ cr^
..
"Scorpion"
.. ..
Qaws
..
..
"Bow"
"He-goat"
Saggitarius (1st of
Winter).
10
^c^
l
Jady
..
..
Capricornis.
is
*
3
Bars
is
J*^ Jy uLH-
all
THE SEASONS.
11
205
..
..
>b
..
.'.
Dalv
12
e^
(c)
Hut
to
..
"Bucket" "Fish"
Arabic
Aquarius.
Pisces.
In addition
the
:
make
use
of
2 3
j$
..
gdv
du-paykar
j^j*
,_&. jL.
.
..
.
"The
' '
two-faced
crab.
' '
"
or "two-figured."
4
5 6
7
khar-chang
5^?r
The
j^
^iyL
j)ty
f$'$
..
. .
..
'
"The
'
lion."
or barley."
fcte/ia
tardzu
..
.
,
..
gazh-dum*
..
.. ..
c;UT
?
*
fomaw
buz-ikuhl
dul-i'dsiyab
The ear of wheat " The scales." " The scorpion." ''The bow."
" The wild goat."
10
11
^yjj
v lwf
J^.s
..
The feeder
of the
hopper
of a water-
mill; bucket."
12
^U
..
mahi
is
..
"The
fish."
divided into twelve equal parts called s^ras and (d) named after the constellations, and the first point of Aries begins at the vernal equinox, which is the Persian Naw-Ruz or New Year's Day, about 21st
The Zodiac
March.
(e)
in each of the
above
'
mansions.'
The Seasons.
(
>
The seasons are "Spring" ;l t bahar) commencing with the j^J " " Summer " Naw-Ruz or New Year's Day (^U-^G tabistan or garma ^) commencing when the sun enters 'Cancer'; "Autumn" (s*fy)p5fo or " * sarma 5 and " Winter zamistan or
(a)
* ' ;
khazan or khizan)
jf
(^U-*-o}
l/o^.-
).
(b)
Chilld
AJU.
or &*
is
The
lL
chilld-yi
the
forty days of
"
The
chilla-yi
Ktj>usha also
= " a bunch
f*^.
of grapes
'
'
Or kaj-dum
occasionally dated from the appearance of Suhayl or" Canopus,' in Persia occurs about the beginning of Mi? an.
S
A season is
'
which
In writing
also
shita
and
^^*and c5*^
and
Adj.
and Summer
crops.
are not
used in speaking
6
Garma and
they are often used in poetry. sarma mean " heat " and " cold."
206
tdbistdn
is
the forty days of greatest heat in summer, and the sun enters Saratan.
(
commences when
or <j^H.j ), and qishldq, T. Jj^fij (or <jj&iup ), are (c) Yildq, T. <j^Uj " " summer and "winter quarters, quarters" especially of the wanderand Turkish others. ing tribes, 2 (d) The times of obligatory prayer are 1 Subh 4?^ Dawn. 3 2 Zuhr j% Noon [less common riim-ruz or n ima-yi
1
:
.
ruz
3
'Asr
..
..
j<&*
4
5
Maghrib*
'Ishd*
..
..
&
after sunset
":
Namdz-i ishrdq
Jf^i ^Ui
When
i.e.
about
Namdz-i chdsht
Namdz-i tahajjud
..
oJ5>U*jlJ
About
11 A.M. (Sunni).
(Shi' a or Sunni).
..
<xxyjUJ
say
the
The
Shi'as,
however,
Zuhr
and
j*&e
'Asr
prayer
together at either of the two times, and with the *-^*^ maghrib Similarly,
^yj^i/o jUJ
five.
(^s^fejUJ.
namdz-i maghhribayn.
they name They thus pray three times a day and not
which
60,
(a)
The
Five days
means "
and consisted of twelve months, were added to complete the year, and, as
vaqti is
or namaz-i panjArabic ^L^> salat, Persian jU* namaz. Namaz-i panjgana a sort of liturgical service repeated in Arabic. Prayer according to the
l* is best rendered by the word In addition to the daily du'a. are special services for special occasions. Shi'as usually pray only three times a day but perform the same amount of prayer they can combine the noon and evening prayer which is then performed any time between noon and sunset, and in the
Christian
idea
prayers there
maghrib they
include the
isha
prayer which
is
time between
riim-i roz.
This
is,
perhaps, thePanjabi word dlgar meaning evening, and not the Persian
Maghrib is hour after yhariib. " Solar Year " Sal-i shamsl t^*^> JL=
Panja-yi duzdida
8ti>Jj>'o
it
was
bi-sextile
and
fasli.
<^-V now a
&LWX:
207
The new year commenced with us, a leap year occurred every four years. about 21st i.e. March. Thej^y <^ 'id-inawwhen the Sun entered Aries;
ruz, or
above
festival," is still the great day in Persia, though the been superseded the Persians changed their calendar and their written character, with their religion.
solar year has
:
supposed to have commenced with the mission of Zoroaster. Some A vesta Scholars maintain that Zoroaster flourished 12,000 years before Christ :
It
is
and others
later
still.
less
than
^ Day and
:
not
cM^y
Farvardm
the
first
month, but
all
Nawruz.
(6)
The following
name
of
Farvardm
March and
this
is
The
*id-i
1st of
month
(21st
March)
naw-ruz.
the Persian
Ardt-bihisht or Urdi
,
-bihisht
4
5
6
7 8
$ ^)^ j>
^t^c
)jJjf*
Khur-ddd
Tir
May and
June.
Murdad*
Shahrlvar
j^o
cM
Mihr Abdn
The
in.
in leap-year six
Azar
^
(&+-tf
Day Bahman
Isfandarmuz or
ix>;txvi-.t
..
(colloquially) Isfand.
(c) The following are the names nounced by the Zardushfeis of Persia
-
of the
:
days
month
as
now
pro-
Urmizd or Hurmuz
..
Bahman
Irdibihisht
.. .. ..
o^yj^t
..
STiahnvar
1
month.
Kablsa
*****>>
"
* 3
Amardad
Vide note
^>\^o\
6, p< 206.
208
5
month,
month,
6
7
Khurdad Amurdad
month,
8 9
or
j
Day
Adar Aban
Khlr or Khurshtd
also 10th
month,
month, month.
10
11
12
13 14
15
Mah
Tir or Tishtar
also the 4th
month.
Gush
Day
-**
ufetr
also 10th
month,
month.
16
17
Mihr
iSurush
18 19
.
Rashn
.
Farvardin
month.
20
21
r y>
or
fjf.
Bahrdm
or
Virahrdm
Ram
Bad
22
23
&
..
.
.
Day
also 10th
month.
24
25 26
27 28
or
jyt
Dm
Ird or Arashvdng
Ashtdd
.
Asmdn
Zdmydd
Mdntarasfind
29 30
month, is the principle Good, as opposed to Ahrlman the principle of Evil all the remaining names are the names of Angels who preside over the days named after them.
or
Urmuz
Hurmuz,
etc.,
of
It will
be noticed that three days in the month are called Day, distinguished
as Day-ba-ddar, Day-ba-mihr
and Day-ba-dm.
Christians of the Eastern church use the
call their
SYRIAN MONTHS.
ecclesiastical
modern months by SjTian names. Their year still begins, as formerly, on the 1st October. The names of
: .
months are
Kdnun u-s-,Sam
Shubdt
^^i
-tU
ij>l
January.
February. March.
April.
Azdr
..
jkM
n* 1
..
Naysdn
Ayyar
Hazirdn
or Nisdn
..
;l^
t
May.
June.
.jtj
YAZD-GARDI YEAR.
209
.
Tamuz Ab
Aylul
Tishrin u -l-Awwal
&*
wf
JW>!
.
July.
August.
..
September.
October.
J^l
.
Ti shrinks- Sam
Kdnun u -l-Awwal
(d)
^ oy
JWfc
L^* L*^
K
. .
November. December.
J^)> also called Malaki and Malak Shahi, is reckoned from Jalal-ud-dln Malik Shah, son of Alp Arslan-i Saljuql, and The year begins with the Vernal Equinox, i.e. with the A.D. 1079.
The
Jalall year
(^^
begins Persian Naw-ruz, and consists of 365 days, 5 hours, 49 min., 15 seconds, and a fraction. The names of the months are the same as in the ancient
Persian solar year, but the intercalary days are added after the end of the 12th month. The Jalali year is entered in Indian, Persian, and Turkish
almanacs.
61.
Yazd-Gardi year.
and the Parsis
of India
(a)
The Zardushtis
of Persia
calendar: they reckon by the z or Yazdagird ( oj*> *% b & Yazdajird Persia of the Sassanian race, but the
their
of
Yazd-Gardi
year
&*
&
JL
).
of several kings of
name
specially
applied to the
Nawshlrwan (the Just) the last of the Kayani kings of Persia, grandson The era commences from his death at the hands of a K^urasani miller (he was treacherously killed while asleep) about A.D. 631 but, the leap-year
;
being omitted, their calendar has fallen into confusion. (6) The names of their months are practically the same as the ancient
Persian year, 3 but their year commences five months later than the Naw-ruz. 4 The year consists of 365 days only. The last five days of the year are not
included in any
distinguished stolen days
4 '
month but
special
are
of the twelfth
"
by a
name.
(^i>wx5 JU*5^)
khamsa-yi mustanqa, or
AJ^
^u
panja-yi
duzdida
(1)
(P.)
a^iaf
,
ahnawad,
(4)
(2)
safdntaman)
j&^bj
tj&'f ushtawad, (3) <XfriJJU safantamad (or wuhukh-shatr (5) jJ^yli^j wahashtu'ush (or
,
One Khayyam.
1
of
the astronomers
who
was 'Umar-i
3 They, however, call the second month Iridibihiaht the fifth Amurdad; the ninth Azar or Adar the twelfth Is/and. Azar means fire and is supposed to have been the name of the father of Abraham. The Parsis consider it to be the name of an angel. * The Persians, both Muslim and Zardushtis, however, keep the festival of Naw-ruz
;
;
at the
Vernal Equinox,
festival lasts
20 days,
commencing 5 days before the khamsa-yi mustariqa. 5 i.e., after Isfand (Is Bandar muz).
14
210
Saturday
. .
1st
day
of the
Week.
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday
Si-Shamba
Chahar-Shamba
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
. .
.-
Panj-Shamba
Jum'a
or
or
(
A^f
(b)
Adina
the night precedes the stated, the day begins at sunset an Englishman wishes to say " Sunday night " in Persian, he
:
As already
if
day.
Thus,
must say " Monday night " instead. * 8 (c) A week is *&* hafta, from haft "seven": in usbu' Arabic^-*? " from A.o and *****, sab' and sab'ah seven." Ruz in Persian and nahar (pi. j^ nuhur) in Arabic mean (d) j " " as shah* P. and JJ layl " night time. day opposed to night
:
^
is
9 '
(e)
Yawm ty
its
plural ptf
ayyam "days,
time,
season."
(/)
Shabana-ruz
jjj
*iU
"
the civil day consisting of 24 hours; "fortywould be " du shabana ruz rah ast."
1*1}
called
shab-i yalda,
^\)^
is
called
is
<^*
the day
is
is
the day
(d)
gone.
last six or ten
days of cold before the jjjt* Naw-ruz are called u in the almanacs jys^Jt^ bard 'l-'ajuz, Ar., and by the pepple 6 sarma-yi pir-zal, from a popular legend.
The
1 The Zardushtis generally use *^?J>i Adina (old Pers.) in preference to A**^- Jum'a, the Muslim name. 2 Though the Muslims of India reckon in the same manner, many of them have also
vide Phillott's Hind. Man., adopted the English idiom for speaking to English people The was dark before it was causes Muslim world This sometimes confusion. 225. p. The Zardushtis, however, say the world light; therefore the night precedes the day. "with God was from all time and has no beginninor." With them the day precedes
:
the night.
3
Used
It
is
in writing.
:
*
6
*ijJ Ar.
'
a night
'
has for
its pi.
remark that there are no railways nor even roads hardly The toy railway at Tehran, about 4 miles in length, can scarcely be counted. Persia. 6 The Persian Almanac of 1902 gives the period of the bard* 'l-'ajuz from llth
necessary to
in
to
17th March.
211
the phrases *A^>
shab-i yak jam' a, and *AX shamba are used. Superstitious people do not commence a journey on these three days. Should a guest sleep at the house of a friend on the night of any one of the above days (English computation), he ought for luck's sake
shab-i
^^
;^ ^^
CHAPTER
63.
(a)
VIII.
Money.
The following are the moneys now current in Persia. Dinar fy* an imaginary and infinitesimal coin, used in accounts: there are 1000 in a,qirdni
or qiran.
I
^Ifc
Shahi
,,
20
10
tuman &(*y. ^ly Qirdni coin The qiran, and half giran is The tuman a gold (rarely met with). " two girara bit," are (jfcU ^ dah-shahi), and the c5-;!> j^ dw hazdri or
1
.
= = =
50 dinar.
1
),
or ;|>
^ yak
hazar.
silver.
(&)
jjLx^o
PSJ-i
5a/te2
"
is
is silver
taken
Sannar, a corruption of
;lij,i
(formerly copper).
The following terms are occasionally used, though the values now represented by actual coins 4 = 5 dinar. jU Ghaz
(c)
:
^cx+xus
Muhammadi
'^66a^
^c^Uft.^)
= =
100 dinar
2 shahi.
200
,,
5
= =
a
panahbad
ginm
23
chahar
abbasi
depreciated
qiran
16
instead
of
20 shahi.
the Spanish dollar. qurush or ghurush, the Turkish piaster, value about 2d. of owj^i or u*^ English money or 17 J shahis: the term is used in certain places though the
Jl>;
n'2/?
1J g^raw
6
originally the
name of
coin
may
A
not be current. 7
called j^*>
majar and
Also called
isrfj*
The gold du hazari is now worth 4 qirans. 3 This term was also applied to the nickel coins (introduced by Mmaffar-ud-dm Shah). * Yak ghaz bi-shuma nami-diham "I will give you not a farthing," the speaker probably not knowing the real signification of the word ghaz.
2
6
is
without
In
is
is five
shahis,
panahbadi
7
Probably an Ar. pi. of o^y the German groshen. The term is used in Kerman' but the coin is not seen.
current in Beluchistan.
MEASURES OF LENGTH.
bdjugktt, are worth a tuman: they are rarely met with. C5~jj&l \jjj Ura-yi Ingtisi, and
little
213
a
little
more
or
less
than
the
^U^c
and Turkish pound: the former (in 1901) = 51 to 53 qirdn. " the a rupee/' fluctuates from 3J to 3J qirdn. Qjj) rupiya,
(d)
ci>fjj
also
any cheque.
of exchange.
Jl^Axij
Impiriydl,
"a
Mandt, "a rouble" = five qirdn, The above terms are not all current in every
oli
(e)
There
is
in Persia.
are called
territory.
^jj.^
sifdrishl.
is
Registered articles by post Insured articles are sent only within Persian
10%.
A
:
parcel
called
oJU|
amdnat or basta
is
" to insure"
1*,^
t
rasid
^f
(
"a receipt."
r ) *"*'
^^ U# bimd
kardan
l**j|
g*.
umdm
(/)
bimd kardam, " I sent 100 tumdns by insured post." For the system of keeping accounts by (Jl-ir vide Woll. Eng.-Per.
5
c^^y
\r*
*.=yak
Diet,
and
also
14.
64.
Measures of Length,
distance a shout can be heard."
6
() (5-^
<-j
yak
jiq,
"the
(rare)
y& s?
>=- jaw,
mu-yi shutur
"the breadth
of a camel's hair."
"a
barley-corn's length."
<c
ou|
angusht,
^
joint."
bahar, length of
zar'.
1-J-
second part of a
^~t>
<xij
^J 6
yaA;
"the Zew^A
of a finger
^ girah
y3
^ar'
,
about 40 inches)
16 girah =
zar 1
' '
Khiyal ml-kunl ki yak bajughll bi-man dadl (m.c.) " do " you think you have given me a vast sum for this ? The revenue of Beluchistan is paid to Kirman in rupees at the rate of
in 1902.
qirans a
The insurance
This term
is
AJU^Ji Jj^. haqqw 'z-zamana. used in Persia for insuring within Persian limits to a foreign only
fee is called
**
|j
AL->
^f
"I'll insure
is much used by the black-tent folk yak jlq-l rah ast. " nail," Also colloquially yak band nakhun: by the vulgar the word nakhun,
This term
is
used for
' '
' '
finger.
214
araj
7
.
WEIGHTS.
or <j; arash )^
tip
or a short pace. <* pte qadam ' J*j bagjial> the space between the tips of the fingers of both hands
when
JM
yak
sar, or *>
stature
of a man.
6,000 gaz
12,000 qadam
3J English
maydan-i asp
is
In addition, there
Persian yard.
a vague distance, about half a mile. the Turkish ell, ertT) arshin much the same as the
1
Remark.
of sandals
made
:
In Baluchistan, distance is estimated by the numbers of pairs of the dwarf palm (phis) that will wear out in traversing
etc.
*
the distance
(b)
the Afghans for a measure equal of to about the joint of a finger. According to the dictionary it is a weight 2 or of 4 barleycorns; or the twenty-fourth part of any weight or measure,
Tasuj~t
a word
much used by
dirham and hav65 (d). [Ar. J of a danaq, the latter being J of a the of a ing weight habbah.] 'Arz (j^jf and tul J^t are the two words commonly used for (c)
vide
^^>
" " breadth" and " 1*^ length " (adv.) by length." (d) Shash gaz dar shash gaz
:
'
arzan
i>
tul**
Ji,
way
(square),
six
yards
square"
six
(not
six
gaz, murabba'
&j*jf (J^
"
square yards."
65.
Weights,
(a)
is
sold
f*
1
about 3 go to
nukhud 8 weight.
two:
in
Care must be taken to distinguish the difference in pronunciation between these is not sounded, and the i is *)<?, the pointed by fatha. This measure is
roughly taken to be the distance from the tip of the fingers of the left hand when the arm is extended to the tip of the nose when the head is turned to the right. * In the Anjuman-ara-yi Nasiri, a dictionary of old Persian (Furs-i qadim), tasu is
given as the equivalent of
8
sa'at.
In India, grains of rice are sometimes used for weighing minute quantities of drugs. The lowest standard weight, however, in India is the rail, the seed of abrus precatorius, which in appearance resembles a small scarlet bean with a black spot on the end it is used by goldsmiths, and weighs about 2 grains. In Persian works written in India the
:
surkh
WEIGHTS.
215
yi^ of
io nukhud, a small chick pea or grain of gram, said to weigh about an ounce = 3 gandum.
J-
.
-
AvSj or
waqiyyah)
90 misqal (about
14 oz. avoirdupois).
oOtrf' u"
man-i
Tabrlzi
" a Tabriz
maund
"*= S"vaqqa" =
maunds
720
nearly 2 Tabriz
4 Tabriz
(14J
<_U ^
is
4.5;
cr
wflwi-i .Ra?/
or "
maund
of
Rai
" =
maunds (about 30
lb.)
;
lb.).
maw-*'
Hashimi
this
weight
charak
is
100 Tabriz maunds (725 lb.). the quarter either of a Tabriz or of a Royal maund.
k>)\j>
The
an
for
of a misqal : it is used Arab weight and equals about 4 grains or the word qlrat to the weighing jewels. The Arabs sometimes apply anything and colloquially they apply it to a measure of about an inch.
;
^ of
In
Kerman
NisJ-i haft dirham
.
.
p*)t>
..
. .
oJw>Ji^j
oJi*
^>>lj
10 J misqal in weight.
,,
, ,
f*;^
J^~
..
. .
^-* t^u^
Charak
Nim-man
Si-charak
^ p#
J[;U.
^;U
<^
)
Yak-man
(Tabrizi)
(<jpjlj$
u-^
^=
is
=2 -2 =3
4
,,
Si- sang
Charak
Charak
Charak
t^^
J&,
.-&*-*>*
i^
nim-man
(Tabrlzi)
little
used, ^A;^
*lx panjah
dir-
ham
(etc.)
(6)
Water
i.e.
turn a mill.
One sang
water
*Jf
by a quantity
sufficient to
is
supposed to be
sufficient for
one hundred
and a
of this quantity.
(c)
Water
tascha
l
or u~oLb
(asa/fc
('
little
cup
"
) ;
i.e.
borrowed or bought by the fc^Us a metal cup with a small hole in the
man, but the standard man of India
:
Persian for
Ibs.
mann
Ar.
the Anglo-Indian term for
^
is
is
80
3
Kerman
&zafoa, forty of
which go to 12 hours
also in
Kerman
30 jurra go to
12 hours
216
WEIGHTS.
is
bottom
measure.
floated
it
takes to sink
six
is
the unit of
certain
For instance,
cultivator borrows
is
tasak of a
the time
turned into his ground for that the tasak takes to sink six times. The tasak is not a
part of anything.
each of which
is >-&!<> dang, which may be said to be the sixth Property of all kinds is divided into six imaginary parts, An owner of J share of land, a room, called a dang.
l
' '
an owner
of
the
whole would say, ''all six dang are mine": dang khana mdl-i man ast.
1
lands.
CHAPTER
66.
IX.
(
The Verb
68)
:
FM
J^
).
(vide also
is
ft
<jri
am
(I)
I
am
$
^.\
. .
1m (We)
are.*
(*or)
(Thou) art
is
*!
U (You) are.*
^1 emd (They) are. (He) be (b) (1) These affixes may joined to a pronoun, adjective, participle, or substantive, and sometimes to an adverb and the same rules that apply
0-.I [-ad]
. . ;
31
(6), (c),
(d)]
apply in the
main
here.
a Sultan
c^*f i<Mu
''
"
;
j\
sultanast
(for
cu*f ^IkL*
y) "he
is
ast,
or (with the
1st
o~o
&vj
w banda
" he
^
is
a slave
"
y [or ^^ddnd-yam
am learned";
tu banda-i
W e are
dand-yand
'
' ;
but fi'^b dana*im "we are learned"; c^ " art thou a slave 8 ? " man-am or ft ^*ix> " " dana'st u ddna-i thou art learned
:
^^
^y
;
or
' '
;
am
^Uf^
is
cu^Gf^ji
^JoLJf^ e>Lij^
il
V>S^
^1,
(not khubru-yast
***
which
poetical only),
but
Ishdn khub-ru-yand
**&.
Ma^im nihdda sar bi-farmdn-i sharab Jan karda fidd-yi lab-i khanddn-i sharab. " 'Tis we who to wine's yoke our necks incline,
And
(2)
wine."
K. 21 Whin.}
rd'st
The
alif
dushmandn-am
OM|^ ^iU*>
nikust;
o^:
ij
^ili^^
).
After u and
kdr-Vst
(3)
^.~~jj
c^&
for
euphony,
f!
f<>^
x>v, or
jf*^ x*^
^t
>l*Jst,
or *^\*>\
*J
*^->i
or
This
affix is called
mim-i
isbat i
fi'l
<-U'
oUif
^.
Jjt^
majhul
ft
In classical
ed.
full
sounds em,
3
The
*>\
form
is
Muluk
and
might
(Sa'dl) ) kings are for the care of their subjects also be used in modern Persian.
^j
"
"
;
**&**} r&aya-yand
218
THE VERB.
before ast o~w| (4) Alif-i maqsura sometimes becomes u MusVst, but better o*t fe*yo y u Musa ast "he is Moses."
as:
of the second person is preceded by a * over a " where art thou ? " In other words, two syllables ending and \s^* with a vowel are a hamza acting as a hyphen. beginning coupled by
(5)
as
(6)
The
final * of
Arabic words
is,
and
sometimes not. If, however, an Arabic word ending in * precedes the first person am <*', the * must be struck out to preserve the distinction between the singular and plural of the verb. Thus the plural of ^c& shd'ir a poet is *U* shu'ara*, but man ash'ar-i sh'uara-yam " I am the most j*Af
frff/C
poetical
of
the
is
though
it
may
Remark
or
is
' *
is
not
' '
are termed
*k)t;
"copula."
is
In the proposition "Religion is indispensable to happiness," of the joins the subject religion to its predicate, the remainder "
Any verb can be analyzed into into "is" (the copula), "living"
(c)
thus
lives,"
inserted
c:
>
v^
need not be
is
khub-ruyast
2
(poet.)
or
o^; _^
:
fair-faced";
o*~jUfa
;
dana-nd
o^U
ki-e
dana-st ^Ita dana-yast or o^ttta o-oUi shuma-st (for md-st (for o**t U )
;
danayand
or
Remark.
"
it is
' '
e) is
used as khub-e
good
" who
is
is it ?
"
t
(d)
Tu
ast
OA^I^J
if
contracted into
o-^
Kist
fust
(or
pronounced even
^
(g) ]
^ chiyim
1
' '
what are we
"
;
^*
[vide
6
' '
37
and
?
***.
chiyam
what
am
^i
"
Kujcfl
(t^x^
is
?
<^j?^y
'*
of
what
J
place are
you a native
not used.
"
or colloquially
^^l?^
kuffii-i ?
^?^',
which
2
s
is
question (^k-F^
is
Icujcf-i
" where
are
you?
"
is
the
Inja
answer
ff
^M'
\*f*&\
inja
or
am: (inja-yam
ml-basham
considered vulgar).
The
"
correct reply
hastam (&~&
*
f^i*.
as well as *$
)
c5^
"who"=
*^.
Kl
(.5^,
H,
signifies
who ?":
*^-.
similarly, ^<*-
chi
all
of chiz _j*%-
is
another form of
In modern Persian
Better
219
As a
;
rule, either
ing but in either case the contraction exists in pronunciation. Similarly, the final silent * of other words sometimes disappears before o^>t, as c^*x^jjt u barahnast "he is naked."
Note the following forms or contractions, etc., tix^j cu^J zisht-ruyand "thou art": f'y x<xiu banda-yi tu am "I am thy "they are ugly ":
slave
"
^^
^f i^
banda-yi u
yam "I am
:
his slave
"
^Jy
|xu
U ma
"Who
jy
:
are they ? ishan kiyand &>>* <^ **" ishdn kiyan-and &^.\ ? (m.c.).
1
"
&^
*,
or ki
and
**
*f, or kistand
(e)
The
"
of the
' '
:
second person
final
is
^kL.
the
y of address
with a
and
silent
or a final
^,
"
?
:
it is
(
written as a
kirmarii-i
or &j-'2 " who art thou superscribed hamza, as: "art thou a Kirmani (an inhabitant of Kirman) ? "
(^
&
J^^^
(/) The above suffixes form the six persons of every tense of the verb with the exception of the third person singular, when ast becomes ad. (g] The negative form of the simple affixed verb is nearly obsolete, or else
*> nayam
3
"I am not"
thou art not
is
..
. .
/*& nayim
*&> nayid
"we
"you
(or
are not."
are not."
*&>
or ^xi nayl
riist
' '
"
. *
" he
not
"
<^i nayand
<*it
w na and) "they
are not."
Angar ki dar Tchak na^i bar khak-i. " " But now you are above earth, not below
!
(0.
#.457
sometimes says: are you there (here) or not ? person mst o^ujjj is in regular use.
villager
' '
' '
Ua;!
^Iwijl
tu inja-i
nayam ^.
found for
The
ast
third
(h)
aste ^Ju-t is
(a)
From an
hastidan
"to
hastam "
/wis^
"
. .
.
are, etc."
'
are, etc:'
hast " he
is, etc.'
Or bandagan c;^-V.
:
&
is
(^
should
mean
'
220
Hastam
it,
^*,
etc., is
substituted for
am ^ whenever euphony
requires
Gar man
"Am
hastam p*~* could not be repeated.
hastam
am?"
(0.
K. 334
:
Here
the
ft
am
Also
danam u
"He
Hast cu~*
is
knows, as well as
I,
my
sorry case."
(0.
K. 315 Whin.}
:
used for ast ^~-l when euphony requires the former, as in khana chunan ki hast ta sad sal davam mi-kunad <x* $ *^
*
x>
(*!>>
J^>
if
must be
written.
Hast O~~A also means "exists," as: Khuda hast o~ God": Izad hast O-*A ^t "there & a God." #as o*~* is also more there is emphatic than ast c^f as kishtl ra khalal-Vst ow-jjU^ \^ ^^LlT
' '
something wrong with the ship (a simple statement) reply would be, kishfi ra khalal-l hast O~A i;
' '
but
' '
to
a denial the
'
^i^
^J&T
there
is I tell
you.'
The above
(b)
is
now
in existence.
:
nistam
nisti
' '
am not "
**>~y nistim
' '
we
are not.
' '
fci
^~~jj nlst
^*i-^ nistld "you are not." AU-JJ nistand " they are not."
Probably, there was an ancient infinitve idan &&\ or &**] istan signi" to be " from which one or more of the above tenses are derived. fying
(c)
Sa'dl says
man
were
:^^ ^ ^U|yk
my
^5^^^ cs^
"
^) L i$ ^LJf ^^
'
$$ ld*iq-i qadr-i
dignity to be (I
"
it
of a
iJb*-
no fear
hastam
of the thorn."
khar (Sa'd!) "companionship with the rose were sweet, were there Similarly, Sa'dl uses *&*&>& shunidastam for shuriida
jj^ii
I
^A
have heard."
am
pf)
with the
Zagh
is
common
The chough
is
called
*^*!.
Here
asti
and
221
In
kdr-i
jahan agar
bi-taqlid-asti
Har Har
' '
were indeed an empty play, Each day would be an 'Id or festal day,
all
"
K. Rub. 434 Whin.)
Gar
man
'Afv-i tu
Though I had sinned the sins of all mankind, I know thou would'st to mercy be inclined."
(0.
K. 333 Whin.)
Man
nist
I
an- am
hama Tu
Thee."
" And
Hastl
i-^
is
am
am
lost in
(0.
(d)
Chandan
ki zi-khud nis-tar
am
has-tar-am.
more."
(0.
68.
(muta'addi (j?****
and Intransitive
).
cjjl,
or ghayr-i muta'addi
simple.
^^bojic
(a)
present no
There
ends in &s -dan or in ^y -tan, and the shortened Infinitive or third person singular Preterite is formed by cutting off the termination -an
;^/AXJ
)
'
are formed quite regularly from the root or ( ^Uj ) shortened Infinitive, 8 and from the second person singular Imperative the
All
tenses
zaman
In India, lazimi
^'^
intransitive.
2
3
or time
infinitive is
" masdar " Infinitive or source." always identical with the third person singular of the
;
Preterite.
222
persons are formed by the affixed substantive verb. Every verb has thus two stems. As in most languages, the Imperative is the shortest form of the
verb.
It
must be borne
'
'
Infinitive a verb.
"How
"when
it
has no
tense or time
(b)
?
1
(1)
Aj
(or
and
^ mi
^
(or
^a
hami
2
).
The
the same
prefixed to the Aorist or Present Subjunctive (one and tense), to the Imperative, to the Preterite, and to the old Past
is
to the
The second
it
is
prefixed
the Present
(or
distinguish
Preterite.
In the following
Infinitive
:
example
(poetical),
AJ
is
added
to
the
shortened
,3
.v.
&J-3 j
fj
"
By
strength of
of
\Sar-i dast
o*o_y-
is
the hand.]
Dar
An
Tcu-yi Icharabat
o^J
>.A|^iu AixJLkjf
^^j
^w
AJU.^
A^ Avc
Jjb
^/^i x9 *f^T
J*.
Ear anchi ml guzarad dil ma-nih ki Dajla bas-i Pas az Khalifa bi-khwahad guzasht dar Baghdad.
11
Set not thy heart on that which passeth away; for the Tigris Will flow on by Baghdad long after the Khalifas."
(Oul Book
S,
Maxim.
105.)
is
applied to the
&
in
"
*
except
"
;
also in
There
is
no
difference
signification
between ml
^
;
and hami
(.5+^
both
are probably contracted forms of, or connected with, hamiaha these can be joined to In poetry this prefix is sometimes, by poetical their verbs or written separately. license, written after the verb.
223
^4?/ cfo7
hama
Bdgh-i
Binshasta
" Oh soul
Vdngdh bar an sabza shab-l chun shabnam 1 u bdmddd bar-khdsta gir (0. K.)
!
lay
up
all
Thy mead with pleasure's flowerets spangle o'er And know 'tis all as dew that decks the flowers
For one short night, and then
(2) It will
is
seen no more
"
!
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 243.) thus be seen that the prefix ml (in old Persian also haml a It in continuative sense. ) is, gives poetry, even added to the Imperative with this continuative sense, as *Ax*A *fc Ol:>y^ \) *jr* vfeUj* ) O^t; ^o ^\***> Gar rdhat-i jdviddn tarn mi-dan Mi-ranj hamisha va ma-ranjdn kas rd.
(0.
K. Rub. 15 Whin.)
In yak
K. Rub. Whin.)
indeclinable (3) The prefix & is omitted in verbs compounded of an " from " khiz and a bar as bar-khdstan particle verb, get up >>Ay (^^^j " if I return," from bar-gashtan j&$j.*. Before f^j*.j%\ agar bar gardam verbs beginning with a 6 v_ ) the prefix is in modern Persian often written
:
separately and not joined to the verb. The verb &ty budan does not take the prefix shudan. c;<x
(4)
(c)
AJ,
Very rarely do both prefixes occur together, The auxiliary verb* ^^ budan " to be " is
is <j*^
the Imperative
bash
8 '*
be thou."
The shortened
(j*\)
).
"be ye." Bash tj2b bethou"ba8hid With the exception of the second person singular,
^^
all
persons of th
mu'avin^
Bu > was
still
said to exist
in
auxiliary verb." It is another form of the second person singular of the Imperative. " is found ki bu or perhaps," **J bu in out-of-the-way districts: J.
(
iDjLxx) (J** )
<
mod.
Persian,. in poetry.
224
Remark
hami.
It
I.
is
The continuous Imperative is formed by prefixing ml or usually affirmative, but Qa'am uses it negatively also.
coll.),
or hami-bash <j^
(obs.) ''continue to
be or
" Remark II. The Present Participle (cMlJ bashan being") and the " <xll> be-er ") are not in use. noun of agency bashanda 1
(
II (A).
The Aorist
or Present Subjunctive
2.
^b
basham " I may be [or let me be " thou bashi rnayest be,"
bashad s "he, she or
be, etc.)."
it
"
].
may
be (or
let
him,
2.
<i*t
"we may be (or let us be)." be ye ')." bash/id "ye may be (or Imperative, bdshand " they may be (or let them be)."
bashim*
'
*j.
In old Persian
does.
//
(B).
The following
f
1.
5
is
an
old
form
of this tense
|*jj
buwam
buwi
' '
" I
may
be."
be.
' '
Singular
2.
-j
<JTJJ
6
thou mayest
it
ijj
may be
"
(or
\
it
bada or
buwad or
(*^ buvem
Plural
. .
^b bad). 8
2.
AJ,J
^
(plural
is
"we may be." 6wi;e^ ye may be." buwand "they may be."
"
Bashanda
35^Xab
bashandagan (j^&i&lj
in
is
"an
inhabitant"; d&t
commoner
,
modern
colloquial,
<>xLrt>
e^Luljl
is
or
(^Ue^ i^^t.
Bashanda
n India bashinda,
is
avoiding Arabic words. as a sign of the first person of the verb is called mlm-i mutakallim. 5 Bad or bada or buvad or fewwadand 6?tva the Precativeor Optative are still in use ; Bashad is not used as an Optative, &c. (in m.c. bad and buvad). 4 Classically (and in Afghanistan and India still) these terminations of the first and
the author
4
This
mlm
majhul sounds.
is
The Afghans use this tense in speaking. Note that ) and a v. In m.c. it bad and ity buvad are both used.
6
pronunced both
like
To be
distinguished from the third person singular of the Preterite <i^ bud.
225
JU
^Ixjj )
(in
Modern Persian
also a Future}.
Singular
4 2.
Plural
;
mi-bashid "
you are."
The prefixes mi or torn, written separately or joined to the are used with this tense in writing in modern as well as in old Persian.
Remark.
verb,
-
Me-buwam
fj*}* is
The
Preterite
jAfe*
ft
ii
/"
was."
1.
Plural
-)
2.
you were.
budand "they
Imperfect,
C5
-*
(3.
were.'
V.The
Singular
etc.
(
11
U5 C
mi-budam
thou wast or used to be. mi-bud " he, etc., was or used to be."
we
Plural
were.
'
This tense
mi-budam " if
had
in
m, etc., etc.," and sometimes as a "Future Conditional." The Preterite, budam, however, is generally used,
speaking, instead of the Imperfect.
1
especially
******
tXJ
bud
guft
May
khur ki
bi-zlr-l
obsolete or poetical with the Imperfect of budan. to Except in the Continuous Imperative, vide 68 (6), foot-note, ml is not prefixed
Ml
<j* or
haml
K. Rub. 51 Whin.)
',
haml
is
this tense in
modern Persian.
15
226
VI.
or used to be."
-,,
^^
budi thou
,,
,,
bude he,
etc.
,,
, ,
,,
.
,,
budeme we
Plural
.
, ,
..{
2.
*-.*>tybudede ye
,,
,,
,,
obsolete in
modern
colloquial, but
is
still^used
even in speaking by the Afghans and Indians. In old Persian, the prefix me or home is also added. It will be noticed that the majhul sounds of the tense have been retained in transliteration. A modern Persian, however,
would give the vowels the ojt;**) ma'ruf sounds. The second person singular and first person plural are very rarely used, and the second person plural
is,
VII.
The
Definite Future
1
cUi~*>
).
9t^L
"to wish, desire," has for its Imperative consequence ptij*> Tchwaham. The Definite Future of all verbs is formed by conjugating the Aorist of khwastan with the shortened infinitive.
khwah.
Its Aorist is in (
1.
ty
p*^
khwdham bud
Singular
} 2.
j# c**!*^ M*>wahi bud thou *y AA^A. khwahad bud he, etc. ty p&\jA> khwdhim bud we *j> *&^ Jchwdhid bud you
,,
^3. fl.
Plural
. .
-j
,,
,,
,,
,,
2.
,,
V3.
&
is
iJiA!^L
,,
,,
seldom used in modern colloquial, the Present tense taking its place on all occasions it appears to be dying out. It is, however, still used by the Afghans and Indians, who seldom use the Present
This tense
:
Remark.
By
Persians
it freely
it is
The people
Kashan
VIII.
in speech.
(
Jj*s*>
p*>\ )
is
formed by adding
or " having been.'
1
to
the
IX.
Perfect Tense
/' itey
^j5 ^U>
).
Singular
2.
x^
3. o~of
227
1.
2.
fjf
*^
Plural
<
**t &>jj
oif *j>y
3.
Remark I. In poetry the final S of this tense is sometimes omitted, and the verb contracted into one word, thus; o**^j budast.
az
man u
tu layl
u nahar-i
bud-ast.
"Days changed to nights, ere you were born, or I." (0. K. Rub. 33 Whin.}
Remark
II.
full
vide
66
(a)
and
(6).
of the second
person singular
66
(e).
X.
<j^*>
not in use.
JK>J, etc.)
XI.
"
)
:
(with
agar
"
Perfect Subjunctive-).
*^l) *^3 buda basham " I shall or will have been "; " I must have been."
Singular
I
2.
M
3^U
,,
,,
1.3.
/
^
j^
etc.
1.
^ilj
A>Ab
Ai<ilj
Plural
..2.
3.
By adding
to
the
^,
called
by grammarians the
;
a-yi Uyaqat or
"^
plural
l^ay budam-ha
Bar lawh nishan-i budani-ha buda ast. " 'Twas writ at first, whatever was to be."
l
(0.
(d)
K. Rub. 35 Whin.}
Bad
j>U,
as
ab
jt;,>
o^*
and in poetry lib bada is an Optative or a Benedict! ve form, 'umrat dardzbad " may thy life be long." Buvad (old) is
another form of
*(>
bad.
chi bada
'
signifies
The phrase (modern colloquial and classical) har " happen what will, let happen what may.'
bad
f,^ **;*>
tions of
Lawh Q) the tablet upon which, according to Mohammadan mankind have been written by God, from all eternity.
belief, the
transac-
228
mabdd) "let it not be; by no means; away; be treated as a conjunction. (Note that, contrary to custom, the prohibitive &*> ma is retained with the third person Precative). In modern colloquial, the phrase I^Ux? )^ bardy-i ruz-i mabdda
)&{**>
Mabdda
(or
God
forbid;
lest"
may
^j
signifies
(/)
"for a rainy day, for a day God forbid that it should come." Nist u nd-bud kardan o^y tyfi j o~.J (lit. to make is not and
'
'
was
not
'
' '
signifies
to destroy utterly.
' '
(g)
It will be
of the verb
"to be."
thus,
no difference
in
their in
signification;
modern Persian
f<
"I am always here" could be rendered equally hamisha mjd mi-bdsham, or hastam, or am, 3uLx*A man by
Mp-S?!
1
^
;
or
,Ju(fc
or
/-^: /c
means " Oh that! would that.! " o~t l^*" & ki man an dirakht JuJ|*j t; o.;j> i^f ip* &f * <itf <*a. chi bude ra biddnistame ki kujd ast (Sa'd!) " Oh that I knew where that tree was to be
(h)
Chi bude
l
(budt)
(class)
^^
**.
found."
(i)
is
agar dardn waqt dnjd mi-budam mard hdjat-i qabr name-bud (Afghan) "had I been present then, I would have had no need of a grave (for I would have been buried in the ruins) " in modern Persian, budam and bud (without
;
t^/o
l^f
oiij e/f
the prefix mi ) would ordinarily be used here. In modern colloquial, the Imperative (j)
^b
bash
is
is
stand
here,,"
still,"
or
"wait." Mi-bash
o*^*
S5~->
(m.c.)
"stay
Compare:
x)|
ScX
Als^/c
j|
J^
1)
^jj
tjd
rlsh.
td
bi-khwurad.
(Sa'dl).
Khdk magjtz-i sar-i khaydl-andisli. " One to-day you maj^ see successful,
Another broken-spirited from striving Wait a short time till the grave
Majhul sounds.
s
In m.c.
J>>
^5"
&<* chi
ml-shavad
*>&*
chi
I;
"I wish
I could,*'
danistam
%
**
&
-X
;
gh
for
8^*
final * in the
(
former
is
aspirated.
uf)j) ruzak-l
dimin.).
ACTIVE VOICE.
229
(Sa'di).
The Afghans
live."
still
Some verbs are both Transitive and Intransitive, as amikhtan'1 ^iu^f "to mix, be mixed"; rikhtan &**uj "to pour away, be poured away, etc."; dukhtan* <^i^:> "to sew"; angikhtan* ^iu&t "to stir up, rouse"; amukhtan ^i^^f "to learn, teach" sukhtan ^ia^, "to burn" avikhtan'1 (^*awyf "to hang"; gushadan* &Z3 "to open"; gusistan, &*~$ " " to break" " to 1 pushidan' &*&jJ "to hide" payvastan e^>^ join 2 3 afrukhtan ^J^-^V "to kindle, inflame"; afsurdan &*j>~i\ "to freeze,
(/)
:
congeal"; afzudan
tired, etc."
;
e>jy?>f,
^.^Ui.
" to wound, be
also transitive
Afghan Persian
"to place,"
69.
Active Voice
<*-}*<o &***
the regular
of
transitive
verb
(a)
Infinitive( j<^*>
^t
7 )
&^kandan
noun)
(b)
(
negative Infinitive, cJ<^^ na-kandan or (^oJ> na-kandan. " 3 lean Imperative dig thou, etc." (or bi-kan}. Past Participle
J^A&XJ
^t
(active
and passive
\
^tiT
or
"having dug."
(indeclinable).
Noun
2
3
*
6
Muehtarik, i.e. "shared, common." In modern colloquial, Transitive only. In modern colloquial, afsurda (with shudan) only used. In modern colloquial, Intransitive only.
i.e.,
of
is
" known.'*
tasrlf
Sarf
o^o
"conjugation,"
conjugate." In India, gardan \*)\>j> is 7 For the Infinitive as a verbal noun, vide
8
e^t^ " to
115
(h),
*i
and
(r)
Remark.
amr-i muiarrad to dis-
Siyha-yi
it
also called
&j^* j*>(
tinguish
The second
j*0^ j*\
amr-i
tiazir,
**&
,
In such sentences as
is
^*) l&j^
(
%3j>
*
)^
u>.^,
this
ciple
called
mazi-yi
ma'tufi
(
^jJ
**
)
(.r*'
70
),
the final
-flbs
<Jj^
va )
230
of
ACTIVE VOICE.
Jcl*
l
agency
p*\
iwitf
kananda
"a
' :
digger
(declinable).
Noun
of
Possibility or
"
Future Participle ^*X kandani "that is to be dug up, fit to (&& kandaniha " things that are to be dug up, or are
I.
muzan
gjLa*
(or
*tf or
up "),
+&
or
kanam or<bi-kanam "I may dig up" ^J kani or bi-kani " mayst thou dig," etc.
"let
me
dig
termination ^ of the 1st person of the tenses of tranmim-i mutakallim ( sitive or intransitive verbs is styled by grammarians
Remark
/.The
r KJU).
The
(
suffix
*j>x> ),
am
as in
['vide'
66 (a)]
c
is
termed
mim-i
isbat-i
fi'l
U*J
cL-bjif
shddmdn-am
^.H/o^li
am
rejoiced."
Remark
end
II.
alif is
^Uj
).
am
Remark.
/// A.
Imperative
sigha-yi
' '
amr j
' '
^
The
Remark.
If
or
(^ a
lean or
bikan
dig thou.
tutf or <xxx>
the initial letter of the Imperative has zamma for its vowel, the vowel of the prefix * may also be changed to zamma, as bu-guzar or
:
bi-guzar.
col-
loquial, vide
///. B.
^/ot<
^A/O mi-kan (class.), or e^**^ hami-kan (class.), or <j^ ^-^ hami bi-kan " continue to dig up keep on digging." In modern colloquial (class.)
;
^^
Iwy bi-kan
is
used.
or
<g*
<-
|**f
Compound
the realor regular Active Participle as distinAdjectives that have the sense of a Past
&
j
is
It is,
of
shaw the Imperative of c^<^ , .and always before (D^, and often before kun "do."
ACTIVE VOICE.
231 that
Remark.
classical,
"Oh
tj>U/o is
he
may dig"
is
and
[Mabada
both
and modern
III. G.
j>>
&^>).
Negative Aorist.}
Remark. For an example, in classical Persian, of the Past Subjunctive used as a Continuative Imperative, vide 125 (j) (6).
IV.
The
' '
C^f kandam
This tense, in
for
"
euphony only.
V. Imperfect
3
(mdzt-yi istimrdri
^^*^t
t5-*k
" I was digging up, f^if ^*A hami-kandam. or (**.**> mi- kandam to dig up." (This tense is also used in past and future conditions.)
VI.
used
the Optative
41
^^^ ^^
or rarely
68 VI.
Remark.
is
<Jy.
singular
first
The rarely used, and the second person plural perhaps, does not exist. is rare vide exist and, perhaps, should not Remark, person plural
;
68
VI, Remark.
<&
tense.
fAtja.
The
vide also
dig up." sometimes khwaham in this added to the auxiliary prefix In poetry, the full and not the shortened form of the Infinitive occurs
AJ is
^^
80.
In modern colloquial *J
classical
form
of
is preferred, being less peremptory. the third person singular is formed by adding
t^- 3*' -^
attf-i
S
When When
Sa'dl frequently uses Ufif gufta, which is also m.c. preceded by agar this tense is called <J*j& mazi-yi sharfi.
preceded by
oiK
kash
^K
^^
is
called
mazi-yi tammaria'i.
The
be applied to
^W ^U
232
VIII.
ft
ACTIVE VOICE.
*iJLn
kanda
am
have dug."
ast is often
Remark.
(for !<xtf
An
is
^JU^
occur,
kandasti
cu**xif
kandast
66
other
persons
but
if
^ is found affixed
to the auxiliary
IX.
kanda budam
This tense
is also
Remark.
a verb,
the
is
little-used
and
kanda budami, i.e., to the Past Participle of Past Conditional or Habitual of budan, instead of its
^^y.
&&
!
Preterite,
Example:
awal Khuda ra
X.
paristida
^^ budami.
*i*^J
l>
Jjljf
oK ^
ay kash az
(maziyi shakkl
^^
^^
).
ik*tf kanda basham "I will have dug up; must have dug up; j*b have dug up." This tense is also used as a Past Subjunctive.
(c)
may
The
(1)
ji*V mi-kanda
digging up
"
;
ast (m.c.)
the Imperfect
is
(2) f^-Hf
WJ^ (/t)
is
(agar)
is
kanda me-budam
(old) "(if) I
is
written
X, and
^^
<
c^J-k-"
^^-^
mazi-yj
maznun, and
1
iJTjX^xj^^lx) mazi-yi
Or
:
(^ty
<t&*f
Persian)
me-kanda budam
kanda budame (not used in modern Persian, and rare is another form
:
L^
*?*
^ li-^
cc^*
i^jj/o
^fc^l
^AJ
Su-yi bustan did duzd-l hamchu dud. One night a Qazi was going alone towards a garden. When he saw a thief (pass him) like smoke."
ACTIVE VOICE.
233
In the following example t*^J ai^L* && &i~. j>\ (m.c.) kar sakhta nami-shud "if you had remained sitting still, agar nishista budid the Past Participle of the intransitive verb nothing would have been found
Remark.
&
' '
considered an adjective and not part of the verb; both verbs are, therefore, correctly in the ordinary Imperfect to express a supposition.
is
(3) txiluxj
am
According to Forbes, "Let him continue digging." unable to find any examples of such a tense. Such an expression
a^ir.
in
just as <xU>>o
(4)
dug."
It is of doubtful accuracy.
used by the Afghans and sometimes by the Persians. For example, vide 125 (;') (3). " I must have 3J^ kanda buda am dug." This tense, (5) fl ^> which is also of doubtful accuracy, is used in modern Persian. For example,
is
to mean "it is kanda" a^tf (engraving), " it is silver." mi-bashad signifies nuqra jwtf, a Future Perfect, "he will have dug, he must have
vide
125
(/)
(?) (5).
The
may
becomes
vy.
1
buvad or
bad:
*tf
kanad becomes
'
kanad,
"
Oh
that he
may
"
ki Izad-at tauba dihad aUa ay oa>>i \j* *ty " K. Allah to aid thee 172, Whin.) (0. repent They say may be made by prefixing Parti(g) Paraphrases of some of the tenses can
"
dig
Guyand mara
&
'
and Verbal Adjectives, to the verb "to be," khwahan-i an bud kit* &# of c^*l^ (m.c.) "he was desirous of
raftani hastam
ast (m.c.)
-- "5
murda
as:
(m.c.)
" I
am
ow.t
about to
go";
^=~t
^
is
"it
is
dead "
(also
ast
known." knowledge"; (^l*x> sadad-i Dar follows as To be about to do can be a (h) expressed thing, (or khayal-i) raftan budam f^ ^Ai> (JU^ or) *&*)*, or dar sharaf-i raftanbudam " also in modern " P&U ^j o^>;^ I was on the point, eve of, departure "he is on the point of going colloquial by, mi-khiyahad bi-ravad ki u dar kar-i murdan ast (m.c.) "he is dying"; *$ (*i^ c>T )^ )* when
"he
v-^lbjt
ast
tdlib-i 'Urn
seeks after
ma'lum
"it
:
t$
j*j3Jo )\jt,
yj
("*;f^J
\*tey *J.*^
"
"I was on
:
her and jumping over the wall when (Trans, of Haji Baba, Chap. XXIII) lj kar also to be 3 means (dar actually engaged in) ft>>* )\j& y u^~^ tf "I was about to (Tr*H. B. Chap. XXIII). leap over the wall."
^^
(i)
e^y
it
*** )*&
s(j zinhar dast-i tu takan na-khwurad "don't let your hand shake" *r ; fiJU ma-guzar ki bi-yuftad "don't let it fall" *:^ )\^>. bu-guzar
;
biydyad
(:
permit (him) to
come "
alone."
This
alif-i
tamanna.
234
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
(
bi-guzdr.
f
I.
(conjunction)
"
although."
O
-
Remark
mazi-yi
The
Preterite Potential
vU ^JLJy
(
imkdm
II.
or mdzi
ma
'l-qudrat
( j**>*>
t5
)
Remark
Sarf-i saghir
^j*
is
moods and
person singular of the Preterite, Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, Aorist, and Present, the second person singular of the Imperative and the Negative Imperative, and the Present and the Past Participles.
Sarf-i kdblr
( j**f *-^> in both voices.
and Tenses,
its
Persons,
Moods
70.
(a)
Verbal Adjectives.
From
Substantive) with the termination a is formed, which differs little in signification from a Present Participle, thus: cA^ didan "to see," Imperative
^jj bin
"see thou,"
binayan
verbal adjective
(classical)
)
;
(plural ijljUu
Ux'
bind "seeing, clear-sighted" " blind " or "a blind man"; li#U na-bmd
U-jj
;!> j
Dar kargah-i kuza-gar-l raftam dush, Dldam du hazdr Tcuza guya u khdmush.
" Once in a potter's shop, a company Of cups in converse, did I chance to
(0.
see.
K. 283 Whin.)
43
(r).
;
" holding fast Similarly, from ^x&k ddshtan and^ta ddr, comes \j\tdara " a possessor, a lord, rich or and ju juy, comes (m.c.) from c^J^ justan
:
ij^.
]> "
from
&&y*
sazidan [saz]
e^
gu or
L>|y
tavana and
^ c;^
^^
Pazira
I^JAJ
Some
of these
Verbal Adjectives are not declinable, and are equivalent to Participles. from ^^ pahn (6) A few nouns have a similar termination; thus rawshan from "clear, pahnd "breadth";
khamush.
NEGATIVE VERBS.
bright" rawshana Ujj)
1
235
also "Roxana" the Greek "brightness," form of the name of the wife of Alexander the Great, who was a daughter of the
(old)
king of Persia:
Lp
tarsd a
"
Christian.
"
71.
(a)
Negative Verbs.
Fi'l-i
Fi'l-i nafi
nahi
^ J*
prohibitive
verb.
(3)
fHJ
The Negative prefixes are: (1) /o or f ma*; (2) *i or 8 c> na; and & na.* The prefix *? is always omitted when the verb is negative, as: & bi-bmam " let me see " na-binam "let
;
^Ju*i
me
not see."
with the second person singular and plural only of the with and the Negative Precative, as: <uj** ma-purs "don't Imperative, <*x\Co ma-kunid "don't do" and (with the Precative Aorist) ^xa* ask"; " ma-bmad may he not see." It is always joined to its verb in writing,
(b)
;
Ma is used
and
compound verbs immediately precedes the verb itself, as: eJ> ^~=i fl don't touch"; vide also Remark to (e). The &y> ^*t benedictive forms ma-mdndd ,xUU* ma-kundd ali&o etc., are sometimes used
dast ma-zan
, ,
in
in m.c.
Remark. The ma occurs in the conjunction mabad or mabadd (the Optative of CK>J); as also in the adverb magar "but, perhaps," which is
compounded
(c)
of
ma and
agar.
na A
is
In modern colloquial, however, ma &* is falling into disuse; and generally used instead, as it is less imperative and therefore civil.
Na *J is correctly prefixed to all the tenses with the exceptions of the second person singular and plural of the Imperative [vide (b) ], and in modern It is also prefixed to the Past colloquial it is even prefixed to these also. Participle, and to the Shortened Infinitive as well as to its full form, as:
(d)
*j*
*j j?^>J
|*^
c^i
I;
;(
^f
mi-shavad (m.c.) "don't do this (God forbid it), it may not turn out well." It can, in writing, be joined to the verb of be written separately.
(e)
-^&
na-guft
If,
immediately precedes the verb or its prefix mi. Example " he did not say " nami-guyam I do not say." hami and not however, the prefix be ml, the negative is
AJ
(C
:
The
^^
f
pahna
^'-^tv' rawshana'i
(j&*J)-
colloquial panha^l
roshnl
2
*
'
brightness.
Called
Nun
^
na/y
f*x>
nilm
niin-i nahy.
For
^^
nun
nafy.
it is,
yf->
^
is
this
Interrogation, vide
is
73.
In (.5^
*
the negative
called *j&*>
^j^^
or
cW^
** it
of the
adjective takes
na & only.
236
Similarly, in
NEGATIVE VERBS.
compound
as:
<_c;f^
to the verb
itself,
remove your hand ? " or " won't you cease doing ? " f*>j*jt\ agar bar nagardam "if I don't return"; fty harf na-zadam "I did not speak," 85 (c). vide
:
^j
verbs, the
o*o
dast
o^
Remark.
standstill."
The same
rule holds
good for
**, as
o~~jU>
\^
va ma-ist "don't
(/)
This rule
:
is
in
speaking, as
Chun
riist dar in zamana sud-i zi-khirad Juz bi-khirad az zamana bar ml na-khurad.
to learning
on
They pluck
life's fruitage,
learning
(0.
who eschew."
Ndti occurs only in compounds, as: *^U na-dida (adj.) "unseen"; v-JJbo ^jj jtji u az In matlab nd-khwdhan ast "blind"; oi ^IA^ :< he does not want to do it." (local and incorrect)
(g)
Uuuli
li
Negative Infinitive is In often treated like a compound, and formed with L>, seldom with &>. modern Persian, however, na *> is preferred to nd ^.
Infinitive
The
being considered a
noun, the
In &*jS t#bj cu~jj nlst u nd-bud kardan, the a shortened Infinitive, or a verbal noun.
(h)
j>y
is
probably considered
only
is
correct, vide
In Persian, two negatives are sometimes used where in English one 123 (6) (5) and (e) also for the negative verb with
;
A hlkh, vide
39
(d)
(1),
(2),
(3) (n).
and Remark.
For the
negative
122
With the
cxiXJ
to the
bdyad *jl, etc., the negative is sometimes added bdyad ki naauxiliary and sometimes to the principal verb, as
auxiliaries
:
kunad
a' oob,
or na-bdyad bi-kunad
&iCj
5yUJ;
na-bdyad raft**)*>\to\
<3Jji ^^1;
*?
ffc
3**.
^^
(Tr.
is
Kam
:
usually in poetry,
Negative, as
Not
ci
237
Chandan ki justand kamtar yaftand (Gul.) "in spite of their diligent search they couldn't find him," or' the more they searched, the less they
1
found him."
Vide also
121
(6).
72.
differs in
the Imperative of a verb ends in j, this letter sometimes pronunciation in the Imperative and in the other tenses. If the j of the Imperative is pronounced w, it becomes a v before a, as shaw " bey
(a)
1
:
When
come, go"
"go"
run"
If
(Imperative shavam, Aorist;^; raw (or ro) (Imperative of e^>; raftan), <+$) ravam, Aorist; cAJja davidan "to (Imperative^ daw), Aorist davam ^.
of shudan),
is
pronounced
u, a
as: <^M
The
"to say," Imperative^ bigu rule also holds good when the Imperative ends in a, as: &^+> nama "to show," Present ^l*j ^o mi-namayam. Such verbs
"
^&
of
the
seek,"
>?
Imperative^
^5^
ju
or
^^
;'%; guftan
;
speak," Imperative
&t>j*i
,
gu
68
or
gwi/ (classically
go or go,e)
"to namudan
nama
Ui
or
namay
in
^U
(6) (3),
the prefix ^is omitted in verbs compounded of an indeclinable particle and a verb. (c); If the verb begins with alif without madda, this letter is generally
(6)
As stated
changed into <_c after the prefixes <*i, <*J, or**, for the sake of euphony, as: andakht "he threw/' V^AJ^M nayanddkht, " he did not throw, "
>t
^i*f
uftam
3
"I may
fall,"
pi&x bi-yuftam: ;K
the a^'/ alif marked by a madda ( f madda of course being rejected: *j\ arad "he may bring "; " do not Lu biyarad "let him bring" ;U*> maydr bring." namad (for (e) In poetry, the *J often unites with the verb, as: " he came not." This license is of ten taken Umar-i naydmad) Khayyam. by The contraction occurs in modern colloquial also. (/) The accent of the verb falls on the last syllable of either stem, except
) ,
;
<i**l->
'
iere
AJ,
*j,
or
&<*>,
less
is
they intrude
it
after every
alif or ya.
3
euphonic
is
always omitted.
238
INTERROGATIVE VERBS.
1
a preposition or an adverb;
in the
latter cases,
the accent
(6), (1)
falls
on the
21
(a)
and
to
(4).
73.
Interrogative Verbs.
2 It is usually expressed by the tone of the voice. " or also expressed by prefixing to the question L>t dyd "whether? " or ' Examples magar but ? by suffixing the words AJ l yd no, or not ?
(a)
Interrogation
is
^
:
' *
'
' '
AJ I
Hta
jjj
" has he left the place or not ? i/a na ? " Fdrsi naml-ddmd Persian ? ": .don't know what, you
<tf
"
^*i c5*;
'
.tf
o^
magar murda
ast
ki
harf nami-zanad
?
"is
OA*|
magar dlvana-l
is
seldom used,_r^o magar usually taking both positive and negative, and is used
end
of
short
?
<(
Examples
^^j^ ^j^yic
lit.
?
drinking,"
"
"
_>*
^j rafti magar
you
:
(a sly question).
by ydna &^. also signifies "whether or not," as 8 &>(j vju^i naml-ddnam ki murda ast ydna "I don't know jj^ & whether he is dead or not the yd na at the end cannot be omitted.
t$ followed
Ki
f^^
' '
Remark
/.
Interrogation
is of
" how much? or by the intertive pronouns or adjectives, as: chand Aia. , " " (s^ ? chi where or sabab ** ^ji as ; kujf bardy-i kujd rogative adverbs,
:
"
-***
"
for
"
Remark
answer
is
simple question with the object of obtaining a direct If the question indicalled ^^^a-iwci ^l^fti^t istifhdm-i istikhbdri.
JU-^
Wj^x
&
"who
called
says he
is
thinking of going
If
istifhdm-i inkdri.
is
f~
'
*KjJ ^
9 c-"
"Am
I not
your
Lord? "
Examples: ^.yt^J bardashtan, (&&'j^. baz gashtan. In negative interrogation as (^jj ^^ nam--rav4 "won't you go
"
the
3).
nun
is
(^ pl^ii^t
oji),
:
v^ e
This
8d oljff
*A jjj(l_ Jo
^13
(Gul.)
incorrect.
239
The number
o^ai^
the
Infinitive
(
of simple verbs in Persian is small. As already stated, ends in dan or tan. Such Infinitives are called masdar-i
munsarif
Infinitives in
fatha, or else
as opposed to the Compound Infinitives, vide 85. dan are preceded by the long vowels a, i and u, or by by the consonants r and n.
)****
)
tan are preceded by kh, $, sh or /. In the so-called (6) irregular verbs the irregularity consists, only in the from the root of the Infinitive. Thus didan :c to Imperative differing
Infinitives in
o^
see
' '
has an Imperative
^j
j>
' ' ;
&*j* kardan
c '
to do
"
,
^/ kun
e)ib
dih, etc.
The following
lists
together with
of the exceptions.
in
Verbs marked by an asterisk are marked with a dagger are regular: adan or idan? and Infinitives in tan preceded by s,
in the
same way,
infinitives in
adan
to send
to ask
firist
purs
zi
to live
^J
m.c. tavanistan
to be able
tavan
azhadan
azhidan
*
ajldan
EXCEPTIONS. 5
Infinitive.
240
m.c. (vulg.) gddan
^(f copulate ^
only)
.
(of
men
. .
gd
If
orgdy
m.c. (vulg.) gd*idan f ^>5(f j m.c. dddan &^t> to give m.c. shanldan ^H^*
\
^'/^ z^
shanudan
m.c.
m.c. gushadan m.c. kushddan
m.c.
to hear
shunaw
or shinaw
^
c
to loose
&f
or kushdy
6m
^
kun
m.c. zadan
saw. cJJ
bakhya
(m.c.).
&*
*istdndan
m.c. sitddan
se^ara .oUuo
m.c. sitdndan~\
drastan
prepare
m.c.
f
or
my ^
*bdld*idan-\
m.c.
m.c.
>
to stand
firm,
endure
pd b or
pa?/ c^^
(pdyistan
very rare).
*pdyistan
m.c. bdyistan
t
^b
not
Imperative
exist.
does
payrdstan^
(plrdstan)
itf
to adorn
clip.
to prune
to
m.c. payvastan
to join, to be joined
payvand* *>?%,
intr.
;
tr.
and
tr. is
in m.c. the
payvasta kardan.
*tanidan'\
*v>
)
to
draw
tight
to twist
tow
<j
*tanudan
be twisted.
in
different
*
Infinitive.
signifies
subs,
"a
connection
mark
of
a join
"
:
payvasta
(Participle)
always, continually."
241
e^J^
m.c. jastan
jahldan-f
^L
&**,*
to
um P
jah
'
also
ju 9 s*> or juy
..
chin I^Abarkhiz
^i^U^j
up
>k^
i^.
..
.
khwdh
rah
;
&*^
trans,
and
intrans.
m.c.
ru^dan^
c;*^;"|
grow
. .
ruj) or ruy
^^
(intrans.
ruyavl. adjective).
*ristan
}.
to spin
or ris
m.c.
nwdtmt
8
(risman
m.c. rishtan
thread)
-
m.c.
*mtot
****
m.c.
m.c. shikastan
^ (and
/
"
in m.c.
nn <^.J;).
(j-^)
(
o live
to break (trans,
trans.).
..
and
in-
shikan
<j
trans,
and
intrans.
m.c.
kahidan^
to lessen
m.c. kdstan
6
tr.
and
intr.
*giristan
>
to
m.c. giristan"f
m.c. gusistan
^
? ?
weep
gin ^/
f
;
gusil
intrs
<J~^
.
trans,
and
*gusustan
m.c. guslkhtan
1
^~~?
and
intr
in
m>c trang<
^^^ J
and j>**[j^ though
grow
;
Note that
f
(ji**>l^-
2
3
spelt differently are pronounced the same. " to go, travel, walk." cr"^^ ratywfon or ravidan (old)
*Ruahtan
*'
(old),
to colour, dye."
(^ s) ^^j^
(to
squat)
or bi-kiriar-i ah raftan
In modern Persian
<D^ j~->
o*jJ
'*
or value:
Ai^l^
^U
jf
kasr kardan is preferred for tr. for lowering of price az qlmat-i qall kasta ahud m.c. "carpets have gone
Nigarist
" he looked
and
na-girlst
16
242
Tto resemble
J
man
^
e/*>.
intr.
mdnd
vl-
adjective.
m.c.
mandan^
to remain,
fluous;
be superto be fa-
man
The
is
participle
mdnda
used as an
tigued; to resemble.
adjective, "fatigued,"
especially
by the
Af-
ghans.
In India it also
to sit
..
nislim*
*nigaristan
^yL^J ~\
m.c. nigaristan
*nigaridan-f
&&**>
I-
..
nigar^: (nigaridanvery
rare).
oty&j
^
*yaristan
i^;L
to be able
(in
dictionary
also
ydr ;^.
other
given)
m.c. bastan <ji~J to bind
meanings
. .
band *u
[basta
shudan
pass. m.c.].
*nisMstan
m.c
in
m c> = starch].
or
shu*idan
m.c. shuslan m.c.
to
6
wash
(shur
is
shundan
in
use
m.c.,
but
Remark.
of the
:
and one in a vowel without as a f or Imperative stem, one ending in In both forms are used but in is modern ^f ay. writing, colloquial the
;
^j
bi-gu
"
say
"
(not bi-guy
^^
}.
adv. (misl) " alike, resembling." The Afghans use these verbs a transitive, " to put, place." 2 Nishasta oat is both Perfect Tense and Past Participle with ast for the English Present tense: ^~*\ *i-^J laajf anja nishasta ast "he is sitting (seated) there," but
1
Manand
also as
' '
that
is
o~ojW
'
'
Khuda
^
this word in writing, oJb;^ iSjUi ^-/ \) |i>oL ra kaa-l na-yarad daryajt " none can perceive the greatness of God."
)y.
buzurgl-yi
eAij^
to
243
reject
of
ay, as
m.c. situdan
to praise
sitd
ULo
or sitay*
^&~*.
m.c.
namudan
to do, to
show
nama
UJ or
namay ^5^,
intrans.
trans,
and
Exceptions.
to be
bu
or
(jjjlj
6a5/^.
to become, to go
"}
5^azi;
y^.
*tanudan
*tanidan-f
to
draw tight,
be twisted.
to twist,
<aw
<j3.
shanudan
m.c.
shamdan
*zinudan
****
vto hear
shanaw j*.
zinaw
m.c. shanuftan
to neigh
^
*.
(shayha kashlcollo-
dan in modern
quial).
*darudan
m.c. darawdan-f
to reap
daraw
the
(In
mod.
Pers.
infinitive
is
daraw
kardan
m.c.
preferred).
ghunudan
g&unavtdan-f
to slumber, doze
ghunaw
Remark.
to
The following
;
are regular
m.c. azmudan
(j^jf
and
" to try,
(intr.)
;
prove"
(tr.)
asudan
or
&^1
" to
rest,
be
satisfied,
be at ease"
(tr.
intr.): m.c.
(in
aludan
c^f
"to
stain, pollute; to be
(tr.
and
8
intr.);
m.c.
intransitive
smear,
gild, to
(tr.
pure"
cA& ^T ) m.c. andudan &t>jW "to plaster, twist": m.c. paludan* cJ^^ " to strain, filter; become and intr.) m.c. bakhshudan ^^Aiu (also m.c. bajchshidan ^jj^iu " to rob, " m.c. rubudan or *rubudan
is
aluda shudan
o>i>?;
()&#))
m.c. zadudan &&j&) from sight" (trans.) "to polish, scour; wipe sadness from the mind": *sudan &t>j< (also m.c. sabldan u;<>^U. and m.c. scffidan "to rub, wear, anoint" (tr.) 6 )
:
u^^
is
also in use.
a
3
Vide
72
(a).
is
preferred.
v^
paluda-yi
b^^
sib
sharbat of minced
The Afghans use this verb and &*s}(j palidan for "to apple, rose-water and sugar.' In m.c. this search." in Paluda m.c. is also a sweetmeat made of starch and sugar.
verb
is tr.
5
;
is
paluda shudan.
stfida ahudan.
Intransitive cx*-*
)P^U
244
farsudan
to
"
(tr.)
" order
kushudan
^^
m.c. farmudan
)
:*
:
(also
kushddan
&
tan preceded
to cook
!^} to
by kh
reject tow
and change
into j
pukhtan andakhtan
(
throw
Exceptions.
paz _) andaz
Jf&if.
*akhtan
|
to
3
\
draw a sword
geld.
to
dkh
^f
*akhtan
m.c. shinakhtan
m.c. gusikhtan
to recognize
shinas
m.c. gusastan
!>
to break
off,
snap
and
intr.
*?
*gusustan
*sukhtan
m.c. saw^^a
.- 7
to weigh
*pikhtan
m.c. plchidan f
to twist, to coil
p%ch ***,
tr.
and
intr.
Remark.
The following
raise
are regular
on high; to exalt" (tr.) afrukhtan ^y^yt 4 m.c. amukhtan "to learn' (tr.) (^kyof
:
teach"
"to
m.c.
(tr.
and
intr.):
(tr.
m.c.
amikhtan
^.iitAXjf
"to mix,
mingle;
be intermixed"
)
&**&]
(tr.)
:
angikhtan (^i^^Jt (also angidan excite, rouse": m.c. avikhtan ^jisuyf "to hang, suspend"
:
and
intr.): m.c.
tan
(tr.
m.c. pardakh<jJ^lj "to play, to lose at play" (tr.) be "to to to perfection; finish; bring busily engaged" ^Lkf^ and intr.) m.c. parhikhtan ^ASU^ 6 (old) " to educate " (but parhizidan]
bakhtan
Imper.
JjjA^j,
''restrain oneself,
abstain"
(intr.):
m.c. bikhtan
a
3
Usually the participle l&fj* with an auxiliary verb is used. Also in compound verbs used as a substitute for kardan, to indicate respect.
to geld" only. In m.c. to learn only: amuzandan (*)&>)jj*\ or
cJtbjS
'
<u^.l
<
4
' '
amuzanidan cJ^fj-^
'
(m.c.
to teach.
5
Man
$&j$
t>
^s*^
ft
man
In kar ra pardakhtam az
(m.c.) "I completed this" p^ j$ L> ft namaz pardakht (m.c.) " he finished his prayers "= farigh shud. J "abstinence" and pahrlz kardan &&jfj*j$ only, are common in
&&
(^
(m.c.)
"
cannot do this
"
:
modern
Persian.
245
1
"to sift"
' '
;
to hasten to assault (old " m.c. dukhtan " to " <^k^ to sew" (tr. and pay a debt; to wish, to want " to 4 " intr.): rikhtan (^^.) pour, diffuse; cast, melt; scatter, disperse (tr. 8 and intr.): m.c. sakhtan ^K^U "to make" (tr.) *supukhtan <j.i=>-> "to thrust one thing with force into another m.c. eukhtan <jJ^-*> prick, pierce " to on fire" be to set to and inflamed, m.c. gudakhtan burn, (tr. intr.) "to to melted" be m.c. gurikhtan ^iiy^ " to melt, ^.y^-t^ (tr. and intr.) " m.c. navakhtan* <j.J&-fy flee away" to soothe, caress, etc.' to play upon an instrument; to sing"; (and with an instrument of punishment) "to
: ; :
"to enslave; become weak") (tr.): takhtan to make to gallop tokhtan e>vi.y (tr. and intr.)
' '
' '
chastise."
(4)
by
<Jb
sh
into
as
..
)\&.
Exceptions.
m.c. gashtan
m.c. gardidan-f
gard &}
*aghustan
wyt.V WlSfVVWW'V
\^
'--y
||
yto embrace
T
. .
"
'
/I
aghush cA*T
246
m only
naws
in m.c.
m.c. navishtan
m.c. acfhashton
to write
to
m.c. dgMshtan
*
J^pf (jJ^p o
i,
aghishta Tcun
aghushtan
^i^f J
Remark.
or
The
anbashtan <jIUif
m.c. ambdshtan (1^(^<\ and following are regular <4 to m.c fill, etc."; (tr.) angashtan ^^^i (or m.c. cA!;&l
:
angdrtdan
to
*angdrdan
(intr.)
"to
think,
imagine":
*awbashtan
pindashtan (^Ii|>ij (or *pindandan be proud" (intr.); m.c. dashtan (^l* "to
have,
(tr.)
:
hold,
keep"
guzashtan
(tr.)
m.c.
&&
;
m.c. guzdshtan
8
t^^}^
c<
by"
m.c. gumashtan
for a purpose
m c. nigandan
dan
as:
paint, portray
embroider, to write."
r,
Infinitives in
ore) n
reject
m.c. Icandan
u^^
to dig, root
m.c. dvardan
c^f
&
to bring to count
avar t
or
m.c. shumurdan
&j+&
to
shumar
bar
*.
m.c. burdan
to carry, to bear
m.c. kardan
m.c.
do
.
murdan
to die
to
^
I
wtr
^7^0.
m.c. sipurdan
resign,
commit,
sipdr
^J
deposit, travel.
to offend, to injure
azar
;|jf
azardant
m.c. afshurdan
to squeeze
'
;
(m.o.).
to express
canal,
afshdr
*farkandan
to
dig
bring
fields.
farkan
and farkand
but
(j^y navishtan,
"to
*
5
write."
m.c.
Also
o^y ;<^
guzar kardan
'*
to pass
by
(a person, etc.)."
is
*^U^
gumashta,
common term
for a
com-
247
by
/.
by a law
->:
of
permutation common
o into b
many
yob
<->(j.
baf oU.
pazir
^..
*>
m.c. suftan
sumb v^
(zf
:
sufta
kun
sufta
kardan
c^y
m.c. nihuftan
to conceal
in m.c.
nihuft
oJy.
**&*>^
m.c. dshuftan
ashub
m.c. kaftan
m.c.
kawdan
to dig, to root
up
a flower)
m.c.
kav$,
o
or
m.c. kandan-\
to
expand
to smile.
(o'f
shiguft
^^
to go
^
J^
)
to hear
shinaw j*.
or
*kuftan
m.c. &ii&?canj
m,c. ruftan^
*ruftan
-^
^>
J^/J eA)S
i^*; rto
sweep
r6
u^.
^HJ
to deceive
farib
v^/>
-
^^ dadan
mc
-
m.c. giriftan
to seize
AJ
(in m.c.
*^^
'
w/0 "thick,
coarse,
from an obsolete
2
" to think " Guftan (iH^" sometimes means to say to oneself, hence
J5Uc
^
ma
9
il
shud
Gujtam
"To
All
murad-i kulli-yam hasil shud. prayer and fasting when my heart inclined,
ki
my
desire I surely
hoped to
find:
(O.
180 Whin.)
248
m.c. khuftan
^^
]
('Muft
(m.o.)
m.c. khwabidan
-\
c^'^
cP**~^
(to
I
sleep, crouch
etc.
khwab
(m.c.)
U^-
m.c. khusbtdan-\
m.c. khuspidan f
1 khusb
(m.c.) -*~^
(m.c.)
c^--^
to twist
.
[khusp
*taftan
&*&
Za&
15
Remark.
root shtiab
is
regular
m.c.
shitaftan
^U,i
to hurry,
75.
Hybrid Verbs.
In addition to the pure Persian verbs, a certain number of hybrids are formed by affixing the termination idan eA-! to an Arabic root. Example
m.c. c*V*t
;
fahmidan "to understand"; &***) raqsidan (m.c.) (and raqs "to dance"; c^>*A^ talabidan "to summon" (m.c.) and a few kardan) " " to was originally Persian Gbaltidan ej^kU (m.c.) roll, to wallow others.
and then given an Arabic form by the Persians. CJiaKdan ^H^ (m.c.) is derived from the Urdu chalna
This hybrid Infinitive Persian Infinitive.
is
"
lU^.
to go."
l
called
^x^;^*,
as opposed to
^M
).
x^c a true
>
76.
^Uroot
jUil
Shudfin &*>
to
become
' '
;
shudan "to become, to go" is conjugated regularly. (a) The verb &* The Imperative is^ shaw : in the other tenses, 3 before a vowel becomes v. The noun of agency shavanda is obsolete or else extremely rare. 4 The Aorist or bi-shavam f>*?, both forms are used. The Imperative 8 is shavam pj* seldom takes the prefix
<*J
.
the Present and Preterite tenses is also (b) The third person singular of used impersonally, especially in modern colloquial mi-shavad^^o and nami" and "is it not " mi-shud 4 shavad *j&^ "is it possible ? 6-u*xx>; possible?
;
nami-shud
(c)
"was it possible; was it not possible? " vide 77 (d). Shudan eA" is also used for conjugating the grammatical passive
*Z>*+>
:
Khwabanidan
eWt^L
O r Tchwabandan
t>^ "to
is
lull
to sleep;
to
mak e
(a camel) lie
2
3
down
shaw
raised on high).
Shavanda
%<^j*> is
Gum
J** f*.
sometimes used when translating literally from Arabic. " be off with you," are both used or gum bi-shaw j***
bi-tu tarsu
*?
in m.c.
*
andalchtl
(m.c.)
^|A*I *&**
call
1
**^
^^
^ ^^
Jci
khud-at ra bi mahlaka
C*^
" ass
even
if
they did
there in that to
cast
"
TAVANISTAN.
voice.
249
In other cases
its
synonyms,
Imperative gard ^. (d) Note the following idioms &f )&$ u/f an qadr ki (1) ^ij ^xxj ^i*) raftan mi-shud raftam " an ki far as I was able karda mi-shud kardam f&j? &&** qadr
gashtan
',
^^
or gardidan
\s)*>&jL,
(i
went as
*$ )*3 izj>
&1
" I did as
(2)
much
as I could.'
'
"it
AAfjio ^&. (Afghan and m.c.) khurak jihat-i just u ju kardan na-khwahad " it will not be shud *> o-Ai^io f ^ j e>~^ -^;>^ -^t ^ (Afghan) necessary to make a search for food."
will
ki*Z
v
that"
^^
I; ^1 j!\ &y&& *>* Guftam chi mi-shavad agar in kar ra kuni ? " " I said should not do ? this (m.c.) why you guft agar dar mufavaza-yi u
(3)
"he
said,
it
if
i*)Ui*jA^li oif (Sa'dl) he had delayed having connection with her one night what
a*.
^^
^s*j*
j^& ^^ jf
would
have mattered."
Tajir bi-khanda shud *
(4)
&iij
x)
^aJ-> -(m.o.)
to
laugh," vide
(e)
79
(c).
<^-*jj
j*^**
**?
(m.c.)
"we
shall
see";
also
The
.jL\ja*
v^y
A
MI
^U,
(used in the
<
if&*
),
" to become."
defective verb
is
called
uAjj-axJf (.yoJU.
Some
also defective.
The
a*A5li
sometimes amad
^,
bud
and bar-amad
^^, j
gardld jj^/ and gasht^^ etc., and They are called naqis u<^'lj because
,
though in appearance intransitive verbs, they yield no sense with a subject ^*^t by itself is really meaningless. alone, thus Ahmad bud
Examples
<(
of
amadan
^^t as a fi'l-i
naqis are
:
^^-
it
77(a)
Tavanistan
is
This verb
the
Imperative, noun
(1)
of
by an
An
250
Infinitive or followed
TAVANISTAN.
:
tanhd by the shortened Infinitive, as ^iy <^*J &t>j I am not naml-tavdnam and Indian "alone able kardan to do coll.) (Afghan it" ey&$' \) }\ cuaa^ j ! jj,i ffcfji. I; ^~j ^JD jfff AS' j+x&' |; Qj*- Jt v^~> <^!t jt
;
o.uJ|y *A|j.i6 az
ft,
khipdham did az shafaqat* u ra kushtan na-khwaham tavdnist (Afghan) i>Jiyj ^yS kas na-tavdnad girift ddman-i dawlat bi-zur (Sa'dl) )j*y oJjj> ^<|j>
o^
This construction
is still
full
form
eHi*
v^r
*'
*>&
L5H^
*"***
^j**'^)
c^J
f^i>** u>f
jihat-l
mu'ayyan
az 'uhda-yi shukr-i
influence,
an na-tavanam birun dmadan (Sa'dl) "if, through your some means be settled that would release me from this burden,
' '
;
I will be grateful to you for the whole of my life ^j&J ojfc ji ^\j* pti& *^ nazirdn va o*.^ ^3| ^Lwif ^UT *-&^AJ 'j guftam baray-i nuzhat-i ^fj-^Lx c><^
fushat-i haziran kitdb-i Gulistan
tavdnam
kardan ki
(Sa'dl)
Or the auxiliary
is
is
apocopated,
i.e.
verbal prefixes
is
followed by the shortened Infinitive in this case the verb a present impersonal. This construction is modern as well as Afghan and
&f
Indian:
cu*j ij^J *&f ^*fa j j&** ^if^l^ ^t bi-hukm-i dn-ki parvdrda-yi ni'mat-i in khdnddn-am va bi-andak mdya-yi taghyir-i 1 khatir bd vati-ni mat-i khud bi-wafd^t na-tavdn
j$ ^^ ^5'^^
(Sa'di)
^ o*i ^ ^y^
7
&*
^^
kard ki
" because I have been nurtured by the bounty of this House, and one cannot be faithless merely on account of a slight change in the regard
of one's
' '
;
Ddni
1
' '
Rustam-i gurd?
'
'
Dushman na-tavdn haqir u btchdra shumurd (Sa'dl). Knowest thou what said Zal to the hero Rustam ? One ought not to count any enemy as despicable and impotent.'
/*i*J
'
1 2
In modern Persian
Colloquially, the
&
Afghans often use the Past Participle instead of the Infinitive dlda naml-tawanam **j.* (for didan nami-tawanam <^+>
;
^y
^iy cs^
* I
6
0*^
"
).
am
able to
and D.V.
will
Lit.
amplitude."
called the
is
nazir "spectator."
7
Taghylr
j&
j&
''anger."
TAVANISTAN.
A?
251
Imruz bi-kush
" Kill to-day while
it is
ki mi-tavdn kusht
For a small
fire, if it
following
oy
f
^ ^)^j ^
}
&J
? tA-'a
*&
&
^jjj^ft.
<>*j>
<ji.i/o}U
maldmat-ash
kardand ki chumn sayd 2 dar ddm-at uftdd va na-tavdnisti nigdh ddshtan ? Guft " ay barddardn chi tavdn kard? (Sa'di) They upbraided him saying, such a 2 8 fine fish fell to thy lot and thou coulds't not keep it'? He said, 'my
brethren, what can one do
'
"
Remark
tf"
I.
is
:
is
used
^ULoj
jbjZ-'O ajji
dar zamistdn ki
(Sa'dl)
<ioty**> cfejjA *&T c5"Lr?3' ^^ an az bard-yi ki har ruz-ash mi-tavdnad did magar "because one can see him (the Sun) every day,
except in winter,
when."
The apocopated
:
Remark
II.
auxiliary
is
rarely
followed by the
full
v
Va-lik mi-na-tavdn az zabdn-i
3'
Khuddy
rast
mardum
(Sadi).
"
By
the atonement of repentance one can escape the wrath of God, But escape from the tongue of men one can never."
(*)
is
o*j
also
is
a poetical
A
:
third construction
is
liary, as
His Glory,
None
is
able to perform
what
is
worthy
of it."
(This construction
is
Note the
in a condition, after
chun
Sayd <*** Ar. is applied to any game, or quarry, or prey anything in mouse to an elephant the Persian (and Indian) equivalent is shikar ;&*'.
ft ;
:
fact
from a
Dam
()*
"snare "
trappers
is
figuratively.
By
it
applied to any kind of net, snare, or trap, literally and is specially applied to a noose or set of nooses.
252
TAVANISTAN.
Remark.
is
Tavan e>[y also takes the prefix *. (bi-tavdn m said to be sometimes contracted into tan &ti Shdyad ^.^
1
*xk are
(b)
sometimes used
(1)
as
synonyms
is
speaking the conjunction &> is generally omitted, as: f>\*> ^*J>> C5-*J namitavdnam bi-ydyam "I can't come," or " I will not be able to come" for nami*S &&** cjUf* )* *&[&* <H'il <*xfs cU^ JL\ tavdnam ki bi-ydyam l ^Ui p>\j*+> *& dji'o agar mayl ddshta bdshid mi-tavdnid dar mihmdn-khdna manzil kunid (modern colloquial; Rozen's grammar) "if you like, you can put up in the hotel" ki * is understood after mi-tavdnid *&ij* ^*.
:
-> :
(2) The shortened Infinitive after the tenses of this auxiliary is still used the by Afghans and Indians, but in the modern colloquial of Persia this when used it is generally in third person construction is not common u^^ L*?' ^n shakhs in kar ra nami-tavanad *ity singular, as \)
:
man
^ ^^
^ ^ }^
(3) The Impersonal construction is also used in m.c., as: " }j^ chiguna mi-tavan in kar ra kard? (m.c.) how is one
to
do
this
"
?
:
^
:
kard
zjS
cuJty
^
The
nami-tavan (or na-tavan) bdvar kard (m.c.) na-tavanist kard ^<~j\^& (m.c.) or namitavanist
" one
(me.)
<(
Remark.
Perfect of tavanistan
^~Jiy
that govern the Perfects of other verbs, vide tavdnista and dnjd bi-ravand &jj> Isof <3J| ai~^iy
^^
the Perfect
as
horse"?"
is understood, or tavanistan ^^UJiy is considered transitive, as: ammd kas-i ki kucha va bdzdr-i Isfahan rd nik bi-ddnad va dar sTiab rdhnumd^i bi-tavdnad, ghayr az man na bud **;* &*~f Uf *& cr-* jf j** *>&* L/)^ tij *-^^ ;o j ^!^ vJoJ f; c^a^f jtjlj j (Tr. H. B.
itself
Chap V), "but there was none but me who knew the streets of Isfahan, and who could act as guide in them." Ouftam dnki kuk kardan-i sd'at rd na-ddnad iddra-yi mamlakat rd chiguna tavdnad ? f; oucU &$ vjy A^Jf plsZ ^ty VjZ*. ; o,^Ux5 ijbt *>i|Ai (Tr. H. B. Chap. VII) " I said, how can a man who does not even know how to wind up a watch, manage a kingdom ? "
'
'
'
'
*
v^f
**&
wil
**>
(Tr.
(Tr.
jl^SIb *$
ij^ b
XXXVIII):
Man
or
---- ^tyjk+J.
*
f&
is
Ij
j&
^ ^
*$
this.
impossible to do
TAVANISTAN.
253
(c)
An
is
u A*J &# oJJiy o)Uxj j &tf)_jj o^U^ *^~.x> ^jj cUi JU ^ijtf tavdnad bud at-i va in ahl-i hdl buzurgdn ma'drif bi-hama masjid jamd " I said to a congreare of this the mosque people myself perhaps (classical) If was substituted, the oi*[yx gation of big and well-known persons." *^J would mean "are." sense would be "must be": mi-bdshand
(
Shdyad bdshand
(d)
^xb
^U could
also be used.
76
is
the third person singular of the (b) used impersonally. It is followed either
,
:
by the Subjunctive or by the shortened Infinitive, as <x ^w a^ ^jo $j*\j> Jjy j*** U jj) oUA bi^vdsita-yi badi-yi rah nami-shud hamdn ruz td bi-sar-i ***>; " on account of the badness of the road it kutal bi-rasim (m.c. Roz. Or.) was
t; ^*^<*J impossible to reach the top of the pass that day iC o^J)j nami-shud'1 lei in nasihai rd bizanat bi-kum (m.c.)
:
"
^t
to
:
*f <x
it
?
"was
**xs
^
not
possible for
4j
you to give this piece of advice to your wife (and not " " *J na no, it is impossible khayr namt-shavad (m.c.) Lf+Jj^
(^J p?s7i a2
me)
"
:
ji-u
c^ij zj
'^ 3 nami-shavad
C5
raft
(m.c.)
td
"we
*-*-*>!
^^
^ nami
shavad
I possibly
have
it
back by to-night ?
"
Infinitives
*<. ^Ui * j*^2$ jZ agar qasd* in the following: oAiAJt cu^f,>^ t; v^iv j^xx;^fc na-bdshad chi tawr mi-shud sang rd barddsht anddkht (m.c.) "were there no
intention,
and thrown
(e)
it
it
f 5U? ;>k A^ *>& ^J AJ&f^j ^^^'j ^.J^^ cJiyU J^ c/ii to^r bi-ydyim,khasta shuda " how can nd-tavdn gashtim va qadamhd-yi 6 md bar-ddshta nami-shavad (m.c.) we come ? we are worn out by fatigue, and cannot even lift our feet (our feet
:
To be
cannot be lifted)."
Ddnista nami-shavad bi-mi'ydr-i 'uqul Sanjida nami-shavad bi-miqyds-i qiyds.
"No man
of science ever
weighed
(it)
with scales,
'
:
K. 279 Whin.}
Generally pronounced kutal. chi ml-shud agar in nasihat ra bi-zanat ml-kardl (m.c.). Colloquially and vulidea that garly the Imperfect is often used for the Present, apparently from a confused the Imperfect is a Subjunctive or Conditional. An English writer sometimes says,
1
Or
4 '
What
3
' '
*
6 8
is classical
as well as
modern
colloquial.
Or singular qadam
as a collective noun.
254
GIRIFTAN.
Before a compound of substantive, etc. and verb, the auxilmodern colloquial, often immediately precedes the verbal iary 'can/ member of the compound, as avaza mi-tavdni bi-khwdrii (,j\j&u ^l " can you sing ?", or mi-tavdm (ki) avaza bi-khwdrii ajtyf ( & ) (m.c.)
Remark.
in
(J\S*u (m.c.)
(/)
Tawana Ufy
is
its
negative form
is
Uy U
(old).
Tavdn
stretch
(rt.
2/ar
;lj )
hand," and
drastan
u^rf
(rt.
dr
to
to
adorn
' '
t;U (subs.) "boldness; power." Ddnistan ^J^ta "to know" is in classical and modern Persian used for "to be able the construction is the same as with tavanistan
Yard
(h)
' '
fcli?
CU*J^> j
O^C^O
jl
^J^*
chist
Turd
girl's fault
'
What
is
the
?
l '
How
"
(Sa'dl).
lines.)
U
(i)
ml-ddnad bi-kunad
'
*&> ^\**
j\
know
how?"
To be
*y&
able
'
agar az
2
)
dast-at bi-ydyad
^l# c^xo 3}
^j c>-y
Ux>
or) ^jf
qddir budanbar
^ ^ )^
t^o
:
jS\
az ru-yi
man nami-dyad
(or namt-shavad)
} j|
"I am ashamed to
(i.e.,
I can't
"
:
dar quvva-yi khud dldan or budan (&ty lj ) c;-^^ kdr rd bi-kunam p& I; $6 ^t A^ /*^~^ ^fy, or tavdnd^i-yi
cU* or JjU
ki
kdr rd na-ddram
,*;;iJ
t;
;^
77
(e)
<^j|
Fi^e also
76
(d)
and
78.
(a)
Giriftan
"to
n
^J.
etc."
;
seize,
transitive
and intran-
sitive.
g\r j4 is
t use(l colloquially
There
is,
of course, a double
js
a poetical
C5^"~
A)^ C5^
very shameless
"
:
GIRIFTAN.
255
its
seize," this verb, preceded by an Infinitive, means "to begin," as: " f U^ f; cJXo o^fj> ** ^(ty y u guftan girift "he began to speak bi-zabdn-i ki ddsht malik rd dushndm dddan girift va saqat j o*^
^^
guftan (Sadl)
"he began
in his
cuJ/
^y
"she
still
modern
used colloquially by the Afghans and Indians, but is In a few cases only, in modern Persian, Persian.
does giriftan mean "to begin"; dil-am tapldan girift <^j> " " barf girift o**/ vJ^j, bdrdn girift (m.c.) my heart began to beat " it For " to begin " in modern to rain." it to snow began (m.c.) began
:
^J
79.
Persian, vide
(6)
Giriftan
^3
is
perative g%r
5
j&
also
u>-j3
p&
u p*
OA~.O ov+* *f
ghamat
(Sa'di)
>J^of x>
let
me
(c)
anxiety. ( or), va giriftam (or glram) ki p} suppose) that they came": ( +ij
dmadand
QI
)
'*
(m.c.)
and admitted
(vulg.)
(or
1
mi-girim (or
f#s*f& jy+*
is
hamchi
will
suppose
giriftan
(or let
^t>
(d)
(m.c.)
"the barber
asleep";
bi-gir bi-khwab (m.c ) "go to sleep." Note the following intransitive or reflexive uses of this verb
JHr^
c^
3'
t^
J^
o^
ptf
***-
Ta chand kunam 'arza-yi nd-dani-yi Ichwlsh, Bi-girift dil-i man az pansJidm-yi Ichwish ?
' '
My
Dldam
that
ki
my
(0. K. 281 Whin.) " I saw &> dar nafas-am (Sa'di) nami-gwad *j*h+* j* f~& <J*>j& )* v^ speech (breath) did not sink in made no impression"
^^
" the water stuck in his throat; he choked" " " " 1 y^j vr^AJ nafas-at bi-girad hold your tongue (m.c.) lit. may your breath be caught, may you choke"; oJ^f ^jS )\ f^> tukhm az garml dar girift <k the seeds were scorched by the sun" ^x^y LT^ zabdn-ash mi-girad (m.c.) (m.c.) "he stammers" (lit. his tongue sticks) oJ^^<iJ c^^jf u sar-ash
oJjf db dar gulu-yash
girift
:
"he suddenly
nabz-
am
istdda asl t
dh-dh-hay
raftlm (m.c.)
Hamchu
i.e.,
_}*>+*> is
"
may you
*
die
n you."
is
Do
generally
8
<^A U
jjf .
256
has stopped, iny eyes don't see, my ears too don't hear ah! I (the last words of a dying man) gone oJ>/ <J**.y& &>jt girya dar his "sobs choked utterance." gulu-yash girift (m.c.) " ast o^f Aij^f wliif (m.c.) "the sun is eclipsed. 1 (e) Aftdb girifta
"my pulse
am
' '
Girifta
(/)
*uj
In
is
also
in sarud) girandagi na-ddrad ( ^^- ^i b ) o;^^> ^\ " this picture (or this song) has no attractiveness in it." a>|jj J*>J& (m.c.) az harf zadan vd-glr nami-kard (or dram nami-girift) shab tamdm-i (g) U " \j e^j -$;*. jl ( ^J> fiyf lj) J^A+J j fW $ (m.c.) he ceased not to
surat
(or
v*
chatter
all
Ai*^ j^ia ^)j* &* (m.c.) (h) Chilla-yi buzurg hanuz na-giri/ta ast " the heat have not yet commenced." of (or greatest cold) greatest forty days and sitdndan In modern &*J(L (vulg. istdndan (i) colloquial giriftan &&
are used for " to buy."
ov
79.
(a)
'
etc.
of giriftan
^}
"to begin,"
vide
78
(a).
(b)
The verbs "to begin" are &$ tv s bind kardan ; 4 e>^^j *T dg&dz namudan; &&jZ ajy shuru' kardan; &sj> s)*i*\ ibtidd* kardan (of a CAUv f*jf ^ j work). They are followed by the Infinitive, as follows " I 5 va kardan-i dukdnhd bind kardam bi-tamdshd (m.c.) began to look tfita
(1)
l
:
^^
at the
shops"; p&\
^';
*
8t;
"
:
^
:
to
walk"
&*))&u.
f)*> f&jf
>/
shuru
cs>^ bind-yi rah raftan guzdshtam (m.c.) bind kardam bi-davam (vulg.) "I began to bi-khwurdan namud (m.c.) "he began to
t^l ibtidd*' ml-kunam bi-ndm-i Khudd* (mod. writing) God. " " to (of a work (2) Dast bi-kdr shudan ^^j^j o**o also means begin c^ji *jk \^i fardd bdyad dast bi-kdr shud (m.c.) " we must begin only) the business to-morrow."
to cry
' '
"
&z>j
&>.j^.
f^^
^ ^y
begin in the
name
of
' '
oy&
1 Kuauf ^3~& and Miusuf Oj-^ may signify an eclipse either of the sun or of the moon, but the former is specially used for the sun and the latter for the moon. These words are only used in talking by the learned. * Va hama shab noryararrild az sukhanha-yiparishanguftan (Sa'di) Mod. Pers. hama" " all the and hama shab " every night." night yi shab
:
.
Biria* signifies
"building
is
" " and Una 9 kardan &*j? tfa "to build " and biria bar-an &\j* ^ '* j>^ because of
'
*tij
therefore
banna" " :
the
*
5
Aghazidan u>H?*'
Br. Ar.
pi.
(^i^l^ii
is
obsolete.
is
dakakin
also used in
modern
colloquial.
In
sometimes
classically omitted,
KHWASTAN, ETC.
(c)
25?
>
Afghan idioms: AJ+J ^w&J ^y ^& kishtl faro colloquial) "the ship began to sink ": Vjt ^\^ i^LU sang az kuh ghaltidan kard " the rock began to roll down the hillside" f^y Uj tj_>yo &j+> jl^b Jji) (^^JjJ 0*3 ^ dar waqt-i peshin roz tayyar namudan-i mez ra bina kardami (Afghan colloquial) "at midday I began to
are
The following
nishastan
namud (Afghan
make
the table
' '
kardam
(Af. col.)
khema ra kandan shuru "I began to dig (the ground) behind the tent " ^U*^
;
f&j> ^)j
&*if
tj
*+*&>
v^*
'
aqab-i
aj+j u>>()9 bad-i khawf-nak-i wazidan namud (Afg. col.) [bad-i sakht-i vaztdan " a terrible wind gin ft m.c.] began to blow": * |4Asfcj^4'U ^a;Jr bi-khanda shud (Afghan, and modern colloquial) " the merchant began to laugh (went
off into
(d)
(e)
{&)
Jj*xisu ^.^o
<{
(m.c.)
began
to laugh."
The continuative
mi
or
hami
^*a> is
in
classical Persian, or in
poetry only. In modern Persian, however, there is a curious continuative particle or particle of excess, hay ^5*, which can be prefixed to several tenses to form continuatives. This usage is at present considered vulgar, though used by
"we kept on shooting"; pj&fy* j& <y* -)}&* <_?& (to a greedy boy) "keep on hay bi-khur, Possibly connected with hamisha *&&*>, this particle is probeating, do. ably immediately derived from the cry hay! hay! hay! of the camel- men,
Qa'anL
Hay
' '
shikar mi-kardim
used to keep a string of slowly-moving camels in motion: it is to camels, what a swung lantern is to a shunting train. That this particle is connected with hami <_<+* and consequently with hamisha *vt&, seems probable from
the fact that hami (^^
is
sometimes substituted, as
o*s<>>j <^+& (Haji Baba, Chap. XXIX) "by this means he jxf ^Ui| jjj ^UA.) won the hearts of two persons the one who received the present and the
;
^^
^^
Jj>
J^-b
<^J
other
(m.c. or local)
a great deal).
80.
(a)
Khwastanin
^"^
and
As already shown
khwastan
modern
Note the majhul sound of the vowels and the InEnitive without a preposition Nimaz-i peshm fcH&^j^ is an Afghan and Indian preceding the verbs "to begin." " is a common word in " Urdu. expression for the midday prayer jl*-b "ready 4 The Shah as a of his meal to his host, and mark of favour sent
i
:
special
portions
they had to tip heavily the servants who brought the tid-bits. Every one was pleased, including the Shah, who could thus pay his servants out of other
to
certain
courtiers
people's pockets.
In the original
8.5
u'"^!
is
slip f or
17
258
(b)
KHWASTAN.
In the Gulistan the unapocopated Infinitive frequently follows the Infinitive in the sense of a definite future, as y jr^** <*i-'f j& * ^\t> AA^A
:
cJ<>*# &* liAf^a- ^ar C/M cam &i ftar d*ina ma lum-i tu "be not in haste to khwahad shudan bi-pursidan-i an ta'jil makun (Sa'dl)
e
that you
know
will of a surety
become revealed
to
-*
Ki mara tawba
:<
Tell
my
I'll
me no
advice,
For
Yak-i ra
zisht-Jchu^-i
dad dushnam
'
Tahammul Jcard u guft ay nik-farjam Batar-z-anam ki Tchwahi gufian an-i Ki danam ayb-i man, chun man na-dani.
' e
'
'
With resignation he replied, Oh thou, mayest thou be blessed! Worse am I than anything thou wilt say I am For thou dost not know my faults as I know them myself.'
;
'
&\J>\
AVAt^Ly u-JUj-Xr^^^
zi qalib-i tu
Tchwahand zadan
And
To
The same construction is used in the Gulistan when Tchwastan signifies "to wish," "to desire," as ^J; ^A^ tsof ^lalu JUi.b j va tifl ba-nadanl " and the anja khwahad raftan (Sa'di) boy through ignorance wished to go
:
there":
8
J*j
&
^
3
Note this meaning of ftar c/i* ^^* " whatever." " Stars" (understood) is the subject in the English.
All one adjective.
Ta $
"
it is
not known
' '
ta-yi tajahul.
KH\VASTAN.
259
Ay
'Ayb-hd bar girifta zir-i baghal To, chi khwdhi kharidan, ay maghrur !
Ruz-i darmdndagi ba-slm-i daghal.
te
(Sa'dl).
Oh thou who
!
But hidest away thy vices from sight, Shame a what wishest thou to purchase, deluded being, With thy base coin on the day of distress (the day of judgment)
Remark
as
:
"
?
I.
Chi sdlhd-yi fardvdn va 'umrha-yi daraz Ki khalq bar sar-i ma bar zamm bi-khwahad
raft
Chundn
ki dast bi-dast
Bi-dasthd-yi digar
hamchumn bi-khwdhad
auxiliary
is
(Sa'dl).
Remark
II.
put in the Subjunctive [vide end of (c) and Remark to (c)]. Ex. *f guft man u rd nam/i-khwdham ki bmam (Sa'd!) ^Juj p*]j=*'
\>
j\
^ *M
said,
"he
'
The Afghans
s
but
LJ*
JL^
(
c>^
man
khwdstam (Afghan coll.) "I wished to give him some small present"; turd nds-ib-i khud * kardan mi-khwdham " I wish to make zj&. you my deputy." Lr* (Afghan coll.) ^f^axAX) They, however, also employ the Aorist or Subjunctive after the auxiliary, as ^&> f; c^^ ** o*^f^=cu;A> s*/of JUii dumbdl dmada mi-khwdst ki kishti rd " he followed and tried bi-gwad (wished) to seize hold of the bciat."
cJwz-e
&^
v^
Remark.
This last
is
mi-khwdham bi-pursam
" to send
*?
^*b*H^
want
(d)
Khwdstan
<^W^
(2)
is
for or to
summon,"
"to
desire
(a
thing)" and
(3)
"to
love, to be
fond of."
Ta
13
"
it is
ta-yi
tajahuL
(m.c.)
Majhul J^f^'
vowels; plsh-lcash
(J&*$
superior (used politely). 4 Note that ra is omitted after khud (the second of two substantives in apposition in the accusative case).
260
(1)
KHWASTAN.
o*:so bi-jihat-i Tiamin bud shumd ra khwastam ^L!^k (; U& ajj I^JJ+A that I sent for you" for this reason it was tjS* t;^f o*,i I; Lib (m.c.) bi-ishdra-e dast o ra nazd-i khud khwastam (m.c. and Afghan colloquial) ju.(j. " I called him to me by a signal with my hand.
"
' '
(2) c>^ ^r? LS*>\J*# ^>j* jh agar marg mi-khivdhi bi-raw Gildn (proverb) "if you desire death go to Gllan 1 "; <x>Uj mi-tihwastam bi-ydyad ^Lol^iu/o
(m.c.) (vulgar,
(3)
" I wish he would come." Imperfect for Present tense) man urd bisyar mi-khwdham (m.c.) " I am very ^Atj.sujA3 ;Uw,j \)j\ ^4
fond of him, love him very much." (e) In modern colloquial, and in Kabuli Persian too, this verb also signifies "to intend," or "to be on the point of doing," as: ^-j ^^^/o
"he was
about to die
(not wished to
die)";
A^Ij-^^ Uf agjia mi-khwahad chand-ta shalaq bi-ashpaz " bi-zanad (m.c.) "the master threatens the cook with his whip (Roz. Gr.)
;
Ji*k (3^*> ^ A
Uf *> ^j <3.A|j.iuAX} mi-khwahad bi-ravad ki agha (m.c.) "he is about to go 5U &f o*t^wA* o^ oi^xj^ljs tamam-i mihndt-i when his master ": man mi-khwast ki za*i shavad (Afghan coll.) "the whole of my labour was
^
6
:
* nearly being wasted. " re(/) This verb is also colloquially used in an impersonal sense meaning b *Jti. *!J.:SUAO j.x*.J ^jf in khdna ta*mir mi-khwdhad (m.c.) "this quires, "as
:
' '
"
U jxa.
time
is
rang mi-khwdhad
requisite to
qalicha
kam
;
more colour." To any money," or "do you want such and such a thing?" the answer 7 might be AA|^ ^*J nami-khwdhad (m.c.) "it is not necessary, it doesn't
wants a
matter."
too light in colour (m.c.) the remark " I have forgotten to bring
*&lj^* ^bj$
)
tJti
t;
j^/cf
imroz* ra
*>\t jjj*\
o^f^w^o
"it was
^^ ^y jb ^b
necessary for
1^0
(Af.)
me
^^
(*$
**'^
Gllan
is
said to be the
of Persia.
*
3
Or u nazdlk bud bi-mirad ^i+J ijJ -4i<^ 5\ Nazdlk bud za*i' shavad (or bi-hadar ravad)
&j) ;<^J
'i
j5Uijj
^J,i>J (m.c.).
4
6
of raftan in
82
(h).
:
^*l *-*&
*i;fi
cu*j.*)
marammat-talab ast
in
modern Persian
in
writing
(*^^***.
Modern
Or Za2*m
Majhul vowels.
GUzASHTAN, ETC.
lazim shud
&&\J&&Q ^"i;^ j& j^j^^j u tu har du nafar khwurdk me-khivahad 7 (Af.) "food
:
'
261
1
birun bi-ravam)
^ ^
is
jihat-i
man
necessary for
both of us
*'
is also used in the sense of (g) In modern colloquial, the Imperfect A \) <jA etf+ Jjt jl t^tj*-** mi-khwdsti az awal hamin should," as:
<^)^.
yak-i ra bi-ydvari (m.c.) "you should have brought this one at first": tX*f mi-khwdst diruz bi-ydyad va likin imruz dmad jjjt* vi^fj-iu-* JJtr*' e>^-' -5
^X
(m.c.) "he ought to have come yesterday and not to-day" [for jj^ o^L* l^yjA&J bdyist* diruz bi-ydyad va likin ], vide 84 (o) mi-khipdstam " less bi-ddnam (m.c.) " I should like to know peremptory than p>\&*
:
want
to
know."
Guzashtan
Imper.
dih-,
j-, Dadan
^Uand Verbs
Mandctn
jjoiU Imper.
Ouzashtan ^i^til,
Imperative
jt^ guzar*
signifies
"to
quit,
As an auxiliary followed by the relinquish; to place; to perform, etc." Aorist or Subjunctive, with a conjunction expressed or understood, it
signifies
"to permit,
let
him come
"):
u harf bi-zanim
room "
(m.c.)
^^ |y^
;
^^^
p>y
o^y
<J lJst
vi-{A^J
^^
:
^Af^ivjj/c
(m.c.) yourself and a trollope what's more; if want to if kill do you yourself why you don't, then let it alone." " " to The Intransitive t-y^*? guzashtan signifies vaqt-i (of time) (b) pass
khwahi bi-guzar
jty
^ c*w
o^^f
'*
t^L^-
*^**j
!
youth
6 passed and old age came" azpahlu-yi u guzasht (s^i 3 (or guzar kard &f }*&) "he passed by him" az in matlab bi-guzar ;^j ^.iLo ^tjl " let this matter alone." (m.c.)
:
" The Afghans and Indians use the verb dadan '* to give in the sense an mardum ra gashtan diked of "to permit," 1 as: ^*o \) ft>j* *> a about V |;jf o ra bi-dih "let wander them time)" (for (Afghan)
(c)
^^
In modern colloquial
bi-jihat o^-^su
a l so lazim ast
*^H
f3^ instead of
vnl-khwahad.
2
3
Majhul vowels.
Bayad, or bayisi
;
or ml-bayist diruz
amada bashad
jjj*&<~^~>\*
(j*
'
^T
*
^
(m.c.).
is
Guzar ;l^
guzardan qpjfi*.
)\&
6
1
But
of a place kinar, as *^^ $ " " to Corresponds to the Hindustani verb dena give
$&
262
ki bi-ravad 1
GUzASHTAN, ETC.
(Afghan), or
Mti^j)
I)
jt
51
"let
dddan
d^- u*^ ;<* ij y wra dar pish-i khud rah narni-dihad (m.c.) " he does not allow him to come into his presence." M^d ra bi-bastan dad (m.c.) "he allowed himself to (2) at a e>*~.w h
(j^
8 j
!
be bound
(3)
"
kard
tj* /**!*>
cA^ *
l)i^
).
The Imperative
modern
cfo'A
is
or annoyance, in
colloquial, as
^*fla^o
jja
C5
**; ;^
(,5/
cJ>3
jacket
made
^i^X. *A*J
you must get a blue gold-embroidered must (lit. you give it that they may sew it) bi-dihad bi-kushand (m.c.) " (so that) he may get him (13 )(ta)
in
p& "
^^-
buyad yay
nim-tana-yi zari-yi
Rasht"
killed."
(5)
The Imperative
8<>j
(or
more commonly
^^
is
a substantive:
^^
signifies
Shah.
Other verbs for "to permit" are ijaza dddan ^1^ *3^ *S^ dadan & " " a*' ravd cJ^>ti cJ^f, murakhkhas (budan) ki ; permitted to ( tj^ ) (JOL.JJG " dashtan ^xib j; to consider right or lawful"; and (^i^f^ guzashtan', and
(e)
Mandan
transitive,
(1)
(2)
"to remain," etc., is in Afghan Persian also Note the following idioms <{ Az kar bdz mdnda *^" jb unable to work," " worn out." y, (m.c.) " tired hence in Mdnda xiU left
&*Jl*>, intr.
" to place."
< e
'
'
remained,
behind,"
Afghanistan
and
in the
(3)
Du mdh
mdnda *iU
<
j^jtjxl/oj^ (m.c.)
the '/rf."
(4)
Kam mdnd*
(5)
bi-miram fj& *J &&* + (m.c.) "I nearly died." Azhalakatchiz-ina-mandabud dy? JJ^J'^ c}i^ oDlAjt (Gulistan, Book
of perishing."
II, St.
In modern colloquial u ra
bi dih bi-ravad
<^^
J5^ J \) jt
(m.c.)
him
(the beggar)
2
s
something
to go, to
Ura
(m.c.).
Yog
Also
commonly but
incorrectly
ki&?
DASHTAN, ETC.
82.
263
Tne Verb
ft/tftan.
^)
^^Lj
Imperative
(a)
raw.
The Afghans
:
" to continue," as
az
m ba'is bi-dsdnl kanda mi-raftam (Afghan colloquial), " the soil was sandy, " hence I continued digging m* jtjb ^ (*}** ^t jjjj* &*> up with ease
it
:
pUj*
^ ^Ut
^\ ji
tj
bazar dida mi-raftam (Afghan coll.) j*i^j*o ' I at continued bi-kan bi-raw these looking yesterday things as I went also m.c. on (Afghan) "keep digging." j^j
' l
man
'
(b)
Raft
or
amad u
a substantive
* '
coming
traffic."
viJ>
(d)
o*<i^ "it^is done, past; let us say no more about it" (m.c.). " Raftar j&j is a verbal substantive signifying gait, manner of walkin
ing;
conduct" and
"
jy** U jl&j
(adj.),
(e)
(/)
some Indian MSS. " ambling": raftar-i na-hamvar " bad-raftar ;li*; <^? (an inelegant way of walking), bad conduct bad-raftari ^5-;^'; ^ (subs.) "badly conducted, bad conduct."
;
Raw
*i>;
o^ ^
"
"to
**jf
start,
commence
(a business
or matter)," as
qali ba/i
raw karda
am
commenced
tion,
carpet- weaving
!
"
:
ft
^ %,
^'b
^t
(vulg.)
*'I
have
\&*
vulg. interjec-
"go
(g)
on, go on
me go
&?
is
I^*A A>"^fi^j
with you I" isbi-guzar ki hamrah-i " is but " let me go with him bi-guzdr
being on the khwastan <^!^ ],
u bi-ravam
fjjjjl *\j+*
y^L.
also used in the sense of
"
point of
as
:
doing," "intending to
do"
[compare
80
(e)
raftam an ra bi-giram ki dldam mdr-i ruyash uftdda ast * pj& \jtf f^'j vj>~.t ^li5t ^jj; ^fjf^o f*i& (m.c.) "I was just going to take hold of it, when
'
saw that a snake was lying on it " raftam I went forward or progressed towards.'
;
p~uj
mean
that,
83.
(a)
Dtlshtnn
^/^
etc.;
Imperative jb
ddr.
The peculiarity
)
simple verb
of this verb is that the Aorist (or Subjunctive) of the (ddram (*;(,} ) signifies "to have," while the Present tense
" to 3 (mi-ddram f)***> signifies keep." In modern Persian, therefore, to distinguish the Subjunctive from the Indicative Mood, the Perfect Subjunctive is as a rule used instead of
" to sweep."
Ruftan
ej*^)
2
;
Vulg. for
money
"
:
1
';
J^J
"
keep
'barge of the
money,'
for nigah
ml-daram
(J
'>i"
*^
264
DASHTAN, ETC.
the Present Subjunctive, as: ^i*b &*)& tLey*. j j** &A* bayad khayli sabr va hawsala dashta bashid (m.c,) "it is necessary to have the greatest " a tf 1$ t_j patience and forbearance l *xi<-*j? &&*jt S\ f\&'j&, ^U ( y or) <^^ jiib alfya agrar ta ftar dah kudam bashad* 6a?/ad (or ?md) gusfand yak gusfand dashata bashand (m.c.) " were the sheep ten in number, then all (everyone) " *>* * ought to have one sheep apiece ^)^ (^Ixi. &jb ^| by
:
:
^^
fa*
" with 6a in hush bayad khayli shutur va rama dashta bashi (m.c.)
^L?
y^
^^
all this
intelligence
you have, you must be possessed of many camels and (rama specially for sheep and goats). This has led to a modern form of the Imperative dashta bash
flocks
"
;
<j2b
<u-iu,
;
dashta bashid <M-b *x|,} (m.c.) in the simple (not in the compound) verb " don't have kar-i bi-in na-ddshta bash <jwb aX^f5o anything to ^c)^ (m.c.)
^b
do with this."
this."
for
Dar y* is also used in m.c., as ijIdJ^^f "keep this, hold In ra nigah bidar = ra dashta bash (J& &&>\* h ^. Story-tellers say o^U Ai^!^ f^( l^ijf or ) &*] for "here we will leave them the present (while we see what was happening to )." (b) In classical Persian, daram j*>b, etc., is both the Present Indicative and
the Subjunctive
kafdf-i
13
Aijta
^i*/0 $
ta
^'^ *^5
' '
:
^ !;
/
u mu'ayyan ddrand
(Sa'dT)
of subsistence
mahfuz bi-darand aJyv %fistx: \y tyL. & $y*j j*>\ modern in modern Persian dashta bashand <>ib
;
classical
and
*ifj>
could be substi-
tuted here
j^te
^5**
^5^ j* fy
^1
^^
darad (Sa'dl) "which being interpreted means that this amount (of food) is here nigah mi-darad ^l^* *& could be substitusufficient to sustain thee"
3
Remark
dashtan
I.
t^b
is,
In modern, as well as in classical, Persian the Pres. Subj. of in compound verbs, of the form of the Aorist, as " he ordered 9 ^ ra bar-daram
:
f)l&j*
L>
wit
^y^j Ij*
(m.c.)
j^f^ OAASUC
him
(j^b^j bi-gu ba man suhbat bi-darad (m.c.) But u tama ddrad ^td +J=^f az u khwahish
e
daram
f)\&
talab
L^^L^jtJf; daram ;b
iltimds az
-*ii9
shumd daram
f) &
U^jf owUiJf;
^arz
daram
As long
Note
as I
Ta hamchu tu diist-l bi-daram, Bak-am na-bavad kashad bi-dar-am (classical). have a friend like you, no fear have I that he will crucify me."
singular, bashad
after har
is
>b
ft***'
bashand
x^b
8
kudam
J>.
'
Vajh *^v5
sum, money
"
:
^^)^\)
**J*[tf V?J
^>*^3'
written on bills
DASHTAN, ETC.
265
II. Frequently in compound verbs, and whenever the verb " to keep," the Present mi-ddram ^<^ is used, as har ruz bd u signifies " ** U I converse with him daily suhbat mi-ddram JI^^A (m.c.) p)\*x owjauc^t urd dust ddram or mi-ddram (f)\**?) (*jfj> o**ja \) y (m.c.) "I like him (or it)
:
Remark
very much" ; but man hanuz bd u suhbat ddram pj& o^su^y \j j^iA ^^ (m.c.) " the matter is still under discussion, it is not yet finally settled": nigah " dast bi-ddr se " cease from " bi-ddr j|<w as& bar mi-ddrand ;t^ o*%o keep
;
:
"
ttojUA&ji
In modern colloquial, the Aorist form is also used for the in bardy-i shumd samar-i nd-ddrad a>t*i <jr^ ^** c$itf no ^ Future, as nami-ddrad j^t***^ ), or na-khwdhad ddsht o*b OA^SU (m.c.) " this will be of no benefit to you."
:
Remark
Such forms as sdkhta bash (j&> aii.L (local ? "be ready " and drdsta bash <J&. *it;f " be dressed," must not be confused with the form ddshta bash <J& &&\o in the two first, the participles are adjectives, whereas
Remark IV.
is
a transitive verb.
Vide
125
(j)
(6).
c *
The Afghans and Indians say mi-ddram fj*y for ^t^ I have." (d) The Imperfect of the simple verb ddshtan (^.h, except in conditional 1 entences, is rare in modern Persian the Preterite, as is the case with the
;
verb budan i^^, usually taking its place; thus if, in the sentence &&j iS the verb f.^oxj JL^ j*^ vaqt-i ki dar jahdz budam khayal mi-kardam ki ddshtan &&]* were substituted for kardan &*} f, the verb would be khaydl ddshtam p*\z J *^ and not khaydl mi-ddshtam JLi..
,
1
j^ ^
pl>i&**o
In compounds, however, the Imperfect is used, as (m.c.) "I used to talk with him." ^iil^^c e^suejf
lj
:
bd u suhbat mi-ddshtam
(e) In modern colloquial, ddshtan ^Lif^is also idiomatically used with a continuative and present signification, as hanuz ddrad <>/[ ^o i>fd
)^
mi-dyad "he
etc.
:
is
ddshtand mi-dmadand
(/)
also
"
'
consider' (for
mi-ddnam
"
(m.c.)
" I consider
^IAJUO)
fji&
this table as
bought
f;f^
AJ^
:
f;
rd girifta
(g)
ddram (local) The following is an Afghan colloquialism man dar bazar chiz-i kharidan ddram "I have
bazar."
^o ^f ^.^o"man
an murgh
\^f
.
= ft *i^
in
cA^ ^J^;fj^;>> e^
the
is,
to
buy something
(h) In modern colloquial ddrad j>jb is often used impersonally 'there there are,' or with the subject understood, as j>;t^ v* a na-ddrad,
'
:
The Imperfect
compound) verb
is
used freely in
conditional sentences.
2
am;
266
zararna-ddrad(m.c.)
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
" there is noharmin
it;
whynot;
"
^b \^
&*. chi
"
it
doesn't
matter; there
is
na-darad (m.c.) " 8 (m.c.) "it was a curious (or wonderful) sight j^b &U. ;bU JUl^; jNx j az Shlrdz ru ba-shimdl chdpdr khdna ddrad (m.c.) "from Shiraz northwards there are post-houses " here the subject to ddrad is apparently the distance,
: :
no harm in it, i.e., why not do so; yes": a;|aJ ;U- chdra "there is no remedy" o*fj> UU3 ^l^L khayli tamdshd ddsht
^j
y\*
^^
<;
* ^
^A
khub yd bad ? khub ddrad va bad (m.c.) " what are the There are both good and bad"; here the post-horses like, good or bad? be the to subject appears chdpdr system.
In the
*
last
in
84
(c)
ddrad
a;ia
may
be translated
there is," the subject being the whole of the previous clause.
(t)
f'j$
signifies
"to need,
(m.c.)
require, etc.";
^kU
sd'at-am rd
84.
Impersonal Verbs.
to be necessary,
liayistan e>*~^
4<
etc.,
etc."
Zlbtdan
(a)
Bdyistan*
^^jL^, shdyistan
^^{^
impersonal
and
defective:
the Infinitive,
6 singular of the Aorist (without the prefix), Present, Imperfect, and Preterite only are used, besides the future participle or noun of possibility.
In
^ ^-wj by ejcWf
first
yaii/o
aiUuSi^
to
^M
is
**) (Tr.
the
is
person
of
bdyistan (^*>k
rare
morning and
ungrammatical.
an
offer of
4
don't mind
if
do,"
in reply to
in
it ?
"
is
there
la. an d Chapar, T., properly the horse for a messenger or post, spelt ^>^, and " 9 either to travel indifferently pronounced way ; chaparl raftan &'*> j C>^^post."
*
6
Shayistan
(^M
^
70
and sazidan
form.
ej^J_)*
Bcfidan
tt><H^V obsolete
is
t^V
(jr*
--?
mi-bay ad
is
occasionally used,
^*"1
bay ad
'j
)%
i^?.-
*iV L?
skuma mi-bciyad
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
267
Dar 'alam-i jan bi-hush mi-bayad bud Dar kar-i jahan khdmush mi-bayad bud " Be very wary in the Soul's domain,
And on
K. 167 Whin.)
Remark
I.
Bayad
77
synonyms
Remark.
Remark
(mod.)
II.
In classical Persian, the Past Conditional 45*^ bayisti, as well as the Aorist with the prefix (bi-bayad) occur occasionally for examples, vide (/). (c) In classical Persian, these auxiliaries are followed by the Infinitive*
(6)
,
:
shortened Infinitive, or the Subjunctive, the logical subject of the sentence being generally in the dative. 1 Examples: *&*&& I^R.^ . &*(**. a+A jjlj sukhan Ij olAU^b jj^jji-j \) JJ.U. ^"^ &&j$
the
^^^
^ ^^
o^
bi-andidha
khalq
ra,
bayad
khassa
guftan
va
harakat-i
pasandlda
bayad
kardan
hama
padishahan
(jLkl^^b
ra
(Sa'dl),
"he
speak
a^
with
^.jb
*
forethought
and act
0'[^ j
;<i^.j
o^^ jf
:
bayad bud H-(Sa'di) "one must be on one's guard against the J ^ J ^^ta-j t ^oLii \) arid hasty despotic nature of kings" ^1bar hazar
^V
^^
o^tj^^A AS" ^ii alim-i ra na-shayad ki bi-safahat-i not bi-guzarad ki har du taraf ra ziyan-1 ^ara^-(Sadl) "a wise man must " v^;a \^$sj?'&* <)&* quietly pass over the folly of an ignorant man
*jii j^ljj ;
f
az
'ammi-ibi-hilm
Ajl^i
^..i^^j;^ jl
guftar-i
bi
na-shayad (classical)
for
y^j
" a tree without fruit, fit speaking without acting is like a kar b bi-kunam^^ kim nami-sazad mard ": nothing except burning for me to do this (i.e. I'am fit tf e (m.c.) "it is not suitable
,j;
for better);
(sazidan
(
is
bashador
ast
OA^( or)
There are, however, in both the ancient and modern language exceptions; as
(classical)
fjU^ [;;**
2
-
and
(m.c.)
for
(+-*>
^^^> )^ g*
t5[^ 3
kar shayista nlstam (m.c.). Also hizri the idiom bar hazar bildan
is
pur hazar).
Note the
*
6 6
Ra omitted
^^
}&L>
afc
man mst
lei
268
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
Remark.
The shortened
is
of the
sentence
pronoun "one."
Infinitive is used when the logical subject understood, or can be expressed by the indefinitive If, however, the subject (in the dative) be expressed the
shortened Infinitive
(d)
may
still
be used, vide
is
first
example in
(/).
it is
*
^s*^
*>
^
l
u^
^UL-j^
<M|y
^i.
cjli*^
padishah
bayad
ki
ta
bi-liadd-i
bar
dushmanan khashm na-ranad ki dustan ra i'timad na-manad(Sa, dl) "a king must not drive his resentment against his enemies to such an extent
that his friends even lose confidence."
is the most common in the modern language. The Afghans and Indians use the above construction in speaking, but the Infinitive generally precedes the <y>b &&) a>^ & liu [/ auxiliary, as
(e)
:
This construction
tu-ra
coll.), or
bayad
fo*&
tu
bi-khana-e
khud bi-raw 1
&jb
(Af.
coll.)
^j
pf*5 fft>&
by
e>^
pty ^jf j
^
4
)&
dar in
fikr
gharq
budam ki didan bayad farda ba-kudam qism marg bi-miram (Afghan coll.) " I was immersed in the thought of what sort of death I should have to die on the morrow " in modern colloquial bayad did <x;j> <3*b would be substitu;
ted for didan bayad &?\> c**te. (/) As stated in (6), the forms ^y-^U and ^J'AJ are obsolete in colloquial Persian. The following are examples of these forms in the Gulistan jt
:
an miyan bi-tariq-i ^c}jja. ^JiJ &(**> p& \j> imbisat guft tura ham chiz-i bi-bayad guft (Sa'di) "one from amongst them said by way of a joke you also must say something " [vide Remark a to (c)] (j&>J i-aJiJ 15 ^Xwl^ <y^.^ j*-^ **& guft pashm bayisti kashian ta s "he said wool ought to have been sown so that it talaf na-shudi (Sa'dl)
^Uj
c^if JbUwt
c^i^
yak-i az
'
'
pt**-
Sfyj^jl
^1*
1 The latter is also the usual construction in modern colloquial, except that the pronoun would ordinarily be placed first, as: tu bayad 7ci-khana-yi khud-at bi-ravi (m.c.)
j^
&l=cu V*
^b y.
Tu
This construction
is
also classical:
affliction of others,
not
fit
In this example, tu
Clauses.
2 S
is
Ba yisti is
This form
occasionally used in modern writings in Persia. is still used in India and Afghanistan, but in modern Persian the Im-
would be used.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
269
" he said, Oh king, it was necessary (you bdyisti kardan (Sa'dl) ought to to at Laila's look have) beauty from the window of Majnun's eyes." (g) Bayad <xb, without a second verb, signifies "to be
needful, to lack
' '
requisite,
\j
padishdh ra 'adl bayad td baru gird dyand (Sa'dl) "a king needs justice (justice is requisite for a king) so that they (the peasantry) may rally J ' ' urd raham bayad *,b round him he lacks (m.c.) \j $ dndn ra
*j!
' '
:
of the person, as
l>
xlj
Jxc
U>^b
karam bayad diram nist o-ja r;J wish to give alms have no money."
ki
>
' <
&l>
pity
*t
' <
those who
(h)
The distinction
;
often fine
AjlA
tj
in
o^U*
meaning between bayad *jb and shayad x>U, is the following example it is clearly indicated *ijf.A oji?
in
tf ooU
c^AU^L
ma-ra khirad-
mand-i kafi bayad ki tadbir-i mamlakat-ra shayad (Sa/di) "he (the king) said, certainly we need a competent wise person who is fitted for the
'
The
distinction
is
in the
example in
(j),
which better
modern Persian, written or spoken, the constructions are the (*) In same, with the exception of the construction with the Infinitive.
The Present,
Aorist,
bayist (vide q) o-*jb are used for present times, e*-jb L5* for past times 3
:
and Preterite mi-bayad xilj ^, bayad y)U, and and the Imperfect mi bayist
in the
;
(1)
"I have
j*;==o
to
buy something
jfjlj
bi-kharam
az rah'i
e>#s- *jb
(m.c.)
bazar" dar bazar bayad chiz-i *'must we (one) go by sea or land ? "
oJj
(
bahn bayad
AJ(>X>O
^U ^s^
fy)
L?J
L!
(m.c.).
(2)
"You
sal-i
guzashta
shuma mi-
(ja^j
or)
(m.c.);
:
s^* t; e*l o-jb^oUA u^il JU but dishab mi-bayist birun bi-ravam vali cu-*jlj vA^ " "I " when 6 ought to have gone out last night, but
*xb
I
' '
had
five
but I had no
chun in kar ra tamam karda budam panj shash kar-i digar mi-bayist bi-kunamvalifursat na-kardam (m.c.)
do them
rahm bayad u mara mal is a common saying. Diram /ji for dirham ^AJ5 3 In modern colloquial the past tense of all verbs is, Hence present. perhaps the reason why in m.c. the past tense
1
Ura,
bayist
*
and usually
is,
^.
Subjunctive here karda bashld X*^ 8^$' could be substituted. 6 Dishab lazim shud birun bi-ravam " I had to be out last night."
270
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
be seen that after mi-bdyist either the Aorist or the Perfect Subjunctive may be used.
Remark
I.
It will
Remark
bayad
*JoU
II.
^~jb
:
is
(butmi-bayist
I
^~jb
(vulgar)
(3)
"
is
always past), as
must do
this
to-day."
t>jb
Mwd
ty & j\ j ^U; flwb o**y ra az miydn birun kash wa-agar-na turd bayad shirkat bi-itmdm rasdni (m.c.) you must withdraw from this business or else you must be a
' '
partner to the
sharaf bdyad-at
lj
%(&>,(>
(m.c.)
"the king
lacks justice"
gar
himmat buland ddr j?^ you want honour, have noble aspirations."
Remark.
*&
o,+& oA^b
o^ ^
:
(saying) "if
The following
is
an example of
all
these verbs
<-
1 $> u** ; cy ^ AJ 1^*^ b *^V ^J^* LJ cr.0 anchi sahib risk ra mi-bay ad <e naml sazad that which a man ought bachcha ra naml-shayad va zanra to ha ve,i is ^unfitting for a child, and unsuitable to a woman"; here
all
same
signification.
(
Bayad
basham
(or
mi-navishtam
^^ ^
or
)
bayist}
bi-navisam f*iyj
*.&**>
(old)
cu~ob
^b
(m-c.)
and
bayisii
=
^*b
^b *i^y
/^<^*
^!>V
*-***>
*^~~^
mi-guzashtim
p.
pA&b&'O
:
&M
mi-bayist
:
bi-navlsam
(or navishta
(m.c.)
??a^
t& j\
bayad az
(Memoirs
of
Abd-ur-Rahim,
232)
should
obliged to pass ten 'difficult points"; this guit bayad qabl az navishtan-i kag&az ijaza mi-khwastid
(j-xiy jf awl ^jb <j (Memoirs of Abd-ur-Rahim, p. 224) " he said to have taken permission before writing the letter" you ought o-*lj this ought to be <3*b a^\^ ojba.t agar mi-khwastam sharJi-1 az baray-i ariha bi-diham az baray-i Jiar ghiza-^i tafsil-i bayad mi-navishtam
^jJLof^su^ $(*.]
&&
(*&
tion of
a A<3 <y *tb Lsk?*& ^**j*> cstrlj' (* ^ ^T cstr? J c5Monte Christo) here mi-bayist bi-navisam
1
^ (Mi***^
^-.^v ^*-^b
less civil
(Transla
^* would
be preferred
(?')
mi-navishtam
*jb is
is
perhaps Afghan.
Bayad
o--^J
than shayad
are
x>L:
not,
<*jl>J
ls.ijt
to sit
is
"it
not
(k)
Isdjt inja na-shdyad (m.c.) you, you had better not, sit here." " " " Shayad &>& let it be proper is also used as an adverb perhaps,
here"; but
fitting for
possibly."
(1)
The past
:
and rarely
*x-jl),
are used as
adjectives
^^
^t
-
** o~oa
U &&
"
S-ot-i
it is
\sJidyista-yi shd*n-i
ma
nist ki
sit
inja nishinim
1
(mod. and
r
classical)
Or Sahib-i
Harf-i
risk (J^i)
^*0
but
c->y
it is
ria-shayist
ma-zan
^^f^f^**
OrSk
(m.c.)
''don't
use
unseemly
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
271
"a well-behaved wife"; sipas-i Yazddmst o^-yf^ ^^^ &w>b ^Uajj bi-qiyds bdyista-yi <e be must given (by us) to the God-head." Bdyista (modern writing) praise The substantive bdyist c jl i a obsolete. is not used in speaking.
here";
zan-i
shayista
Hazrat-i
u^
Remark.
as
Shdyista
**
jLi
^ &'
or
oJ ^ U ma
1
^ lx>
)
(m.c.)
(or
ma
la*iq-i
in
this,
it is
beyond
us" ooi U
:
( <jjj$
nist (m.c.)
"
you
in harf sazdvdr-i (or should not say this, ought not to say this."
;'jt>
-^
las-iq-i)
shuma
&W
is
shayistagi-yi in kar ra
na-daram
l;tiSJ
\)
)\
(&>]
^flUjl& (m.o.)
this
work
beyond
me"; or
it
is
t%
hangdm
that
c^Li j '^^t*
ciywo
(modern writing)
\z\*\& is
" at
this
time when
we
should lejoice."
Shaydn
all.
Shayitfani ^jjLolA
(n)
not used in modern colloquial. Bdydn ^bb not used at and bdyistani j**~A> are both old.
t
" Bdyad bdshad ^b jjb signifies must be" and mi-bdyist bdshad " " ^jl ma Id-bud bdyad in kdr rd bi-kumm ^b *$ t must have been "we are ^jf (m.c.) obliged of necessity to do this," *>JUiic ^/o
:
fooj t^jM^J jjb ^j) c;AJJU; ^ji (Afghan) "sensible people will say that since he took so much trouble to construct a boat he must certainly have
previously
(6)
made some plan for transporting it (to the water)." In modern colloquial bdyad ^b sometimes means "should," as:
&b
"
ii,jb
why
'
m
?
"
;
c<
o~f
c;!/
;^i
(simpler
r
why is
(g)
this so dear
chird
^ *^ e
80
should.'
(p)
Bdyad
<xb is
it
(
ture Perfect,
when
<x*^
&&&
1*L
^t
a^^jf b
AiU
ay
j*t^
|^jU^
o^b
c;3b'
^ J^ ^
JTJ,
Ma^
bi-Landan bi-rasad
"
Fuldn
by the time this letter (bdyad) kitdbash rd tamdm karda bdshad (m.c.) " in this reaches London, So-and-so will have completed his book example
;
bdyad
as:
(q)
(
In modern colloquial the Past tense bayist is used for the Present, * <x (m.c.) or) i);fe ou^ c^-ob bdyist dast ba-kar zad (or shud)
Or bayad
(m.c.)
dast andar
(m.c.)
272
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
set to
"we must
J
(or bdyist)
bi-mirim
o~jlj t )iol
^x
(m.c.)
"he
Remark.
jjlj
The
jag:
AJUMJUX*
pronouns can be added to the impersonal verb bdyad " it was mi-bdyist-am necessary for me":
affixed
mi-bayist~i"
(r)
shdn "
it
was necessary
for
them."
{j*~d*>
in the following
examples
(1)
ty 6A|^&. jbj'
j&
there
l?uuy
jjj^nfc
hamrdh-i u
panjdh
lsuj
khwdhad bud
'
(m.c.)
must be
him "
nafar sar-bdz
;
o-&b jL>^
(^jf
o^a
J^ *kUw|
(or m.c.
m
;
[or
bdyad
:
panjdh dast
be about
(i,xilj
bdyad bdshad)
*****
A*/O
t(
this enclosure
must
fifty cubits
)
and breadth"
\j*>
^~
oJfj
0f jo/J
cu-oL) for
SAt^ jf
8 (j^i^ tf cu^Jf
^ia.
a^rar
mard me-dld chumn me-danist ki shakhs-i gundh-gdr khwhdd bud (Afg. col.) " had any one seen me then, he would have thought that I was (must be) some guilty person."
(2)
(m.c. *
*Mj^
(*)V e,iJ;
or)
^ ^>t^ eA
^
cJ>jtr^
vf
^^
^t^ t^
berun raftan khwdhad shud (Afghan coll.) (or but it will be necessary to go out to fetch m.c. raftan Idzim Jchwahad shud} water."
ZeA;m
ba-jihat-i
dwardan-i db
* '
c^fiw
cuJ>si./o f^Aj &<yf (J^y j j* ^t^J ^-.; flsob ;(^ e^!t e.>jtt* kdr ba-anjdm rasid bardy-i du kdr-i digar mihnat o koshish kardan " when this business was finished I had to toil and paydd shud (Afghan coll.)
(3)
<yox> ;U**j
(^i)
ciy^J
{tfr*!
(D^.z
^^^
jihat-i
dldan-i asphd
berun
coll.)
"I had
bi-jihat-i dldan-i
uj:>r (5) aUty ^/o uxi; jj^Cj ^ti ^ly &j &&HO ^j ^U ai wa 6ar^ kharch me-shud wa na bard-e kabk giriftan ba-koh raftan me-uftdd (Afghan coll.) "neither was powder expended (by this plan) nor had I to go to the high
ground to
mi-uftdd].
)
o*^
fjSf
instead of
c5*y
^-
1
-?
^ )*
^'
o^
(Afghan
coll.)
what you
^
ft
Or
tul an
va 'arz an
to the tip of middle finger.
also
Dast,
m.c. mi-pindasht
gunah-kar
jjltffor
o^ij^
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
had to do
?
273
"
;
amada khwahad Zwd ^Uif some human being must have jj*t^ **,cf (Afghan coll.) "certainly come here" [in modern colloquial bi^-shakk mja insan-i amada bashad
(7)
Zdrftr
dar
inja
insan-e
(8)
Lazim
ast
kibi-ravam
or
w.f
(
raftan-i
<c
)
man
I
*?
cuw
^, or
(or
raftan
am
lazlm ast
az zaruriyyat
vajibat)
ast
oU^tj or
must go."
paraphrase of "it is necessary" can be effected by such Arabic expressions as mustalzim >K~/o (tr.) ''necessitating, wajib" 'l-qatl " Jxo/t v^'j etc. meriting death necessary to be killed," etc.
Remark.
(s)
with the
are:
Further modern colloquial examples of verbs used impersonally, or subject understood after the manner of darad &)\& [ 83 (h)]
^>
^J&A ci^i' o^.?u bi-jihat-i kasrat-ikhar *' on account of magas bi-mardum va malha khaylt bad guzasht (m.c. Boz. Gr.) " here the large number of horse-flies, man and beast had a bad time of it " " 6 "the time" or the is
l^/U3 ^
j*^*.j
:
o^if
^^
the subject
apparently
day*
6 agar ghuraba ra gazid asar-i sakht-i mij^yo o^l^ j^* <^*tf j ^iUi 1 numayad va gah-l munjar bi-halakat mi-shavad (m.c. Roz. Gr.) "if it bites
^isuy|
joj?
t;^^t
strangers
does a severe injury which sometimes results in death." is asynonymof shdyad (t) y.) "it suits, becomes, behoves, etc.," " and sazad *y* zib *r*0 (subs.) ornament, beauty (construed with dadan
it
Zlbad
' '
and shikastan (^L^i). Ziba Ujj is an adjective; chi ziba mi-khwanad iux Uj aa. (m.c.) " how nicely he reads." (u) Expressions like "it is said, it is related," etc., are rendered by the
third person plural of the transitive verb (vide 88 Passive) as ^| dvarda and " it is related (they, the ancients or the wise or the relators)
:
*^f
have
related
(v)
"
JJ|
'*
and
it is
said."
Some
impersonal in
j>;Uxx>
tive of
cognate meaning:
^b
baran mi-barad
(m.c.)
"it rains";
compound
"
to
become."
a;te
JUx=M
or yahtamil
cUisu
could be used
in the sense of
8
'
probably.
*
5
o-^ ^
gana,
3J
^k**
or
The bug
called
malla
^^
or
**
gharib-gaz
or "biter
of strangers."
For munjarr
18
274
jj*
COMPOUND VERBS.
^o
^
_
thunders" or **&**
tundad; *&&)*
mi- jihad (m.c.).
(w)
tundar ml-
<3> barq
^=^^
6> barq
J
An
is
follows:
(m.c.)
**~*t
';
^.\
"no
" it
^ #&
is
:
;?^ Jac
<aql
bdvar
).
na-kunad.iSa.'di)
(x)
"
it is
impossible to credit
"
(m.c. nami-kunad
^+>
(1)
(2)
vide
77
(a) (2)
and
(6) (3).
(3)
(d).
80
(/).
(4] (5)
85.
Compound Verbs
of simple
^_^Xc
is
(a)
is
The number
of
verbs in Persian
made up
The
compound
compound words,
difficulty.
exceedingly numerous.
They may
a be classed as adverbial verbs, and nominal verbs. verbs are simple verbs, transitive or intransitive, with (6) (1) Adverbial
an indeclinable particle (adverb or preposition) prefixed, as v&jk bdz guflan " " to turn " to back, repent" (^xfc? jb bdz gashtan say a second time " to come vd tstddan 8 " to stand still dar dmadan ij^~j}
:
ejA/cf;.}
in";
\)
stop, halt
"
dashtan "to
also to twist
bar az dar dar dmad (Sa'di) " he came in ; ^^iAf^^j ;,> jijt bar tdftan (&&* j* '" to shine forth, raise up; to suffer, endure"
**ti
;
"
u zabar kardan c^^y ^3^3 " to make topsy turvy"; vd guftan &*&\) (m.c.) "to repeat what one has heard, say again"; va*shustan &Z<~& ^ "to wash again."
up"
zlr
(2)
Faru jj,
firu
^
**
or furu
^f
(before
a vowel
farud
y^f
etc.)
is
prefixed to
signifies
dmad **f
jUjf
^*
"down, downward; low," as farud furu guft *sJf ,jj>* "he spoke low";
signifies
)& (m.c.)
(3)
Fard
is
"back, again,
1
3
Vulgar paya mi-yhurr ad, ty*** *jb. Nominate are those formed by prefixing a noun or an adjective to a verb. Va \j in composition with verbs stands for baz J^ " back ", again, open,
\$
etc.,
as: va dad M^
guft oJiS'fj
^^
" Istada va kun " open the door * In m.c. furu guft = simply
1^*<~J.\
"
standing
COMPOUND VERBS.
over, opposite, etc., etc."
275
It is often redundant, being prefixed merely to avoid a cacophony. Vide the rule applying to the auxiliary khwdstan e>H^ when used to form the Definite Future, as khayma rd far a khwahand girift AxA/ji. ty f; 4U-A. " " ; oJ^ they will surround the tent (Class.).
:
(4)
Fardz
j\j*
(
"above,
up, before,"
as:
c^
(Gul.,
Chap.
VI., St. 1)
Fardz yj sometimes strengthens a verb but often it is redundant. andar ;<^! (or dar ;^), are also common in birun ^i>-h (5) Pish (J^^
j
t ,
the preposition has by use become incorporated the verb has ceased to be regarded as a compound
;
:
such verbs the preposition is prefixed to the verb itself, as tup khwahand dar hard *j* jxiAi^ ^y khwahand dar guzasht o^^;,} XXA(JA, ; khwdhnad bar-
khdst %
Remark.
of the
The
bi
3 ^xix*/o ^ and the negatives na *i and ma ** as ^p aar <yo mi-kunand (m.c.) *'the gun is being fired" (lit. they are emptying the " take it out of your cannon)"; az klsd dar bi-yar ;U; ^ <wo )\ (m.c.)
and
ml
pocket."
Some verbs that in their simple form take the prefix *j do not when compounded with a preposition as ^^(^ ^ bar khdstan admit "to rise up" (bar khiz and bar khizam, etc.); bar-gashtan (J&j "to
(d)
it
,
:
return"
(t
in rabi-dar)\* \) ^i "keep this", but in rd bar dar )\*j> |; " dmikhtan " take this away er^^T (tr.) (Impr.J^/oLxj bi-ydmiz) to mix dar dmikhtan e^^H^T )* (intr.) Imp. dar-dmiz J^xf ^.
; ;
^ "
;
Remark. In poetry, for the sake of metre, the particle of a compound verb sometimes follows the verb. 4
(e)
Faraz u
nislilb -r ^:^
1
JJLr
"
or " ascents
and descents."
Dar khwahand
Icard
*/
*>*
I; :
*>i*!_j^;i, dar
khwahand guzasht
cu-^ ^f>^
mean one
;^,
and
o^l^
of
Atji. j\ ar e old.
tup
is
special
gun.
*
(Fut.).
tu bi-raw), )j>
^ "go inside."
276
COMPOUND VERBS.
Usage alone
will
determine which
auxiliary
verb or verbs
can
be
Many
:
auxiliaries used in
modern
colloquial
Examples:
O.AXAXJ
\&tf
durust kardan
"to
z#n-*
o^;^
JA!J <^fy
wlA*
c>j
kirm durust mi-kunad (vulg.) "the butcher's wife qassdb bardy-i bulbul ma'zul kardan &*j$ Jj>J>*"> (past breeds maggots (as food for) bulbuls " to dismiss from be shudan ma'zul office"; J^)** "to participle)
] :
o^
istdda
participle)
may be
as
part
of
the
compound
verb
but in no case do
chub zadam (m.c.), or Examples: fj>j v^^ hJ u him "I beat (with a stick)"; in the f)& v^*. jl bi-u chub zadam (m.c-) first instance chub ^^^ may be considered an integral portion of the verb zadam p^j; in the second it may be taken as its object, but it would
they admit of
ra.
be wrong to say bi-u chub ra zadam f&j I; <-^ jk [u-rd bd chub zadam means"! beat him with the stick"]: "talk Persian" (>} ujj.a. U \\
5
Far si harf
time
intizar kashida
"
8
(
zan (> <Jy^ u**^* or harf-i Farsi bizan &y> ^)^ o>^ Ichayli am ff sj.^ ^Uaijt (^^ " I have expected (waited for) you a long " " three XJ< J t ^ JU^* si sal tul kashid (here sal is years passed
bi
',
:
P
tul
etc.
is
&
bind guzdrdan
*jb;t<^
namak bi-hardmi
guzdrda
ast o**=t
^^^
c3^
n^V
(m.c.)
5
=
is
bind guzdrdbi-na-
From
^^xjf
gir
j&
',
^L*^ ^*^
(m.c.)
(for
bring into one's possession"; dnja chiz-i gir-am " naydmad ^US ^^ <*&& ^tf (m- c ) nothing was got by me there dnjd chiz-i gir 6 " na-yavardam (*:>;/# j4 C5>-^ l^f (m.c.)" I obtained nothing there.
gir dvardan
&&>$
j4 "to
Remark
in
I.
Maggots are bred and sold in Persia as an article of trade for caged nightingales. In m.c. bar pa kardan o>^ t^J, ordashtan (oJ&ta, or va dashtan t^-^b 1^, or
**-.
p&}> U^> ^iali/o ^J;^.
it
*
6
pak-i Hazrat-i
sainted soul of " to swear part of the verb ") could be inserted just before na-khwurl.
*
G 5 ^asam bi-ruh-i ^b ^S)^ f&Jl ^lc c)Uj>Lo ^.ji Sulayman ('alayh* 's-salam) na-Tchwurl "until thou swearest by the Solomon (on whom be peace!)," the wordgasam (which is a component
e^^
Gir
amadan
(*}^\
j&
COMPOUND VERBS.
Remark
as: ba
II.
277
of
two constructions,
txiX^/o
^AS*.*)
^U^L
(in
which
and marduman
OA^XJ
jj
commoner
(/)
in
modern
Persian.
As stated in
rule
is
(c)
^ and
bi AJ are intercalated
The same
*j,
as
observed with regard to the negative particles &c and vide 71 (c) and (/). dast bar nami-dari <j^;b j. <^~>*
(g)
Usage alone
a compound.
*
is
used in forming
hamla avardan,
uzr avardan,
3
(m.c.)
"to
attack, charge."
taddruk didan,
J/
=>.
gham khurdan,
(m.c.)
make preparation." " to suffer opposition." "to consider advisable." " to suffer
grief."
khurdan, (m.c.)
" to be deceived."
+~i qasam khurdan, (m.c.) to swear, take an oath." zakhm khurdan, (m.c.) " to be wounded." bi-zamm khurdan, (m.c.) "to fall on the ground; strike
takan khurdan, (m.c.)
giriftar
the ground."
"to
overcome the
jt
" to be
" to be satisfied, full from eating." shudan, (m.c.) dar shumar amadan (class.), " to be counted."
)t>
;j>
'}
^^
7
yj| J.s\x5
^.N
c?ar
mahall-i
iftiras-ast,
likely to be)
falsely
accused."
^^ dar ma'raz-i khatar ast,
/c
"he
is
in danger."
^ f
4
nishandan, (m.c.)
griftan,
(
j*.
(m.c.)
)i<i^r>
to begin to speak."
/n bi-dard-am nami-khurad
(m.c.)
" this
is
no use
to
me
278
^tl-j
<i>a*
COMPOUND VERBS.
" to 'aqd bastan (zan-l ra), perform the service of marriage
"
(of
the Mulla).
&*j* <yl/*^ or &**b f^> ^
mr
naan
live luxuri-
ously
enjoy oneself."
*
.
*..
tavallud ydftan
j|
"to be born"
"
also tavallud
shudan cx*^
&j/**
cwta o,*o
az dast dadan,
Jt
^^-i
up hope
begun)
o**,} ejU*
az
efos ?afl-
of one's life."
(jj^jja.
<jy*A? o-,i
;
jt
cA^-?
das
kashidan,
(a
thing
to give
chlz-i bdz
istadan,
"to
from
(a
thing not
begun)."
o^o| t&j*
&
o^l^o
))
|;
o^
A;i
murda
ast,
" he feigned to
be dead."
ikhtan,
(in
a bad sense)."
or kashidan, " to cry
or &&j
c)J>3
out."
zadan, "to add up." " to collect." kardan,
'
or
LT*-^
^*^ tuhmat
* '
to
accuse falsely."
(2**jP
giriftan,
ffish
"to
dadan
wrestle."
(or giriftan),
u&jf or
<J^
" to
listen to."
jt
rw^ kashidan, vulg. (= ^^ (jjy-t ) "to eaves-drop." ditto. gush far a dadan " to be i2 miydn raftan, abolished; cease to be used." " miydn burdan (tr.) carry off."
2;
^7a^ uftddan,
ua^
sabqat griftan,
anticipate,"
"to be probable." 4-^SJ tashrlf ddshtan (polite), "to be at home, in the house." xSf J& nazar anddkhtan, "to cast a glance at." bi-tas-khlr anddkhtan "to postpone."
or) (^>j JUla,| ihtimdl raftan (or ddshtan),
j
"to be postponed.
cJ^
>="
" to collect
" and
also
man
sabqat just
(^ jt
LF
COMPOUND VERBS.
\u
(
279
dan
<(
f^ talk//, ushinn-i ruzgar (or ayyam) chashiof life." and downs to experience the ups 5 t>f sard u garm-i ruzgar dldan (m.c.) the same as above. " to mention." *~*\ ism-burdan
p(j\
or
)^jj) (yty?* j
i>U
J>^A.
guman burdan
dtash girijtan
ta<s/i
(m.c.)
warzldan)
ejf
" to catch
fire."
zadan
'
'
6%
t;
shumdan
[
zahmat
f*3L
$a/am
J.aj
(clsss. and m.c.) "to smell" (tr.). kashidan " to take pains suffer hardships." shikashtan " to break up the audience."
;
^jx-i
^Isx/c
nuql-i
majlis
shudan
(m.c.)
"to be
in
everybody's
to
mouth, be famous
is
(lit.
riist
(lit.
make,
be noticed that a change of the verb in the compound may make a verb transitive or intransitive in meaning, thus laghylr kardan " to (intr.) change," but taghyir dddan ^il^^H* 5 (tr.) "to change." &*/jj
I,
Remark
It will
" the ought you not to be careful of your reputation ? preposition &> bi that is wanting, has only to be inserted before fikr ^i to make the sentence
<c
,
II. It must be recollected that in modern colloquial, and conjunctions are frequently omitted. In, na-bayad ki shumd prepositions khud biyuftid ^^* ^A. ^li^j _,& l^i &> ^(v (m.c.) fikr-i mk-nami-yi
J
Remark
perfectly clear
for
ufiadan
(h)
cD^UJf
* is
though in modern colloquial the compound verb used, its proper form is bi-fikr uftadan [)&(&] j^.?
certain
fiqr
There
are
vulgar
(I)
)
p
ej.y
compounds in colloquial use, which nanrachigunapukhtakunam &^* &^^- cAi " c< the bread ?
\)
how
shall I (or
can
I)
cook
;
danista
namudan
&&j+*
AX-JIJD
(Afghan)
A.wi
(Afghan)
;
'"to
break";
" " to shikasta kardan teach, inform sukhta kardan AxL^^ (vulg. m.c.)
^^
"to burn"
afrukhta kardan
^^ &LL^i
(class.), etc.
These compounds have come into existence owing to the frequent adjectival use of the past participle of the simple verb, which is both
transitive
(2)
and
intransitive.
c^/
J^LUj
"to
set
up," may
j>U~o'
1
be
no necessity
for istada
shudan^
&^
(Afghan).
*+*>
^5^
8^
Ai: j***$
^*i^
is
used
for
zahmat
o^j.
bi-fikr tiftadan
jt
2
S
Even
in speaking,
l-ar
az In
(m.c.)
280
(Afghan
"you bound me
and should
first,
before
all
a noun; hence (5) As already stated, the Infinitive is regarded as such barbarous compounds as jastan namud (m.c.) "he made " or a jump namud jast ^~^ (Afghan coll.). (t) Some compound verbs consist of a phrase, and are both adverbial
^ ^-^
(tr.),
and nominal, as
c>.W!
az pa da-r-avardan
(j
\\
(intr.)
"
and az pa dar amadan " to cause to pas pa ^j retreat, " to commence " az dast dadan ;& ^*~*
\\
^/ ^ b
/cardan
<j^ b
86.
(a)
Certain
in
Compounds.
or
One of the verbs most used in compounds is kardan cwy "to do " "to make." Namudan e^+-i, sakhtan (^^, gardamdan o*^ ^, and
1
in deferential language
in
farmudan &3j*j* can be substituted for kardan &jf These are all used in modern any verb compounded with the latter.
1
colloquial.
(b)
^ and
c^y
is
bi-kun
^./j
Remark.
The
past participle of
kardan
colloquially used
by the
Afghans with comparatives, in the sense of "compared with"; being redundant, it can be omitted in any sentence where it occurs, examples:
^^ f.jk^y >A)j^*f
chunanchi az avval karda liu" accordingly the density jum-i ashjar ziyada-tar ma'lum gardid (Afghan coll.) of the foliage appeared more than it did before (compared with previously)
:
fl?
?uk
*->y
J>
31
*^^
' '
^i
t>^ Jr
jl
(Afghan
coll.)
"he
is
Namudan 8
signifying
&*?+*,
Imperative
(tr.
muma 4
l*J, is
sitive,
"to show
and
intr.), to
appear";
~s>Uj^
f>^
ma'lum mi-numayad (or ^^.^ ^1**> *> ;jj> ) az qarar-i ki ma'lum mi-shavad, or simply ma'lum mi-shavad _\^/ ^J^^ ) "it appears."
Remark.
t^
to
namuda *j^
in
the
:
following modern
euphony or variety
Timur
ra dar
dast basta
har ja-yi dunya bashad suragh karda pay da namuda ml-glrid ml-avand inja (m.c.) " having traced out Taimur in whatever
of
Any shade
For
namudan c^*-*,
^
3
or sakhtatt
meaning that may have formerly existed between kardan ^i.L n compound verbs no longer exists.
j
Jy
*J
In modern colloquial often nimudan ((Isfahani). Modern colloquial bi-numa Ui> only.
281
may be
you
will seize
him
you
(d)
will bring
(1)
Sdkhtan %
^.kU "to
fashion;
manage with;
is
j\*
suit,"
is
both
3^*).
transitive
and intransitive:
'
the Imperative
sdz (m.c.
bi-saz
Example: tX^U-j^ ^j f^ cJ^^j^ dar Kirman jdm-i rud mi-sdzand (or durust mi-kunand ^iix^ o^;<i (m.c.) " they make brass pots in Kirman"; ^U^ " j\ 41kL> shuma biham sdkhta id (m.c.) you have joined together, conspired
6
' '
(for
jl~**
cr^-
*7-^
p^
C5'
"oh torpid belly, be content with a single loaf"; " the air of j^Lo/o ^j <J6 w havd-yi in-jd bi-man mi-sdzad (m.c.) me."
(Sa'di)
^Ajt
c^L^ J vf
<c5tA^
13
JLUo
-Sj
(T
3j
*
c?-?^
c^L?^
^3^
J5
" To find a remedy, put up with pain, Chafe not at woe, and healing thou wilt gain." (0. K. 451 Whin.)
(m.c.)
Ghayr az sukhtan va sdkhtan chdra-l nist eu~.x> s^ ^.^LLU^ ^-^j-^ 3'-r^ " there is nothing to be done, but to grin and bear it."
(2)
Sdkht
31
are substantives
is this
sdkhi-i in qali az of
ehist
o-j^.
^Uf
" what
carpet
made
" shuma
;
dar
in sdkhtagi this."
karda-id
j>/
^jXlkU
in
^^ U
' '
(m.c.)
"you have
danddn-sdz
adulterated
' '
3^ o'^^ the dar Note following (danddn dentistry ). 2^^ of the love "in bi-saz mahbub bi-suz va 'ishq-i (3^ J* (mod.) 31^3^-^ v^ A -~* /** "in liam-dvdz or Ham-sdz 3 the beloved burn and be patient." 3jT
(3)
$2
"
3^
is
frequent
sdzi
compounds,
as:
a dentist
^3 U & *>*
]
"
sdz-gdr nist
o-jo j(f)U ,^x ^i^j ^AXJ ^jf (m.c.) "this fruit will disagree with me." " and " Sdz 3^., a substantive, means " a musical instrument necessary
furniture," as: sdz-i safar taddruk kard *jt >Jy
get ready for the journey."
<
j&~*
j(*
(m.c.)
"he began
to
Garddnidan i^Joif^, Imperative gardan ^\^ is the transitive form of and signifies "to change, avert turn gardidan u^J^ (or gashtan ( &&
(e)
, }
basta A-i*J
* is
2
'ji^t
understood.
Basta
(m.c.)
3
made up,
false
"; ba man
is
sakhtagl ma-kun
"
vulgar for
&^J)\
ru'in*
282
(1)
Farmudan &*j*j, Imperative farma Uy, is transitive, "to command." In compound verbs it is deferentially substituted for kardan c><>/, sdkhtan ^^Lo, or namudan s^+J, both in classical and in modern
order or
1
" the king sat (or ascended) the throne." (2) In modern colloquial bi-farma*id ^AJI/O^J almost corresponds to the " if " English word "please." To a visitor it signifies please take a chair " two persons are about to enter a door together it means after you ": if
&yji
:
Persian: -^^ i$ytj> &*- ^lf v^U^ jandb-i 'all chi farmuda budid*? (m.c.) " what did your eminence say?" Chi guftid <**&& &&. would be a very familiar or very rude way of expressing the same thing, and would generally be used to inferiors only. Padishah bar takhtjulus farmud (j*j^ cuiu^j jjUob
food
is
on the
table, it
&\#j*
(3)
Farmdn
Uj* ejUyj "the issuer of mandates" is a title prefixed to the name of a place, and signifies " Governor or Viceroy of ." " orderFarmdn-barddr obedient."
;|^j
eA^*
bearing,
Remark.
va qaul-i hukamd* ra kar na- farmud zj>j& j \) *UCa. J^j ^ also kafshsays duz alat-i khud ra kar mi-farmayad (vulg.) "the shoe-maker is using his
things."
(g)
^^ or gardidan ^^J
*
(
['
vide
'
(e)]
can always be
verb.
compound
87-
Causal Verbs
(j**)\
or
^t^b ^*.*
B
J*^'
and Reflexive
Verbs
(a)
(])
The
"
^-)
jastan
4
or
dndan
^JU^ to jump, leap," Imperative yah jahdnidan e^^^f^ or " davidan tl to cause to leap yahandan c^il^ 0^^ " to run" (Imperative dawj^) davdndan c^^ or davdnidan &^)* "to make to run, to gallop
;
:
&**
etc."= tdzdndan o^fj^ (m.c.) "to gallop a horse." The Imperatives are formed regularly, that is by discarding the
infinitive terminations,
c^-
or &&-.
Farmana
blxjf
is
In classical Persian, or by Indians and Afghans in speaking, the third person In modern Persian in plural would be used after the address ^Ujli^ janab-i 'all.
2
is
also preferred.
is
transitive of itself
&&#( ^^*io
Jl*j
c^f^
is
283
&*tf
is
sometimes short-
ened to amdan.
(b)
86
(e).
be transitive
and doubly transitive or causative if (c) (1) Nishdndan ^JlAj (nishdnistan ^-"ol^i obsolete) "to cause to sit; to plant, etc.," the causal form of nishastan ^i-^So, is irregularly formed.
(2)
Shinawdnidan &*J}ji (not used in Persia) is the causal of shunudan " c^y^, and signifies to cause to hear, tell, read aloud." "to drive" is perhaps the causal of raftan <^I*; (3) Randan &*>\)
"to go."
(d)
(1)
(old)
etc."
(2) Guzashtan ^^\^ (tr. ) "to quit, to discharge, perform": namdz guzdrdan (not guzashtan) c^l*? jUi " to perform the duties of prayer." 1 &*&** "to throw," causal afkdnldan ^-H^J! (obsolete). (3) Afkandan Verbs have two roots admit of two forms of the causal, as: that (e) " to bore " suftan ^Ii* suftdnidan cpjjU'jU' (obs.), and sumbdnidan ^^.jJLxi**
;
(obs.)
rustan
^^ or ru*idan cA-^
*'
to
grow"
(rt.
ru
2) or ruy to grow."
(/)
^^
ruydmdan
in
"to cause
letter into
which the Imperative stem terminates in o, change this shdndan (obs.) c;-x>l (for ^^3*^ ) "to comb," causal " to 2 shdydnidan &*?\M (obs.) ddnistan ^X-^b know," ddydmdan' *)#k\& chidan &x*- "to pluck, collect," Mndidan ^>^5Uxa. (obs.) or (obs.);
^5-,
Verbs
as:
chiydnidan ^voUa. (obs.). In modern colloquial the shortened form of the causal verb
thus tarsdndan
tarsdnd
is
preferred
&*Ly
is
preferred
to
tarsdnidan viPi-^y,
and khivdham
" to
^JLy /**t^, to khwdham iarsdnid ^jJ^ii /**iyk. (g) Some verbs do not admit of a causal form. Examples diddn* &*** " '' " see to say dzmudan &*?*$ to try, prove." guftan ^sZ a few of verbs are used in modern colloquial. causal the (h) (1) Only When the Persians wish to mimic the Afghans or Indians, they make
:
'
'
verbs.
An
Afghan,
use hall
for
instance,
uses
1
kardan &zj> c^ ^,
In India afgandan,
etc.
V-
doubtful.
284
to feed
j\
" occurs
in writing, but
food to eat,
feed it."
9
at
used.
(2)
The following
:
commoner
causal verbs in
modern
colloquial use
Tarsdndan
Davdndan &*\j* or davdriidan eP^t>> to put into a gallop." " to cause to arrive." Rasdndan ^pJLy or rasdnldan a^V
1
Nishdndan
" to plant, place, make to sit." Khivdbdriidan &^*Jl>\^ or khwdbdndan&^>\+\j=*> to lull to sleep or lie down. Fahmdmdan c^i^U^ or fahmdndan c^^t* "to cause to understand,
&^ &>
(
or nishdriidan
c^U^
' '
' '
explain."
Amuzidan e^J^T
(obs. in Persia) or
dmukhtan
j^Xi^cf
The passive
are,
of
parvardmda shud
the causal
*^'j>Jt^
5
verb
formed
kundmda shud
^
:
in
the regular
}<^JU^ (Afghan).
^.y^i^
tj
-fc^^ f**^
JJL''.
J^
rafta, bi-dnki
iz}wir-l
vd ddshtan-i bi-sdkhian-i ash'dr-i ki yak bayt-ash bi-yak misqdl " without tild bi-yarzad pdsbdn-i u gardidam (Tr. Haji Baba, Chapter VIII) appearing to show any particular partiality to him, I succeeded in being
diham,
bi-shart-i
to
appointed to keep watch over him, under the plea that I would compel him make verses " (H.B.) urd mustalzam sdkhtam ki bi-raqsad jjlv~x> t^y " urd bar an ddshtam ki "I bi-raqsad obliged him to dance ^JuLU *$ ditto dance' dvardan to cause to \))\ c>^T &\j bi-raqs u**j! f&\*
:
( '
' '
' i
'
mard
bar
bi-ydyad ^*> b &$ fz>)$ )jj jk "he put rd tdkht c^3 ) asp his horse into a gallop": bi-chidan dar dvardam "to cause f*)^ )t> " ura vd to pluck ddshtam ki bi-chinad.
oblige
it
:
me
" don't
"
bi-u zur
dvardam
ki
bd
man
^\
&^^
is a (j) Qabuldmdan cpoo^jJ "to cause to confess (by torture, etc.)" barbarous causal in m.c. use or in a joking sense = " make him agree."
;
taken either by the simple transitives as pddishdh dast u pd-yi urd bast o~~ \^\ ^b ^ c^,i l*^b (m.c.) " the him (had him bound) hand and foot"; or else some such bound king
(k)
The place
:
Amiikhtan
is
also
" to learn."
285
etc., is used.
Reflexive verbs
reflexive
and the
&^>o s**** J*- ) are formed by the transitive verb " he killed himself (; pronouns, as khud ra kusht
;
:
Tchud-kushl Icard
^2*'
mi-shust
o*Jx*
\j
^^
,jU.
^ "he
J
&$
' '
' '
he committed suicide
' '
;
jan-i
kkud ra
88.
Passive Voice
is
<
*~*
(a)
much
less
;
can be avoided
words the passive is used the subject is unknown, or if known This rule should be observed even
a
There are several ways of expressing the passive. (6) The grammatical passive is formed by adding the tenses
of the
verb
shudan &*
verb. The use of this construction is comparatively infrequent and verj' seldom occurs in modern colloquial, for in addition to the simple intransitive verbs the language contains a large store of compounds with a passive sense, " to be wounded * such as &&)?* shi feast yaftan p^j zakhm khurdan *U to be destroyed zafi* shudan ^(j o C "to be defeated
' '
:
' '
^^
' ' ;
* '
' '
gul khurdan
c^;^ J^
' ' ;
' '
(m.c.)
to be deceived
bi-duzdi raftan
' ' ;
(^)
5
c^^j^-?
"to be
dadan
(&*)
stolen
&&\&
1 1
giriftan
<j^/
pl^
%
to be finished
farmayish
raftan
order
(goods)"
8jl3
(tr.)
[but
farmayish
cr^'
(intr.), as,
e~*t AXJ)
" what! an order has been yash mm-tana-yi taza farmayish rafta ast ? (m.c.) for a new given jacket for his favourite wife, has it ? "] bi-sar burdan
:
^Ixy
1 *** "Passive Voice," i.e., of which the agent is Slgha-yi majhul J*r^^ unknown. 5 The use of the Passive is antagonistic to the genius of both Persian and Urdu. The use of the passive is largely increasing in Urdu, doubtless owing to the articles in
vernacular newspapers translated from English. of India and in a less degree that of Afghanistan.
S
are occasionally substituted for shudan &*& . " to beat, to knock, cast," can be signifying
expressed by a
compound with c)^;^ khurdan, as: takan khurdan &)j^- c;^> (m.c. " zamm khurdan &)*** art' " to fall on " to be receive a push or shake to ) pushed, the ground," etc. " 5 This example is from the Vazir of Lankuran." Ordinarily in m.c. this sentence
;
would berendered
*\
*^ or) eu-of
5te|j>
*j$
& p> ^
(Jt)('&<*
cr^^
<^Lr? baray-i
286
(tr.)
"to pass
one's time,"
but
bi-sar
raftan <j^_r*J
(intr.)
"to
be
passed." admits of the Passive. The (c) In modern Persian not every verb % is quite unintelligible shud beaten" u zada "he was -xiaajy expression " he was even to Persians with some education, whereas kushta shud && ALSo
killed
"
is
a passive in
common
*c\j^>
use.
:
(d)
The following
(1)
uAs' (jjju*U
^^
my
jt
;'*&M
t^gi
ty^ chundn
(Sa'dl)
dmadam
came forward so
hastily
from
lamp was
extinguished by
passive
(2)
*&
&^
Here the active kushtam instead of the ^J&' " I would signify purposely extinguished."
my
sleeve."
is of
<-=~*t
* jwi ipo>jjl/l
*' CSV**-" ;^ (Shah's t^k'Ji) "yl>" cr*" Diary) "we and others have to-day seen a species of crop called 'rape' Uijf in the Prussian territory" <^ia> *S u&UJf p** (S.D.) " Hakim u 'l-Mamdlik ki channd-i bud injd bud dida shud (S.D.) "the
:
^-^ ^
^ g^a
6
here some time was interviewed ": jj> " two **> ljj* palang-i siydh ham dida shud (Shah's Diary) ' black panthers were seen by us. 6 transitive Infinitive is often used for the passive: e>lij ^ &+& (3) The
^xb du
'
tyoj*
ci>;U|
them
(m.c.)
all
hama-rd bi-kushtan ishdrat farmud (Sa'dl) "he (the king) ordered to be killed"; ^AJ>J ^.^LiXj fy JoU shdyad turd bi-kushtan bidihad
over to be killed."
is
(4)
also
f
sibility
*j
t5+^
*^'^ o-^j
(^f^
^|
in kitdb-i-'st
an
cannot be thrown by hand y jxx> &^\^ in miz az jd-yi khud bar ddshta mi-shavad (m.c.) "this table can be moved, 1 uftdd chird ki bi^-bd'is-i it is not very heavy"; fa du si ruz dnjd tavaqquf
that
it
;
"
^^
"
:
this is a
^ ^U
:
book so heavy,
Ab
bi-sar raft
" the water boiled over " agar it Inja bi-yayad " if he comes here I'll bi-sar davldan) go to him
on
my
a
3
head (from
delight) instead of
on
my
feet
^^.j^j"** (^
Jt
eJ^
<j^f
\\
bi-sar
amadan &**$ j> In modern colloquial u ra zadand ^J>j 0->' " l involuntarily Bl-ikhtiyar ; ^t ^^ means
;
" to be finished."
"
;
bar
amadan
up
"
not coming
B-^
is
voice.
&
6
1
Or tshara
;i^f.
(JiA>J
and
az ba'is
C^^bjt would be
substituted.
287
to stay there
rd jumbdnldan
na-iawariistam chi
as
^vo j}>jJU,j
"
less
^A~J|^I>
yj.xwUi*. ]^>T
>.xiJsle jt jx*j
(Afghan
coll.)
to
move
it
how much
the
could
it
be
moved
to the sea!";
rasdnam-ash jUJU; L;^J &&\ the (or bi-rasdnam, fiU/j without ash] is known ***&*> here in m.c. as not be used the would agent passive ji^sti
:
^^ ^
lo
tj taqdir jangida nami-shavad (Afghan) "it's impossible to fight t5*^ " in m.c. Fate ^>&^ &? ^+> o.su lj against dida khivdhad shud &\ jf *> (5) The modern colloquial phrase ba d az an
bd
ijAxx)
B.^
or)
&
.>A|^L
jj>j,i,
or
nii-shavad
jjjo^
also be
a Persian adjective with a Passive sense, combined with the verbs am ft, hastam p*>~& etc. and shudan eP*, budan ^^, or gashtan ^y^. Examples marsul-am (or marsul hastam), (in writing)*' I am sent" ( ^LA j^o_yc)
:
f^*oyo
2 J>^A5 maqtul shud (m.c.) "he was killed "; * ;t^^ khabar-ddr shud " " he was " he was 8 ty ^^3 zakhmi bud (Afghan) (m.c.) apprised, warned
<x
wounded";
<^j
jbUf jj^.
a^ Aama
chiz
dmdda bud
(m.c,)
<x
prepared after our coming "]. (/) The passive can also be expressed by using the third person plural " of the transitive verb, This construction they do such and such a thing." is both classical and modern the From following examples colloquial.
it will
'^
v_ftcLa/o
*' zyoy be seen that this construction corresponds to a real passive *o^& a&l&iA' ^ ^f ff*"^ farmud ki marsum-i fuldnrd chanddn-ki
:
"he
may (here it was the king *$ A.jl& JJ)T ^i^-f^* c^r**? ** h &^*J* increased the allowance) A ^*J dust-irdki bi-'umr-i fard chang 5 drand na-shdyad ki bi-yak-dam *>!3^(*d biydzdrand (Sa'dl) "a friend whom it has taken a lifetime to make
So-and-so, whatever
it
himself
who
should 6 not be
1
made
offended
in
a single instant";
tiU.
(here there
is
only
fata
^jj
fjJ
^L^^SJ.
" he had a wound."
bashad
Zakhmi shud
4
o^t^
^J
Hast
signifies
it
knew
"whatever
5
may
be."
<-ia*t^?
is
Fara chang
to be considered
vs
one word.
verbs, and in
^
many
cases
is
tzqsir-l or
Note this use of shayad A|i&. Before yak-dam j*^ some such word is understood.
^3\*J or
bi-
288
one friend and presumably one person who has made him a
tf
*
&$
|j
&jj>
an ra
created deaf
is
to
how can he
and he who
forcibly
it
drawn
how can he
way
understood, as subject to dfrida and <M 8-vy'f the Deity in Persian is singular and addressed in the singular; to use the respectful plural to the Deity is contrary to the idiom of the language 8 the verb is therefore a passive the author has presumably avoided the active
;
:
"
"God"
created deficient in
."
of,
the
Almighty. This form of the passive is especially common in modern colloquial. the answer might be burda and where is the horse ? To the question " this answer would " it has been taken away signify that one of the **jl
' c
' '
grooms or servants the precise individual unknown to the speaker taken it if sure of the subject, the name would be mentioned.
:
had
Remark.
(m.c.)
Jtofj>
present was given to him" in'am-i bi-vay ddda shud isf* ty" **!, or better in'am-i bi-u dadand jb ^Uif (m.c.).
1
"A
^b
In a few instances, the passive can both in classical and in modern colloquial be formed by amadan &**>'] instead of by shudan c>^, as: in shakhs dar zumra-yi fuzalas. shumurda mi-ayad (m.c.) x^-cj ^ i^a.sJt
(g)
*iT
c*"
&*j**
^jf
*^
"this
(class.)
man
"it
is
ayad
*fi
\
^c ij&
\-*
is
seen"
in qdli pasandida
^ dmad ^JU ^
;
dida mi-
j^*
(class.),
and
giriftar
amadan
'*
^^ $&
as well as "heavy."
impossible for him to hear, as it is decreed he is not to hear. 3 The use of the plural might lay the speaker open to the imputation of being a " mushrik or "polytheist (one who imputes 'partnership' to the Deity). It may be
is
% i.e.,
that Sa'di being a Muslim and an Arabic scholar has adopted the Arabic idiom here and elsewhere; the plural is used in the Qur'an when Allah himself speaks.
*
is
is
'
the subject. Though the Persians ^attribute misfortune to the revolution of the heavens the Fates could thereor to the sky, no Muslim would attribute good to any but Allah
:
fore hardly
CHAPTER
89.
(a)
X.
There are few adverbs properly so called their place is filled by adjectives or participles, or by substantives with and without a preposition, or
by pronouns, or by phrases,
is
etc.
Many
There
tion" or
its sense.
no regular term for adverb it is styled Jjo*3 tamyiz " specifica"the particle of negation" or Jj " vessel," according to
:
LJJ& pu\
is
tJ^ is a particle used as an adverb ism-i zarf Harf-i zarf a noun that can be used as an adverb zarf-i mubham OyJs
:
:
^&
f^
"dubious adverb"
is
an adverb
(or
noun,
etc.)
a limit of time or space, as f&a> "time," u5**j *' " as ft is opposed to j>j*^> J>j& "limited adverb (noun, etc.)
^ "day,"
s
*>t^
"house "
zarf-i
makdn
is
ism-i zarf
f
c^Jtf
(m.c.)
e/
*x>U. (in
Turkish Bath):
pj^,
(6)
jtUan
Examples:
Adjectives
:
(2)
AJ/.A/C
well"
&
i
MA^
vr^^
J,a*
^b* vyk $
(m.c.)
"he
speaks
Persian
j><^. (Sa'di)
"a
certain one
had
fallen into
he acts wisely ": " I used to (Afghan) say (my prayers) in a perfunctory
ailUL:
(in
m.c. bi-tawr-i
tr^
umuml
-^ ^ v^
*i ^t^j
er*'>
<
X5
4p*-
i^*A
" See
^
!
AT,
if^,
^y
:
^x>
the
!
Arise
Away
with gloom
for us,
many a dawn
will
'
'
break
Looking
is
and we not here to see (0. K. Whin. Trans. Rub. an adverb meaning " oft."
&>f
295.)
Remark.
Adjectives ending in
:
or
;tj.
vide
43 (aa),
may
be considered
Aibtlxj
in a restless
x^^,
"without concealment";^ AJt^li-a) " in (2) Participles :*\*>o ^ly^t Uio xAiUj^ f^o
^^
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
"he
is
to treat
(m.c.)
s^re>lja
"
suddenly
"
:
obliged A^L-*x*
<Wf
^^
"he came
running
290
all
the
way"
"by
A>1^
\)
psfy
(m.c.)
"
:
"they laughed
(3)
^ *J^
"by
my
other business at
home":
ik>y
*>V
(m.c.)
"a
(Sa'di)
"
always."
:
Substantives without Prepositions (with or without post-positions) ' aJU ij/jUj because I once was weary in the J&j *&f W>A~J (Sa'di)
wilderness"
m.c.)
'
or
"
by name
"
t;
v^
jf
:
(class,
and
times
"
"by night":
:
I/-**
chance,"
in m.c. usually
UA
^"oft-
cs-^y
Sometimes a plural substantive gives the sense of an adverb " he made of quantity or time, as: t?**** 1A <V 3 *** A;& (m.c.) many presents and many vows (or often took vows)."
Remark.
I
(4)
^*f?<#
(m.c.)
"needless,
without
cause": Uai|
"here"
L>
o^g
(m.c.)
doubt":
o^Jo
^A^J
8
or
j,jf^
(m.c.)
t^^o3^
'
^-uJs j
Jli* ^j
o^f
and a physician never gives medicine except to the sick"; f*s f& "each In m.c. the prepositions are frequently omitted, thus f J<vT OA.JJ moment.'
:
4 '
we came comfortably."
understood.
(5)
Before jKy^T
Ar. y<$l
^f
is
La-
<UA
and m.c.) "everywhere": vsJ^ a^A (class, and m.c.) and a+& * in a manner": "well, coll.) (Afghan (vulg.) "always"; good " on a^ s *d es " this side of the o^fc jlta., or o^t ^rt* -ir^er!t (m.c.)
(class,
y^y
' '
^ v^
^*J
^j
'
' '
city
;*
eAy J
in broad
day
"
^ftj
o>
"
biT
:
'
where ?"
my
"
;
life"
(m.c.)
"always."
Phrases
:
(6)
uf jt
"
o^
O,UM^J JU5
l^'
make a
**ijj
movement and approach a little nearer " -^j<i>J lye gidjf jdjUUd c^'j^^* v^^ (m.c.) "with my turban round my neck they carried
fresh
:
J^ ^y^Ji
(Vazlr-i LanJcuran)
"the
me
' ' ;
^;^
=u (Sa'di)
' '
of
In m.c.
JNTam
j*U
[^
U^
is
"byname"
apposition, as:
j.U
^ije (jciui
"a
person, his
name
(anme) Aziz"
often use daru for gunpowder, and Indians for spirits or wine. In Arabic and m.c. farh In qall khub farh-l 'st Ow-oja^b vyL ^JU ^} ^^k, " this (m.c.) carpet is of good design." " 5 Ku where is he ? " (poet, and m.c.) where, whither ? : kush (J^ vulg.
3
The Afghans
291
"
necessity
;
^Uo;^
'
^t;^
"
in spite of his
youth"
together, with, both, one another, mutual, all, whether, either; also, likewise, in the same manner" Biyd tabi-ham (or bdhami
p*>
:
p?jj*
"
(^^.
:
or)
go together
^^^^T
:
ptf
^ bi-ham
I*
U?
(m.c.)
" let us let us all go," or " commixture" darham barham dmikhtagi
''come,
:
= tu-yi ham rikhta *xu> mixed" f*j*- f*J* "topsy-turvy, p* ham p*> c&o " alike " sar-i ham p&>^~ "contiguous, joining " ham p* j* <-^Xj "one behind the other, continuously." " " b " it *$ Verbs: be
(
<jry
:
misl-i
pusht-i sar-i
(7)
(8)
that, perhaps may perhaps." Arabic phrases, and Arabic nouns in the accusative: ^JUt* $ (m.c.)
:
^U
" at least
" ever
to
(lit.
*=
there
is
no remedy) "
eUsJ(
t<^>
(m.c.)
^U
"
orders": ^Jb
khabar
(m.c.)
bi-l-marra
=r
l*lw or
04
;
as long as
life lasts,
for
/^Jt ^*
UIJ
),
"agreeably
az in
Tear
man
am
l^x
completely
(the conj. fa
ignorant of
this
bi
matter
fern.
'):
O"
j ^/o "circumstantially":
' '
:
+ the prep,
"
+
)
"that
^
to say,
namely
(lit.
it
means, intends"):
(m.c.)
)|l^ )
<^AXJ
U<"
fittingly
(lit.
like that
which
is
3IU>
hala (for
same
a
),
signification as 5)1^
is
and
an Arabic accusative
but
In
^9 Such adverbs as
^*j
pronoun
*JU?J!
is
&>*&]
^,
An
of
of^/oL
as:
Or
The Afghans
"suddenly
still
"
cj^lt
J&\)
for
"everyday," but
in (m.c.)
now "
1
a preposition, as
"
c^f
^ "
till
"
:
Jlla-j!
az hala (m.c.)
"
:
In
Persian _^?TX) j
)\s
'
Jcaj
^J*
y)\* *? ** L^ )* ** LS^ C5** &&5 (*** (&< " Thou Look not,' I might as well essay say'st, To slant my goblet, and not spill my wine."
(O.
is
J&
not in
for instance,
^**
js
an always mavl
but
SH-**
always hala.
292
ijj&fj;* ill*
jf
fi<H^
XXVIII) "but we
Adverbs
of negation
and
AxxxSo^
"
]
or ^/*13
o^
as AJ
"not,"
(1)
^ o^.
*i
jfjA
"never."
all, in no wise." " at no time."
S
**
A>
c$*^
gs-A*
AJ
ojj ^AA
or
AJ, or^jja.,
^i,
5
AJ
*i
nor"
(conj.).
Ai
*j
e
lalkx)
not at all."
A^J
Aj
ai
^A by no means." whatever" (pron.). ^>j^. ^A "nothing " none whatever " (pron.). f\$ gA
"
AJ
^^
t^b
_x&
"no person"
(pron.).
AJ
^XA
"on no
-\
account."
AJ
AJ
&*\
J^tjf
>
"not
at
all,
in
no shape."
e^f c^b^
K-^"more
l
than this."
y ^,
^
;V^3> or or
*r
>)
UU
^3 "never," wrfe Interjections of Warning. " not " and 121 (6). "less," vide ff
"God
forbid, never."
>
(m.c.)
"
?
>
went nowhere.
2
3
An
" ever." Hargiz jrj* with an affirmative verb adverb of time, but inserted here for convenience of reference.
1
iJLx
*^ or) Jfc>
)
it
(_^^
f/o
L^xi
aJ
(or balki)
^ no joys below." (O. K. Whin. Rub. 60.) hopes have Conjunction, but inserted here for convenience of reference.
and m.c. nay nay (m.c.) " no, no." e~^j iAx>"f AJ j Uia
^^
No
I above,
6 7
Indef Pron.
.
Hasha zadan
&
\~^
(m.c.)
"to deny."
293
(m.c.)
ug+*
^Alf
*M
(class.)
*J
e>3
<M<i/
man
woman,
auf (m.c.)
"
U3 (Afghan)
"I
all
night (tamam
8
shab)."
uJt&j
iito a t5 r
former
"
?
Sa'di)
"how
t-vl
can
ar
^jlaiAj-c
ex*,|
^i *^[;j
etc. is
jof
(m.c.)
"this
man
is
you
'Scarcely,'
expressed by a negative:
'
JSaJl^iu
'
j^ Jj^
(or
when
A*f
er&Sb)
^^j
)
^Usf
jl
amad
(m.c.
" he had
barely (not yet) left the room when the roof fell." jt^j (e) Interrogation often expresses negation
:
*&
;
(t
(Sa'di)
how can
"
the sleeping
I said,
does any one else know ? (nothing) " &*. Jl&j ^pJUo Jla. " then tell ty ^*| (Afghan) me, what hope was there of life ?
:
awake the sleeping ? <^b <*> " how can I go when my fee"t are unable to move "he knows, and he alone; what ^l-ijf (Afghan)
5
'*
"
^
' '
j\
.*$
(j^J
(/)
(1)
the educated
pardon of often expressed by the (2) In m.c., emphatic denial or contempt is " he does not reach his dust even " 8 **~j following phrases u*^ (m.c.)
:
Emphatic denial "never!" is in speaking and writing amongst " I ask " " we take 6 al/l, or Alf|yuL*,f refuge with God God." 7
:
UT
^^
1
l^i
^t
(m.c.)
9
:
In m.c., tamam-i
shab
-r
wi*h
za/a^
or
<^^
class,
f*\j=**.
Kay f^
both in
and m.c.
" when
how
"
?
*
6
^f ^(^
it
"we
the accused."
Qur'an.
G '
7
**.'*'
aJ|
*
vyf ^
is
**' '
^S 9
&- C
'
aJJt
.AiLcf.
The idea
i.e.
man galloping
after a
wild asa.
much
as this.
294
(m.c.)
he
:
"
:
^f3J
p*\z ^fi*
jof J^'a
(m.c.)
)* o^jt^J
:
(m.c.)
" I (m.c.)
elon't
count him a
human being,"
l
aql ast
cU>(^ af (m.c.) (ditto) o*,! Ja* j( Jl^xx (m.c.) "impossible! " gum ash bun (m.c.)
fcif
:
or ah\ dakhil-i
adaml
muhalaz
%./
JU
"hang him!"; also "I don't believe he can do it, or send him off": ox*f ^U^f az zamin ta asman ast (m.c.) " all the difference (jj/oj jf j^j yar
g-
in the
world."
(1)
(g)
Na
AJ
for
"no"
is
or
"no."
'better to
^
;
however,
as
or j*
of affirmation or negation is ^i^^UJuLi
etc., is preferred.
(2)
polite m.c.
form
"
it
rests
with you."
(3)
An
to reply,"
(h)
evasive reply that may mean "yes," or "no," or "I prefer not " " what *^ petition shall I make, what shall I say ? p*f Note the phrase: uy** (m.c.) "I had such a
is
u^
of
^^d^f\^^j^^.
(
il
lot of trouble."
(i)
Adverbs
affirmation
or
and
of assurance
an
^
1?
(m.c.)
We or ball
am
'II
yes.
)
^
r^
AuJf albattat"*).
(m.c.) I
very sure.
^
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
j>
jj
without doubt.
(class.)
(m.c.)
If
room
*
3
first,
^ o~i|
dac
J^'
him
bi-ravam.
Also
csjj^
3
(^
"
Khayr j ^"
for
"no"
'
is
not
classical,
nor
is it
or
well."
certainly
As
albatta
A^l "
this
very
"
:
is
also called
^
{ja^Aso O;**. In Teheran are ^$j( or ari L)f. Formerly labbe was used for "yes." into albat. shortened further the Afghans By
Vulg. bala shakk.
295
(class.)
> certainly.
or
Ixxflj
(m.c.)
J
;
^
J,A.
also
why
ceremony,
without
reserve,
without
joking.
9 (m.c.) in tenth, really.
la-bud
il
of necessitv.
Id-jar
am
(class.)
Uu
m.c.)
(class.)
>
certainly, sureiy.
(m.c.)
'
Idbbayk
,
(class.)
*>.
J^here
am
for you,
what
are your
commands ?
Remark
be omitted.
(2)
I.Mana UU
are
is
is
always followed by
*T,
^ can
An,
ball.
is, with regard to future events, frequently used by Muslims for "yes." No Muslim asked, if it " or is going to rain, will reply "yes "no," as this would be deciding for the
(3) As a strong affirmative, the phrase v^ ^ *-* admixture of doubt and uncertainty," is used in writing. (< if God pleases," (4) The phrase *U| *UJ|, or *JJf *U ^
^^
<jr?
Almighty. to-morrow
8
' '
The answer
is
frequently
^ ^ made
\^> *AJf *lJf (m.c.) "D.V. I will come by a Persian when he has not the slightest
"I'm not lying to you"; ^i-^J^ &^S " I'm not yarning' 4 ** (&*> " I'm not talking rot " ** &* " I'm not
1 ;
;
^ ^ ^^
by
(*j^*rU>^
is
& p~3
U^ J^Ux j~*
father's
";
"by my
La-budda
*
3
there is no escape." *$ "^(class.) also means " at the same time that." The Prophet was once asked how many legs his horse had.
,
Ar.
'
Hamana
ki
He dismounted,
counted, and said four.' Had he stated number and so convicted him of error.
*
l.J
four
'
Bast ml-guyi ya ghadr (m.c.} )&c i^'j^ " = shukhi mi-kunl (cheating) ? ya jiddl ml-guyl?
5
^***s
(^j* C5^
^t* t^^j>/J
Arwah ^b;| ,
"
pi.
:
f
o<
ruh
-^j).
^)^
^Lyf
" for
goodness sake, go
arwah
j^
296
soul"
:
^j*****^*?
of
"
"by
is
the
martyrdom
true
may'st thou die (i.e. don't be alarmed)" ATj*AJ^e^ ''may I see your beard bloody (i.e. your throat cut)
:
"
& f-3
(k).
<jr^*jy
"
(**li^
^^
Husayn J* J^RJ "by the rights of 'Ail": life of my children I swear this the by
1
:
1
:
if
vide also
93
(j)
Adverbs
of Interrogation
j*l^Ai^t <J>=*.
(1)
|^. (m.c.) |
(m.c.)
l
^why?
1
vide (4).
(m.c.)
anJ
VJ
.
(m.C.)
(m.c.)
Uor what
I
reason,
why
jf
fj
(m.c.) J
(vulg.)
why ?
what manner
;
(m.c.) in
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
&
kay
&.
'
(m.c.) at
what hour?
a^ r gr
what quantity
?
:
(m.c.)
how many
(m.c.
and old
vide (2).
(3).
(m.c.)
(class.)
what direction
:
how?
vide
:
(5).
:
(m.c.) (m.c.)
vide (8).
^J
mean
:
w'de (7).
rnc^e (6).
For Shi
'as.
Sunn is say, Chahar Yar qasam " by the Four Friends (Abu Bakr,
^/
c^*} p'-^'-
'
O;^-.
\-^& " whither
^4z Jeuja
'
'
^^ j\
"whence?":
bi-kuja
?":
ta
kuja UR*' ^
"how
long
GYifTtt
:
etc.
"
it is
297
" where
is
Ku
is
m.c.
and
Rush (Jk
he
''
?
vulgar m.c.
Examples
'
The dove
Those
hill,
'
whom
whither, whither
'
'{
~A
I
ti
of
Before
him
And
moan, 'Alas poor king Thy drums are hushed, thy 'larums have rung
his
(0.
thus he
made
truce.'
"
K. Whin.}
'*
to
Heaven
kings the forehead on his threshold drew I saw the solitary ringdove there, And 'coo, coo, coo,' she cried, and coo, coo, coo.' "'
'
And
Kuis sometimes an
were morning!"
(3)
.
interjection, as:
(m.c.)
= "oh
I wish it
(m.c.)
U^
Note the following idiomatic meanings of (sS: ii>tjJ^ AS J>j ^,j*> e;^ " ^ e struck him such a blow as or of^tv or ^Ju;
,
no athlete
(or Hercules)
^"~*S- ol>^J *$
chist
(s>S
:
J^+i *Jtj^
wine?
(m.c.)
the two are irreconcilable) " Iso U^& "you can't possibly do such deeds"
;
:
in Afghan colloquial '^j* chunan zarbat ba-u hawala namud ki pahlawdn ^i (m.c.) "there is no comparison between the two": 0,0,3 jLk "where is piety, where the intoxication of
*
could have
done";
c^
^\j
^^y
^
"
?
y tu va in kdrha kujd
^;>J bi-dard-i
kujd
is
this
thing?": himdqat
you display
;
td
much more
folly will
Up/,
^a
An example
'
o**^^
' '
tajnls.
a dove
' '
and ku, ku
whither, whither
The
lines
2 3
caravans.
1
Kits
is
a large camel-bell and perhaps the noise of departing and arriving a large and very noisy drum. In Persia drums are beaten from about
This is an 5 minutes before and up to sunset (<**j*;'*> &^^- X)^ naqqarakhana mi-zanand). ancient custom, and, as formerly drums were also beaten at sunrise, the custom may
have
298
possible?":
va Khalifa dar Baghdad * kujd (prov.) (said by a deceived person to one that has gone back on his 1 word). " from which of the In m.c. the is also UUxT as AiJT
j
**l
\*tf
^ man
:
plural
used,
?
do you come
"
:
<^x>
jt
^j
(*(?&.?
U (m.c.) "
what places
shall
we
visit
' '
I. kujdt ^Utf is an adjective '-of what place" " of what " (m.c. only) place are you a native ? Remark II. Kuja l^ is used in indirect as well as in direct questions.
;
Remark
(4)
Chird
\j*.
possibly
It
it is elliptical
also
means "certainly,
"
of
course":
' '
'is
also
an expression
of astonishment,
up to?"
(5)
Chun
&&
vide
note
' '
4,
p. 296)
is
sometimes
moned me ? "
Bi-chun u chigun u^^. ^ cj># is an epithet of the Deity. Bi-chun u chird \j*. j &>*. ("without why or wherefore")
signifies
"implicitly."
(6)
Chi bdshad ki
<*'
<xU A*
not?
"
(class.)
if,
why
what
Intro. Chap. I, St. 3) ., "why not [the cat says] perform due to courtesy and fraternity and this time, when thou goest, take me with thee ? " East. Tr.
is
,
is
Ar.
*? sAb, it may be that," is also used vide (k.) " " what does it ** Ya'm chi do you mean ? what (7) ^MU (m.c.) signify, common m.c. expression. Ya'ni ^iw is the 3rd pers. sing. masc. of the "it means" Aor. The 1st pers. a'ani ^\ "I mean" as well as ^x
:
Bdshadki
" that
is
to say, viz."
: '
'
Magar
<
is
you mad, perhaps you're mad U &f \jUJ if aya na-bayad ki shumd In a sentence such as with the Indicative would be commoner in m.c. vide 73 (b).
&\jij*
are
1,
(9)
\
Chi * and
%abf
obja
^Jl*^
}t
whether this young man may not be one of the aya lf could be substituted for chi &*., and also *U> could be yd na JL> could be added to the end of the query;
dAU
(Sa'dl)
friends,
substituted for
But man
Baghdad
*\**} }*
*^^ ^
IsvLt
^^
means
'
I can
do
what
a
I like, there is
Manual,
p. 24.
299
Short phrases in
common
'
^sjW
l
u bi-mlri
to
which the reply is fj+> &* ^. c?^ ^ /*>* earnest?" (k) Adverbs of doubt ( && j ->* OJA. )
:
or C5e-
i cs*-*'
''joking or in
(1)
i*jl
2
(m.c.) perhaps,
;
wde
(3).
A&J moreover in m.c. perhaps, vide IAT *i|y (m.c.) possibly. 1 *^ >s (class.) perad venture.
(3).
^
Ijf
(m.c.) probably, as
if,
(4).
whether?
(interr.), vide
(1).
:
JL perhaps?
!
(intetr.); also
"but"
vide
(j) (8).
(class.)
singular masc.
Aor.;
lit.
"it
is
possible ").
/
&+*
#
U)l
L&*O
(m.c.)
a.
if
vide (7).
:
c<
o^^
^^
*c^^fj^
his
A^L
%J *4
(*jLt>o
^j j*
UJi
(m.c.)
"when
he placed
wall
5
"
^ULitkx^jjjjj
l>
ab
*^^ ^*J^X
no
*^
t^f
>
j,ijj
my
it
butes
fault
to
you
nay rather
that something unpleasant should happen to your slave ^^J *-c-L? (m.c.) "perhaps he may come." Though balki *L is enhansive and not exceptive yet in such a sentence as
,
"
"I
will
first
Persian as in English,
when
stage but at the second," &&J, etc., are used in *Jb would be obligatory in Urdu vide Phillott's
:
(e).
Words
signifying
"
perhaps
" are
called
'
adverbs of possibility
and doubt.'
2
For
Axlaxi
chi-ast ?
O*JA. +&*$
&Jb*> jj*>\
" what
is
"
Note 3rd
pers.
after
8^
and
.
In
ra.c.
300
(3)
is
doubtful past tense: <j^ cA^^y3 AjlA^I (class.) "if perchance the men of the boat should come. Shayad from t:>x.jl "also meaning "to be
"
fitting
jya
*jl.
<j*i
ty
;(
i^f (m.c.)
it is
o^jo
as
l*i &~jl
^tf ^jt
(m.c.):
tell
"
a lie."
though"
'
^>*t
^T
(m.c.)
Muhammad is
like
an acquaint';
ance of yours
"
o*t
jt
(m.c.)
one dead."
"
speaking" from
^^
b^f (m.c.)
(5)
he will
t\jUj
**
I hardly think
*>(*> c^f "how IT x;f (6) Gdh ast o-t j\ *;&*<> *J>% U^ (m.c.) can you say he won't come ? perhaps he may." * v^ ?4 ** *}^* *% (m.c.) ? S c5Jt^l e; (7) Chi mi-shavad ki C5i;^ " " what would happen if, why should you not have compassion on me ?
: :
1
&
l:
(I)
Adverbs
*&j
of
comparison
^
(1)
&j
vide (2)
I
i-more.
oo,
vide^S)
*<,,
or
c^f
much more
j
(stronger than bisydr)
:
^'AJ
'
vide (4).
or
less
:
vide, (5).
at least.
) > small.
least.
^^
y*
sums
of
money, weights,
etc.),
same weight.
A>
neither
more nor
less.
Imam
2
title of
made
pilgrimage to the
tomb
of
For
ziy ad-tar
j*Wj
(not used).
301
only, vide
(8).
|>as, like,
equally.
<JJU=
alike.
like.
Remark.
&}<*
and the
suffixes
are called
"particles of resem-
blance."
In ^of ^U^^xi e^a. fl~), Rustam is called *A^O, and sA?r *> chun, the Aj^x^Jo^, comes between the two. In poetry, however,
is
AJ,^O;
and
this order
neglected
&
vlA
As
^A
:
v!A (Jxj*
^^ v^ ^ ^ ^ e^
But the
positive is
second misra').
ziyac? ab) is
(2)
stated in
46
(i)
(4)
a positive.
sometimes used for the comparative, as **> aljj <^j*3 (m.c.) <s give me a little more." " Ziydda tobj is a comparative more," but is construed with the word following it, to which it is generally joined by the prepositions J| ory,
as:
l
<ya-3>
**^)
JS*JQ
o^
:
^f
jjiLjj
(m.c.)
"don't
compounds, as
"
alj, subs.,
' '
J&M
&j*
*ijX>f
the greater part of which was of glass." or an adverb, according to the reading.
(4)
(5)
"
Here
bish-tar
% JS&# A? may be
(class.)
a noun,
Bisyar-tar
y ^U-j
is
not
-
much
,
used.
are often used in a nega-
Kam
pf,
:
kam-tary
cu*o
tive sense, as
**
zi
c:
^yo
^ &J
In m.c.
AJ
*&
Not
302
(Sa'di)
is
effort, the
interfere
much"; ^jyU-'
^)^
remedy "don't
^ tf
'
AJ
ctf
^laa b
J>$
j^Jja
t-^lJ
<jr;|*i
etf^ (Sa'dl)
Since you have not sharp- tearing claws Better not engage in strife with wild beasts
l>;^
' '
:
(&& j
(Sa'di)
"
is
he that
Vide also
71
(?).
Ham
etc.,
and mz
"also,"
Ham
when
it
clause, whereas mz does: = man riiz ml-guyam: y p& p&Z (^ /** " both he and I " here ham could not be " o^" c^O^ also he said this
;
Ham
clause:
p*>
is
also
as
that very
[>y ^.A ^| l^a. ^xJ (^a'c?*) "his leavings are fit for " in that himself and none other" I?ULJ| ^if f* p& "in this very place" " " at this A o^j e^O^^* (m.c.) very place very time." For cA* and i^*
:
:
:
week"
:
^U
jju^f
(iSa^?)
"they say
vide (8).
F^e
:
90
' '
(a) (6).
means
'
'
fellow," as
(.s^c**
A or
(*
jt"
"
J~j f* Note the following compounds " " one on tne to P ^ anofcner t+ (3)
f*
bed-fellow, wife."
' c
:
"
apart
:
"
p*>
I?
' '
p*> jt
together
A t?-J
"
an d sometimes colloquially
;
contiguous
(of lands)
:
level
"
:
p*>j**
^
:
oJ>> p*)*
o^. ^jjf
(m.c.)
&j*o pttj \^
me": o*|
" he had only \jj$ c^U* "this mere son": cu*t o^lsf v t>^ ^ j^^ e^** t;^ (m.c.) that one eating and sleeping is enough for us, we want nothing else." " Hamin ki &&$+& means " as soon as oo>; y f^T
o^b
(m) Adverbs
i
of place
(1)
Isujf
^
,
( u^ o^
.j|
(m.c.)
..uf
(m.c.)
(m.c.) (m.c.)
way.
^1
e^l
Any
Inja
of the simple
3'
" whence."
Ham
^ CJ** A
(emphatic), vide
303
that way.
\within.
^without. J
la.
U.
*j
V ^
A+A everywhere.
somewhere.
^AA
U.
nowhere.
^'IA.
*J
,>>>
near.
far.
behind.
or o**t; c^o^
-*a-
all
the way.
opposite.
*Jo
Jt
jJs jt
jf
here
now
vide
(5).
In m.c., andarun &))&>\. is a subs. the harem" and pi., as a subs., for " the inside, the stomach." 2 Nuzd nizd " near " is not used as an adverb
1
'
it
in the sing.
&y
Plsh-i
man
only as a preposition.
*
^
Barabar
^jf^j
also
For AT.
<aqib f
of time. ^jko of place, but pish az man j\ jjSuj means continuously, Indian and Afghan. and vulg. in Persian 'aqqib.
304
^P
one Another
vide also
(1}
(7).
up
vide (6).
:
vide (3).
"
S*)
J
below, down.
head foremost
upside
down
steep
>wherever.
here
it is.
^1 here
,
it is.
somewhere
else.
tu or
fit?/
inside.
apart, aside.
higgledy piggledy.
upside down.
different, changed.
headlong.
4
oo ._^3
- ilb
o^-i
above
,,
Remark.
(2)
Idar^\
"
here, behold,"
is
obsolete.
cuftf
'
jj
Before a vowel
(3)
^y
is
sometimes used
(class,
and
jPam ty
is
\j*
*j& (^^
(m.c.)
'
went up the
hillside
"
:
imruz u bi-man sara-bala kard (slang) ** he overcharged me ": ^Jj/o J/U \^ ^(^fjS*. j\ u harf-ha-yi sara bala ml-zanad (slang) = " he's opening his mouth very wide (slang)." 2 U zlr dast-i man nishasta ast o*^ J V ^t ne has taken a seat cu-*s| AJLJli
'
'
^^o
below me":
s
zir-dast
c^o
.j^,
adj.,
opposed to zabar-dast
-
as f.i
^x>
305
j-'
*5
(Mem.
of Jahangfr)
came
vr*j^
in
\j
armed bodies and surrounded the entrance to the Sultan's tent" * " the flood came and AJUk _>! (m.c.) tj swamped the house.' ^Ui tx/cf
_j
(4)
Du barabar jlj* j*
Inak
kishti
j*\j*
**, etc.,
(5)
mi-ayad
<xrf
^ ^&>
"here
is
the boat
**>1 *s*&*y
u&uf
(m.c.)
mak
in speaking.
Farazytj* has
(the king) sat
many meanings
:
in classical Persian.
eJ**f jl/
'*
It is
common
in
on the throne " jfy ) <-*&> (7) Wara-yi in matlab-i digar daram f)\& j&* "besides this, beyond this, I have another object."
**
^-^
e^l
i^
(m.c.)
Oh
(Sa'cR)
(ri)
Adverbs of Quantity
much
vide (2).
(m.c.)
little.
much, greatly:
vide (2).
[abundant, abundantly.
S
,
6
j
sufficient, sufficiently.
enough
-)
^
a
jt
very much
lmde(3).
)
5>J^
(class,
(class,
(8) ].
(class.)
(m.c.)
(class.)
vide (9).
-i
as
much
as.
as
much
1
as possible.
20
A*.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
oUj (m.c.)
^lfJ
"\
(m.c.)
>
excessively
vide ().
^Jf
j
^l
ASW
(m.c.)
a
(m.c.)
little.
(m.c.) little
>
by
little.
(m.c.)
hair's difference, a very little. (m.c.) in amount the length of one finger-nail, a little.
a,
(m.c.) in armies.
^
f
one place
U+3
(m.c.)
^^
K
3>f
*
) ^altogether. (m.c.)J
them.
y-*
much
v*^
*
(m.c.)
^
(
tty> (m.c.)
Af
(2)
e)f<iAA.
*a*it>l
however much, in spite of: vide (8). (class, and mod.) Andak-% daUl-i bisyar buvad ty fy~* <^* t/^ (class, and m.c.): Ai| x OSto'cK) "it is related e,iLj3jl ^b;^ ^V^ iiste^.j
that he
made an
*J
JLo
^U-j^t
is
increase in their allowance, but a decrease in regard " a little JUa> <^W andaJc-i jamal bih az bisyari-yi mdl (Sa'di)
:
' '
beauty
better than
much wealth."
Vide p. 126
(5).
;
(mod.) has the same signification as bisyar fy-> but for Khayli 43 (c). a slight difference in the usage of the two as adjectives, vide
vide p. 123 (m) 'he was going very quickly": ^J -*!j o? o^^s dXl^j-jjf (class.) (class, and m.c.) "he was exceedingly clever."
(3)
^^
Bas
^, az bas^>*> y,
e
bas-i
^^
and basa
jt jt
<{
In speaking, **" u^3' i s commoner, as: I got weary from waiting such a long time.
Bas-i suJchan-i dushvar-i
J
j**A
*i-^
^i-J*
*^
^Hjf
very
(m.c.)
st
o^jl/wj
e^3fcu*
t5^? (m.c.)
"it
is
much
The
*'
of unity, as
bisyar-l az
mardum ml-guyand
."
ki
is
(m.c.)
infra.
many
Bisyarl
(^%~*
also a substantive,
'
vide
'
2 Bisyarl ^jkr*-? here might be either a substantive, or else an adjective with the c5 of unity. For the sake of balance it is here a substantive.
307
till
jsji^iu
"
:
^j
(Sa
di)
U ^U. y&
ftjf (m.c.)
bi-dard-i jd-yi ma na-khurd CI*A.^ y lj t^~j " I talked a long time with him, but it was
useless."
"Ah! And
wealth takes wings and leaves our hands all bare, death's rough hands delight our hearts to tear."
(0.
K. Whin. Rub.
<u~*ofJ^
xj|
102).
^jcliu&f l~j
Basd ashkhds
*wf
Tci
jj^>
tS
(m.c.).
In classical Persian,
of ;l>^
a singular noun is usually followed by place bisyar. and the other two by a plural. Instances of bas-i with a singular noun are few. These words are not quite out of use even in m.c. Bas-i mardum
Bas
^ ^
bas,
(tS^,
bas-i,
^^
"
l^ij
^-j (m.c.)
basd
bdshad
Tci
A^U Lo
(m.c.)
Basd
(4)
l-*J
in m.c. also
"
exceeduigly thirsty
j*;fd
:
l*A (m.c.), or
0*31/0 l^i u
for
(
maw
vi*jl^i
AxSJ cu-jUj is y* (m.c.) "I'm jL*A nihdyat mahabbat rd bd-shumd ddram ^ tjo^xwoool^ bi-nihdyat (or bi-nihdyat) bd shumd mahabbat ddram
or) vt-jl^ ^/o (m.c.)
c^jl^iJf *
fjz
tion
"I have an
*'
excessive affec-
you":
I
^xao.^
^i
c^j|*Jf
ejlii^l
J
<>.*
x
(m.c.)
"
:
"
pU
v^ol^j^p
^t U^ o^.^e ^t
cx
(5)
pletely," as:
v^V^ ^
signifies
"comto
^ (
c*^
or)
**^
"I
have nothing
means without exception: dJ^o-HB " they were all, without exception, drunk."
(6)
Kull an
jjJlsvxi
^tj^ ^\
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
i^svfi
j*
&^+A>
<^*#A*>
A^jjjJi
j&
my
(7)
tamdm
*
Qarib >-*y> t<^Lr ^)an Ifcj^*: Aft ib^j ^UXj ^^Jf^Uwi ashya* qarib babar bad shud (Afghan) the things were nearly all destroyed ' ' =
* '
an%
talaf
Chanddn
ki
cu*Uj ^J*a^5"
(Sa
di)
"a
thief
entered
&*>'f j& <^tt~*j^ vyto^xa. ^-JLfc the house of a certain God-fearing person; in
spite of
much
Or
ewll ^
|.
Also timam an
(9)
little
neglect";
(m.c.)
i**^
<f
^j|
y ^1,
^J
^ ^y
j
(
(Sa'cfy
o~oU> JU
:
(m.c.)
perhaps they will give up a portion of our property " " he (^a'di) pondered a little time on this " J^*ii o one must consider this a little." F^e 126.
p.
Lakht-i
(0)
^JiJ appears to be used of time only. Adverbs of Quality, Manner, etc. :-~
(1)
v^m.c.
..
r^b
m.c. )
>good, well.
(m.c.) in this
J^jf (m.c.)
(
(2).
mc
'
V- or
on
m
)
(
:
willingly.
wWe
(3).
t/^fm.c.)
A^ -i^
..
>by
'
force.
(class.))
,
or
f>/o
s^
(class.)
vide (14).
l^k (class.) )
[
nolens volens.
(m,c.)
(adj.; helplessly;
nolens volens.
^
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
->j
suddenly.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(class.) (class.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
purposely.
(m.c.)
>:Uj
mounted.
(m.c.)
on
foot.
-I
In the Punjab
Savar
jc&ub is
*'
au
adj. or adv.,
etc.
an adv. only.
*'
$y* 9
subs.,
a mounted
man":
subs,
and adv.,
cavalry,
on horse-back.*'
309
(4).
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
Lr- (m.c.)
[-secretly,
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.) openly.
(m.c.) inwardly, secretly,
\
(m.c.)
i
openly, clearly,
(m.c.-')
}
gratis, gratuitously,
(m.c.))
(comfortably,
)
(m.c.)
wWe
(6),
pure, only.
mc
-
(m.c.)
jl
vide
(I)
(7)
(m.c.) apart:
wWe
(8)
and
(I)
(7).
(I)
(7).
flurry,
^"
C5J>)3
(m.c.)
by deception,
etc.
(m.c.) falsely.
(m.c.)
i^j^AAi (m.c.)
"\
>
in detail.
jPoa^ bi-gu
j&
<jtt* (m.c.)
"
tell
me
without reserve."
2
->
In Mod. Pers. ashgar and ashgara \j&~\. So bewildered that one doesn't know one's hand from one's foot: pacha in
;&f
m..
is
For qalu-yi
Qul-mikh
milch.
nail,"
**
>
^ (^^
}'**&
^^
<*$ vulg.
"hang
(the
parda) on the
310
by
guess.
(m.c.) at (m.c.)
LS
an estimate.
ditto.
(m.c. only)
or A^JLLto
sum
up. in short.
;
as
disguised as
vide (10).
(m.c.) with
both hands.
;
T. (m.c.) slowly
silently.
aside.
\j
(m.c.) headlong.
v^ir-' (m.c.)
(m.c.) face
upwards, supine.
prone.
(m.c.) excessively
(m.c.)
ditto.
:
v*We (12).
(class.) as before.
?
in
a manner,
like.
Miydna &**,
towr-i ki
*&)&
^*u ^Uj
"
:
"
yfejf
*JU* (Firdawsi]
cUc you act moderately you will not be upset " " I do told not as did you? you x>^ (m.c.) why
if
f^
^Ja?
Uio
^ a%jJ=
will
(3)
Minnat mi-ddram
the
j-;lH
-**:
To
for
me?"
answer
might be:
^t^* J*f
.
(m.c.)
"I
with
pleasure."
" " another has spoilt your business, and you are angry with me ? (4) The Afghans say sar-i asp, sar-i pa, sar-i rd, etc., etc. dmadam . I came on horse-back,on foot by rail, etc. jjjij j*45-f Jj;yw . b^ y^i ^^ for
.
' c
&$$
OJLXJ
.^
cW
i^y
^,!y^ I;U^-
^
,
^s>t> (m.c.)
etc."
(5)
take"
t~*t
(6)
&&J 'Ayn j^* "essence; eye, etc." (followed by the izdfat tUo (m.c.) " what I am telling you, is the course to 0^1 m c " tne streets are cleanliness itself"
:
1^^.^^ )*j?
t5W-^
-)
V t^>
j^^c
OJA^y
(jasLX)
:
Mahz
for
your sake"
accuracy er*^ 'fJf (m.c.) " " "pure, unadulterated U^^Jjl^-u**-* (m.c,) merely Ui c^^^ u^ 5 (m.c.) " at the mere sight of you":
:
*'
is
itself."
rjjja.
(Shah's
Diary)
"
something
311
pure calumny.
"
of respect
"
;
a noun,
(jisxA: i s> as shown, also a preposition = ^ty. a preposition or an adverb when it follows, it (7) Faraham pttj is a collective particle ^/f ^x> he is collecting sticks" ^/f 0,^3 J"^
In m.c.,
it is
When
is
it
precedes
an adjective.
,\
collecting
what
will
(m.c.)
"what
^, ^ ^y ^ "
:
^j
(
mG
,
this."
(8)
*'*
(^
p* j (m.c.)
^vc ^-b.*
"
they separated."
*.'
*jb *
o*t
yji^e
is
^|jj ^xj U
absolutely proper,
:
(Sa'di).
^
(9)
]&*.
^kjt
t;
*P!<
jji
(^;l
c?w
(m.c.)
(7).
&>,*^^ i^jbj&ft ^Xtf j*jJ (Afghan) "they continued playIn m.c.. however, this would mean they were playing ing with each other." opposite to each other.'
*
(10) Bi-surat-i:
as, a dervish
"
:
d&ij)*
*s$?*> (Sa'di)
it
:
of,
disguised
Note the meanings of *Cx>j **;:> ^> o^lk ^./o A^J^^^ l^. j!y! I no do have "since done (m.c.) wrong, why you allege this against ^,-^j^c
j*l
^
N
me ? "
^J ^ob
A*.
^jf ^^j
t^ jt
do ?
*^^i>/*
'
>
(m.c.)
his
not
am
I to
"
brokenly
:
*>j^*>
o^
*i-^ $
(m.c.)
'he jerks in
his speech (as children do, accentuating every syllable)." J^b <-k) ooU (>Sfa^) "it will be the greatest kindness." (12) Ghayat-i:
azun ojjf "in that manner"; and aydun&j*i\ "in this manner" are really obsolete; and also "now," and Uun htmidun o^ tr^ "now; always; in this manner."
(13)
Andun
c>j^f
or
^^
s:
b j AiA-if
JrlL U
*^Uj jt.^
*J
For
five
months, now,
"
Now
mind
Abu Bakr
(14)
a candle and
lyi">
'Usman a lamp.'
"
I told
'
Khwah ma-khwah
oJ) stystx %\j ; jt (m.c.) ^Lc )) j " would go >t^ <-r* ^^ i^JX^ *> iu * ->* v^ cr^f " out of the ground of its own accord *>d^ MF*T ^prings '* I was taken there nolens volens."
;
1 :
^^
*^,
or khwahi na-jchipdhi
z|^
Lr* (m.c.)
312
(p)
(1)
Time
<J*>)
Time
present, etc.:
aknun
{m.c.)
Tcunun (m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
e*lP (m.c.)
(&)& (m.c.)
nowadays.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
*
(m.c.) to-day.
(m.c.) to-night.
*
jU~cf
^!*<lj (rare in
m.c.)
break of day.
,
ijfitA-*
tf
(class.)
(class.)
.u
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(class.)
(
|
\
true dawn.
c i ass
ear] y
in
tne
morning,
or
to-morrow
sun
rises.
(class,
sunrise.
(m.c.)
In Mod. Pers. pronounced and written hala vide note (4), p. 314.
;
For
*'
Now
\&i)'
or never
"
kunun ya hlch-gah
&
LJ
g*&
i*^i^
dar
In vaqt ya hargiz
3
<-z**j
ace.
.
Im
for
313
-xo (m.o.)
indication of light.
-)
folse
dawn.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
an
eye.
midday.
(m.c.) evening.
>*
half-a-day.
f*> (class.)
>T Jj|
.
midday.
^)
(m.c.)
>
is first rising.
^Tj-*- (m.c.)
j
(2)
by day.
Time past:
n.c.)
beforethis
(m.c.)
AJ
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.) quickly;
(class.)
,
previously.
a^o previously.
^
(m.c.)
or
^j*x
^anciently.
(class.)
(m.c.) formerly.
(m.c.) (m.c.)
^l
I
>
yesternight.
(m.c.)
,
or oij^ (class.)
Nim-shab v^>
**
*+*>
^ ^ ^j
"
:
(m.c.)
" when
had passed
"
:
&\-<&*)
AJO
'
used
1 cxJ>;
for half
a brick.
cr*
c^^
^;
in the
(m.c.)
6
" rise earlier AJjAA.^jy ^j ^sux^e (m.c.) " " did tell me not sooner ? why you " Dma ruz *-Vi3
jj>j
mornings
-H^*
(J+*J*
(obs.)
yesterday."
(m.c.),
v-*.^=
without an
izajat.
314
Vyj* (m.c.)
class -)
**4)h
and
(m.c.) the
(m.c.)
JU
j
(m.c.)
v
}-la,st
year.
(m.c.)
last.
Time
\&j*
to
come
(m.c.)
(m.c.) to-morrow.
)
.
>
.-,
(m.c.)
;
(m.c.)
(m.c.) the
,
day
after to-morrow.
(m.c.) the
or
ty
<j*j
^J
day
(j**j
(m.c.)
*
next year.
) r
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
next month.
(m.c.)
v
Cnext week,
(m.c.)
(m.c.) in future.
'
(m.c.)
^i
^jt (m.c.)
f
jf
^*? (m.c.)
^n f uture,
after this,
m.c.)
a
S
In poetry often used for the Judgment Day. Yak haftayi dlgar mi-diham j&t> ^iAA
p*>**o
#
<
(m.c.)
4<
I'll
give
it
in a week'*
*
time
* '
HaZaW va
istiqbdl
' ;
an )|U5Jut ^
'
iJLA.
**now and
page 312.
in this case
Jfta
vide
(p) (1)
note
(1),
315
henceforth.
(class.)
(m.c.)
^J?
*
(4)
44
(m.c.)
^presently, quickly.
)
(m.c.)
is
Time
also expressed as
follows
(OJl*
Uuf
U>
jt^a.
**>
(m.c.)
Also by the dative, as <wl^ &\j) JLA. ufri?> ^**iU lauf ij ..* <tf " " I intended to in the home and there the : (m.c.) morning go stay night &*e&> (Shah' s Diary) ^UUj( ojUe _>jj ^xu^jjyo ALoA jla. |; jjj>j yjj~o
^^
"
great deal.
(5)
Jakht
(a village
is
coming
into use.
In Kirman jakht is a substantive meaning "endeavour " and is supit is, however, probably from posed to be corrupted for the Arabic
the Persian
(6)
e^^^
>
or ty**.a.
Time
j.Alt #
.
indefinite
(m.c.)
J'*>>
^
b
j
"j
(m.c.)
limmediatelv.
t;y (m.c.)
J
c.
Hi(m.
^without delay.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
J
(m.c.)
>
temporarily.
)
(m.c.) obliged to, without further orders, immediately.
ojf
(m.c.) hot
and
hot.
(m.c.) especially.
(m.c.)
,,
more than
all.
Ar.
and Mod.
Pers., especially.
^5
(m.c.)
*
"
it is
certain
(
my
"
J *& ^ -.*( ^ y " must go." faster than yours jj* ^^ "you
:
jt
)k>
*'
&\J
(^
*J
(m.c.)
"bring
in the
)^ ff
(m.o.)
3
work continuously
Pronounced vungahl.
316
(m.c.)
many
times, oft.
bdr-l (m.c.)
once
vide
(7).
c^
f
*
UjJ^
(f
(m.c.) at
;
one time
at another time
vide
(8),
(m.c.) often
(aZso
much).
-o (m.c.) often.
(obs.)
seldom.
^(f
jjlf
(m.c.)
sometimes
--sometimes.
(9).
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(class.)
quickly.
(class.)
^3 sooner or later
(class.)
(10).
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
>
rarely.
(m.c.)
J
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
seldom,
less.
(m.c.)
m.c.)
(m.c.)
s.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
Ar.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
continually.
(m.c.)
Sometimes,
'
also, classically
and
* Ar.
(m.c.)
Past Part. Bi-fcraf-i darya miuiam nazar ml-kardam I kept on looking towards the sea."
317
}
>
continuously.
(m.c.)
(m.c.) repeatedly.
(m.c.)
u* (m.c.)
*])
<jr)A>
Uaily.
(m.c.),
and aJ^
tjijj* (m.c.)
jtfjj) (m.c.)
day by day,
daily.
**
&b
^
C
(m.c.)
weekly.
&A
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
Ub'
Ijf
perchance
vide (II).
:
every moment,
rt
moment by moment
vide (11).
(m.c.)
(class.)
L>
little.
(7).
(m.c.) vide
^
[-once
jt
^^ (m.c.)
(m.c.)
etc.
(m.c.)
r!^
J
-\
(m.c.) late,
(m.o.)
Cat
last, finally.
yLU
* *i
(m.c.)
,)
for
cU
&4
31
(m.o.)
^
[
Ai
(m.c.)
3
t?a/ai) (m.c.) all
as.
3-y
AX/O,>U
the day.
(class,
case.
***
ra c O
-
get a
week?"
4
8
Vulg. dur-vaqt
-=^
;j>i.
For
j^T
na-dashtam
XA|yi JL| jf (m.c.) " I have never had
it
4 2l2 ofZ
at
all.*'
318
now,
a,t
(m.c.) as
soon as
merely: vide
.
(12).
(m.c.)
and m.c)
vide (13).
.
\
>
(m.c.)
5
ujjl
(m.c.);
wde
(14).
(class.) therefore.
jjjjL-j
of-^i (m.c.)
compared to formerly,
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
every moment.
^
(m.c.)
rgain
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
r^Jt (class., or
(7)
this.
Bdr-i
c$^>
^A ^^
^JL
c)^
(Sa'di)
jj
kill this
JbyL
Vaqt-i
^j
AJu ^1^1 (Sa'di) "if you want to ^At^iuf; do so according to the interpretation of the law.'
(8)
^*j, vaqt-ha
JjJI
1^:
Ai^
/.
(Sa'di)
^M
*#
<J3} a**
^^ &
and
Fag
times."
is
vaqt-ha signifies
at times
at other
in
of course,
is
is
used
* 3
Common
in Indian Persian.
chlst '* Jla. A*j " also haven't in the least understood what you're driving at y.
:
^^^ ^9 ^^
*^*-H^- (m.c.)
"I
319
Gah,
"
:
etc.
l
^ ^c
<^*tf
;K
^|
('f
*'?
*
or
does this
c^**
*&* ert?^*
^
.
!f
(m.c.)
" he occasionally
c$*<^ (m.c.).
In m.c. the
(10)
(11)
Ahyan
an
lil^i
ara
aw
^ a aw lj^ / -an
^
*
t>^, or
e*ty
*
31
^j u&.
(m.c.)
Uf
<*U>
i,y
"
if
in the
to-morrow
I
"
:
^y^
f
^^3
to call
ol^^Uj
^ dr^ ^^
(In
^f ( in a
f
letter)
f
"every moment
anan
a-an an
="
" sometimes,
or seldom."
Ta $ and mujarrad " saw you I swooned away = UA c^^ji (m.c.). ptij JU 31
Mujarrad
also
<(
^:
jj
Jt^
31
|3.Ji
iy
U (m.c.
" as soon as
bi-mujarrad-i dldan-i
shuma az
hal raftam
ejty t5*^
';
jl
j&
e>^l^
(m.c.)
him"
^ J**
*jU'>
^U
^.?wj (m.c.)
(13)
Digar : (8a'di) o^li j#y Wcj *i *i| L|U; u*^^ jf ijyU^^fAJ^^^ **and again know that kings are for the protection of their people,
to render obedience to kings."
:
yi&fty*
this,
&**>
^j J&
8
^^ ^
^] yjk
interest":
(m.c.)
"and
it
is
^kji.
'Aqib
ct
(Sa'di)
learnt archery
from me,
his target.
' '
in the end he or
*^Jjf
made me
A&J|
siva-yi
(q)
J?w, or *^l
j$c,
t5l>*
bi-juz in ki, or
ghayr az In
ki, or
Adverbs
of
Order and
once.
Number
^U
t^j (m.c.) )
J
(m.c.)
^b^
(m.c.) twice.
:
vide (2).
39
(a) (1).
*
8
Or guman-i " a
little
iy
<^$ is
not
of unity.
(i.e.
who
did not).
320
Jjl
time.
1
^ secondly.
V*
(2)
Baz'^
"
again; afterwards"
9
:
<>&
^^
)
:
tHAfr 3V (m.o.)
**tyLx*
>AJ
"do you
Adverbs
*$ (1)
f
of
Exception
(class.)
l (
*Uuuu*|
uy
&f _/*
except,
till:
wVfe
(2).
(m.c.)
*
"except,
'
;
but";
and
aZso
(5).
= "yet"
(Afg.),
to answer to
although
vide (3)
and
(8).
or e^jJ but.
(m.c.)
except.
except
vide (7).
(6).
besides
more than
this, besides
(2)
Magar angah
"he
move from
j
this
:*&+*
&^ $
jt
LS"*/*
L?^^
^ ^
)
*>*f
" he said had'st thou become so hard up that thou couldst not ^cjb (^a'^t) steal from any but such a friend (or was the world so small that thou would'st find no other place to steal from except
*j>
?
^ y y o^
^^
"
e;UA
jl^ ep^
this
^c )
C^UA
^^ ^^
^
of
(Afghan)
note
(5).
to
answer to
**jt\
vide also
(4)
Magar
^ "but":
(3).
The idiom
incorrect in Persia.
In m.c.
is
instead of Lf in asking a question implying an innuendo vide (j) (8). " but Amma and llkin " but " and jL> "again (5) Llkin t^J, etc.
:
"
(but not
Jfy>
&*\
as
(Jl-?or
^^ or)U(
0^.1
^/
^^
he
*t*j>\
O-JJ^A.
(*^T
' '
"although he
has
committed a
also so used.
theft,
still
is
good man
vide also
In India
1
^G
ki.
"
nevertheless, still"
is
ft
&u\
<^Lr*
"unless"
321
Bidun-i an ki
:
(m.c.)
<i*.lj
"without your ordering it I am ready to serve you" &j<*> " I won't ^-o *f^4u* U (U or *&f j* or) <*&f (m.c.) go with out you.'*
Ghayr az$ ^xc;
az
'
(7)
alava bar _^
also
Sj^lc;
guzashta azj\
*i^,
it
etc.
means "besides,"
cannot
(m.c.)
always
me
but
there
is
no one
else in the
(
;
room "
^~
;
ey JO*
c^f e*!';^
ts
"except
:
&x>i**<o *'
J.U~A ^liu^;
others also
who know
}
"
er/ojt^jJ or)
c^"^
fy^* (m.c.)
or guzashta az
man
ashkhas-i hastand ki
<&&*?
^J
"setting aside me, there are people who :" p& )\ A *> iS yUKJ xxiU oJif e>t>^ |j uw/^J *ij >V "setting
^
aside poetry one can't even style it prose; saddle nor palan." l The use of <u^ )*> for
it
is
like
is
a takaltu neither
a&Xx?
rare
and
scarcely
modern.
Ghayr je
is
also followed
by the
izafat, as
ghfryr-i ma,
cJ^^i*, bi-gjyiyr-i
shuma
sive
Remark I. Although ghayr azyj** means " with the exception of, exclu" besides, including," both are in pracof," and alava bar ^ %^ means
used synonymously.
tice often
Remark
'
II. In the sentence tyj*> **T f (-1*5, the word fj* is termed ' the thing from which the exception is made ^t* is called o/^ the the and of the particle thing excepted.' exception' *>j ^vli^x)
; < ;
(
called
^^ ^xiUx.
^\j*>
^iuk
:
^ &~*>
is
when
(The
Ex.:
f^*u
(Tr.
p*
j*+*
i^^j
J-^
(class.).
former example
is J-ai* ^iijux3.)
p+>>
J^aJ_>so
man
bi-juz
H. B., Chap. VI) "the only answer g^am hargiz rahat na-didam +*_jx>-i ^.^o
"
:
' '
ftd^
&*& MA (rfj*
AA (m.c.).
This construction arises from a confusion of thought. Even a Persian would not say, "in that jangal except fishes I saw no man." (s) Adverbs of Qualification
:
^st&t? (m.c.)
(t)
more than
all; besides;
>->j*>
further: aJb
"moreover."
(Jb**
^
' '
Intensive
Ad verbs are:
^^
"very
#
or U/j l*Js , slowly"; A~Jf^j i&s "knowingly and wilfully "; \j\* ) "nolens volens"; ^I^Lk ^^.xk continually laughing" er^b u/'^ whole a at time," A*!^/ ;/ "quite blindly." lapfuls
\^
In
aJl^yo ;^x>
is
first
member
of the
com-
pound
>>
is
the
pad
of a Baluch saddle,
and palan
ejV'ji
is
a pack-saddle for
21
322
90.
PREPOSITJONS.
*>
(a)
The
or ten.
indeclinable particles called simple prepositions are only nine They are placed before the simple or nominative form of nouns and
:
pronouns, as
jl^~
l
13
UuLjijf
az
mjd
of.
td Shirdz
"
from here
:
to
Shiraz."
az
bd
company
with.
(3)
(4)
(5) j^if
(6)
(7)
f&
ti
ham
td
6
with, together.
to, as far as.
up
in.
(8)
(^ bi without.
(9) )t>
dar
(10) j*> or Japj, juz or bi-juz 1 except. In Persian per ( **> <y ). (11) ^' /?, Ar. in. The preposition and the noun it governs are called jarr and majrur. Native grammarians include the postposition !; rd in the term jarr. For
examples, vide
(h).
Fard fy "up to, back, toward" and fardzjlj* "above, I. etc." are 89 (m) (3) and high, obsolete, or only found in compounds: vide
(6).
Remark
Zl ^j 8 " bounds, shore, towards" is practically obsolete. Remark II. Arabic prepositions properly occur only before Arabic
words.
(6)
is
U^
Jt
In poetry )
zi.
*
3
In modern Persian
bi.)
bi.
Ba
is
said to exist
still
locally in Persia.
(In Arabic
always
*
In India
:
ba.
Abar poetical
etc.,
Anixed to the words madar, pidar, baradar and fehahar it signifies " step-brother,' and half-brother. In m.c. ti is prefixed to express the same idea.
'
6 1
8
Ta
is
also a conjunction.
Ilia, Ar.
Zi also stands for zihi or zahl ** well done, etc." 9 In Steingass's Dictionary it is said to accompany the genitive case present author has failed to find an example.
also,
but the
PREPOSITIONS.
Laill said,
323
By whom Majnun was oppressed." You are not more beautiful than other women."
She said, " Silence; you are not Majnun."
mar
in rauza-yi
:
ra'na
tyfcj
bob
* ^*~^
<j*b*
L)
*)*
L^*
mst magar zahra-yi adam-i ki (Sa'dl) " there is no remedy for this disease, but the gall of a man, who ": +2uL jt, ~JU> .ij^iy (^aU-j &tfv y \))\ j*j xi malik dar khashm shud va marurd az bandagdn bi-siyah-i bakhshid (Sa'dl) "the king fell into a rage and bestowed her (a
ijotfmar in dard rd davd-*i
slave
girl)
(c) (1) In old, occasionally too in modern, Persian writings, a noun is sometimes both preceded and followed by a preposition, in prose or in hasud ra chi kunam ku zi Ichud poetry, as cu^i J^ \) <ir^ f&
:
^)^
ct
is
himself
^^t
oy^a^j
andar-am
troubled because of the people." In these two examples the preposition is not part of the verb (vide 2 below), but refers to the noun preceding it as is better shown in bi-daryd dar mandfi' 3 bi-shumdr
(Sa'dl)
ast v^~l
(2)
" I
J^^
31
az khalcfiq bi-zahmat
am
;U
^ ^Ux>ji b^
preposition
*'
may
in voyaging there are endless profits." also be added to a verb for emphasis, as: bi-shahr
he entered into the city ": imruz (bi) u bar khurdam fjj*>j> )\ ^ **-j? j~> jys*) (m.c.) " I encountered him to-day at the end of the street. (d) Sometimes two simple prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb,
dar
dmad
^f^^&j
*
(class,
or m.c.)
sar-i
kucha bd
' '
can be joined together, as:>?u bi-juz b (orj^ juz): +*>{j or +& bi-ham or bd-ham "together": az harnp*)) "apart": ety^f- vl^^ bi-khwdb andarun 6 ^i* (mod. writing) jM yjj bi-zlr-i sang andar (mod. writing) "under the stone": *JUi jjjj^ ,_^ u* hamashab 1 dida bi-ham na-basta* (Sa'di) "I
:
closed not
my
Rawza
***^>
a saint."
In India
it is said that at the last day the burial places of the saints will become 'gardens.' Hadlqa is a walled garden ; ghalba fern, of aghlab means that the trees are close together.
The wording is apparently from the Quran. * An example of tajnis-i kh&Ui or linear pun. 8 In prose, there would be an izajat after manafi'
is
none.
*
8
7
Or
bi-u.
Ba-yi za*yid.
b Y some grammarians called ba-yi ztfid. In mod. Persian hama-yi shah v** ^ *A "the whole night," but hama shab *A " every night."
This
is
a-*
80
Basta
is
is
324
(e)
PREPOSITIONS.
Bary and
dar
" to bear")
"
may
*
also be substantives.
Bar
"
profit,
^ (from
burdan
;
signifies
fruit,
advantage
breast or bosom." The comparative bar-tar y^j and superlative bartarm " also " " and (< " excelling." Bar-a-bar j>\j is a highest ^j* signify higher " breast to breast)," or an adverb "conlevel
;
(lit.
&W^J
"
jl
"to
recite
e>*'; -tf J
" to De
raft
lost
as a (
bosom
of her lover)
"
dust az
as a
bar-i
man
oJj
&*
j*
my
friend."
Dar ^
'* dar bi-dar shudan &* door substantive signifies a from house to house"; bi-dar kardan e>a/j* "to turn out."
&
" to wander )*
^^
ba'zi
bar an-and
(classical
and modern)
(g)
(Sa'di)
"The
world,
my
(1)
The following are examples of the use Azy az Kirman ta Shirazy^ & a$*f
:
to Shiraz
"
;
this is
called
za-yi
ibtidd^iyya
(&^*^l ^13
^)y.
jt
Jf
^**
si
u/
)
:
"I am
va
"all, both great and small" man az firishtagan-am one of the angels"; this is called za-yi ba'ziyya*
^tj
)^
this
<J^
^
:
qufl-i
(m.c.)
that belonged to the sailors" Jfjjj ^ty*-)* o^>t> ^t jl az tn 6 itw/aw darakht-ha-yi buzurg dar uftddand (m.c.) "jgreat trees were rooted up by
^U| ^
1
storm "
8^
^ )^
l
^J. c/^V 3
(Sa'dl)
*^
^A
'->
t^*^ A r^^
*^
j***% i!r*^*
Musa Payg&ambar
"the Prophet Moses (on whom be peace) of his nakedness had hidden himself in
" to
^-> v i '^ m -0
(
:
sit
in the sun."
The
izafat is
used
l^&i
p. 328,
*
3
fc^y ji
note
2.
"
sit
man
jfc
is
a load,'* the crop of a fruit-tree, etc. very common amongst the Indians and Afghans, but
is
not in
use in Persia.
*
5
jf
^15
is
another example.
;
This
is
a*^ *^!
1
and
(3),
and Remark
II.
PREPOSITIONS.
the
325
za-yi
sand":
this
is
called za-yi
'illat
sdbabiyya
&*&
Sometimes azy, followed by a substantive or pronoun and signifying " a portion of," takes the place of the object, which is in this case understood:
(*"**
J*
"
5
:
(class.)
"I
u****
is
c^'j
"the
partitive z."
jf,
Than, in comparison,
expressed by
this
is
called za-yi
tafzil
jf
az chub
"made
:
of
how many days, how many days ago ? " wood"; az tild "of gold," this is called za-yi
"since
:
mdddiyya (&^l ^tj) az khud *^ y "involuntarily, of its or one's own " " accord "; az du taraf oj.l> jt reciprocally c^t^^j ^ jt az u bar guzasht " " he u dar guzasht "he forgave him az passed by (classical); oA^^jf
him "
(class,
and m.c.)
:
**
*Jl^
Jil
" he
^T j*jj> jt
az dar dar
az
naw
jt,
or az sar-i
naw
^ j*
the
door"
in qissa dar
:
"I gave up this story" 8 az parcha guzashtam (class.) p&>*fj * *^' e^t jt saf kardan CK>/ JU **-)k y (m.c.) "to strain through cloth"; az ham dar
raftan
(m.c.)
^j ^ ^ "
jt
(m.c.)
"to go
to pieces
"
az
ham
guzashtan
;
t^M
p&
)l
vide also
(o) (8).
Remark.
f
az an-i Rustam
(
j|" Rustam' s,
"
the preposition
is
**&
<^fj ).
(2)
4
Ba
"with":
Ba u
raftam
b baittild', adj. (m.c.) "well-informed" ; "Possessed of," as: him." ^^t| * <yUj ^3 j c^-f &\jS ^'^ ^ L&tj^ haris ba jahan-i gurisna ast va qani* binan-i sir (Sa-'di) " a greedy man even if possessed of a whole world is hungry,
^
"
while a contented
man
is filled
by one
loaf
ba shamshlr
kushtan^^jsZ+Zb
although": bd
I?
with a
b " with
that,
spite
in panjdh-sdlagi c*i
to die of murdan &ty tsJI jt &&+"* -*A3 > and oU^xA^^ ^^LSJ j famine (or hunger) " is understood. " or " a ^ The word for " portion something
1
In a similar sense az
"
:
qdht.
(or
on account
of)
This
jt
is
called a jjl?
4 This
1J
is called
^-***>
vide (3)
Remark
TT.
326
PREPOSITIONS.
With
*)!<*>
ancftf
guftan, either b or &? can be used: \j) ^^l/o Jti/oU bd tu guyad bi-amsdl-i ma guflan ravd na-ddrad (Sa'd!)
tell to
^
:
the like of
Sometimes bd
" There
and,' as in
)t>j J^lfc^f
is
f^ j* A&T
j*)d o2;b
*f
^Uxj
o*f ^y
(Sa'dl)
who has
"
Bi
&>
(mod.) and ba
"to,
to
Tihrdn
(m.c.)
raft &**j
ol^j
"I
said to
fell
him "
(m.c.)
:
"he went
" Teheran
by,
at"
or)
6f11
f&S jb
(
6f.fi
guftam
bi-zamm
(or bar
zamin) uftdd
^i*f
^^j^J
(m.c.) "it
(m.c.)
to the
ground";
for
!/o
ta'alluq-i
its
"affection of a child
mother":
jaruTcht *z**yf
s
^L^
c>
^'^
(class.")
"I
will sell it
for five
bi-javab
guftam vl^^V (m.c.) "I said in reply": bi-shahr daTchil shud i^ JLLi^^Aj (m.c.) " he entered the city " bi-nazar dar mi-ayad ^f
^^
(m.c.)
"
it
comes in sight
"4
V-l-fi'l ^JUlUb
" in
'
fact.'
pa
pa
istdda]
shud b
fell,
^ULot
b
^IAJ) (m.c.)
t^t
to&~j|
*-^
or)
(Afghan
"
coll.)
it
(the animal)
cJl<**
o>^
(or
t^i3 I^A
or)
"I
shot
him with a
sher
ba^-ghurridan-i bisyar
bar-khdst o~Ji.
roaring":
eJ^-^T
J l:sv
*'
jU-j cJ-V^^-" (Afghan) "the lion got up M*Y& a great bi-hdl dmadan (m.c.) "to come to one's senses (after
fainting, etc.)":
Jjix>
"
^^ju^j ^xs
maw
bi-rasidan-i manzil-l
was desirous
khud
my home," but man dar rasidan-i manzil-i reaching my home (I was anxious to) ."
Bi-tadrij gtj***
^^
J^v
^ ^*;
<
)t>
&*
" on
"
by degrees
all
"
bi-har surat
^)^ j$
"
by
all
means "
6f-^ar hdl
J^
#> "at
).
events":
^b
(4).
V-l-akhira
"at length"
(in
him "
full
'* Euphonically before demonstrative pronouns, etc., bi dan, "bi-din, and bi-du, to the in is written ; generally, the *, both as a preposition and a verbal prefix, only
form
*? before
a word beginning with a 6 ; otherwise this preposition drops the & " but " *J bi-raw bi-u " to him
;
Orbau
p**> bi-bmam). guftam or bi-du guftam, or ura (or vayra) guftam, or bi-vay guftam;
me
see
"
(also
jj>
"go
f&&
all
m.c.
Or da" javab
vl^ )*
(m.c.)
*
5
Bi-nazar ml-ayad (m.c.) " it seems." In m.c. si pa istad (not Istada shud) without any preposition (m.c
pa show biraw
pish-i
6
"
)
get
In m.c. shir
to
."
PREPOSITIONS.
327
Remark Remark
ing to
(i)
I.
Bi
is
Remark
*j
II
(i)
and footnote.
II.
various
names accord-
its signification
^
jt>
"superfluous 6
lj;<*
*1
"
as in
cu^
:
-_>?y, etc.
or )&
or ja
^jy, etc.,
some
grammarians
call
the preposition
"ba-yi zcfid"
it is,
however, the
preposition dar
(ii)
that
is
(
superfluous.
Ba-yi zarfiyya
&*j&
:
^b
"the
adverbial 6,"
^I>j^&
bi-sliahr
raftam
by day."
"
or
*,
& of companionship Ba-yi musahabat ( <x* (*a/o ^U ) as jdhan ay baradar na-manad bi-kas \j*& ^U* ^t
:
" the
stands for
(Grill.).
j^
o^
Ba-yi rabita or ba-yi ittisal (*k>\) ^5^, or JU^jf <^b ) "the " the b of copulative 6" or junction," as OA*>J o*i dast-bi-dast. " the & of restriction " is Ba-yi inhisdr ( ^ta^Jf ^Ij ) practically the same, but signifies completeness, as :j~*ij sar-bi-sar for^ ^ j sar ta sar.
(iv)
and
(v)
(vi)
Ba-yi qasamiyya
t*.+~3
^b
),
as
the 6 of (vii) Ba-yi mubadalat, or ba-yi taqabul ( barter or exchange," called also ba-yi ta'viz u^!^*5 L$^> " * ne & of substituting or compensating," is used with verbs of buying, selling, etc., as bi-dard-i sar
:
nami-arzad
(viii)
^^ " the game's not worth the candle." ^>f " the 6 of measure," as: ba'd az Ba-yi miqdariyya ( &*)\&*> ^U
^j*
vafat-i
bi-sad sal
JU ^^toUj;!
:
(Gul., Story 2); here bi *j = bibi-nim bayza ki sultan sitam rava darad
(ix)
Ba-yi ibtidafiyya
(Bustari)
e^*T
c^M^t*
^
(
( **J(Axjf
<^b
),
as
" J
(& e
^^)
is
in the
name
of
."
:
*V^I yfe )
Ba-yi izafi
as:
^*Uf
^b
an izafat
&~#
J^ ^^^
(
(xii)
zari'a or a^a
*^f or **J;i or
oJWUf ^U
\)j\
"the
.
\*)*f
^ j*S*&>
to,
Ba-yi qurbat
^*
^b
"the
etc.,"
as
^^ cuj^A
),
where
bi
stands for
^ or
pish
f
(xiv) Ba-yi
ta
maf'ul
sc
diya
*j**3
^L
),
or " the b of the object," or the ba-yi takes the the 6 that makes transitive," is the v
(
Jr*^c.?b
^that
I;,
as
in chiz bi-an
*SUi-t
'alq
^ "upon,"
l
(xv)
The
ba-yi
isti'la*
:
^>
-
bi-dih *>? jyo c>^ J J^- v^!'is the 6i that stands for bar
bj$ *>&
mard
or
as
bi-ru-yi
u nigah kardam
j*,
The
in verbs, as (*^
328
(xvi)
PREPOSITIONS.
or
*&^
cause or end, as
(xvii)
bi-dldar-i
u raftom
^, or *W*3 <^b"
fo jl^f^V
is
went
him."
the 6 that conjures assistance, as: ) is Ba-yi tavassul ( J-y Fatima. bani ^so bt*L Khuddya bi-haqq-i
(xviii)
Ba-yi muvafaqat
,
is
or
(
(xix)
5a-2/i
tamyiziyya
QX+*
:
c5^
is
-^ ^^
and
expresses
(4)
"
#ar
abar^
(and &ar-
near ").
and (/). U, especially in m.c., sometimes takes the place on horsebar asp ^-1 ) of bar j, as: savar bi-asp *-* * ;Lr (m.c.) (for back, mounted." " <( bar miz bi-guzar )\&Jfrj! (class.) put it on the table Examples " sit in the sun 2 " ki bar
For
this preposition, vide (e)
As already seen
in (3),
*j
^^ ^tfjt
^^
(m.c.)
farmudam
:
j f*rj* (Jehangir's Memoirs) " the bar-a T^J (m.c.) scale) weighed against rupees (in a In m.c. bar j* is rarely used as preposition alone. Thus
t^l *iJy
**
instead of bar ab
" on the water," in m.c. bar ru-yi ab vf is$j* or be used. would ab simply ru-yi ()j This preposition is usually omitted altogether in modern Persian, as :
^
:
VT^
zamm
bi-guzar j\*&
^^
*'
)
put
it
on the ground" vide (n). Padshah bar takht nishast (or julus farmud) v^~~j o*io y sU^b ( Ar^* u->^ or) would in modern colloquial Persian be padishah ru-yi takht nishast ^ Ai o*iJ ^^ Ui^tj, Similarly ruy-i mizjfro ^^ (m.c.) "on the
table
"
instead of bar
miz^o^
bar asp
(class.),
>,***]
^9
Jj^o
or savar-i asp
Y*l jj~
table ").
instead
of
^\
:
j*
(but
<{
sar-i
mtz
" at the
Bar
is
taraf
kardan &$
^j^J.
(m.c.)
to dismiss (a servant)."
Abarj>]
old
and poetical
(5)
Andar ;^l
' '
"
:
Dam-i
aftab
v^*'
(*^ (m.c.)
person)
in
dar aftab
v^T )*
and
wUif
^y
(m.c.)
bar-i aftab
^^ j
right
sit in
Dam-i
In m.c.
ham
vazn-i rupiya
kunand
PREPOSITIONS.
(m.c. vulg.)
(vulg.)
329
raftand
1
"put wine
in the
oibj aJliL^f
andar ( J>i*> ^p or) Jj**> j^l " " are at home? libds andar manzil (or dar manzil) hastandl (vulg.) they " they put on clothes." (or dar) bar kardand &*j* j ( j* or)^l ^.W (vulg.) Vide also (9) on dar ^.
S
:
*&~A
(7)
Td
l>
"
(also conj.)
" up to here, hitherto" az " from the north to the south*" td bi-aknun & " until now" td hdl ? " " td bi-zist OA~J_)J U, (class.) Jla. tf (or td bi-hdl Jl*v $ ) up to the present " td na bas dir " " td " how &> ? while life lasts long kay ^/^ 13, j*t> <JMJ or id na bas ruzgdr fejj) (j~P ^ (class, only) " not for long" id yak mdh-i digar " td chi rasad &<* ^ jr&a U t^> U (m.c.) "in a month's time &**j (also conj.) " class, and mod.) how much the more" vide 91 (6) 12. Td is also a particle (poetical) signifying "beware! behold! for shame! never! it is
td injd Uojf U
:
"
c^
:
:
not
(9).
for
examples, vide
91
(b)
(o)
El
'
^
it
:t
to
'
nouns
When prefixed
;
im
etc.
Bi-tu namt-ravam
bi-basar J*AS
^
^
+> (tS
(m.c.)
"I
*s*-
^\ <y "cloudless";
bi-ihtirdmi
^^
(subs.)
"want
of
"uncultivated desert,"
"rudeness "
ful
^(y^f
;
(i.e., without fixed water-supply except rainfall); " rude " bt-adabi "disrespect" bi-adab ^\
:
^\ ^
bt-adabdnd
bi-harf
AJUii
(adj.
disrespect-
manner":
(9)
o^ ^ (adv.
m.c.) "immediately, without further For a>j^ bidun* " without," vide (o) (6).
Dar 5 )* "in,"
"
;
Dar-javdb
<^>
guft
" he
replied
dar
^ j&
^ (Sa'd!)
shubha-z ki dar dil-am bud bar taraf gardid (m.c.) <Sf> AJ^5 J;Jsjj ^j f^)*> " the doubt I had was " ^A& O^AA " seven divided haft dar haft dispelled
:
by seven": chahdr farsakh dar chahdr farsakh ^ ;~j* jf^ "four " dar an ruz " farsakhs square upon that day" dar in miydn )j) e/f ;> in the meanwhile."
^^t^
m.c. also
This should be andarun-i khana (both in writing and speaking; ; andarun raft in " he's gone to the women's apartments." These vulgar uses of andar are
not
common and
This
8
should be avoided.
A
is called
is
This last
*
^
Dar
Or
)t> is
" to tear."
6 7
bi javab.
Dar
is
called
-^>^&
o^
as
it
Or
bar vay
330
Vide also
(10)
(5)
PREPOSITIONS.
on andar
j*J|
"l exception of this, in addition to this. (11) The Arabic ft <y is used in Persian for per, as:
cent
'*
:
"except *' " ; except God I have no refuge &t-?t& Khuda-(yi) Ta'alq pandh-t na-ddram mihtar juz tamla no-bayad jd-l pa bi-guzdrad *)!<*& b ^'l-^ *jW A!?^ JA.^* " ct the groom ought not to get his foot any where except (in) the stable (m.c.) besides or except that juz az In Tci *&>\ ;>?-" with the juz az an e>f jt_>^
(or bi-juz) _>*. (or_>.J)
:
' e
Juz
"
' '
**>
<^
ft
sad "per
sal
JU ^
"
per
annum."
-
Remark.
jlitu.1
Sf
-^-l^etc.)
are called
o^
huruf-i istisnd.
of the prepositions are substantives or adjectives
(12)
The remainder
preceded by one of the simple prepositions expressed or understood. They take the izafat: zir-i zamin etf^jyj, or bi-zir-i* zamm e^3^>? " under the
city
yf
-^j^>V or)
of
ziyarat
&>)
s
^<LJ (Sa'dl)
(+
ing, the
tufayl-i
3^
"
%fts<./o
means"
"as
it
(;)
pi\&
a habit of mine
"
:
has been saved by your " Tci 'adat-i dashtam (J**^* bi-qarar-i according to (m.c.) az qarar-l ki ma'lum mi-shavad :>>** pjl** *&)\j*)\ (mod.)
ast (m.c.)
"
^ ^^J
zindagi-yi
man
bi-
my
life
)^
appears."
c
as: pish
The prepositions may be used adverbially when occasion requires, amad <wf ^^u he came forward " andarun raft 5 ^) &)y\ (m.c.) " he went inside or he went into the women's apartments." (k) The following are a few of the commonest words used as prepo; :
sitions
#lj
above.
beneath.
*
5
and
m.c.).
cUi
of
&*ojj**^, from
;
tufayl, the
name
of
man
6
Kufa, who used to go uninvited to wedding-feasts Classically andar raft could be used.
6
* '
With the
Zdbar,
zir
izafat c^Slb, as
' '
on the
"
:
& <j^~
su-yi bagh
names
of the three
Arabic vowel-points
fathah,
8
kasrah.
(subs.)
"
PREPOSITIONS.
331
l
down.
pas
su
8
after,
behind.
i**
vicinity.
out.
,
.
J|
andaru n in
( jl )
vide (8).
o^a.
for,
j
on account
of.
6am?/
siwa, except.
fj*
( jl
)j
ghayr
()&
)
(az),
except,
cjij/ct^o
(dar)
payramun, around.
above
may
cases.
(3)
C5*Lr?
The preposition ba b or bi *, however, cannot be prefixed to baray bahr jtf, or qabl u*$.
;
(4) No simple preposition can be prefixed to sipas (adv.) az an bi-ba'd csif j( azan si-pas.
but
***> u>f jf
^^
(5)
*i*j,
izafat or
'
by az,
as
fo'd-i hafta-i
&&& jt
**j
after a week.'
6?rw7i
11^57*?,
(6)
The
4)
prepositions
p5^ ^J,
^6^
jt.
<J**>
an(i gho>yr
j&
(&*
may
pas
by az
(7) .4z
wards."
Si-pas
"from behind," but pas az jl 0^ " after that, aftero^^ (= Pas LT*t is a contraction of az pas cr^jt. In
)
modern language
'agafr
v^
is
preferred to pas
^.
Furud before a vowel. Zabar, zir and pta& are the Persian names faihah, zammah, and Icasrah.
1
vowel-points
is
also
" the stomach." classically and in m.c. it also means " 6 In modern Persian because, for."
6
Sivakardan
\sfrjf\y*
" to
select, separate."
332
(8) Ptsh-i
PREPOSITIONS.
az
man (^ ^xj "before me " (place), but pish " time) " before me "before me l qdbl az man u-* jl cU* = az jdnib-i man. man Jljjf ji
( ;
man
;
<>* jt
' '
(time)
az qibal-i
In m.c. pish-i man ur-^ an(* ^ esa commonly nazd-i man " I have." In &* &y, etc., signify Ispahan, instead of pish <Jty or nazd &; 2 pahtft-yi t^^tv is generally used with the same signification.
Remark.
(9)
Bi-nazdik-i khiradmanddn
this
&i***^
-^M>^
(Sa'dl)
used in speaking by the Persians, Indians and of the wise"; 3 kishtl nazdlk-i ghalfidan or bi-nazdik-i ghaltidan rasid *~&ity t$**^ Afghans " " ax*) cX^ij L cxiAkU (Afghan) the ship nearly rolled over ; in m.c. kishti nazdik bud ki bi-ghaltad ^>KU> t$ ^.^y t5S^'. Nazd &$, however,
idiom
is
^JxU
is
added to many
(adv.)
"lower"
plshtar^^
(adv.)
nazdik-tarin
^^
(adv.), etc.
The preposition need not be repeated before <Wf ^AJ ^t ^^>^ 3 governed by the same preposition
(m)
:
successive words
^*s\*> ^ ^jtji^fcU.b
dmad
(m.c.)
"he
treated
me
face
'
;
sar
* '
head
' '
ru-yi
miz y&
;
^)
"on
(Afghan)
pusht-i
parda
(behind) Examples : the table"; sar-i asp *-**! j~ "on 6 the horse" " ^J o^o behind the screen."
(on)
;
.
pusht owiu
'
back
' '
zamm
" dast-% " (for bar-ru-yi zamin bi-guzarjl*> <^=} c$j;^j) put it on the ground fisJ 0*0^1 vr^^ (m.c.) (for bi-dast-i uast cu^t o**>j (m.c.) "it is in his hand*'
:
bi-guzar
y&*
i^-*) (m.c.)
agjda
khdna
is
(for bi or
o~~-xi
iJLi.
I5f
(m.c.)
"the
master
not at home."
For plshtar az
man i^jiy^#.
is
generally
used
adverbially.
9 Compare the mere pas of Hindustani. never used in speaking.
3
is
Qarlb Vir*
is
* Pish-i
treated
6
6
me."
In m.o.
mean "
;
Or
tu-yi
Miana
nlst m.c.
andar khana
rare
and vulgar,
PREPOSITIONS.
following examples illustrate the use so-called prepositions in m.c. and prepositions " In, into": (1)
(o)
*
:
333
of
The
i3'^i
e*y
tu-yi utaq
'
"\
andarun-i utaq
*/ i
andar utaq
dar utaq
(class,
and
obs.)
miyan-i darya
dar miyan-i darya
IXj
a boat.
)\f
savar-i kishfi
:'
on board.
\
l>?
bud i-j asp bud > oar asp savar bud bi-zamm uftad
bi-asp savar
savar-i
-
(
} \
1
mounted on a
back.
horse,
on horse
*\
)jj bar
zamm
uftad
> he
fell
to the ground.
rikab-i
Shah
(m.o.)
}>in J
,.
*baghal-i
^
7.
f
in his arms.
dar baghal-i u
ura bi-bag&al mi-giram I will embrace him. Ji J^.( i ji ^ar dakhil-i shahr inside the city. -7i.-7-7 i
akhil-i shahr
8^j
LT*
^>i>* j-i dar nazdlkl-yi saraparda, in the vicinity of the Royal (or
tents.
)
I
y
)\
Government) pay-i u
dumoal-i
I.
6
J^
u
is
after
Remark
as: dar
'id-i
Dar
and dates,
naw-ruz
**on
New
Year's
day":
"
Remark
l
II.
The preposition
in
common
" in "
is
y tu.
*
8
The simple prepositions appear to be falling into Baghal <-U? also means "side, arm-pit," etc.
*j is
Birbaghal (or baghal) kardan &s^(d'*>\i but bi-baghal or baghal giriflan (^*j? d*J U (Jjb
*
6
)<J*J &>
"to
to
arm,"
"
gharij-i ehahrj^ ^^, or dar k&arij-i shahr y? ^}^ Nazd <* or bi-nazd && only used for persons nazd
:
bard
bj ;lyt e/
&
&
city."
or dar nazdi
man
iqrar
)t>
he confessed in
my
presence."
334
(2)
PREPOSITIONS.
sar*t>
it
on the
fire.
<3)
*^Ui ^xjj ^jy o^ barf ru-yi zamin na-manda " az, vide (h)
Across,"
or
jt
the
ast
(I)
ground.
and
(o) (11).
p*&*f
"
(4)
fj<^
S>
?^f
3t
we
crossed
To, towards, for" For the various uses of *j in this sense, vide (h) (3). Bi & is frequently omitted in speaking like the other prepositions, as
:
manzil
raft
oJ>
<J>U>
eW
*&j
etc.
also vulgarly
" kitab
give
rd bidih
man 91
er*
**>>
^v
I;
v^ "
1
me
the book."
*>*
(
*J )
farusham,
(
o^fe, or)
O^M
^ix
o**
or) c:^.)
J
,
bi'bdld,
upwards.
(for & ar ^*6
k>^
V^
not use(i in
m --) ^
is
situated on the
seashore.
Uf kindr-i daryd-st?
J,
it is
on the seashore.
shore.
or
pt***jj)X,
we reached the
(5)
"With, by":
m^^
Ifj^i
the Persians eat with their fingers. bring the doctor with you.
f*^,
p^f^J
my
Radd shudan
'
v^*xA<3> (m.c.)
to cross, pass
"
;
l)^
^*nar
;^
Or 60 man
PREPOSITIONS.
x b
&(j |ab
i
335
Khuda-st, happen what may,
all this,
aa^fc
bio,
the issue
is
with God.
lj
^ an
(6)
Jb &*k
ass.
^i
he
is
"Without":
For
&fe}
^ bl
^jj
"
bidun-i
^i>j
A&f e)^ bidun-i an ki bi-u khabar bi-diham raftam, ^AJJ ^xi. j| I went without informing him of my departure.
AJ
"
(7)
x>ij
Except
"
^Uii^U
jJt
(^fj
fctft
jt
bi-istisna-yi
banda,
all
bi-juz^p**, Hid
if,
az in kar razi and humble servant (me). and ^ayr azy^*, all meaning " except,"
u^ ^^
^awa has
89
(r).
"
From, out
"
:
w ^'^a6 a
tllis
Sa'di'st, this
book
is
by
Sa'di.
e*5'
bool belongs to
my
brother.
ejlAWt
*f; 31
az raA-
7^/a^,
v-jUo
by way
*
31
^^
am
practising copying
l^-^^
not design.
A^
Ok*
I,
(A) (1).
"To, upto":
G
^c J|
till
evening.
ujU^ ^t
Vide also
(10)
^ijt,
(h) (7).
"Under, below":
o;^ *-J^3
U|a ^, or
of the
z* r-*
^^
(lit.
r/
mountains.
jlxjjx)
^U
L|
pa-yi
wnar*
or bikh-i
minar or
6i- (or
dar pa-yi)
Or har
*^*
*
3
t^*> <!k
Daman
)'
(;/|j>
to write
'
336
1
PREPOSITIONS.
fcjk
(11)
"Through, across"
lAc*.;a *^}l
y\
|j
f*it
U&
;,sU chddar-i
shumd rd
az ld-yi* darakht-hd
t^
*c^
jt
*^
gwZiiZa 02 Za-^'
v^UT
4^}!,
Forjf
(12)
"
"Near, next
"
(h) (1).
*y nazdik-i shahr
j&ji> bi-nazdlk-i
*j.>>
shahr
nazdik
bi- shahr
o^y ;a dar nazdiki-yi shahr, in the vicinity of the city. pahlu-yi u, close by him; alongside of him.
dam-i dar, near to the door, to the very threshold of the door. dam-i dftdb, at the edge of the sunlight (i.e. just within the f*
shade)
;
jyo
(13)
,-a
li
id
dam-i marg,
till
death,
till
"Outside":
r#
blrun-i shahr
8
khdrij-i shahr
"
(14)
Before, in front of
pish-i
"
:
man
-i
;> dar-pish-i
before
-s
me
(place).
(before
ru bi-ru-yi
)
me
(place).
cwj qabl az
J!>
'id
r^ birru-yi
of, opposite,
the
Consulate.
jilav-i
man
bi-raw, go
on ahead.
Or pa'in
-4
miyan-i
v^
jt
is
more common.
door
^V <-&
)& 1/oJ
(m.c.)
8
cJ^j
*
doors.*'
ho opened one
ra
"
Az
Dar
puh kun
<l
^
;
^5*
'}
^;^
La-yi dar ra baz kard &jf } (j j* ^il : dar-i du-darl cf.;Aj^ )* " folding doors.'* " imported.*' ;t
close the door,*'
i.e.
cr-J^
)* (m.c.)
put
it ajar.
Plsh-i
In Persian <J~JjJ
PREPOSITIONS.
337
^ ^"^\\
(15)
i!
az jilav-i
man
'id-i
"
:
my
New
way.
* V LT-*
p3
***?
after
)
Year's Day.
Aa.
p*
back
2
o~iu pusht-i sar-am chi mi-kuni, what are you doing behind
?
my
^ij
he went to fetch
(after) butter.
^^o
^.^
aqab-i
man
biya,
"Opposite":
ru
jlfl^o
bi-ru-yi
masjid
"]
muqabil-i masjid
^r
(18)
barabar-i masjid
J*
mahazi-yi masjid
J
all
Around
' J
dawr-a-dawr-i daryacha,
^kjW
I
chohw
taraf-i~}
o[^fcf
skahr biyaban-ast; or
rail
is
desert.
o^o ^UUj atraf-i shahr biyabdn ast J ujbUj^t tPl^ hawali-yi shahr biyabdn
(suburbs) of the city there is desert.
1
ast,
the neighbourhood
all
"
(
For, on account of, out of L$[tf 3 or) cfLr^ V**' asP baray-i (or az bardy-i)
:
f
"
tust,
the horse
is
for you.
*uft*
frj
&a^r-i
/noam*
u bakhsh-i fuqard**
on account
darkness.
of,
because
of,
the
About the
Pusht-i
21st
f*>
March
***
2
s
ham
" one
" one behind ^ )& ^J kardam m b shudam wan May?* pa-pay ^j*^ ^
(m.c.)
continuously,
the other
"
:
ta
kar ra
(m.c.)
I stuck
till lit.
I carried
it
out."
*
5
Bakhsh,
"
lot,
share."
Vulg. vasih.
22
338
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
chdy vdsita-yi khdnum kujd'st, where
for the lady
?
is
the tea
Khudd
.
m. jKhuda
bi-khatir-i
my
father's
many
(+
kindnesses.
JUili)
ast,
UciJU ioj&sijo
^x> 4^*30}
life
zindagi-yi
man
bi-tufayl-i
shuma
mahfuz mdnda
(20)
my
'Instead of":
8
**T
4
eApj 7 J c5 l ?^jf u
bi-jd-yi barddar-ash
of his
brother.
<xlj alju
o^jUx* tuft**
(jej** bi-'ivaz-i
Id/
'ivaz-i
in-ki safld
(p) It will
instead of making it white you've made it black. be noticed that some of the prepositions are interchangeable,
lJ
:
U bd mihrbdm pish dmad can frequently be interchanged " " il ^ he treated (me) with kindness if, however, $ (m.c.) <vof <jktf L5 ^t the pronoun we is inserted, it is better to say bi-mihrbdrii ij^^j^t to avoid a
thus
*J
and
repetition of the
same preposition
^T
o**^
ti^
>)'"i^?
c^^iTt^
-?'
^*~
mihrbdni-yi bisydr bd
(q)
man
pish
dmad
az
(m.c.).
Sometimes
different prepositions
may
f.
,
Thus
y or bar
,
conformably to his advice." Sometimes a preposition &j*+ changeable with an izdfat, as az shuma mamnun hastam
^\)
:
<c
interJi,
p*~~*
&>*+*
"
^A
U&
or
am
obliged to
you": mashghul
or mashghul-i
91.
(a)
Simple Conjunctions.
for conjunction.
y*> ***jj*),
There
is
no general word
huruf-i shart
(
The
this
tions
are
called
and
conjunctions
'atj
J*l*3
o<^
4
3
Mdhz
Or
(^ja.^^0
)\j*
*
6
**
^^
U*
&'
the
RaTchfrshur In ra 'ivaz u badal karda ast (m.c.) *^^l U^^ J^ ) (jPj* ') washer-woman has changed this." (In Persia women, not men, wash
clothes).
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
).
339
Particles signifying
(
huruf-i izrab
v>^'
***jj*> )>
(
and
particles
),
(adversative
).
j,
^y ^jj^
oj^
e%ar
The
huruf-i 'atf
^JJa.
J^
o^
are
va
pas
^^
sipas i/.v-,
^aw
^*, mz_>iJ,
and sometimes
alif */(.
Remark.
The
difference
between ham p& and mz _>v is that the former **ic ojla*^, and in the ma'tuf J^w*xo a s
?
:
(6)
(1)
The simple conjunctions are " and " vide j vaoru (m.c.)
:
(2).
(m.c.)
jt
ar (class.)
gar
(class.)
(4).
U ya
s
<
2/a
either
or,"
4<
" but
or"
(after
a negative)
vide (4).
j*> juz
tfj*.
"
"
;
except
vide (5).
ty5.
khwahkhwah
"
(m.c.)
eitheror "
(wrfe 4)
<^l>&
;
^ty^
5 and
(poet.).
^^
311
magar
(flieZe
9).
t'Ha (m.c.)
"
Jj bal
or AiX
however, that (vide 6). rather" the on (in m.c. also "but, contrary,
;
"
"perhaps"
^A.
(videl).
) V
chu*
(class.)
"when, because,
since
"
;
vide (8)
and
(11).
ujja.
c^ww. (m.c.)
Uf
amma
"but"
;
(vide 9
and
5).
gar
3 (class.) "and if"; vagarna &>j (class.) "and if not, otherwise*'; Vagar and ar j\ poetical ; agar chunanchi Aawli*. j* and chunanchi *?^^ are also
' *
if .
"
In English the conditional conjunctions are it', (old Eng. and prov. an), unless, so (when it means if only), and but (meaning unless).
Provided
*
that,
Or
varlikin
v^j
(m.c.), or
va-amma
l*lj (m.c.), or
va-ya ^j
(class.),
often va an-ki
*&f .j:
3
" as for
^l or manki
Chunki
Or bl-juzjr&u.
In m.c. j*.
isJjS-
Chun
also
" when, how, and because." c chun means "like," as in 'Amdlri padishah safar-i darya-aat " ** (Sa'di) office is like a journey by sea."
pronounced chu
ore/it.
*^^-
340
ct*j
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
pas "consequently." "afterwards."
(class.)
**> ba'd
qu
ku
> I
,
"although"
vide (10).
(vide 11).
(m.c.)
&A. chi
^
A^.
*J
13
chi
chi
"
"
(vide 11).
&
ta
}
na
na "neither
nor"
(vide 4).
*?
lei
Conjunctions in English are chiefly of adverbial origin. for instance, is an adverb as well as a conjunction.
Remark.
'
Also,'
went where he was " " when he had gone I said," etc. ^o.c or "con(2) The rule for the pronunciation of the vdv-i 'atf it is if which connects form one that two words notion, together junctive^," or connects words generally coupled together, or two verbs having the same subject, or nouns co-ordinate governed by the same verb, it is pronounced
;
There are two principal classes of conjunctions: 'co-ordinate,' which connect clauses of equal rank, and subordinate,' which connect a subordinate or dependent clause to the clause on which it depends, as: "I
'
u,
and
Examples
;
Shab-u-ruz
age"
tang-u-kushdd
word that precedes it: in other cases, it is " sinn-u" night and day )j) j v** " " 8 loose ^^ 3& or
:
(too) tight
(too)
pidar-u-mddar j^Uj )*$ "father and mother"; dmad-u-raft o*Jj j came and went"; but darakht-hd va bdg^-hd va bul~bul-hd va khdnajdt
<wf "he
" the j l^eb j J pddishdh va nawkardn &jj*j fc^'j king " ' ' dmad va madar va pisar *j~j ) j^U mother and son and his servants ba d az yak hafta raft cujj A&gj 31 A*J^ vof " he came and after a week went
olsola*
j UjLjJb
V^P
<
away."
Also after a vowel, and generally after a silent the j is usually as: va sabu surdhi va burida (or u) dukhta pronounced va, (^f^* ^ jfbanda va bdbi u Also *^5 j dqd. sufi-garl ^J* ^^c $ ^jb, or bdbi-gari
,
va sufi-gari
visi
<jg
^?* )
LS/
LT?^?-
The^ may take the place of a colon or comma, etc., thus for veni; vidi; " dmadam u didam u giriftam p& ) p&>* j (*^f Td ^ is used for "and" in English, when the second verb expresses
.
first
vide (12).
that, until."
Also ta
&$
13
It
is
also some-
times optional to give either pronunciation according to the idea in the speaker's mind. 8 Note that j is sometimes used in Persian, when in English we say or.
4
Or madar u pisar
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
is
341
to certain conjunctions,
*$\)jj
as
Si
va
ammd
ilia
' '
Uij (or
amma
U|
va likin
"
)
but,"
etc.
} va
" otherwise.
At the end
of letters
va's-salam signifies " and for the rest, good-bye." In m.c., the conjunctions are often omitted; hence short phrases or verbs are, in speaking, often entirely unconnected.
(&*JU.
dmad va
gul-l
jt
o**o^
as
bachcha
j <Wf &su
the child
came with
In such sentences, as: yak pin u sad bimdri tsJ+# x*o ^ this " the vdv of vdv-i called is ) fo &y~> tasviyat ( conjunction equality," the
^j ^
is
Sometimes j
(
is
equivalent to yd
lasts
"
;
L?
it is
x3j3jlj
).
5
o^U jjxw
In,
(Sa'di)
but for
five or six
1
.
days only."
man u
Ifiarj-V sf
" I to refuse wine? what on earth are you saying?" the conjunction is but in man va in kdr Khudd na-kunad called vdv-i istighrdb ^fjix-f
*&
is
sl*Juo!
?^
).
This
is,
of
In
Jj-; Jf
cjL*l,i
c^^ ^ t^
J^w
;j
^r ^
the conjunction is WMM luzum daman ^y !** is ?a2*m ^V and malzum f)H#.
&(
(f^f^j^l
dfosZ
:
o^,> and
Another example
^ U*A
Jt
y p
" From the bone
In terror of
'
JU,
as"
St. 3.)
its life it
fled
and cried
Could I escape this archer's hand, I'd dwell Content with mine and the old woman's cell '."
He
(East. Trans.)
In
J^*^
pt^*
*x?T
l-
is
perhaps the
*
In
the^ is called vav-i mu'dvazdt or the "vav of compensation." As already stated in 43 several adjectives qualifying the same noun
are linked to
it
izdfat.
the cat.
342
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
and If, however, several adjectives follow a noun, the iza/ats are omitted, the conjunction ^ generally precedes the last only, as shakhs-ibud 'dqil, dana,
:
J5U ay c^aiui (m.c.) "he was a man, The > however, may be inserted intelligent, wise, clever and active." between all the adjectives, as: ba'd az an didam-ash zan-khwdsta va bikh-i
hushydr u ziring ^-&>jj .j^Ay*
lit a
,
c^Jt
<>*>
I saw him married, and a^j ^iUJ with a family, and the root of his joy severed, and the rose of his happiness withered."
The
by^, as:
Shakhs-l
bud
'dqil
u ddnd, hushyar u
raft
ziring
Uf^ JiU
Compound words
and the two portions
to
fall
like
dmad-u
oJj ^
<*x>f
at the
end
of a line, the
word
raft
some corner, and not carried on to the next line. In other cases, if the conjunction va j fall at the end of a line it is written, not as the last of that line, but as the first word of the following line, the conjunction
of it, or in
it,
Remark 7. The first noun, verb, or phrase preceding the *-&* (i.e. the copulative conjunction) is called <*jJU ojk**>, and the nouns, verbs, or phrases following the first j are called oy*>.
o^
^
tic
Remark
II.
Vav 3
is
1
also
an Arabic
va 'Hah*
"by
Allah.
"
;
particle
used in swearing, as
ham andar zdman (3) Ham p* "too, also, even" j*J\ p* (class.) " at this (or that) very time " qadr-i ham nazdilc-tar j&ty f* <*$)** (m.c.) " " ham bi-dih bi-Nisd LJ dj " then (emphayet a little nearer 55^ (m.c.)
^j
merely) give
(I)
it
to Nisa
"
:
m ham
p*>
^t "and
this is
>J
.
Fwfealso
89
(7).
Remark.
Particles
signifying
"also"
o^-
In English also
(4)
is
"Or, nor,
neither,
KJ^u?
khatar-ast,
2
*^t^
^ j
j^X
^^
;j ) j&~ sim u zar dar safar mahall-i o**|jta, va bi-barad va yd khwdja bi-tafdnq bi-khurad
whether."
cU^
(Sa'dl)'
"
the robber
and makes
it
silver
off
with
and gold on a journey are a source of danger, for 8 it at one sweep, or else the owner (or merchant )
himself finishes
by degrees."
t*^,
is
used in
m c.
vide (2).
*
8
"wire." Note pronunciation of va ya ^j and f*^ Formerly only merchants braved the dangers of travel.
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
343
"
He
ra Gujt chashm-i tang-i dunyd-ddr khak-i kunad Yd qand'at pur gur (Sa'dl). yd can fill the covetous eye of the wealthy, said
nothing
But contentment or the dust of the grave." and mod.) Khwdh dar razm Wiwah dar bazm >* W^ fj; ;> !A (class, khwdh khwdh mabut *\j^ >. council' in the "whether in the field or
&
'
or na-khwdh siysJ (class.), or khwdh-u ma- khwdh tff** j *>^ " nolens khwdhl volens," vide Adverbs. L^L*^ (class.)
or khwdhl na-
^\^^
1
&j
<^t *>
"neither this
,
nor that."
In
poetry
^ ne (Afghan)
tdb-i vasl
or
nay
Nay
''neither
dar am
ne,
taqat-i judd*i
myself."
'Urn hdsil shud yd na, likin bi-man fa* ida-i mi" ^ L *& d^l^ well, rasid&*tjxo loJl? ^^ i\^ |yi^U ^f (m.c.) whether that poor ignorant learnt or not, I learnt something": magar %n
^J
ma'lum na-bud ki ishdn dtash rd dida dar kishtl nishasta bi-taraf-i an raftand, yd an ki qabl azshikastan-ijahdz kishtl shikasta bud,yddnkimardumdn-i jahdz-i dlgar kumak bi-dnhd karda budand, yd ba'd az sawdr shudan-i kishtl db-i pur zur-l anhd rd burda bud
"At
Remark.
the last
we must go from
this world,
*.) are called Vj*. Disjunctive conjunctions ( U or jblJLfr oj>^. In English these are also styled "alternative" and are a subdivision of adversative conjunctions.
* *
man &* Jf he asked every one except me," (or bi-juz az man ^/
(5)
Az hama
**Vv or^***^!
(m.o.)
jt^su, or H-ghayr az
man
fi'l
J*i jf
^f>R^ ^5*1^ (m.c.) "whether you like it or not, it's Persian who sees a didl ? Na J ^cx;,^ a proverb, said to a ^ ****) though he did not see it (dida ra na-dida kardan &*? *<^
\)
makes as
trouble.
The
tribes
The mullas say that naml-danam f\**+> is nisf-i 'Urn f* or bi-t&qat <^*U The lover becomes bt-tab
^^
when he
344
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
jf
^o
j***).
Juz in chdra-i
nist
is
no other course
but this."
dar sdya-yi dawlat-i khuddvandi hamkundn rd rdzi kardam magar hasud rd ki rdzl nami-shavad ilia bi-zavdl-i ni'mai-i man (Sa'dl) : J^ J e^;a <*^/t agarchi dar in kar dil-i man mdyil na-bud magar chi kunam
j Si
]
p&
"
still
The Adversative Conjunctions express difference, antithesis, In the sentence "he is honest but foolish," but is an cantrariety, etc. Adversative Conjunction and the whole proposition is called an " AdversaRemark.
tive
Proposition."
But,
yet,
however, etc.,
make an
arrest or restriction
of thought
and are
called'
"Arrestive Conjunctions."
By
Eastern gram-
marians,
may be
nifying
conjunctions signifying "but" are called ^\)*^\ *~*jj^> which translated "particles of emendation," while conjunctions sig1
"moreover, rather, nay rather," are called vLr* izrab " particles of turning from, adversative particles."
(6)
^j^
huruf-i
cwj>^ ^iu
31
a>&
Ujiu
^As^^J\
A^UA. chundnki
khurdan (Sa'd!) " for instance, if a person go to a tavern to pray, nothing else will be attributed to him, but that he goes to drink wine" J&\
^
I
f*iL>
1^0
xix
^*v
man
na~
hlch vaqt
them have fallen into coll.) in qadar na-khurda budam* ilia m hold
of
" most
this vice,
but
have
to;^so
j^J! oJj
^/b.
^1
jff
bi-yak
ddam
^
e^f
^*
"
:
(m.c.)
"I have
never eaten as
much
as I
sar-anjdm-i
chara-i no-bud
3?" Mj ty ;t^d;l^ (^Jt ^6(^ (*^f c^x (m.c.) "to accomplish this by means of one man was a difficult matter, still there was no other b remedy": dar in *arsa ba'zi ruz barish nami-shud ilia aksar mi-bdrid y!;b ^x jfS\ ^f o,^ ^(t A^ ^jz (Afghan coll.) "at this
1)^-
^ ^^
period there were a few days that it did not rain, still (or however) it imruz bi-yak sukhun pish-i tu mi-ayam 6 ilia harf rd pish-i generally did rain'
' ;
1
'
Kharabat
In modern Persian ham qatjar jUw /*<>. Ham-kun (^^A is obsolete. oU t^- " a ruin, a tavern; a brothel." Wine was sold generally in ruins.
' '
Kharabatl cP^ly^
Sufis.
s
a haunter of taverns.
' '
4
6
ff
ld)j&J,
^J^
for
M for
**>
ilia
>.
tftf
<>
In m.c. substitute
vail
>
or ammo, ^1.
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
kas na-guyid AJUJ&
coll.)
tell
345
j^j
o^ ^Ji 3
^f
^y J^-u ^~
tell
j^t (Afghan
"to-day
come
to
you, but
any body."
(7)
For
balki
*L "moreover"
and
<*) (2).
ab
KU
and
(7Mw (or chunki ) urd didam shddshudam f* iLi^^d^f (,**^- or) " when I saw him, I was glad " u in amr rd kard chunki ( or chun) (m.c.) " he shumd rd dust mi-ddsht o^f^/o o*^^ tjl+ ( e^a. or ) *^>t;^l ^1 ^t
(8)
:
In
&>
^^ ^
you must act implicitly chun (i.e. you must not ask why and wherefore)." Bi u chand i s an of the Also bi-chun Deity. epithet
i^AL* ^| (m.c.)
chird
p& Uo
bi-chun
" and introduce the principal clause agarchi ma bdz (or ammd, magar, likin, or vali) sdhil-i daryd bi-nazar nami-dmad s^j>\ ^f uP>J** ^.)* cU-L* ^j b ,^J .^Xx) U( ) Jlj^j^jjj^^ ^ (m.c.) " though we were
"
magar'jLe, likin ^J, vail and bdz Jb "yet, again." These frequently
(9)
Ammao),
^ and
:
itta*
"
t
but, still"
6
answer to
agarchi
although
it, still
"
bud ammd amvdj taskin na-ydft^^^ ^l^o| &\ ty *'i>~<^ jj* l>* *^l calm "; become theseadidnot thewindhad "although dropped, o~t o^agarchi khildf karda ast bdz ddam-i khub-i'st (m.c.) "although he has not acted rightly, still he is a good man."
^V
^^
(m.c.)
^ ^>
)
*^
(10) (a)
Gu^
"
&&
"saythou,"
is
common
or "although."
Or bl-chun u chand
oat
chand
^
***$ e^^- ^. In qlmat-l ki bi-shuma guftam bi-chun u * it*less." -^^l l^J j &j*. &?.\(m.c.) "I won't take In modern Persian ammo, anci faz Jb are preferred after agarchi &*-jrl', the
^^
M
^^?
Afghans use
3
ilia Sll and the Indians magar j& and ta ham ^^. Or harchand ***;*> or harchand-ki ^ia.^A 55 wa/-i SwH *^>f
,
-^^> or halanki
4^*f^:U
example,
Atiy^,
or ba-vujud-lki
*&&j>jk
M>*
or ba-vujud-i anlci
*&(&*>& t&
ba-anki
these signify
/n dunya
gii
' '
ma-bash
o^U^y
^|
(m.c,)
(it
346
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
Naqsh u nigdr u khdtam-i firuza gu ma-bash (Sa'di). Suppose the pure-hearted and unworldly darvish Have neither dole of bread nor morsel begged in charity.
Suppose the lady with figure and face Have neither adornment nor jewels, (i.e. what matters it?)."
^ *^H^T dnhd-l &> fj L^f |^ |3^ txi^j <y j*-t \> j Khudd rd shukr! ki dnhd rd asir-i khud dldim va gu hamisha bi-bimm (rare m.c.) " those who used to carry us off captives, praise be to God, we saw them our captives and may we always so see them." Gu bi-ydyad **\*^ " let him come."
j ^jj.Ji j^L^xyot ki
md
rd aslr mi-burdand
Remark
In m.c., ku
is
Shumd
chird ghussa
mi-khurid ki u mi-mirad, ku bi-mirad *j*& j> *j M (rare m.c.) ''why are you sorry that he is dying, it matter to us (we don't like him)
'
:
^^ he does
if
(b)
say,
The 2nd Person Singular of the Aorist " " one would say ? and hence " like
:
gu*i
Har
Gu^i
"Yon
margin of the stream, As down upon a Cherub's lip might seem." (0. K. b 2 Whin).
turf, fringing the
In modern Persian gufti would ordinarily be used for gu*i *a. Chi &* chi bar takht murdan chi bar ru-yi khdk o*iu (11) chi,
(
^^
ij>
Chi
HA.
c;iyo (Sa'dl)
"what "
:
matters
the same) to die on a ** " whether chi durr chi sadaf vJ<x* **it (it is
all
and in modern u bar dshubad (chi hargiz chundn harf-hd-yi bi-parvd bi-gush-ash na-khurda bud) asar-i khushnudl az chihra-ash numdydn shud^^-J^j^ *^- )^^f ^.^ c^'^^J' *&$ ^^.yty* ^\ *~ ^bUi (jSl^t^ 3t -cs^^y^ J*\ ( (TranslaJ)>J tr? L$ *^J^
also
in
classical
Persian
Ammd
sarddr bi-jd-yi in
ki az bi-parvd^t-yi
t>^
tion Haji
Baba
Ch. XL).
A*',
by a pleonastic
I
as:
In m.c.cfo* A^, et because," is sometimes followed Anchi mi-guyam, bi-pazirid, chi ki gharaz-i bd shumd
"
after gu
i.e..
be.'
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
347
[better omit ki
^jf &
or
^ o^jJo
)
AJ
flA*
*^
(
&}
( *
act on
what I
to it
am
:
"
(*
telling
selfish object in
2
AAI^
*^*> or
*?& y*j~
[
shud)
= "do
this so that it
may
v-* ^r* *^ c^ L) ui * ro h r na-shavad (or mi-shavad or khwdhad not be a trouble every night": harchi
1
^> f~'
bi-guyam bi-khud ast chi s ki marhamat-i shumd bish az in-hd-'st p*j& **/*> " whatever I o*-i{Xjt jf ^JMAJ '^ o^*cw^o t$ AA. o**i ^=n.x> (m.c.) say is inadequate because your kindness
is
more than
I can express.'
'
In poetry chu sometimes stands for e^, and is often incorrectly pronounced both chi and chu. Sometimes A*, occurs for^^- in writing, but it is a mistake.
v U**l^f|
Clvd,
j e^t^/o
j'^ j
v li*T
ioJLj
oof jj tejj*-
Man u gurz
' '
(Firdawsl).
When
There
the sun
will
is high in the sky to-morrow be I and my axe in the field with Afrasiyab."
(12)
Td and
** $
id
and U
have
t>
tions
"up
:
"hitherto":
long reach
"? "
:
within, by": mjd $ "how G U p to the present": tdbi-kay " the 13 as far as td chashm kdr mlkunad <x6<j\<; eye can (m.c.) p&** (m.c.) nami-guzdram bi-ravi td na-gu^i mjd chi mi-kardi ^jj*
to,
until,
l^Juf
td bi-hdl
JUu
^*j**
(m.c.)
^^^
l*
ISLXJ|
^j&
l>
"I won't
let
you go
till*
f^*
"By
^3U
Ai;
the
time"
td ruz
:Td
I;
igjL.* sj>
;
"
ucti^.
(Sa'dl)
tj ; #} ^iJU* jj> b hearted man had gone a good distance": td ki khatt dnjd rasU fasl-i ** U (class.) (< by the ** d*f ***) &tetf gandum guzashtd bud time the letter reached, the wheat season had passed."
rawshan shud an idnk-dil mablagji-i rah rafta bud xi (Sa'dl) " by the time it was light, the blackcJo,b
^^ p
&
Sar-dard
*& ~ "headache,"
^ means
na
*>
trouble.
"
Or
3
ta-lnki
*>
and
stress should
*
bi-gu*i6
*^-.
Note na
"up
till
you do
alterins;
not." The
could be
omitted and
this
the sense. order that" Ta-ki *^13 also means "so that, in
348
' '
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
In order
that
that
to
AJ
"
:
guftam
ta
'
ta
bi-
farushand ***}* %***j*0* (and they j^jf U^iK took it) to the bazaar in order to sell it " khwast ta sang-l bar darad &~& (Sa'dl also m.o.) " he wanted to pick up a stone." This ta 13 with the negative has also the force of "Let not," as
; ;
:
Vin yak-dam
" Oh
let
brave compeers (0. K. 312 Whin). " And" ^ ~j [y c** j*& \)J ura bi-glr ta man turn yak tuman ^AX eA*y bi-diham (m.c.) " catch him and I'll give you a tuman 2 "; here j could
my
' '
13.
o^
(m.c.)
"as soon
as
he
arrived he said
."
Ta
Sit-i
ta
mahl
girift
"The moment
The echo
3
)
(or
of sovereignity
of his equity
and
justice resounded
'
Pish (on whose back the Earth rests).' The above was the inscription on the seal of the late Nasiru'd-Dln Shah
As a
substitute for
*>
"
"
:
^^ A^
o^
&ij
Ta chi khuram sayf u chi pusham shita (Sa'di). " Our precious life passed in the thought of what to eat in Summer and what to wear in Winter." ^so vu lg- m c Guftam bi-raw va bi-nigar ta klst *z~~v ^j&*) ( " I said, go and see (that) who is it."
'>
ld)
Kardan-i
U!
^^
(in.c.)
"it
is
better to
do
carried out
' *
;
ordered them
and they took if the Aorist bi-barand *ij> &> were (as it might be) used here, it would merely indicate that the order was given; it might or might not have been
carried out.
*
(in.c.)3
Or ura
bi-glr ;
man
tura yak
tuman ml-diham
Ta
This
is
13
s called
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
It is not
349
known
'
perhaps
7?i
Td sabza-yi khdk-i ma tamdshd-gah-i kist. " As now these flowerets yield delight to me, So shall my dust yield flowers, God knows for whom.'* " Have a care " bewars? (This meaning of td & is poetical)
1
;
:
.
XA
^4?/
Ta
*'
Oh
thou to
whom my
person appeared
mean
whip you."
This
is
Have a
Bi-bm
1 id turd na-zanam (m.c.) '* take care " Behold look here" ** Uf &*. 13 p\**j*
(Sa'di)
"now what
^45 long
fault
have
committed that
"
?
gundh karda-am ki
not the ta-yi
na-Tchur (m.c.
" and
class.)
as" #&* ^*> ^)\t> clfl* *$ 13 td ki s 'aql dan may "so long as you have sense, drink no wine."
: :
K'in zamdn panj panj mi-girad Td shuda Mu*min u Musalmdnd (Mush u Gurba).
"
that
now
Until:
Td
Since he has become a believing Muslim." 13 with or without the 123 (e). negative: vide
the
"How much
td chi
more"
**)
&*. $:
rasad
^^
how much more must the bulbuls." "that" has still more significations than td Ruz-i digar chun gdzl hama rd talabld va chub-hd
l>
:
^ ^^
\^
j]
cJ^f^f
rd did ma'lum
jjy
kard ki duzd
(m.c.)
sticks,
kist
^~~*t &)& tf
&j> (*^i*x3
***
l^a.
^ >jaU,
^ s+&
^m c?^ j^i
all,
he discovered who the thief was"; this *Z first is called kdf-i baydn ^ ) or kdf-i tafsir (j*~& o^ ) " the k of expounding.'
'
This
ta
is
called
ta-yi
tajahul
Lla
^.
Kist ^~**
for
ki ml-bashad
2 3
This
is
called
the
common
is
is
kitlagh-i
ablaq (jk\
e^
O^,
vid,e
Interr. Pron.
350
" Because"
kasrat-i iqdam-i
:
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
Ba
in
hama
budam
ki
I >
u bar
safk-i
dima mi-danistam
1
^<Wi^
Ui'lA.
cujUy y
1
(class.)
"in
1 stood in
great fear of
my
guard, because I
knew
his
excessive eagerness to shed blood" an pisar ra zadam ki mufsid bud tjj^J e/f zj *~&c tf (*^j "I beat the boy, because he was a mischief-maker." This
ki is
called
kaf-i
'illat
v^Ac ol<
or kaf-i ta'liliyya
*^A*$ J'<
>
" the
causative
K."
;
" When*
hargiz
if"
C5^
J d?^ e/f
3^
an zawq va shadi faramush na-kunam ki pindashtam ki gandum-i biryan-ast (Sa'dl) "never shall I forget my delight and joy when I fancied
it
was parched wheat " In ra mi-guft ki u dakhil shud & cU.'^ y " he was 8 saying this when she entered," this ki is called *sAtj& " &' when he had travelled Qadr-1 rah ki tay kard t5;v* (m.c.)
:
^^
jji;
a short way."
Sometimes
turd, ki
this
A*'
ki can
bi-Khan bi-dihim
be translated by ''if," as: Mi-danl khwdhar-i c< AJ *^ you know i^l^Af^L ^t^>o (m.c.) ^AH<V ^IL
give your sister to the Khan in marriage tive or Aorist after ** signifies supposition or doubt
that
if
we
"
;
kdf~i shartiyya
' '
What will you lose if at your You cast one kind glance, oh
distressful lover
cruel girl
"
ya
" Whether":
khurdast* ^~*1
^* ^^- ^
(Afghan) " about this island whether it was large or small C*f J^jb baz khayal kardam ki bala-yi kalak
:
^ C^ ^ ^ J^
4
:
ki in jazira buzurg
bi-ravam ya piydda az db guzaram (m c.) *' again I considered whether [direct " va ray-i ham-kunan narration] I should go there in the raft or wade there
'
dar mashiyyat-i Allah ta'alq ast ki savab ayad ya khata o^^xj^^ cjUx** <^\)j Ika. U i>,jf v y* *> o^-.f ^1*3 ^i (Sa'dl) " and it depends upon the will of
God whether
1
my
Note meaning
to signify
of ba-in
hama
blood)
excess:
kasrat-i
" dima 9 f*& " in spite of pi. (streams of substantives dam two rendered in if flA3f oy^
&*(
English by a substantive and adjective. Perhaps elliptically used for vaqt-l ki *^-J^ " 3 falling on anything unexpectedly, rushing upon unawares" Mufajal from " sudden death." oUlix J>j* marg-i mufajat
.
lJ
j*?***
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
wrong.
.
353
,^1X31 fJUL
* '
>Jf
Or "
7?i &&Ya&
ra mi'khwalii ki an ra tyf A^
want
or that?
"
c^l^i*
t;
^^ ^t
(
* '
*}*j o(<)
(t Man { Alavi-yam" 8 Sayyah-1 gisuvan* bar taft ki, *' Az hajj mi-ayam" va qasida-i pish-i va ba qafila-yi Hijaz bi-shahr dar dmad ki,
"Saying
that
"
malik burd
aiA>
j,'
ki,
"
Man
gufta
am
' '
}^^
&*UI
'?
3 4< a certain ^^ (Sa'dl) j^xj |JA^ ^ ^T <^ -^ )\ ** A.of traveller fingered his curls and said he was a descendant of 'Ali; he entered the city with the pilgrim caravan from Hijaz, and gave out that he had
*^
^ ^U
j pi^* L/
^^Lx*.
Mekka
pilgrimage
maqula
( *)J&AJ
ofc
" the
for
In the following, ki
is
*j
na
Na bulbul 4
Ki
Not only the bulbul on its rose is repeating His But each thorn is a tongue to praise Him."
Na
Ki
"
qand-i ki
arbab-i
My poems
men
eat,
called kaf-i
o() "the k
<{
of amplification or
the k of climax."
ki dar panja-yi
anha
a
3
c>t.y""~
Hijaz
Qaslda
^^
the Prophet.
is
an ode
or
direct
It sings best
350
l
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
" I had a *> *# J>j^ ;l*-o fy (Afghan) na-yuftam p&v lif &FUJ ;a great fear " lest I should fall again into their power correctly in m.c. khayll tars bud and bi-yuftam. Zan-i hajjdm az bim-i an ki dvdz-i u na-shindsad va bar an
:
<Wi> j jiyf
A&f
v^
C5~';^
^^ ***& J
ji
^(s^.
l<&k
barber's wife in terror lest he should recognize her voice and so " aware of what was going on, had not courage to answer (East. Trans.)]
u*Lr? a
I, St. 8)
"the become
Bar zamin-i
bl-farsh
nami-nishmad
i^ij fcjiSTjft. j\ ^t^-aU) tf *jai (m.c.) ^j9 ^j ^yoj the bare ground lest his clothes should get dirty."
ki
libdshd-yi
u chirkm bi-shavad
"he
does not
sit
on
Instead of *r
15,
Present Subjunctive, as
na-kunand
*xii&
^^
etc. Generally with a negative and the Sukhan-i yavana-khwaham guft ki mardum 'ayb-am ** if the *j^ ^a.** f&r* negative be omitted
< c
so that"
:
^^ ^\^
'illat
v^U
yava na-khwaham
^Af^w.i
mardum
o/
*ayb mi-kunand
(or bi-kunand)
f*j*
*' o*if
/j (^.iu.
doing"
while
**
ft>
JU=-
(m.c.)
4 '
I thought o/ going.
"
And;
"
:
.ffa/-* 'atf
-ftt*
o^
k"
Ki
'
(Gul.)
" Oh
11
Many the swift steed that has lagged behind, While (or and) the broken-down ass has reached the stage's end."
!
is
As; 8
just as
like
"
f;
f'^
J*** AJI^
cr^J *-^
l>
-^
t5^3
^^V
o'-^
Chundn rni-lchurad zangi-yi kham rd Ki zangi khurad maghz-i bdddm rd. Pleonastic *$ <*^l^ o^^st; o^t )* f^ *^ & td ki- jdn-am dar tan ast " Naml-ddnam as long as I live I'm ready to serve you." bi-khidmat hdzir-am <^~\ &*j Vf t or naml-danam ki dya rafta-ast yd na *i (m.c.) dyd raftapu*^ " I don't ^^- ***; ^f he has know whether ast yd ki naf^ *$ gone or ^'^ ^5^
:
lj
\*>
1 Mabada \t\**> could be substituted for **". Confusion regarding a negative verb after verbs of doubting and fearing, is not uncommon even in English for "I don't think he will come," English country people say, "I doubt that he will come," and " I doubt he won't come." In the example, the negative should be
:
omitted.
Similar
"as long
133.
as,
until," in
Persian
2
S
cf.
Baray-i tashbih.
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS,
not
' '
:
353
this
a*',
common
though occasionally inserted in speaking in Persia, and though and talking, is probably incorrect. After
:
mi-raw ^)j*
(ki)
t^
*&
*x*j$ (m.c.)
(
" he asked
(m.c.)
me where
nami-ddnam
^Jf^x+i
a*')
o^
pursid
(ki)
:
kujd
guft
"he
:
know":
'-aziz-tar
ddram
Native Grammarians
zinhar.
It
call this
a*',
&a/-i zinhdriyya,
and say
it is
equal to
may, however, be pleonastic. In m.c. Emphatic ** with Pronouns ***> man ki nami-ddnam pronoun: p*\***
:
/ don't know)
"
(but
<c
zarar-i ki
Uk
a*
^^
(m.c.)
it
phrase f&j (when about to start on a journey). gone Fatah 'Ali Shah on his death-bed.
won't do you any harm." " But" In m.c. a^, sometimes before a pronoun in a short phrase, has " in '* the signification of " but but he's dead." English t>j*> it j\ u ki murd " we're U md-ki The m.c.
: :
"
off,
we're
last
words of
In:
the ki
it zd*id.
is
emphatic or bardy-i
Ditto in az kujd ki
?
tahsin-i kaldm,
t
call
na-didam
Like
:
j\
'^^ ^>
)
^, the ki
(
is
called
kdf-i tashbih
AJ^>
<J
"the k
of similarity"
(
to misl
it is
musdvdt
et^L.x>
,Jl
oK
"the k
46
of equality."
"Comparison":
(d) (3),
of
&
instead of
jf
in comparisons, 1 vide
)
and(v)
(1)
(
&";
^& o
"the negative
fc,"
JK
stituted for
For
this particle
1.
o^
and
42.
Remark
dnki *&f
Ki
*>
forming compounds, as
etc.:
*&IU.
*
pas dngdh ki
*tf
af
j*>
(j^j
when,
after that
"
In
<wJb
^^
*&
*J
^ixj,^
l3^r (Gul.);
for
either
jf
or
can be
substituted.
*
For various
92 (d) (13).
23
354
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
<*&f
l#,
yd anki
dnchi
or yd dnchi
t(
man
*.** LJ*
in the
lei
*&$
^ j ^**l (3***
^'j^* UA *Jf
l>
(m.c.)]
same manner
as, etc."
Remark
Subjunctive
II.
is
In m.c.,
frequently,
&
if
them
man
introducing a subordinate clause in the not generally, omitted, as: bi-gu bi-ydyand
in interrogative sentences
:
(m.c.)
" what
^
,
my fault
Both
it
:
(that)
me
(for it)
is
"
^x^aj
Remark
guftan (jia,
III.
classically
and in m.c.
ki *?
when
"
&*. u nami-ddnist chi khwdhad-shud <m\js c^~Jt<*A*i^t (or " he didn't know what would after nami-ddnist o-Jf^j*i (m.c.) ) but in, chunin ahmaq bud ki nami-ddnist dsmdn bdld-yi sar-i u-st
t$ *y (3*^'
euphony's sake.
Ayd
is
LT "is
it
not?
as:
"
is
dyd
?
he standing or not
}
"
na?
&> *>
l>
o~*t
1
ali~j|
Lf
tr*-^ (^^
J
Ijf
*^ uV ^ *^ ^
5
uV J J ^
^
l
Jj& V^
is
Va
W
:
st ?
^' ^
<
f
he not
here
ast
"
'*
Ayd
also signifies
*Iji; (
"
whether," as
of
;
^ or)
nami-ddnam dyd
*'
^^\
know
AS
(
whether the
Ijf
^f^
L,
(m.c.)
I don't
know
l;f
whether he has
;l*/
o^U ^
1^5
$$
*A\yL
).
O^i U ^ji
^U) ^
89
^lu
tjf
J^UftjJ
^J
^j;
jl
JJ^j
As already stated in Interrogative Verbs, interrogation is usually expressed by intonation or gesture dyd ^f is rare in m.c., magar j*
j^jjl^t
f^
generally taking
1
its
place; vide
(?) (8).
as follows:
(m.c.)
am*
I go or don't go
"
p&j
^ ^-A*)
"
(lit.
my
92.
alike).
Compound
Conjunctions.
:
(a)
Compounds
of
if
not, otherwise.
Ya
shuma ml-ravam
(m.c.)
or I'll go."
*
8
4 *
is
better omitted
vide Pleonastic *
in
(13).
it is
In India ay a ^f can begin the sentence, as all same whether he goes or not.
' '
Note negative
infinitive
(^*y
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
m.c.
vali
355
) J although.
a-^y
garchi
*
y
"I
m.c.
(obs.)
o^K Ms&
mc
aK
4*^
kashi
JkasM*
may
it}
baPP en
'
m.c. cX
H0ft&
vide, (6).
m.c.
m.c.
yj
Jj
va-law, even
is
perhaps,
m.c.
91
(6) (7)
and
89
(k) (2).
(6) (8).
A%^
91
(obs.) e>5
(6)
(obsolete).
<A>
The optative word kashki, etc. Persian followed by the Past Habitual
U*J
o^ or
8
l*^
o^
) is
in classical
is
tense,
future or
past: kashki sa'adat-i shahadat daryaftami ^^^.)^> &d^* o^l*^ (class.) " oh, would that I could obtain (or could have obtained) the happiness of martyrdom." Kash <J% or kashki ^^K, etc., can be preceded by ay, as:
^\^
i^jj
cj^i^ojf
^l^
^&&
^l ay
"Ah! would
K. 442 Whin.)
In modern Persian, however, the Imperfect is generally used for future, and the Pluperfect for past, time kashki mi-amad <wf ^>\^ (m.c.) "would that he would come" (also had come), but kqah-fo dnja manda
:
(t
" would that I had remained there budam pty )fiJU IsoT (and (m.c.) not come here)." The Aorist can in modern Persian be also used as an Optative Future,
^|
as
kash bi-yayad
(c)
" ^(^ (m.c.) would that he would come." Conjunction and Preposition, etc.
x;Uj
:
m.c.j-su
m.c.
bi-juz,
excepting.
Also kaj
(old).
Jal* " I have erred, misstated," and nay nay Occasionally ghalat. kardam f$j> " " balki of Bal Jj, balki *&?. the *&>. no no, place t> <y supply
2
S
This tense
to
;
is
^jf^^t ^S!
the prefix
(the ya of repeated
(class,
action)
the Preterite
this
tense
may
also take
t
ml
me) of the
Imperfect
*
'*
Ru-yi-ham
the prefix is usually dispensed with. j\ and kashki one on the of another pusht-i sar-i ham p*> j<*> v^u ^3) top " sar-i ham /*^ ham
' ' ' '
^^^
j*> contiguous
' '
ru-yi
rafta
ham
/**
^j) on an average.
,
356
m.c.
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
|*A
Ji*
misl-i
ham,
alike, the
same.
m.c. p* j* v^u> ftusht-i sar-i ham, one behind the other. (Indian) p* $ ta-ham, nevertheless.
(d)
prepositions,
AC*.
and pronouns
A har chi
har chand
notwithstanding
.
.
all
in spite of
however
har chand ki
i?
lij
much;
)
vide (1).
bind
barm
6ar 5
of
*.in ki
.
vide (2).
tj
zira
"^
tyi zira-ki
V therefore,
t
because; wrfe
(3).
AS"
t^a.
- ^ C^tVa
Jt
chira-lci
J
&z *^ yt/^
for this
m.c.
o^ ^j|
^
^jj!
.c.
ozinrtt
reason; therefore;
vide
m.c. t^f
c5-tj?3f
az baray-i In
[
ro'efe
(3).
mod.
|3J
li-za
31 ^jS.^
>?s7z-
m.c. *Sof
az
an
ki, before
that
vide (4).
(4).
m.c. a&Tjt **> ba'daz an ki, after that; wde vide (5). m.c. **w (^o raw 6a'd, afterwards
;
m.c.
0*"$** si-pas,
afterwards.
m.c. *$
^31
2 bas ki,
1
inasmuch as
since (causal)
\
/
from much
vide (6).
khuldsa
&ar
t
well, in short.
m.c. m.c.
45-;^
ACjjjja.j
ba-vujud-i-ki
8
in
m.c. A&J|
m.c. A*A
m-A;i
J
i
although
(8).
while
vide (7)
and
m.c.
*^/
although;
agarchand
w?e (7)
and
(8).
(class, only)
^i^f
Misl, adj.,
Lit.
is
in
Arabic a noun.
baz.
* 8
"The
story," Ar.
Can be answered by
Garchi poetical only.
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
m.c. &$ ^j^yk karchand-ki ' harchi A.a.yfc
m.c. *$
t-^jf
~"i
357
m.c.
Juejlj
lj
bd vasf-i In ki or
^vide
(9).
m.c. a&iusj
bd-vdsf-t ki
fcy>
'
or
*tfj& 9
hargdh or hargdh
ki,
whenever; in m.c.
if,
wde
(10).
dam,
(class.
and m.c.)
<J^
.
1^13^ az-aw
ki
m.c. m.c.
j^le
e^ 4^ hamin
tawr, while
vide (25).
~]
c)^ hamdn
J-as
soon
as,
m^e
(12)
<a]
J
r
as soon as
chandanki*
chanddnchi
however much
.
:
not;
**
^
H <
withstanding
as long as
as
m.c. r
m.c.
mc
.
were
> vide (16).
m.c. ^JlLa- chundnki, as for example 8 that m.c. tawr~i-ki, in the manner
A;J>
vide (17).
fact
is
the
th
m.c.
m.c. ^t^'^ vdngahi (pronounced vungahi),
besides.
that;
whereas;
h;
notwithstanding;
more than
all,
beyond that,
m.c. *Q)j*>
)& dar
surat-i-ki,
vide (19).
all
(20).
(21).
In m.c. az-an
ja-i-ld
2
3
The use
of
chandanki
&}***
for
"as soon
as
"
is
classical only.
the
In English the comparative conjunctions are just as, in than, as (preceded by a correlative), etc.
4
same measure
as, as if,
*&^ j.
*> e/T
J lak )
or
#f JU.
^.
358
(class.) j*$\ cujl^i
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
u nihayat 'l-amr, at last; vide ta-ham ^ nevertheless; vide (23).
~\
(22).
(Indian)
p*>$
m.c.
tcLxx)
mabada
tars-i-lci
m.c. *x*yjt az
j
.
Mest; vide
'
(24).
*r
ta-kina
m.c.
m.c. *'
jrt
#*nra
H or *
giram
>
supposing that
vide
78
(6).
H
(1)
Harchand
l
^'^j*>,
harclii
A^*
Harchandki
*$
(or
ai^*
or) A^/*>
*^
(*-^
(m.c.)
"in
however much)
listen to
)
my
' (
advice";
harchand (or harchi) tangtar bihtar J^ y&o ( A^y> or ^^A the narrower the better": harchi (or harchand) zudtar bihtar jty j**jj ( ^J^A or) *^r* "the quicker the better." Harchi tamamtar A^.,A "as much
y^U
as
amadam
az pish-i
cA*J j' f^^T ^^jjy^Uii &^j& cu/oi^lj (m.c.) "I came out from with a regret, exceedingly great." Harchi &^y*> "in the same manner," " the one as harchi in mt-zanad an mi-raqsad ^-*^ <^j^ e^f ^j* (m.c.)
his presence
:
of
his
bar yUj, or bina bi "having regard to, with regard man bina s bi-bad-raftariha-i ki dar ayyam-i iqtiddr nisbat bishugjil-i vizarat-ra
^j AJ
li>
^^
^^
*J
o-*-*J
;!^'t ^j\
i^'U^UJ;
U-**-* cU-^ *;^ j> *N?y -^~f <^ 3^ ^^ 3' j*J* -5 (m.c.) fj ^;'3j with due regard to (bearing in mind) your ill deeds done 5 by you towards the peasants and subordinates, must not again entrust you with the office of
^o JlL^. "now I,
vazir
"
amma
bi-islah-i
man
^^ojt
(m.c.)
"but
(I)
ment
in the state
will
Indian and perhaps Afghan. In English the conjunction in this sentence could also be rendered by "notwith-
standing
3
"
or
'
although."
:
^k>
either an c/i
or
In (^f
follows, or
*
*&f
or Inlci *>ijf.
of the sentence,
&&j>
jjr*
"
birun
amadan ^-^^T
c^
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
' '
:
359
hold maqsud-i mard ddnistid ; bind bar an na-bdyad tajdvuz anything from me kunid ** jjl^J jjljj &\j> tw AxL-Jt^ tyo aj.,aaA> $(s* (m.c.) "you have now
understood my object; you must therefore not exceed your instructions'*: bindbardnkiman khddim-i qadimi-yi shuma hastan dnchi 'arz ml-kunam 'ayn-i
maslahat ast c^^ULAx) ^.c ^>* (jc^e A^f *.w& U^ C5 *J^> p&^ (^o *if y lx> " c>**t (m.c.) "because I am your old servant, what I tell you is quite right nazar bar in ki shuma marhamat na-ddrid man tark-i khidmat mi-kunam
:
{A&jo
e^xo^^y
(^x) jj;i<xj
o**^A3
U^
because)
*&)\j)j&> (m.c.) "with regard to this on me, I will leave your service."
(i.e-
Remark.
Chird-ki
&$
^
tell
Man
*
.
shukhun rd bi-shumd
U-o fj^suc^f
^.yo
;
mi-guyam
L
I;
" I (m.c.)
^f
t^a.
+?,}&**>
you
this because
tj-^-
you are a trustworthy person" Af cui^ u rd cfhayrat 1 girift ki chira C-^AC };_)
(m.c.)
;
jami'-i
mardum
fond of this
' '
girl
[^
after *S
direct
:
narration,
saying that
everybody fond of this girl ? ") az in jihat (or az in ru, or az in sabab, or az bdrdy-i in] man bi-shumd guftam ki digar gird-i in khaydl na-gardid
"
why
is
J^ (i^
x>^
idea."
further
<&* tjSj&& p** c^y j' or ^A- ^tjt or j) (^j\ or ) OA^X*)! this reason I told you this, that you should not think (m.c.) "for
J
(
*'
on the matter;
u
I told
you
this,
so that
this
Lihdzd
tifJ
: 1
ki nihdyal-i mihrabdni
11
rd bd
man
man ham
bd u mihrabdn' hastam pS*~* I? or tV O ld <tf* ^ b ^jv* ^V he is exceedingly kind to me, I too (therefore) am kind to "since (m.c.)
^j^^ ^
him."
Remark.
(4)
are called
^^ 05^ or
3'
bi-ydyam
u rd didam
'
'
:
u*^^ (m.c.)
driz
shud
u*;^
(m.c.)
"
^^ ^i^ ^j^>
I
(jo.^^ U^
after I left
you
Ghayrat OJAP
is
a good quality
ghayrai-i
Note
this m.c.
pronunciation of
mihrban
religious zeal.'* mazhabi if**** &J& the Afghans also say mihraban, but
"
360
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
Remark.
after that
'
is
before that
'
Min
ba'd A*J
" ^$>tf kunid jjj^;Ui)^Y **j up till the present what*^.y> ^13 (m.c.) ever has happened has happened, but for the future do better."
^ ^
jf
Td Mia
minba'd
bihtar raftdr
(6)
Az
bas ki
A^ \Az
told
"I
him
Jt>
o^
ji (Indian)
inasmuch as
men
cling to this
jd-i
ki
**&ttWfjt, or bind bar In ki *i*]j> &, or zird ki **t/ij, or az in sabab ki **", or az jihat-i an ki *^>f >&^*>j\ etc., could be substituted.
t
mi-gazam u ah mi-kasham chu Atash zadam gul bi-tan-i lakht lakht-i khwlsh
(Hdfiz).
Jt
az 6as ki
atrdf va javdnib-i vay fard girifta
l
gham va anduh
az
va mihnat-i
ambuh bar
V.,
St.
2.)
man az suhbat-i dil dushvdr-tdr nlst (Anv. Suh., Chap. "and inasmuch as grief and melancholy have usurped every
its limits,
2 and a throng of troubles have overrun it, more hard for me to bear than the society of nothing
and"
Az
my
heart
(East Trans.). bas ki A&-J jf in Indian Persian often corresponds to the English
as,'
'inasmuch
and
differs
little
it
from
is
'
because
'
a great deal," as: Az bas ki muntazir-i shumd nishashtam khasta shudam " I waited for <x AA~^ ^ you such a long time that ^i^Av U^^fexxx> A&.-J y (m.c.) I got tired." Man zabdn-am muy dar-dvurd, az bas ki bi-in nasihat kardam l*^/ osiJj-A) ^jl a*o^f ^yf j& ^^o ^iy ^/o (m.c.) "hair grew on my tongue, from continually warning him." Bd vujud-i ki urd nasihat kardam na-shanid (7) Bd vujud-i ki A^^^IJ:
^^ ^ osu^.i
1
aXj^A-jb (m.c.)
listen." In
{<
this
^
S
"It"
= "my heart."
by 3
This, as well as other words signifying " although," can often be answered
or Uf
*
Or
ba-vasf-l ki
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
or agarchi
361
or hdl-dn-ki *
&\,
or
harchi
*^j-
A
,
or bd-inki
A&JI
l>,
or har chand ki &^ <^j*>, could be substituted without materially altering the sense.
The
(8)
obsolete agarchand
<^^( would
give the
same meaning.
Agarchi *^/t
Bd-vasf-i
agarchi u murd
ammd
*/
^1 *=?
o~oJ
w~\ ^s^
(m.c.)
"
^\
although he died,
it's
no matter of sorrow."
(9)
mki
*&'|
--;
l>
Bd-vasf-i
m ki bi-shumd sifdrish
(jfytiu
kardam
b (m.c.)
"
o^^j ftf
U&
*&>t
Juj
[or
hdldn
yet you acted against what I told you," instead of bd vasf-i in ki *i.!t Jt*j b ]. (vide 18) (10) Hargah&j* in m.c. has usually the meaning of "if": Hargdh
many times,
ki
*&f Jl^
bi-shumd na-gufta budam haqq bd-shumd bud oj U^ (3^ " if I had not told would have in been the (m.c.) you, you
lj
fd^?
AiAJo
'
l*^ *fyk
'
right.'
'
Classically
it
'
'
if
whenever
without substantially altering the meaning har-gdh yddgdr-i shumd Ichwaham did shumd rd ydd khwdham kard Ijl*^ ^>[^ fj U^ ^^b " whenever I look at 1 z>j$ >L| (class.) your keep-sake, it will remind p*\j&*
rd
!f>*
me
:
of
you."
(11)
Az
vaqt-i-ki *&*5j y, az
an gdh
ki **
&f jt,
az an
dam
ki
& j*^f
31
urd dida-am hdl-am digar-gun-ast & j*& jl f*** \) j\ **\ (m.c.) "since I have seen him I have been either of the upset" quite
vaqti-ki
Az
^^
*^
could be substituted
"As
time when/'
dmadam, u raft ^+*j y j*^of *^MA " as soon as I he went." (m.c.) came, Davd khurdan hamdn, murdan hamdn&{+* &*j> c) ** ^i)y^ l,?a (m.c.) as soon as he took the medicine he died." Bi-mahz-i* khurdan-i davd murd
;
soon as." Hamin-ki* *XWA (m.c.) hence " as soon as" hamin-ki
elliptical for
c *
*'
^
(m.c.)
merely by taking
(i.e.
medicine, he died
(m.c.);
"
;
murd
&j*
13*
Jkl
or bi-mujarrad-i
*j*>
yj*> \^ *^|d/fUJ
(m.c.)
In m.c. har-vaqt
*^*$j j*>
would be substituted
for
liar
gah
*^
an(i
the
Khwaham
did
But haman
'
lei
shuma dldld man haman ra dldam f*i haman ki *&Ud> cannot be used
:
for
Mahz-i
kjiatir-i
shuma
(+
" in m.c. mahz c^^i o^sx+j " at the mere sight of you oUAU is frequently used for baray <^\j* as mahz-i mulaqat-i u anja raftam ^ "I W ent In dava mahz-i khurdan va malidan-aat there to him": see Uuf ptij " this medicine is to be taken and
mahz-i dldan-i tu
:
t :
j&-
(je-^uc (m.c.)
"merely
to please
you";
6t-
internally
externally."
362
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
died.'
'
andm.c.)."
kW
Mujarrad *>M>
signifies
properly
"
stripped, bare
"
;
also a
" bachelor
' ' ;
" on a mere bi-mujarrad-i gumdn e>U^ tj^+> suspicion, merely on suspicion." Chanddn ki a&f<\U> also sometimes signifies " as soon as," vide (13). " as (13) Chanddn ki *i|jj^ "as soon
l
:
*^**)j (s^j**.
-
gtipfih
(>U>*sj)& j&> j\ J&I&XA* chanddnki az nazar-i darvishdn " as soon as he was concealed from the gasht bi-burj-i bar raft (Sa'dl) sight
i
' '
:
^^ *~^l*
chanddnki pds-i az shab bi-guzasht a " as soon as a watch of the ^M (Sa'dl) night was passed." " However much'' " spite of all A&I^ Axf ^
^b
' '
^5U.;b
*$-
dmad ; chanddnki
talab kard
house of a certain pious person; however much he searched (in spite of all his search) he found nothing guft zdhiddnrd chanddn-ki talab kardam na-ydftam *i*V ^-^ *^f^ tyi^^tj ^*^
chiz-l na-ydft (Sa'dl)
"a
' '
j*^/
(Sa d!)
t(
he said,
'
in spite of
all
my search
'
who were
' '
recluses."
Iftj ^b ^ oy \) Jli. ^t3J^. chandanki khdk rd buvad u Ij bad rd baqd (Sa'dl) " as long as the Earth and the Wind exist."
^4s long'1 as
"
/C)j **W
o^f &\Ljj t^^ ^JLfe ^i ^J^ ;^ fy *$jf^ia. chanddnki mard dar haqq-i In tafifa-yi khuddf^ ^yi jjj) u irddat ast in rd 'addvat-ast u inkdr (Sa'dl) *'as shukh-dida parastdn iqrdr,
:
^jS\ j cu~t
8>JA
much
fellow
as I like
8
nafrat-ast sad
td bi-ddni ki chanddn ki chanddn na-ddn rd az ddnd vahshat ast &)zbj\ \j li|i Axilla. ^\& $ SM! owi^-j Ufi y yi^li eJl*^ x o^t c^ii (Sa'd!) "so that you may understand that the ignorant man dreads the wise a hundred times as
:
this
body
of God-fearing
much
wise
as the wise
man
").
4
'
'
(lit.
that as
much
as the
man
man
man
to
" So much
such a degree
A&toVXa.
A)
^jwJ &'\>j>
^.j&J
v*~OJ
^A*
'
ep-i
fj>o
^ItXJtiO
Bi-diddr-i
mardum shudan
'ayb mst
Va
" There
is
likin
na chanddn ki guyand
bas
'
(Sad!).
no harm in visiting people, But not to such an extent that they exclaim
'
this
is
enough
V
mueh
is
chun e>^, is used instead. In modern Persian used in this signification in writing only:
This
is
" as
however much."
3
and English.
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
Remark.
Persian.
363
Chandanchi
<*sutxU. is obsolete
it
mayddn
khatti
sar bi-zadi va
mayl bi-nayza-yi
namudi
would
^
(14)
(Anvar-i Suhaylf)
off
to school, he
and appear
away
(Eastwick's Trans.).
" md-ddm-i-ki *^b U G " as long as " 2 ousjf ,*)&(*> ma-dam a-'l-hayat as long as life lasts. 3 Mudam *t&* is an adj. bachcha-yi man mudam " *&* ** little child cries
:
[Mdddma
(*tik
Ar.]
ma-dam
ki
(*^^,
md*ddm-t-ki
'
A^l^,
ta-
f\*
mudam ast
girya
mi-kunad
my
"he
"
is
always intoxicated*"
"
aioqat oU>^i f\&* (m.c.) (also perpetually or misl-i Inki *$'^ cjl (15) Guy a b
:
dayim
-'l-awqat ol^^li
^b
(m.c.).
xjf^avA* ^~$ ( ^ijf Jt or) (^^ cs3tyf avaz-i shamdam guya (or misl-i " I heard a voice as if some one were mki) kas-i mi-khwanad (m.c.) singing, " misl-i mki bi-shuma heard a bi-kumd sound like (m.c.) (I guftam, singing) <xuj Uij *Tij| Jix: " do as I told to do."
:
^
:
pss$
you
(16)
Chunan
ki &&0*. (old)
5
oi^lkx) a&UA.
ki
5
chunanki ml-guyand
(old)
as the saying
&&j(ls
is
"
:
guft chundn-
burdand
as you said, a number envied me.' Chunan-l ki *&iU^., or ham chunan ki *&li*A, and aw chunan ki have a similar signification, as: chundn-t-ki^ ura zadam turd ham mt-zanam
'
" he replied,
^^
&**>
^itf
<*6Ua.
^&
ftl*
f*
^j
6
I;
j'
*^Jli^ (m.c.)
"I'll beat
ham-chundn
ftilrf
'arm
ddshtam
+*^
*>*j*
^ ^JUapu+A ^
you
as
beat
him": maw
" I have
(m.c.)
The
final
<_$
of the
Past Habit, (with the exception of the 2nd pers. singular) is but by modern Persians it is pronounced as aya-yi
ma'ruf.
2
5
Ar.
Ta-dam-i marg
^^ fb^
^t+^l
.
"
till
*
6 6
Dayim
u-' Irkhamr
*?.\&
(wi.c.)
a drunkard."
Mudam
written
also
Or chunanchi
'Arz U^,*
*J^
"
;
"an
^^*,
"a
one":
**
arz
(*;ti
I will
make
am
Dj f
or
*&1&
(jtj*
).
364
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
it
happened
"
:
guft
gird
dmadand
you have heard, a whole people collected round him from fellow-feeling 1 dvarda-and ki kazhdwn* ra vilddat-i ma' hud mst
said, as
:
"he
hayvdndt ra yL> a&U*. o~v ^t** ea5(j \) ftty ** **t **>jT "it is said that the scorpion is not born in the ordinary L) oGj^jk*. (Sa'dl) manner like all other living things."
chunanki 3
scfir-i
mardum chunanchi
nagardidand
(Tr.
j.^ A^if an hama ham muta^ssir "the whole of them were as little Haji Baba, Chapter VII)
jj<xJ
jJU* ^i-i^
jt
*JliA.
exactly." 1*^ (Afghan) accordingly, Though in modern Persian chunanchi *f.Ui^ may occasionally be rendered " or in English by "accordingly," its proper meaning is " so that "like,"
or "for
as they were by wheedling." In Indian and Afghan Persian, chunanchi Aawli^ a t the beginning of a " clause means " accordingly Chunanchi ham-chunan kardam ^Uxu*.* *f^^ " I did so
:
moved by roughness
example,"
and,
its
must be
meaning
"like,
(misl-i)
admit
of
for
example": Dar yak sanduq ashya-yi nan va* birinj va pariir va-gkayra <*&> ji
*J&)
j^
girt
ufi
*^^
*# c/'Jt^
^^
($)**'*
(Afghan
coll.)
va har
pddishah-i dgah ki madar-i kar-i khudbar hikmdt nihada, mava'iz-i hukama ra dastur u 'l-'amal sazad, ham mamldkat-ash abadan bdshad va ham ra'iyyat-ash
khush-dil va khurram, chunanchi Ray-i A'zam-i Ddbishlim-i Hindi
(Anvar-i Suh.,
Chap.
on wisdom, I, Intro.) makes the advice of sages his rule of conduct, his state will be prosperous and his people joyful and happy, like the great king of Hind, Dabishlim
:
his acts
who."
Agar chunanchi u dmad 6 man mi-ravam f}j* e/
*'
^T $
*i^*fj^l (m.c.)
if
for instance he comes, I'll go; here chunanchi Apulia, could be expressed
|<J1|J;
by
fi-l-masal
^.6
means "
Ta'assub V-^OA
zeal,
party spirit."
f-ij
-^
mc
-
-'
^ne
^*
fl
is
preferred.
8
Or chunanchi *^*>*-
For chunanchi
*^^,
it
is
better
to
substitute here az qdbll-i L^UJ J| * Note past tense in a condition, for present.
O r ma$alan 5ll.
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
" In m.c., chundnchi **Jk<? alone is often used for
u
365
if
so that"
y>
<>>o
jjj>
yj o*acu*
t;j|
(m.c.)
"they bastinadoed
him
day."
hud
Js bi-shumd guftam pis& U^? AJJJ i[aw;r-*-&i (m.c.) "it happened exactly as I told you."
(18)
Hal an
an
ki
/7o7
*><***<&
p&
"although (in spite of the fact that) I told you, you did not listen bd-vasf-i mki axvl <-**>j ^ [vide (9)], instead of hal an ki xCf Jla.. " the event of (19) Dar surat-i ki *#)j* jt> "in
:
":
or
Dar
surat-i ki
&
<\!
# jl
:
*&i?)j*>jt>
(m.c,)
Bi-har
hal
anyhow, at any rate Jl^.^, etc., " chara-i mst ^^^ i;la- J^t? (m.c.) anyhow there
ba
go." "
"
is
no
A*
^ ma* haza =
"
\**> namt-kunam p& LS*>~J* to do this and he didn't, him told I although
<
still,
in spite of
"
:
^ f%
>.
still (in
spite of that) I
won't
cxxi^
give
up
(22)
u
his friendship."
y^J
/**
tf
^V>
"at
forj./o)/|
aqibat 'l-amr
(23)
length, at last."
la-ham
nevertheless
'
is
:
not used at
all in
Persia.
It is a
<^y
;
it is
Hindustani.
:
Mabdda
if
t^Uxs
shdyad .xU
The poet
for
says,
to-morrow
Mabdda
" Lest you live long; For old age and want are a calamity."
^^ (*^X y J& jt **^ guft-az fikr-i tu mi-tarsam u^3^ duzddn asp rd bi-barand (m.c.) "I fear lest while you are think" the horse mi-tarsam ki mabddd az injd na-ravam ing, the thieves may steal " I fear I shall not Af get away from here." ^yux) (m.c.) fjj lapxjt y t^U/c alone could be substituted for mabddd f^U* In the above examples
jjjj *j
\j
i^Mit
mabddd'1
ki
ki shdyad (or
mabddd) sang
az
*
8
mabada
366
bala-yi
(m.c.)
man
was
uftad *&\
&*j
c5^ 3'
(lest)
there
also
a stone might
fall
on me from
the
cliff."
to a confusion of thought.
In the following example from the Gulistan the same confusion seems to
andishid ki agar bar mala uftad fitna na-shavad *i*\ 1 &*j*j\ & " he thought that if the matter became known it might give tj& ail* (Sa'dl) rise to discord" (i.e., should it become known I hope it won't give rise
exist
:
9'
modern Persians object to the negative here. (25) Hamln tawr kl ml-dawd uftad aUif &jj&*) &? ^^ &&*> while he was running."
to
)
:
(m.c.)
" he
fell
93.
Interjections
Interjections
consist
either
indeclinable
particles
emotion or
and Arabic, also act as interjections. 8 There is no general term for "Interjection." Interjections for regret for lamentation and grief, huruf-i-nudba are called huruf-i afsus (j*j~**\
phrases, both Persian
o^
aj*i
Ojjj=**
(ay,
ya,
etc.)
huruf-i nidd
l<^
ojjt
for
admiration,
>&)
:
wonder, huruf-i-ta'ajjub
v?^
^hj^
(or kalima-yita'ajjub
Regret
(harf-i-afsus orharf-i-ta'assuf), or
)
sorrow (harf-i-nudba)
Jalas!
}
m.c.
m.c.
^^
My;3
*
dirigh
\j
l*J>d
dirlgha
or
va
I
f
danglid
Mala*
final
letter
is
alif
the a
is
the favha
of the lam.
by
The vocative is either the same form a final 5. The vocative alif in such words,
1
as the nominative
or
else
is
marked
as dirigha
is
^*4jt>,
&\so
ay dirigha
^ji ^t,
Dirigh
>)*
is called atif-i-nudba
*^
"
:
*-^t.
The
latter
form
Icardan
vtf^fep
or dashtan
e^^
to be sorry, regret
dirlgh nlst
" to withhold, deny '*: dirlgh amadan cJ**T ^ & &)* "you are welcome to it."
to a species of musical note that gives a S Chodzko aptly compares the interjection tone to the whole phrase.
*
^ and
hazar afsus
367
.c.
JU=w hdyf
)
c
P ltv
class. l%=*
class. \&j*
hayfa
\j
class.
l>
m.c.
class.
^
*j
vd
Vah,
)
alas.
vuh
^s\j vd,l
bi-man,
woe
to
me.
aA
m.c.
/f
dvakh?
alas.
m.c.
class.
^5
Ij tj
va vayla, alas.
&f
vaasafa, oh
my
khaW
my
head! (said on
;
when a
statement
is
Examples
cu*.i
<j^U
^^ ^ *^ o>Jf
r;
made)
vide (3).
salcht
afsus
is
baradaram
my
very
ill."
Ah u Ah
(Sa'di)
The time
youth
left
me,
ki shah
an kunad
ki
u guyad
Hayf bdshad ki juz niku guyad (Sa'dl). " He on whose word the King (relies and) acts
he should speak aught but the truth." " 6 " Hayf ast ki in-hd rd bi-burand (m.c.) it is a pity to cut these 1 e>!^ ^; f^* hayf-i-Ghuldm Rizd javdnbud (m.c.) "alas for GhulamKiza,
:
A pity it were
***
he was young."
*"*-l-a>
&* and
\
hazar afsus
In speaking, aWi
is
"Oh!"
Or bar sar-am alone: chi khak bar sar-am r j> *$ "Oh what shall I do." The Persians refer all changes of fortune to the revolution of the heavens. Dawr " also means the circulation of the wine cup. ))& "revolution 8 From also dil afruz )jj\ J^ (generally applied for afruJehtan e^j^t to kindle
3
^^
a lover).
6 1
r.
368
v lv
Jij-j
_y j*G Ai"
vya
Xyc
^f
u bud shabab
Faryad
na-danam
youth
!
ki
"A bird
of
fled,
me
thus forlorn."
(0.
155 K. Whin.)
:
is
addressed to himself
Va asaja! va asafa/ Iran 'ajab dar khwab-i ghafiat ast (modern) " Alas " In what a sleep of f orgetfulness is Iran sunk alas ay khak bar sar-am In " alas what words are these (i.e. they are untrue)/' chi haif-ist (m.c.)
! ! :
Remark.
Sometimes a verb
is
equivalent to an interjection, as
Tarsam
"
ki tura zi-nang
nap
zirad khak
When
winds
lest
Beware
death shall quench your vital touch, earth your guilty dust expel.'
of
'
(0.
(2)
Admiration
e^f
e^-J
J^
(real or
feigned),
AJ
how
!
nice.
t^T
afinn, (create *)
"j
class. j
class.
zih
^
ziht
3
well done
^)
hurrah
rate
!
(in
first
is
1 For bih bih * (=afrlnbud afrlnama **>^.j <Ju, "good, good", " Oh God a Zend word occurring at the end of Gabr prayers, and signifies
may
our
we
O God
'
,
create
:
more
for us.
Classical also
Indians in speaking.
f
~t
cUif
(/
'
or
' '<*'
O>
of
<H^
LT^*'^
"how handsome
is
369
m.c.
m.c.
aJLft
marhabd, well done (not welcome) c;b barak Allah, may God bless you, good. J[y.kJ tabdrak Allah, good, strange (also used to express
1
dis-
belief).
class. fx*>
M *&U ma
2 v*- ?**
Alldh u akbar,
God
is
most great
will.
(for
wonder or admiration).
shd* Allah, as
God
m.c.
'ajab,
)\j*
A-*
wonderful!
sad hazdr a firm, by
all
m.c. e^Jf
Examples
a^ia
^^
!
** *Ul
>ti U>
"what
a nice
little
$j>
kard
(m.c.)
"
^K
^4Wa& C/M bachcha-yi child you have got ": barak Attdh V* ^*-*^ j^ ** *J^t -^^>
s^a*
1
ma
bi-Mahmud ^+^*> ^ ^yf (m.c.) " well done Mahmud " Firdawsi, the author of the Shdh-Ndma, the great epic of Persia, claims that it is written in pure Persian. He was confronted with his verses
wonders"
:
may God
afirin
bless it
how
Qazd guft glr u Qadar guft dih Falak guft ahsan Malak guft zih
Firdawsl's reply was that the Falak (not he) had said ahsan.
(3)
Lamentation mourning
.
m.c.
't
e^* fughdn
afghan
m.c. /c
m.c.
^?jtj
Oh
vd vayla
>
misery
(1).
m.c.
(4)
v^LL
Ma^
m.c.
fie,
*jpah
(for
a bad
m.c.
a&.
*UU avertsthe what a nice-." The ma sha* Allah Allah sha* mo without remark the make If a stranger were to evil eye. added. formula this being on insist once at would child the of the relations
"As God
wills it,
*
There
is
^*^J
Fughan kardan
^)^
u^
For Ar.
24
370
m.c.
God defend me
(I
Attention or warning ^> lA!t injd nigdh kun, look here, m.c. (^U ^{~^j~ sar-i hisdb bash, look out
:
m.c.
-&.
*waA, behold
")
now
in truth
m.c. *$tjA
m.c. ;l^J zinhar, beware, never do! on no account! 1 look here; (ay is always followed by a ^5' a y mardaka
1
substantive). m.c. &Sy> ^y o*i mardaka, you there, fellow m.c. (j**" 2 c4tf <j;l ay /^ew kas, oh So-and-so
!
(o*
m.c.
addressed to one older ;<3J ^f ay pidar, oh you there, (oh father! than the speaker),
8
m.c. j+t
^t
a?/
'amw, oh uncle
m.c.
m.c.
^^J/
j,ii^
cc>
*
)>
^t
ay baradar, oh brother
Zinhdr
either
jl^i),
or zinhar
^^j, when an
of the
tama' dlgar-bdr gird-i in dam na-gard >,& &*? jfati p*& &>\ *$ $>. jt** " take heed, don't again through greediness approach the snare": (Sa'd!) guft zinhar na-sitam ki bi-panjah dinar ham rdzl shavand *$ ^ili-J j^j
&b
^M
&j
^|;
it, for
lest
&
:
to go elsewhere')." (' you " " to seek zinhdri protection, sanctuary ^^) bi-zinhdr dmada-am ^ jjo^f & (m.c.) "I have
fifty dinars
come
to
you
for protection."
In the sentence guft mard kushta shudan qabul ast likan zinhar barahna
na-khwdham shud
<x
^(^J
(m.c.) for
Aijy
; t>j
^J o^t
j^j
^^ axiir
j^o
^,s
(m.c.)
Mardaka A^,^
Or fulana
A)31*.
mardak
2
8
'Amu
or
'
ammu
all
j+*
(m.c.), for
'amm
in Ar.
These are
one who has made o^* &&>j\ one who has been to Karbala, are respectfully addressed to any stranger, and do not mean that the person addressed has really made any pilgrimage. The Arabs use Fa hajj L' in the same manner,
;
m.c. forms of addressing or calling to a stranger. the pilgrimage to Mashhad and Karbalal
Mashhadl
371
"she
said
zinhar y^Jj
may be
considered either an interjection or an adverb of negation. In modern colloquial, zinhar )^j is used without a negative in the sense
of
as:
^j jl^ij (Tr. Haji Baba, Chap. 40) that whatever embellish you "mind, you do, your services when relating
J^j
j
f;
&
^L.
CUA=JX^
them."
Remark.
a, as
:
Ha U "
is
have a care
f
-
behold
l+i
;
"
!
is
shuma ra mi-zanam-a
f i>j^ ^
mja
(with nasal n)
similarly used.
(6)
Impatience
m.c.
here,
come
here.
m.c.
^
!
t* dih bi-raw,
m.c. ?>
m.c.
fi^ jahannam
m.c.
m.c.
off
with you.
or 6a/a, or kinar),
6a;^ biraw 'aqab (or dumbal, good woman, you are in the way. A;mar bi-raw 'ammu> my good man, please move,
or) v-ic
^ ^b
8 8
my
pusht
(class., obs.).
(jb$ <Jf$ posh posh (Afghan, class.). U. ja bi-dihld, make room m.c.
^A^
way
m.c.
(gen.
by
a person riding).
m.c.
m.c.
f^
^l#
*&&>
&)&
khafa
bi-shi,
oJ^
dil-at
be hanged (lit. throttled), dard bi-yayad, as above (lit. may you have a
may you
stomachache).
(7) Distress,
want
&*
^>
Uf
t^ ^
1
(m.c.)
"
JBS/t
c^^>
li<; -
'sister'!
'J.mw^*
(for
'ammw)
'ammu f+*
:
)j.
do to
S
me ?"
For explanation
of these terms, vide p. 372, foot-note (3)
hammal amad **$ JUa. Owij cu^j A^ packs." (0. K. Rub. 218,
Aw/
372
m.c.
m.c.
^
y
ijfc
dast>i-tu,
help from
thine
hand
(of
m.c.
(8)
Fie, for
shame:
m.c.
m.c.
ij&
xf
oJlA
ejU
nami-ayad, feelest thou no shame ? m.c. *U* ^rlji; ruy-at siyah, thy face is blackened. U>^,> w^-jjAa. v.^ Ua. /aai/a Mw& cH2s*s dar dunya, a feeling of shame a good thing to cultivate.
'oV-atf
shame
is
(9)
Repentance
m.c. f
m.c.
^^ &
(*j>y
tU
ghalat
(lit.
repent humbly
tf
+*lj*^j*>.z digar
na-kh,waham kard, I
never do so again!
(10) Miscellaneous:
^t
* &? j) $b yalia raw kun, oh! begin! 3 look out class. o*-iu oJio pusht pusht, make way
m.c.
m.c.
v-^ khub,
all right,
go on, continue.
p^
y
chashm-i bad dur, avaunt the evil eye. dur az dustan (Sa'dl), may you and
like.
*
my friends
never
know
m.c.
A.Ulj
the
3ytJ
na'uz bi-llah
m.c.
<5JLJb
'i^U* 'aydz
\*o>.
an bi-llah
m.c. *xi&
m.c.
Khuda na-kunad
ii.i.
\-God forbid.
Lfjio
Khuda
na-Tchwasta
Dad u
u)2J>
:
faryad kardan
c;Us j ^L^j
'<
&f
'
*^j*J
>'*
" to
call
faryad
u fughan
c^sist,
kardan
to
lament":
&\4j& "to
jt
succour"
1
8
^-** c55^r*
^^
o**i
(m.c.)
"lam
Vulg. for
Possibly
Y a Allah
*Ul
t}.
posh
"turn your backs (i.e., face the wall; as a Afghanistan and the Indian N.-W. Frontier say, for "get out of the way," which is perhaps a corruption of the old
or
of
pusht pusht
"
^^> *^~$
(as
veil
your eyes
-5 Another suggested derivation is that posh posh may mean a lady is coming)." Pusht pusht also means " one behind the other
in close succession."
4
stoned )
us!
lit:
"we
the accursed or
Quran.
373
Al)fy&ut
astagfir- 'llah,
God
grant.
forbid
(lit.
ask
pardon
of
^
L
3^*
(for
wonder, m.c.).
m.c.
!*
^t ay Khuda
m.c. Ijt*^
m.c. *Mi
m.c.
Khudaya
ya Allah
Hahi,
Oh God!
"I hope
(or
*
^\
(
my God!
fxk
(in m.c.
.")
m.c.
m.c.
oj|ivx
or) *>\*
Khuda danad
if it
c
mt-danad),
God knows.
Alii
please God.
if it
m.c. m.c.
i^t*-
.4Z&Z/&
Ta'alq,
t
please
f^
lAi.
*-Ul
cfLrO* az baray-i
Khuda
for
m.c.
class.
yaliu oi-khatir-i
J^fJ5I^
Khuda
l
God's sake.
/* sab'il
-'
>
llah
in
.c.
ti^>
Ail
^i aar raA-%
Khuda
li-'ilah,
God's name.
m.c.
*.sJf al-hamd u
praise be to
m.c. \*^
m.c.
j&
shukr-i
(U.
!x^ or)
2
U^
laJU* (*&>
Khuda
hafiz-i
Khuda
hafiz),
good-bye
m.c. ;ta
& tAi.
t;
Khuda
ijld *^i
tAa.
Khuda shuma
vtrfe (5).
you.
m.c.
;lf*j
zinhdr, beware!
s
m.c.
Si
alld,
go on, begin,
m.c. t^sw ly
^m bi-Khuda*
fear
for
mc
.
b i^i- ;b
Khudaya,
6
class.
-^xl labbayk
(in
misqali,
you want a
m.c.
IA Aacu
bachcha-ha
Ilahl! rahmat-at
kam
na-shavad
(m.c.).
2
3
Khuda
hafizl
kardan
o^^
to say good-bye."
Corruption of Allah.
.^Jl understood. I
:
fi
^AAJ, Ar.
" here
J'^Ax:
am
i
for
6 '
A bullet of six
mieqals
n m>c> one
m i? qal
72 gandum.
Corresponds to
fco,i /ia*
of Urdu.
374
m.c.
;t^
c*^
3'
OA*O
dast
giriban bardar
me
_}
!
m.c.
j\* )j
/*t
'
*ftj
Jt
go.
am
m.c.
gr*A
J>JAJ
vardar
#*>
^c/
m.c.
> it
m.c.
m.c.
^&>
j>3;t
qabiliyyat na-ddrad
was nothing,
of no consequence.
^i*^
bi-zahmat-ash
nami-arzad,
it's
not
worth
the
trouble.
m.c.
4itvo
^f o**
^5-1
m.c.
c^U^
(_/^J
Oh Muslims
come
to
Oh Muslims
m c.
/^4^J
bi-kumuk-am
bi-ras
^come
to
!
my
help,
my
cries m.c. u*j> C^j^ bi-faryad-am bi-ras ) a m.c. j^U ^5} j^U a?/ madar ay madar, help, help (children) ^U. Axi ^t s a?/ nana~jan, O dear mother (children to mothers
also in
addressing
women
o^
m.c.
L?b
^f ay bdba jan,
startled).
m.c. x
Aa.^Cc
^T
^ ^b
(2^2(2
magar
A^
chi shud,
what have
ki
done
^U^f asman
fall.
paym
~\
duzd
m.c. i-T
^ duzd amad
foV/tr bigir,
thieves
robbers
m.c.^j^J^^
m.c.
m.c.
m.c.
seize
!
o^
ham/cat ma-kun
")
>
don't move!
m.c.
kham shaw
4
m.c. (j&*j\*j*&> khabardar bash, look out! 4 m.c. ^b *& fj c^- sar-at-ra nigah dar, heads m.c. iio.AU oJiiLo multafit bashid, please pay attention, listen!
!
m.c.
m.c.
e/u/ S'wsA kun, listen (give ear) ob ^^ mutawajjih bash, pay attention
!
In m.c. yakha
*^v!, T.
2 8
A man
Nana
&> ^ J or
Nana jan
c>^- ^ J **
is
children, or
by children
to their mothers.
375
&*
IA
lj
i^^vi dilitdn
bd
man
me
!
for
a few minutes.
m,c.^&
(11)
^^r^
bi-gir,
ha ha
bi-gir,
x^
J
chit,
shoo
6^2/e,
(for
1
driving
away a
cat).
AAJ
6^ye
Mich? shoo
away
dogs).
Kerman).
hush hush, stand still (to donkeys). if achish, stand still (horses, donkeys).
t
15*
Remark
cries
There are
many
goats, sheep, asses, etc., etc., as well as for urging on beasts of burden: such
In the south of Persia, distance is represented by uttering ha several times with a peculiar intonation, as: Hd-hd-hd-hd-hd-d Kirmdn* "there
is Kirman. [In the Panjab a peculiar way of " there it is the voice hai raising (ohh pare yonder ") has a similar use. are called ism-isawt ( nouns (6) (1) Onomatopoetic p*\ ), Examples
jik jik
" ku ku
:
o^
"
cooing of
" doves
"noise of laughter": chir chir y^ "fizzling of meat la*, "the and chakdchak whizzing of a chaqachaq cooking": J^ U> and air": the sword, club, etc., through trang-d-trang fash-a-fash ^U Jbjti J^ji "the whizzing of arrows through the air": qul-qul Jal* "the
qah qah
li
Qa-am has -y*j* ** *jjf c>^gurgling of wine being poured out, etc., etc." ;U j ^w/c jt &tf chun gurba ki mu mu kunad az masti-yi bisyar. Such words,
:
(harf).
The following
(j
are the
cries
Ya Hu
Ya Haqq
Ho
/
Truth
(or
God)
^ ^
J
^
8
The Afghans say chilche ^^^ also m.c. Can this have any connection with the m.c.
^
" the
Both are pronounced the same. 4 For things far off only.
6
H~i
is
Truth "
"he"
also
"He."
Haqq
is
another
name
of
God.
376
Yd 'Alt madad, O 'AH! help (Shi'a dervishes). Yd Mawjud* Oh Omnipresent. b Yd Qdziy- a 'l-hdjdt, O Granter of the needs of man. (^-al* Yd Ghaffdr~l-zunub Forgiver of sins (of the 'All
b
1
(j
Allah l
sect).
yij* (J$
Gul-Mawld, a rose).
(a
dervish greeting in
which
'All is
compared
to
Certain cries are peculiar to certain sects Sadd-yi yd 'All b ^t*^ could only be oib ( L> or ) s applied to Shi 'as, and sadd-yi yd Char Ydr ;b ;U- l ^**> to Sunnis only. Yd Allah *JL/f It could be used by either sect.
:
Remarks.
(or
^-^
^
*
(d)
all
parts of Persia
Persia
is
the very home of flowery and figurative language, and striking examples of this are to be found even in the street cries. (1) Fruit or sweets:
b t&jjjjb oy> quwat-i bdzu, b quwat-i pd, strength to your arms, strength
your Sweetmeats
1
to
legs.
:
**>>T
es'L*
L5
'
fc
-^4
-^
C5
'
'c^li.
^L?-^ ^t
ay
halvd-yi
khdrak
ay
pashmak Figs :-
1 ay halvd-yi drda.
ovi^j ib JljJb^A^M
^Aan.Jf
fit
Garden
of Paradise.
)^.
)^
M,
i.e.
and
used by dervishes either to announce their arrival at the doors of when seeking alms in the bazars. A dervish entering does not salute he utters one of these cries. The writer saw a Persian dervish in Baghdad crying Ya Mawjud <^^^ b in an unpleasant and excited voice till utterance nearly failed, and
cries are
These
down
his
'
face
to
move him on. Abu Bakr u 'Umar, 'Usman u Haydar )^.^ j c^*-^ J j+* 3
money
is
&?i
(miara).
Haydar
*
title of 'All.
Jl.
of the
Council.
subject should compare these with the street cries of Needless to add, some of them show a fine imagination. snack by the polite, but guest is sometimes pressed to stay and eat a
'
zanu payda
Tcunl o^j' **
;ysu c_>*$-
(<>JO
m .c.)
is
6
7
^j^
is
made
of
flour,
and butter.
377
figs.
utyj
-StJ
o^J> quvvat-i
:
zdnu anjir
ast,
Pomegranates
| f IjjCi rJ AJ
U MOT *iram
<mar-i)
P omeg r anate 8
have
I;
pomeof Para-
granates of the
Garden
bihisht
dil-i
;li
blmdr.
1
p|^
^tif atabald
tar,
daram
ridr',
atdkabl
daram
nar.
Cucumbers
^**>J> ****
c5l
ay qand-i
Plums:
yf
L^ \^"^ ^s\
:
a cure for
bile.
Grapes
I,
oh buyer
^-J ^t ay pista-yi Damghan, mushtari\ Damghan, oh buyer! Nuts and edible seeds
8
^cjIAxs
c; l*x=fi
pistachio-nuts from
t^^ j pb ^^f
Mulberries
:
A*A
hama
'ajil
daram va bishkan.
bl-ddna nabdt ; bt-dana db-i haydt; bi-ddna shakar-nabdt ; bi-ddna, bi-yd lazzat mi-bari az ruh, (mulberries) luscious without seeds,
sweet as sugar-candy, priceless as the water of life seedless mulberries like crystal sugar come and delight thy seedless mulberries
;
;
soul.
Black Mulberries
Ij-yo
White Mulberries
(
cx*|
(
Jji>
^la,
nuql-i
cardamoms
(in
India
= Ml
c5J
o-
ast]
ildchl ddna).
(2)
Tripe :sirafu,
:
^Lr-i^*
oh
tripe!
(3)
Cinnamon Tea
eH^-/^
l<
v_~
$-
^f
all
?/
sugar-candy
1
mixed!
Aiabakl
L^^f
is
'
Qand
is
Pronounced Damghun
most liked in Persia. and Simrian both mean Mash-had and are famous
for
pistachio-nuts.
* Ndbat ciUi is "sugar-candy." Some Persians do not eat qand. A few oldfashioned Muslims will not take tea, which comes from Hindus nor loaf-sugar, which is
:
najis <j**3*J
firstly,
because sugar
is
made by
because
it is
purified
by bones.
378
(4)
Water
brance
(5)
'
of the
:
Martyr
of Karbala.
Kerosine-oil
V JI?
like
rose-
lamps)
jjt& ij
1^.
(7)
lj
M ,a.
:
yj%
shdh-i chirdgh
yd shdh-i chirdgh.
pdrcha ddram
5
For clothes
.
^ta alx^
(*)tj>
a^b
ptj>
^o***'
es
1 '
a 2/ g'awts ddram
cloth have I, sdlu
shtla
(8)
I,
have
I.
Jf^j
(9)
ay swsaw sinjdq angushtdna yaraq, oh needles, pins, thimbles, gold and silver lace. Scissors and embroidery (hawked in villages only)'
eijyi. ^ci
j^
(10)
u^t^
8
:
2/
chadar, oh scissors,
oh gold
For antimony
&cjMt
^^f
^Lc
(11)
^Lj
d/c^w
^y
o-
surma-yi sang,
o-i
surma-yi sang,
oh antimony
Indigo
10
:
of stone. 9
of Indigo,
oh leaves of
indigo.
1 Husayn er**"^ slain at Karbala, was wounded in the mouth by an arrow, when he stooped to drink from the Euphrates. His death occurred twelve years after that of
his brother
1
3
Hasan (^y^^
is
^
.
'^\j^is
*^
where
is
buried the
brother of
Imam
Riza
^;
Imam
(the latter
entombed at Mash-had).
Some Muslims
lamp by salam ya
shah-i chiragh
Wj^ ^^ ^
j**-.
j^ v^
)\j L*^, or chihil-yar )^?. L^^, because each piece is folded be the Persian word " time, turn, regulation," or a corruption of the English word yard; derivation doubtful. 5 Salu yl* or shalu ^U* Indian names of the red cotton stuff. Shila A!J^
may
is
*1^*>.
These
&
10
articles are usually sold by Jews. The Zardushti women wear a special chadar ji^ without yaraq (JjljJ For the eyes and eyelashes. For some reason the best antimony is called surma-yi sang <-* &*>j<*> For the eyebrows; the dried leaves are pounded and boiled. Sa'dl says
.
kushish-i
bl ja*ida
astvasma bar abru-yi Mr )isf*)j$j*. A ***5 **^ ***^ Only used by the Muslimas, not by the Gabr women.
{J^y.
Rouge:
^y
o-i
(lit.
red water).
Jbtkk
(14)
!
!
Not hawked
from a Mulla.
(15)
t
Love
w
- jC
philters
c^L?^
^* S(
jf
(16)
For
live
animals
<-!^
-^ J^C5"J' -^
^y
o-i pul-i
!
oh money
for goats*!
oh
money
j^>
J|J-M.
for goats
'Id-i
ij;>.^\
Qurban!
3
shdkh-ash
bi-gir,
savdr shaw.
Small lambs
csjt
o-i barra-yi
!
parvdr,
o-i
lambs
oh fatted lambs
:
-*
gab-i kdri,
oh ploughing bull
Cows
<7a&-i
oh milch cow
oh milch cow
Calves
AJUjf^i aJUjf ^t JL^^f ay gawsala, ay gawsdla, ay gawsala, oh calves oh calves oh calves For poultry:
!
!
L5"J^
uvj^
:
cffj'
oh cocks
of
Ldr
(i.e.
big cocks).
Hens
t^*
3
^ chickens
oh chickens
2
3
Buz Jj
There
at the
Day
the female; the he-goat is called chapish (J^.^- or narl ^j*. a belief that those who sacrifice a ram at this 'Id, will ride this very ram of Judgment. The Persian Shi'as usually sacrifice a ram, and not a camel
is
is
nor a cow.
for
j karl (^^ from kashtan e^^* " to cultivate, sow, plough." No Muslim would buy dead poultry famous Lar for its large breed of poultry. The hens are cried as mur$,. fear it had not been slaughtered properly.
*
5
baz
is
Modern, for the obsolete *;>$ chuza an old woman fond of young men.
still
in use in India and Afghanistan: chuzaIn falcony chuz, vulg. chui, is the Indian
(in
380
Qur*ans:
for
Remark. It is impious to sell a Qur^an hence it is offered as a present, which the owner takes a present of money in return. When a vendor of
Qur*ans cries his ''presents," the following comedy is enacted: A woman or would-be purchaser enquires, "in Quran chand hadiyya mi-khivahad c/fj5 e^' " is bi-rizdAJ^XA ^XA. ?
The reply what The would-be purchaser you please." mandt-yi khudat oj^ ^i/cl^j " " then takes the book, kisses it, produces some security, and tells the giver to call again. In the meantime the Mulla is consulted who says, for instance
'
^Af^cRAx>
how many
panj tuman hadiyya darad j>jtd f!** <jl*y ^. The" giver" calls again " and if dissatisfied, for his "present says bi-panj tuman hadiyya nami-diham
(18)
(e)
Old clothes:
A^
)j*> ***
*>\ 8
ana muna
ho.
The following
are
some expressions
in saluting, or in
welcoming and
a visitor or guest.* Some of these are properly used feriors only, but there is no fixed rule in the matter
speeding
by
in-
tX*^T
(J^
(lit.
used on arrival or departure). " musharraf I am honoured (by your coming)." " muzayyan (my house is) adorned (by your coming)."
mujtakhir jarmudid "you have made me (or us) proud." matbakh-i khud-i-tanast, or *^*~*\ *^ AJl^^^f ashpaz-khanaf
yi
shuma
ast
"
is
*JdjT &*
avardid
Rlza-Miwanl
^f^-
Q.)
is
the term
applied
by
fanciers
is
to
Chahcha *^-^
when
the
bulbul
a
s
is
mast.
sp.
Hadiyya,
a present to a superior.
or ^) buy old clothes and broken articles in Calcutta this by Bengali Hindus (blkrl walahs). 4 The term for walking or riding out some distance to meet an expected guest is while that for accompanying a departing guest some little distance to JUaJL! istiqbal,
Jews
(called
*^^^-
trade
is
carried on chiefly
way
is
o**jlx
or
&3j& badraqa.
The
latter
word
also signifies
381
bismillah "please enter (in the name of God)." p~j " a tXxixSJu please take a seat.'' *x5U^ii bi-farmd*id bi-nishmid owjf j(r JL* *JL^ khana mdl-i sarkdr ast, cs**f U J^* manzil-i shuma ast " our house is
aJUf
shuma va khudam banda-yi shumd~yam " my children are your house-born slaves, and my wife is your handmaid, and I shuma va Ichanum-am
myself your
kaniz-i
ij^ j*+JU^ U
bij
j*5lp
joily
awldd-am ghuldm-zdda-yi
va farud a ki khana khana-yi lust "be kind and alight, because this house belongs to you," (said to a great friend or to an exalted person. JJ^J^T o^^j ijk^khayli zahmat kashidid "you have troubled
jvj^i
t4o
^ karam
numa
yourself
*
much (to come and see us)." o*! o^i; OW-AJ (^^3 zahmat-i
'
'
!
nlst rahat
ast
( l
no trouble at
all
pleasure
U-i
Jl&.
(^
or
^l^
t*^ 6
Khudd
hdfiz, or
Khudd
hafiz-i
shuma, ''good-bye
a
"God
be with thee
"
(spec, to
departing
to
fi>,^o
t^=su
|jU
shuma rd bi-Khuddsupurdam,
.
tl
I entrust
you
God"
(to
a parting
^jfc^j
traveller)
"may
" c^ L^*^/ murakhkhas mi-shavam, "I must go (on taking leave). " don't forget me." OJjxT ^b t^U ma rd ydd kumd, xxjU^ji/o^acvxo }yo ^)U ^JsUL )\ az khdtir-i 'all mar a mahv ma-farmayid, "don't forget me."
lazzat mi-baram, "I am enjoying myself" (at seeing your the good things you are giving me to eat). or at nice house,
&
+^.0 e>J
A
AJ
Bi-'sm-i'llah *^tf-J, this formula is used by Muslims before commencing any work, i.e. before eating, mounting a horse, firing a gun, casting off a falcon, slipping
l
a grey-hound,
1
etc., etc.
Note
spelling;
p*b.
please." The right hand only should lost his right be used in eating; vide Arabian Nights in the story of the young man who
^5UyiJ
(m.c.)
"
hand
8
for theft.
Used
This
*
6
Khudd
'
phrase can, of course, be said on any suitable occasion. kardan hafizl <J*>^ t^- is a subs, and adj.: Khuda hafizi
to say good-bye."
382
awghur-i shuma bi khayr bashad, "may your omen be " (a form of greeting specially used by muleteers, camel-men good; good luck with Vide also h (2). loads, etc.). donkey-men
Remark.
ahlan
for
welcome
'
dhl an
wa
3Ut is
The wife
in exceptional
circumstances.
respectable
would
Muslim "
(not
'
house,'
or 'iyal JU*, or dhl cU>f, or andarun &j)>\ * and for the Shah, haram p^. A Persian who was farangi-ma*db ( ->** ufjj* ) or Europeanized might speak of his wife as khanum v^, or of his mother as ^AJJ bi-bi-yi man.
'
going about without a veil is liable to have filthy remarks passed on her by the shop-keepers or street people. and Jews (g) The Muslim greeting (in Persia accorded to Christians, Gabrs
the Arabic phrase p^e f&~ 8 salam un alay-kum "peace be on ye," un to which in Persia the reply is the same, viz., salam 'alay-kum The Indian Sunnls and the Afghans say as-salam -' alaykum
also) is
11
An Englishwoman
^^
va alay-kum^ s-salam "the peace be on you," to which the reply and on you the peace." The Indian Shi' as among themselves say f&Jf salam 'alayk pA* f&** " peace on thee," to which the reply is va 'alaykum" and on you the peace." "s-salam ^^Jf ^Lcj Indian The Afghans, Muslims, Arabs, and Turks would not give- the
is
'
<
many
and to say to he replied be to which on him as-samm alayk f&l* pU-J "poison thee," " and on thee." 5 va alayk" *~&^*j
The Jews
u
Tarhlb
V*
31
marhaba
^/,
i
3
Adarun-am
it.
or Tchiana-um na-khush-ast cu*f <j^^- ^ j*t*JL=^. p*3J**\ In Persia the classical nun ation is retained, but the modern Arabs, Indians, etc.,
slightly corrupt the
omit
4
The Jews
of
in
Baghdad
sometimes fancy the Muslim greeting is Englishmen person it is in reality addressed to the sais behind. when The author has been to them, given frequently given the Muslim salutation in Persia even by mullas who objected to shaking hands with him. In India a vessel used by a Christian would be washed three
another faith.
times before use, but Persians will freely drink from an unwashed glass used by a
Christian.
6
in India
The Persians
hand
to the
head
in saluta-
tion without bending the body as do Central Asians. Gentlemen incline the head in a bow, and servants place the right hand on the heart while bowing from the waist.
[T.O.-
38.'}
<j;ix> JJ^AJ
banda-manzil
''the slave."
'
slave's
dwelling,''
of
'
and
in
of
himself
is
as
banda
coming
the guest
bring honouring.'
To an
person
tashrif
dvardan
*m sM* ^4Wa^ farda skaraf-yab miwould reply fr-** v^V* '*7* a *M*U shavam " I hope D.V. to have that honour to-morrow." A visit and return visit are did <x^> and baz-did cxja jb and old residents
,
England. A Persian does not call after dining out: it is the host's business to call on the guest, who has honoured him by 4 accepting his hospitality and thus earned a return visit. A foreigner should call on fete-days, such as the Shah's birthday, and
call
on new
arrivals, as in
the
Naw-Ruz
it is
call
on
c**^ JL^' ahval-pursi is "asking after a person's health," " 'lyadat e^lxc is enquiries on meeting. visiting a sick person."
To
give and return salutations
i.e.,
kind
is
of the Prophet.
Salam sunnat
a duty founded on the Quran, and the practice A horseman salutes a footman, and
It
is sufficient
who
are seated.
in the street,
but Zardushti
women salute
Persian recognizing his wife (veiled) in the street would not speak to her. The laws of Islam forbid a man saluting a woman unless she be old.
men.
Salutations
left
hand, as
it is
A compound noun
With the
verb
no
izafat.
1st person singular. Classically, and in India and Afghanistan in speaking, the verb is in the 3rd person singular after banda. " I 3 In alia 9 Allah *Ut U*if "if God wills" corresponds to hope so and think " a Muslim says in sha 9 Allah so." To the common question " is it going to rain ? AjJf Uof where an says "yes": no Muslim would dare to decide for the
*
in the
Englishman
Almighty. A failure to grasp this idea sometimes causes Europeans " they cannot understand not getting a straight answer."
much
irritation
To accept an invitation is, according to a sunnat o^*>, obligatory on a Muslim. The word farda !y enters largely into the Persian vocabulary. During a two cannot once recollect hearing the word imruz years' residence in Kirman the author An opium-smoker and it is estimated that 60% of the Kirmanis are opium jjj*l.
smokers
*
run into years. morning before noon (gen. for business), or It is usual to send a sunset before (for pleasure). hours in the evening about two to arrange for servant a day before, or on the morning of the day, with an oral message of honour, seat The receive. a visit, so that the host may be at home and prepared to have Persians hand. expressed are on the host's the
will let
'
to-morrow
' '
The time
sadr,
and chief guest right the top of his table at a dinner-party and surprise to the author that he should take It is no easy matter to arrange the place the chief guests on his right and left.
seats
Guests sometimes ask at dinner for Persian guests, without giving offence. a higher place. unless come to decline promised and beforehand where they are to sit
384
(2)
(e)
are in
common
:-
$y U* ^^ lutf-i shumd ziydd thank you (lit. your favour " thank * elJ&l iltifdt-i shumd ziyad you (as above)." sty U&
1
is
great)."
^Lj U-i
ziyad
uifcJ jt
shuma, or
ci>U#f
jt
*y
l*& cufi&&
^Lj
jt
az
shumd " thank you (by your consideration)." " thank you (by your indulgence)." shafaqat-i shumd
o-jsvx)
mahabbat-i
shumd ziydd
' '
me
is
great)."
^\ U* "
great)
;
Oj*
U^
[
'izzat-i
shumd ziydd
Sjb^SJ
&U
sdya-yi
am much
obliged
also,
good-bye (may your shadow never grow less)." >i& &)& ^> o~o dast-i shumd dard na-kunad
(said
when
^^ ^ pir shavi
child)'.
c
"
to
you
"
!
Khudd shumd rd nigdh ddrad " God keep you !" -^ ^jUo (yx Khudd sdya-yi shumd rd az sar-i md kam
kunad
na-
God never remove your shade from our heads ai-Jo (JJo^i dar zill-i pandJi-i shumd hasfim "we
!
'
'
CA*-[
" shumd buland " may your fortune be high! v^^ U^ Jf^t ahvdl-i shumd khub astl "I hope you are quite
%)&
tdli'-i
well
your circumstances good ?) "I 6 hope you are quite well (you have ^tiJ &^ ^I-J bdk-l ki na-ddnd?
(are
"
no solicitude?)
"
This phrase has often been used as a reproach against Persians, through a notion that ziyad means "more." Ziyad is a positive adjective which in certain cases only (not in the example) can be substituted for the comparative.
1
mistaken
2
8
lltifat eul&Jf
This phrase is often used at meeting or parting in a street properly used by an Some Persians state, it signifies May old inferior to a superior. age never overtake ' you (an old man's shadow is less than that of a young man); but it properly means may your shadow on us always remain.'
1
Said especially by a
woman when
is
a dish
is
handed to her,
etc.
also to
any one
is it
The
"
not
385
^
well?)"
C
Ui
**
2
'
eoj^ kayf-i
shumd kuk
ast
(is
your condition
*4)t*j
^j**
3
khushi ki na-ddnd?
indisposition."
o^t <3U
<iuJL**
' '
l^i
fit ?)
^U^ "
dimdcfh-i
shuma chdq
ast
sar-i
and
spirits
*^ f \j^ chird kam iltifdtl kardid " why have you shown a lack c^ of kindness (in not coming to see me) ? The answers to the above would be some such phrase as az dawlat-i sar-i
*>.tjf
' '
shuma U^^ oJj^ jf " by your good fortune (I am well, etc.)," or az shafaqat-i shumd U^> e*ai jt etc.. or jokingly, az marhamat-i ki na-ddnd **)!*> *xv*a.^x> j|
,
"
rasam
f*^
^ o^o^^
show"
if it
in shd*Alldh khidmat-i
&U\
*U
^f
"
please
God
I will
:
come
to see
/0 *
you
o~f jL, ^i/ kayf-am sdz ast "my health is in dimdgh-i ddram "I am happy, exhilarated (either from wine, or from scent from a garden, or company of friends)," [but j>;(^ pUo ^^^juldnkas dimdgh ddrad " he is (m.c.) proud"]: ^)lx> ^pU^ j^f imriZs; dimdgjjri na-ddram (m.c.) "I
" tune
^^
am
Expressions of tenderness
p*j>
^Jlsw
e^jji ^1 ay
djj^.i
may
be thy
sacrifice.'*
dard-at bi-jdn-am
yby*
qurbdn-i sar-at
sar-at salamat
"
may
I be
'
thy
sacrifice.'
ci^
"may
you be well."
for Icayj*
of one's health
also
exhilaration of intoxicants.
Kuk
^^
"I
(m.o.) is
to
*
saz ra kuk
kun
yf
"
fcune tne
tune
* '
tu-yi
L&
ul*f
^^ U)^*
*J
(m.c.)
cfiP (slang)
him
'
':
kuktill
^j
**
{*/
'
'
fulan
Teas
" he
:
is
drawn."
modern Persian
"sickness"
"
:
in old 'Persian
*'
*'
brain, palate
m.c.)
in his
to
* dar dimagh darad &)]& eU^ jj> am zad (local) " he shut the door in
head
"
:
dar ra bi-dimagh-
my
face."
* An expression used by both men and women. The woman sometimes circles round a sick person's bed with the idea of taking on herself any danger or calamity that is to fall on the beloved. The custom is dying out.
25
386
ay
jan-i pidar
"oh
life
" oh all my lives (said to a mistress)." ay jdndn (in poetry) " of nur-i chashm-am my eyes (said to a son)." light
taj-i
my life." of my head
"
(a
husband)."
(
whims
&ry
tu ki misl-i ruh-i
'
' '
thou art
me."
aziz-i
man
my
dear."
(k) s
Adjurations
bi-sar-i
U^~o
^UA
bi-arvdh-i pidar-am
is
"by
adjure) thee by thy father's grave." my father's soul" (plural for sing.:
the father
by thy moustache." khudat " by thy dear life." " bi-marg-i shumd by your death." " " bi-miri mayst thou die," or by thy life."
a* bi-sabil-at
qasam
"
(vulg.)
Remark.
says,
A man
say
" Swear
tu bi-miri
promises to come at a certain time. His friend " tu bi-miri, mi-dyam >>," the reply is
^.+*
(^L^ cc^*jy."
zud bi-ya f ld
me
I wiil come.
"
The host then says man bi-miram, "May I die! Come soon" (if you want
is
come
ass's
late).
head"
guest who is for any reason a check on khar paidd shud <^ fiUj^a.^..
Sometimes a
sar-i Ichar
announce himself by
e^-^}, (or
zamm
o^&u
(m)
(1)
The Persians belong to the Shl'a sect and first cousin of the Prophet.
bi-shigdft,
d^l*.
2
The an
e/1
may
jaria
be a suffix as in abadan
\
According to some
an
The idea
in your head
is
is
not
instance, would say to his master bi-sar-i shuma U*^~o. * You are so dear to me that I swear by your death in preference to mine. 6 ' AH, the darling of the Persians, was the husband of Fatimah the Prophet's
daughter.
387
legitimate
Imam
Prophet), and therefore consider Abu Bakr^yf, 'Umar^+c and 'Usman e>Ui* The Sunnfs on the contrary maintain the claims of these three as usurpers.
as well as of Ali. 1
(2)
The following
j
are
some
of the
commoner maledictions 2
^
~*s
"may
khak-ash bi-dahan
*>
may
"may
about)
fall
on your head,
^xs"
(the matter you are worrying me n the whole thing." God bi-dihad " thee death."
ec
give
finish
thee."
gU. e)(}jp
j
ruzagar-at siyah
J^>
eJf
may you
"
j>
a?-a^ bi-zanad,
"
may
the
teujfj* hargiz bi-kbana-yi hakim piyada na-n = be so sick that you will have to be carried to the doctor.'
)
may y
libas-at
naw
bashad,
"
may you
die
clothes."
Eastern languages have a rich and varied vocabulary of abuse, and Persian perhaps stands foremost. The following are a few mild terms of
(3)
j*j
pidar
sukhta,
blackguard
(lit.
your
father
is
burnt).
Sunni, lit. "one of the path." The Shi'as still possess mujtahids or "enlightened doctors": they observe the ceremonies of Muharram, while the Sunnls
1
only observe the 10th day ('ashura t^* ^), the day God created Adam. The Shi' as also allow temporary marriages and observe slight differences in ablutions and the forms
1
of prayer.
They
Jl.
*&
(or
kitman &1+&),
i.e.
concealing one's
permitted.
Vide
A
A
third person, in joke, on hearing this sometimes adds khak-i kahu the lettuce is manured by human excrement, and is reckoned the
:
woman.
The Al
'
is
women.
6
Persian
woman
Al
'
insists
of imagination.
A compound noun,
pi. pidctr-sag-ha
388
ourang outang.
z-zina
walad-i zina
offspring of adultery.
*
T.
ja-kash, pimp.
dayyus, cuckold.
))
zan-qaliba?
husband
of a prostitute.
meddler.
ahmaq,
t5 *J^,.> J|
fool.
is
ablah, a fool.
kawdan, a dunce.
haram-zada, base-born, illegitimate; frequently used in the sense
of trickster.
6
luti,
blackguard.
<J&*
(4)
qallash, cheat.
The
is
amongst the educated. It is inserted, as it is sometimes as well to understand what is being said as a protection against covert insult
sions heard even
:
<J)*$ (&** )*
(*?.)
"I
spit
on
his father's
beard
' '
(mildly paraphrased).
a whole vocabulary of abuse called jAjjj^U ^J^J mddar u The examples already given fuhsh-i pidar, that is best omitted. will be found more than enough to indicate the general lines of such 8 language language found in the mouths of even tiny children.
is
There
1
besides
Though the Persians use the crudest expressions in their daily speech, they even the humblest and poorest of them can, when they choose,
administer a veiled and delicate reproof with exquisite
skill.
2
8
sin to call a
man
this,
who
is
not.
"cough."
is
In Arabic J-wf
*
'
j^j\ *
O^AJ
J/,
which
explained as meaning
a hirr or
5
cat,'
from a
birr or
fox's cub.'
"
Luty,
6 7
8
A similar expression
dtd
)&* f U-0
is
\j* Mj
o&
(Sa'di).
It
perhaps some extenuation, that, from constant use, these words have lost
much
of their force.
SIGNS
94.
AND
SIGNALS.
1
389
signs are not only in constant use, but reference to in ancient and modern writings: occurs both frequently
l
The following
them
Silence:
Dast bar
sar-i
damagh zadan
(j^j
eU^^^j
ow-o.
is
The
right
held perpendithe with middle the joint touching tip of the nose; cularly (point upwards) front of the forefinger to the left or the tip of the forefinger is laid on the
is
:
hand
Less
commonly the
here, biya LJ
on the
closed lips as in
England.
Come
a secret sign to keep silence. As in India, i.e. the right arm is more or less
extended to the front, palm of the hand downwards. The signal is then made by closing the fingers towards the palm, and extending them a few times.
No
*J
As
in India.
The open
is
right hand,
palm
to the front,
held
(roughly) level
emphasis
is
agitated from side to side. Additional given by turning the head to the left, closing the eyes and
smiling idiotically with the lips closed. Slightly throwing the head back and closing the eyes
also
indicates
"No,"
as well as,
"He
is
talking rot."
' '
Don't do it." Raising the eyebrows slightly is a secret signal "No," or " Ask him." = means a head them of the with turn slight Raising
Yes: Dast bar chashm nihadan
/**><^
c^V H*^ J
*-
and signifies implicit obedience. The tips of the fingers of the open right hand (back to the front) are laid on the right " Yes." Also placing the right hand on the left breast and bowing = eye. " Lowering the eyelids is also a sign for Yes." Astonishment: Angusht gazidan ej^j? cu&l, or angusht-i tahayyur (or
accompanies the reply chashm
gv
ta'ajjub) gazidan^
()*>> jf
(-^sui3 or)
j*& ^*&l
The
is
placed on the teeth of the lower jaw. This action in pictures of the meeting of Farhad and Shirin.
the
commonly represented
The Afghans lay the forefinger (underside to the front) transversely across mouth and close the teeth on itopening the eyes at the same time in
Halt
:
an astonished gaze.
Va
ist
or bi-lst o~j|
&>
or ^~-Jf
Ij.
The
right
arm
is
held
perpendicularly,
much
as in the British Cavalry signal for "halt," or the is held up a little above the level of the right
Republished for the Jl. As. Soc. Beng., 1907, by kind permission of the Council. that a European visitor at an Eastern Court nearly lost his life by his accidentally biting finger (the signal for astonishment) when the king was relating
2 It is related
stories.
Istgah
390
with the tip of the forefinger dirndl-ash (J^U^ "he's cracked." Drawing the open right hand across the mouth downwards, from wrist to tips of fingers, and blowing on it at the same time = "All gas, he's
Mad:
of the nose
talking rot.
' '
Go
out
95.
etc.
(a) Istikhara &)UJL| signifies asking divine direction as to any course to be pursued about which the seeker is doubtful, by opening the Qur*an and
finding the answer on the right-hand page. The seeker first repeats the Surat u -l-Fdtihah A^JlA^t g,^ or "Opening Chapter of the Qur*an," the Su" " On the declaration rat u -l-Ikhlds *)r of God's Unity (Chap. 112) and u the 58th verse of the Surat -'l-An dm fU#f the Chapter of Cattle" (6th
^^ty
Chapter) three times, and then opens the Qur*an. Sometimes seven Salawdt are repeated in addition or else the seeker first si salawdt 8 mi-firistad Sl^JLo &~* &' x &, 9 * .&'** He then &L~j*#o, i.e. he says three times **3R^c Jf j *+&.* ^.U JL*
;
"
^i
the Fdtihah or Opening Chapter) and then Qul hufllah and lastly the Aya-yi-mafatih^l-Ghayl} *-*#J\ f(A* &j which is the
(i.e.
is
opened by
the seeker at random, by the forefinger of the right hand, .and the top line of the right-hand page is selected. If no verse begins in this line, the seeker
turns back and goes to the beginning of the verse. or expressing pity, etc., are propitious.
number
is, after opening the book as above, to count the word Allah occurs on the page, and then to turn over (forward) the same number of pages, and again count the same number of lines from the top and then if no verse commences in that line to read forward and take the first verse that occurs after that line.
Another method
of times the
Jl.
lit.
"
The
istikhara
Prophet taught was a prayer asking for guidance. The seeker goes to a Mulla for an istilchara, who takes no
offering of sweets or fruit.
fee
One form
first
of
bibliomancy in England
enough.
an omen from the first word of the a Taking an omen from a Bible suspended by
is
to take
key
common
Salat
i^J^ is properly
of
namaz
)^
by the Persians, however, the word has generally a special signification. " choose for me." * Incorrect Arabic for Tch.ir-11
391
is of course often extremely vague. In addition to the above, the Persians, even the most irreligious, " The rosary." generally take an istikhdra ^=^3^\ from the tasbih p**** or Fatihah is recited three times and any two beads are taken hold of at random.
*
The answer
As the
slipped
first
bead between these two points slips through the fingers the &tt\ ejUsu^ "Holiness be to God "; as the second is " as the third is Al-hamd u llah &M +^l\ " Praise be to God
slipped
Vjwald = "don't do
According as the
is
it."
till
is
,
reached.
favourable, indifferent, or negative, i.e. khub v^, miydna *iUx> or bad From laziness, the Fatihah is in practice usually recited only once.
^J,
little
time or trouble
for
most
it is
Persians carry a rosary in their pockets as a kind of play-thing and resorted to on the most trivial as well as the most serious occasions.^
Taja*ul Jjj^ "auguring,"
'
omen
'
from Hafiz.
s generally applied to seeking a fal or volume of the Divan of the poet is held in the left
is
hand and the following words are said ^s'Jyj* uii^y c^K*" ^'^ *^'^ ^ Uj ^j Yd jl^juj JU> ^.wlU ^U Khwdja Hdfiz-i Shirdzi tu kdshif-i har j U^j
:
rdz-i bar-i
& ar^A^Ax^J
or
ccj'j-**
"^'^
^H^ ^
rd
J^u
fy
Yd Khwdja
kull-i ahvdl
dar in kitdb-i khud mu'ayyan kun. The eyes are closed, the volume opened at hazard 6 and the first line of the page on the right-hand is taken, and the seeker
turns back to the beginning of that ghazal J>. If the omen is unfavourable, the ghazal J>^ following it is read (called the shdhid-i ghazal-i avval
Jy J)
(c)
<id>U)
and if propitious is acted on in preference to the first. The Persians also consult astronomers, and geomancers, 6 before
start-
There are several ways of making this istikhara tyteuuwt, one wav is merely a game of " odds and evens." " 2 " Shall I or shall I not take a Out come the beads. Many a European purge ? anxious to a surgeon perform critical operation has fretted and fumed, because day after beads said the the day was unfavourable. day " to take an omen" 3 Fal giriftan zadan
1
Jlj
tafa*ul
^J J5&^
*
6
There
is rio
fixed formula.
of running the nail of the forefinger of the right hand through the top edges the towards front sky. hand by the back, edges JLc " astrology "; rammal Munajjim *:SUA> "astrologer"; 'ilm-i nujum
By
^^o
ilm-i hayat
"geomancer": ilm-i raml J>cj JU (raml andakhtan ^^(^f cU>) ctU* /JU "astronomy", a term also applied to Euclid.
'
eomancy
Zlch-i t&
kashUan
^^^
Fal-glr
^Jli
is
"to
cast a horoscope."
Jl*
392
ing on a journey, closing a bargain, or even changing a sleeping-room in a house, etc., etc.; they believe in lucky faces, fortunate numbers, and
unlucky days.
therefore, before casting, say,
by Daniel. Geomancers, " *itJ> " Ya Hazrat-i J Daniyal o^Aa* l>. 13th of the The second in the Muslim month calendar, and (d) Safar, the 13th of Nawruz, are days of evil omen also the 5th and 13th of every
Geomancy is supposed
month.
doors,
all
To avoid the
to
that might overtake them were they to remain inPersians leave their homes on the 13th of Nawruz, and spend the
evil
air.
On
the last
Wednesday
of Safar,
boys and
girls
jump
Omens
number
of times a
first,
person sneezes, the crossing of a threshold with the right or left foot and many other things too numerous to mention.
(/)
Persians also believe in the evil eye, chashm-i bad &* or chashm{+**, zakhm p**j f^*- 8 Any one may be possessed of the evil eye without knowing
it,
4
Ma
&U
before
gazing at their
effects of their
in a mirror, so as to
ward
off
the evil
Blue wards
the evil eye, and for this reason valued animals are this colour. Also the ispand seed is burnt in the fire.
Pretty children are often purposely kept dirty &nd unkempt, and further 6 guarded from malign influence by amulets la'viz *Jj*3.
Carpets are generally woven by the tribes- people with some small defect,
in the pattern, to avert the evil eye.
ao.
in the
month
of Safar.
It
is
Day
and
will fall
8
Wednesday
fortunate.
of a Safar.
woman
in
mahram.
ast
oW
:
Pf"
or
)J"* /***
mc
-
-)
(jaxuw
^1
always prophesies unlucky things." 6 Bazu-band tXw a charm made by writing a text, wrapping it in bulghar ^UJb jj(j, An amulet is or scented leather (qab-i Quran), which is then bound on the child's arm. also called *~JLk Warn or "talisman."
(m.c.)
o*t
this
man
more commonly sar-rahl Dam-rahi ^\j is money expended in charity f^, ^*l^^>, on the threshold, by a departing traveller, to insure a safe return. In India some Muslim women bind a coin on the arm of the departing relative to be expended in charity on reaching the journey's end in safety.
393
ward
off
Mullas' houses, a Consulate, the stable of certain big people, etc., constitute sanctuary or bast o*~j. The writer once saw a soldier vr j, clinging to a big gun in the square of Kirman, declaring it was bast Certain
cities,
However
in
spite
of
his
protestations he was
finally
removed by the
The time
of
is
a general holiday.
People
all
make picnics
for 13
supposed to present
one month's pay. The chief of a dervish sect will auction certain sites, such as the Governor's Palace, the British Consulate, etc., to his followers. The purchaser erects a tent and blows a horn and refuses to move on, unless
given a sufficient
site.
(i)
sum
of
money over
the
sum
for
The influence of the heavens on the fortunes of man, appears to be an ancient superstition dating back to a pre-Islamic period. It has been supposed that Persians attribute their ill to the heavens, to avoid the appearance
even of attributing misfortune to the Deity.
This
is
The Persians
still
man's
fate.
or
drama
of
is
accused
of being the
Examples
dA~3
&/
jt
yfif*
-!
j*-
^t
K.)
Ay charkh-i jalak kharabiaz kma-yi tust (0. " Ah Wheel of heaven to tyranny inclined."
!
25).
Tweedie mentions a wild boar being kept in the stables at Baghdad, and this is Some say the breath of a pig is good for horses. In 'ArabistSn, pigs' flesh is said to be eaten under the name of gusfand-i farangi
1
&&$
said to
jj*/'.
Ham
in Persia
is
sometimes called
oJ^,
name
have been invented by a telegraph clerk. The Baluchis of Bampur (Persian Baluchistan), a very different-looking race from the fine people near the Dera Ghazi Khan Frontier in
India, eat wild pig and foxes. 2 Gardish-i Falak .JUJ
<j^,
Dunya
Uij,
&j^
CharJsh
Chashm-zakhm-i Zamana
394
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
dll-bunydd Hargiz girih-i kdr-i kas-i rd na-gushdd Ear jd ki dil-i did ki ddgh-i ddrad
In
charkh-i jafd-pi-sha-yi
'
Ddgh-i digar-1 bar sar-i an ddgh nihdd (0. K.) " The wheel on high, still busied with despite, Will nev'r unloose a wretch from his sad plight;
But when
it lights
y
Ay
"
charkh chi karda-am turd
:
ft
**f
**>
rdst biguy
Payvasta figanda-i mard dar tag u puy (0. K.) Oh wheel of heaven, what have I done to you That you should thus annoy me ? Tell me true."
(
Whin. Rub.
499).
Bd
May nush
Ndgdh (0. K.) " Like a tulips in the Spring your cups lift up, And, with a tulip-cheeked companion, sup
With joy your wine, or e'er this azure wheel With some unlooked-for blast upset your cup."
(Whin. Rub.
44).
CHAPTER
96.
(a)
:
XI.
Diminutive Nouns (y^A^^t or^^aii ^\ ). Diminutive terminations are <J" - *Z- 8 and &* also colloquially
;
j.
express contempt, pity, affection, or simply give the idea of diminutiveness. The diminutive nouns may further
may
be qualified by an adjective signifying "small," "little," etc. &$ or % are used, as (6) For rational beings the three first only 3 mardak " a small man."
(1)
tX>y
mamdk
1
"little
mother"
(Sa'dl).
In prose ast would be used. Lola is in Persia, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, the
Colloquially
name
of the
common
called
red
poppy.
3
mardaka
J^,}y>
also
5
zanaka A&)
(m.c.).
This k
is
Tcaf-i
tasghhir
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
-&j zanak
1
395
"a
little
woman "
ast o**of
(rare).
little girl."
<jUiLfc>
d^t
:
Tiflak-i
man nd-khush
u*A
"
e>x=
(m.c.)
"
my poor
little
child
is
sick"
contemptible European."
(so styled
Remark. In bdd-i khurusak -~j^ ^t "croup" sound of the cough) the is nisbati.
from the
(2)
a*'
iS^o
2
mardaka
y
<*6j (3) s
boy."
it^* dukhtara
"little girl."
In dushiza *)*3j& " virgin " (from dush%dan cJ^H^ji to milk) the termination appears to be the Aa., referred to in Remark to No. (5).
JU
*^J
Remark
life,
/.The
termination
also
occurs
in
substantives
without
a camel-
as: i&tju,
"white"):
4<
AA^ &wM
<c
hump"
(from
"a
hill"):
#&*
/a/aAra
j?/~^,
are
colloquial only.
Remark
III.
In
juja
&wm
"
"a
foal
(of
"a lamb,"
fication.
^^
chicken,"
Remark IV.
x>
Final
bandak
(class.)
^x?
banda
;].
:<
slave," dim.
*x?G
Ruz-nama
j^
"newspaper," dim. ruz-ndmcha A^ucli)^, "small book, or a daily account." Sometimes it is changed into gr, w'de (5). Similarly ^5 is sometimes elided ^ as: dim. tutak JU>t> (class.); tutiyak (mod.). ^-fe^fc tvtf, "parrot,"
^o>
An unmarried
girl
or
woman
is
called dukhtar
j>&
(m.c.).
least)
These words are properly contemptuous, but from frequent use (in Kirman at they have so far lost their force that a husband and wife use these forms in adGenerally
A^ij.
if
woman
is
addressed as zanaka
*&) sne
replica,
zanaka madar-at
8
e^U
The "
tashdld
is
apparently used
why
(or any plant) has sent out a sprout." Also falak : to which the feet are fastened by a loop and held soles upward*. The pole is held by two men.
*
396
(4)
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
in irrational animals
is
-, as
ass."
$~t
murghak-i kuchak "a little chick." " a little horse or aspak-i kuchak pony."
is
This
termination
c c
haywdnak
last
generally added to the generic noun, as: ' ' ' (vide, also ; poor creature J^y murg&ak wee little bird
'
' ' ;
example (c). or uCiy^ (5) For inanimate objects ^ and ** (or za) are used " hawzak or hawzcha (m.c.) " a small artificial pond **^ baghcha (m.c.) " a ittle garden": *f^ a kafcha "a, ladle" (fca/ the palm of the hand):
:
^^^
little
game": *^&i
"a spangle, a
" a violin
**.y kucha
'
fish's scale,
:
bow "
'
"a
:
pistol":
c^>
pwM
(m.c.)
f*^ u^o^x mardumak-i chashm (m.c.) pupil" ' a small leathern bottle lane mashkiza >j^^o
'
;
"
eye
:
"a
few
little
verses
"
;
w^ t5^^
*ia-
t^JD
"a few
days."
j^iu JS; JT
bb*
^Cix*
uX. b
cJo
v^x^i
6awgr bi-khur
Yd yak manak-i *
1 '
Are you depressed ? then take of bang one grain Of rosy grape- juice take one pint or twain."
(O.K. 251. Whin.). " In lakhsha "a live coal, a spark," naysha a small reed " and in one or "two words the s&a is merely a corruption of cha.
Words ending
daryacha;
[f&*e
in aft/
A*.,
sahra,
dim. *^
l^-
sahracha;
As when forming the plural in an, final silent * becomes g, so sometimes with the diminutive in *, as jama &*U>" garment," wJ&cL^ jdmagak 6 " a little
:
garment
"
(wde also
(3)
Remark
IV).
The termination u is also added to adjectives, ''measles"; ^^03 talkh-ak (class.) "somewhat
as
L^U
;
surkhak (m.c.)
bitter
" kam-tar-ak " a little less"; ^^dur-tarak (m.c.) "a little -^US" (m.c.) " dir-tarak a little later "; past-tarak ^y **~j (m.c.) further"; (m.c.)
^y^
" in Indian In modern Persian aspak -^*! also means a " toy horse Cavalry the when carried on wallets. the to for it is the leather cape Regiments applied covering
1
:
2 S
In m.c. kaf-glr
AsJ)Ji,
j*r^
is
name
fire.
qiziljih
" measles"
*
(m.c.)
=
or
Javak-l
t5\^
(f
$*'
"a
small
man
-so."
*
jama-ale.
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
' *
397
' '
:
little
lower
' '
:
c^>
j>j>j
zudtarak " a
bad-ak na
all
dddam
(Tr.
f,M*J<J*j
t^^Uk
quicker
badly"
Remark.
Sta, danja or
ddnzha
The termination *j appears to be a form of **., as A^ofa "a (class.) lentil," the diminutive of Jb|d ddna.
:
or
t&>\ occur, as daricha *$u;d " a small like a window *>AU mdhicha door, i.e., "a crescent; orna(opening door)" 2 ment." In bdzicha J^jk, the Iza is also for belongs to the original form. " " animate nouns, as dushiza V&*jt> naviza a^jli a small boat." ; virgin
(c) The words pisar ^-o and bachcha ASU added to rational nouns, sometimes give a diminutive sense yy ?r~v C5 8 a2/ pisara mihtar or pisar-mihtar (m.c.) '* oh sa5 boy "
:
f
(not
AJ
^Ur (m.c.)
"a
boy slave":
shutar-
y^
Joe jl
(Sa'di)
"young camel";
a boy dervish."
j>jf^
Aaeu
^af ^
.iAUs
^jj^ j <Xf
l
ruzi talabad
Va ddami-bachcha na-ddrad khabar az aql u tamiz (Sa'df). The chick comes out of the egg and seeks its living, But the young of man has nothing of sense or discernment.
Remark /.Words
the
like
^ju
:
(or
juy
<^j**)
in the diminutive, as
^t^ or
" becomes
javak
a grain of barley
Remark 11. These diminutive suffixes are called chim-i tasykir and kdf-i tas&hir j***> ol^. In kharak ^j "poor ass" and pisark
darling
boy," the
suffix
may be
In zaluk
^j
"a
*Jfc
also gives
a modified signification
chashmak
(m.c.)
"a wink,"
").
Similarly kaj
**
crooked
is
sometimes gazh.
1
3
Baghcha
&*&
"a
little
garden
(m.c.
"
is in
Urdu
baghlcha.
Pisar-i mihtar
J^*J~T>
Dar ab pushtak
bi-zan (m.c.
and class.) " the elder son." and local) " dive into the water."
398
AFFIXED
L$
tulchmalc
(tukhm
"seed"
J"d;3
or
"egg").
bad-i khurusak
JUjyL ^U
Remark.
signify "behold
(e)
"
croup
"
;
(imitative word).
of in
and an,
here
is
"
! ;
The
' '
m.c. k&chulu
^^
very
<^^
'
' '
tiny
(for
children or
or things in a good sense) is creeping into writing. ' ' is less diminutive than the former. kuchuku small
Kuchuku
>^y
This diminutive^
-,
is
common
aspu >**!, kitabujjW, etc. Mardu jby> and zanu j>j are not used, but mardaku jf^j* and zanaku } (vulg. and local) are used to express greater diminutiveness than mardak Ydru jjb (m.c. and vulg.) is used as " boy " is, by the or zanak Jo). This suffix is called vav-i tasghlr Irish, and does not express diminutiveness.
Khurasanis, in speaking, use the suffix gak Jtf as a diminutive, as " " dear or tiny little child bachchagak cj a^u baradar-gak-i shumd )t>ty l*^ "your small brother." Persians however look upon Khurasanis as
(f)
;
savages.
(g)
Mashkula
*f&* "a
small mashk
J^ "
(leather water-skin),
and
rule,
mushkula *^Ckx> " a small bit of musk," are formed according to no and are probably the only examples of the diminutive terminations ula.
97.
(a)
Affixed
^, and
Grammarians enumerate
l
:
{!)
By
affixing a
^ (ma'ruf ci^**
formed, as:
to an adjective, simple or
compound,
an abstract noun
is
"wisdom,"
rom JjJ
<jQ niki "goodness," ^ta dariafi "good," and Ufa "wise": ^su ;J zar-bakhshi "the
bestowing of gold"; ^jta ^l^ jahan-dari "empire," (from J^^j), adj., " " giving gold and;!d e^l^, adj., world-holding ").* Abstract nouns are also formed by affixing this to nouns, pronouns,
verbal roots, and past participles, etc., etc., as: pddishdh aU^b
1
"king,"
Briefly,
from
*
:
all
adjectives
participles, abstract
by adding
*'
silent
h becomes
From nouns,
*
by adding
(_$*, as:
t^^y 8l?uJ
panjah tumanl
worth 50 tumans.
alif, as garma ^jf or cold sarma from weather" hot "cold, "hot"; garm (m.c.) (m.c.) "heat, l^/ weather"; shay da, P. "mad from love" from ahayd, substantive: vide foot-note
:
<2)
to (6)
(3).
AFFIXED
padishahi ^tA^U " non-existence "
399
nisti
"sovereignty":
;
mam
"
"existence";
"
egotism."
In hastl
being," the
is
^^A
existence, being
" and
nisti
^^J
"
non-existence, not
If the adjective
is
compound,
as: bi-dast
u pa bj e-*a
is
compound
pd*i
0*0
"
helplessness."
^ is
usually added
(for this vide
" " ups and downs below) past u bulandi XLI, p. 236). Compare also: *Jb <J^
;
jy
tar
u
;
tazagi
"freshness"
) &*& f* c>y*^ ** &$ t?4 p*> he "for me H. to sit in his B., XXII) Chap. permitted <j^& f* fJ&U " to even and smoke with to his eat him, here, however, presence, pipe,
jl
lj
(Tr.
/*A
eH^
/*
participles.
may
also
Thus from
muraTchTchas (jaa^/o
m.c. substantive
now
changed into *-^,as: banda *w "slave," bandagi ^J*u "'bondage"; shikasta AJw^ "broken," { " chuni " fracture, also being worn out, broken down (old age) shikastagi
the
55
is
J~&
LS>J*-
is
or the
of the verbal
noun, and also ya-yi ismi ^^-^f (^^ Such nouns are included in hasil-i masdar j^^o cLcU., vide 115. A noun may be formed from the Imperative root of the verb by
LS,
affixing
as:
(e)
khud
siicfi
<J*&*
fy^
"self-praise"
(compound word);
vide also
115
and
(i).
is the ya-yi mushabih, (2) Nearly allied to the ya-yi masdari ^^AA/O ^b or ya*yi musahabat O.A^UAX? ^U, which expresses similitude or assumption
of character, as
*>
Zagh
Sar
bi-farr-i tu
huma^i kunad
(Nizaml).
"
Mani, P. egotism," but Ar. from root " thouart with me."
l
'
(iS
^o
seminal fluid
"
;
also ba man-l
(^>^
^
S
An instance
Rufehsat
is
Maslar
;**A*>
source,
Inf.
of
in Arabic.
400
AFFIXED
" At seeing thy splendour the magpie acts the huma, The head that comes near thee humbles itself (lit. acts the foot)." of In this example huma*i ^U* and pal <^b both illustrate the " boundless Hatim of famous similitude. Hatimi cs*^ generosity (from Tay,
1
The
' '
,
Persian
from Iran
^^J ^U
,
t
has a tashdid, as: Arabic relative the of tashdid but in Persian the
^*^
^
^o^
is
"
culine, as
If
is
4 j~+>, but restored in the feminine, as, shamsiyya 4u~+ the substantive is Persian and ends in ha-yi makhfi cs^ a hamza
:
shamsl
(J*~'>
ii-J " light-green, i.e. pista 6 -coloured." The forms <^*f and colour is changed into however also occur, but are incorrect. Sometimes the as: *H^ khana "a house," ^Xil^L Tchanagl "domestic' before the 6 " In India the form Ichanl "fort," garrison- soldier." qal'a ^5^* qal'agi
: ,
"
^***
as
surma-*}
' '
blue- black in
occurs as well as khanagl, vulg. Tchangl, vide also (a) (1). If, however, the word is Arabic, the relative adjective should be correctly formed according to the Arabic rule, 7 (vide Ar. Gr., Appendix); thus from
derived (j*#, Ar. "oval." The form LAV is incorrect, " silver " though occasionally used in Persian. Nuqra ly*i nuqra*i (mod.) " " made of silver but classically ^^oi is also found.
AAXJ bayza
"egg"
is
'
Jl.
1 Called Huma *' the Common Lammergeyer " (vide B\somurgh-i dawlat ClJjj> As. Soc. Beng., 1906) (not a mythical bird) is supposed to be fortunate; hurriayun
' '
adj.
fortunate.
' '
* This is not the Arabic that forms Arabic relatives, as (js^r** (Pers. (^ misn) "Egyptian," etc., though it corresponds to it. un 3 The "relative noun" is a substantive or adjective, as: arziyy "earthy";
:
pi. of
by adding
"God-
head"
is
also
^LJt insaniyyat "humanity." In imitation of the Arabic, this termination added to Persian words, as: Wlftriyyat "stupidity," also &harl; zaniyyat
"womanliness"; mardumiyyat, etc., bide (1) (1). The words *>}jS&> fafuliyyat " childhood " and *A*{^ karahiyat, etc., "aversion," are Arabic infinitives and not abstract nouns of the above class. Vide (c).
w
&
c^>,
pi.
dahriyya &tj*t>
tne
6
i.e.
Hebrew language
* '
is
But
7
"a
tinman."
Words
of the
<*".*
4*!*' * +
AFFIXED
1, 2, p.
^c, ETC.
is
401
the Pahlavi
179 of the Grundries der Tranischen Philologie. It Pahlavi din-ik, Persian dim, pious. This Ik Ik.
derived from
derived from
is
an older yaka (old Iranian) or possibly ika. The Hindi * is derived from a Sanskrit ika and other terminations. The old Iranian yaka or ika, and the Sanskrit ika, etc., have a common origin in
the old Aryan language.
I. This <_$ is added to the native city of a person as a but to the name of a tribe, as : Muhammad Hasan-i Shirdzi not patronymic, " Muhammad Hasan the Shirazi (or of Shiraz) " but Fath (j-jt^ (.j**^ &3uo
Remark
~Al\
lfc
<Ali-yi
Afshar
" Ghulam
Jtf: Afrasiyab-i
Turk
wJfy
v^L^l
Qhuldm
however, the
' '
is
the Afshar Tribe)." For things, added to both the city and the tribe, as: Shal-i Kirmani
'All the
(of
Afshar
shawl" and
qdli-yi Afshdri
^IkJi ^l*
"an Afshar
The Persians, however, say mardum-i Kirman &(<*j> ^^ (not Kirmani) "the people of Kirman," and zariha-yi Shiraz j<j*$> <^^j "the women of
Shiraz (and not Shirazi).'
9
Remark
II.
The
;
1
)
" second
in the relative
<_$
there
is
no
feminine
' " a second of (<vCi saniya the feminine of ^ti; also means time).* " Tahudi ^3^. (P.) has for its feminine Yahudiyya AJ^^J "a Jewess also,
:
" Judea
"
and
Yahud
^J
"the Jews."
(for bayzi
^^
a
)
^^
vide
Notes on
Ar.
Grammar.
Remark
III.
This
is
as
dust-i
s
qadimi
qadimi ^^^ shuda and &\ JJA^ ^5*.^ l^t (m.c.) "these have become antiquated."
o***)^
:
sometimes added unnecessarily to an adjective, (m.c.) and dust-i samimi 4^*-^*-^ ^+jt> tn-ha
This
yd-yi za*i
^
"
ouv~>
^b,
or perhaps the
Remark IV.
adj. (m.c.)
This
Participle
1
" = manuscript
<_$
Infinitive,
as:
navishtani,
^^
khatti.
;
Navistani
(b) (1).
^ii^y
is
also the
Future
vide
formed on the measure of In mod. in Arabic "elliptical." but Bayzi in Persian "whiteness, purity," " " " and oval Persian tukhm-murghl { elliptical." " the moderns " S The Indian Parsis are divided into two classes, rasmi ^^>) (adj.) " and qadlml ^^<^ " the old-fashioned.
The Arabic
from
2 to 10 inclusive are
^^
In India qalami
26
402
AFFIXED ^, ETC.
iM
Remark
Delhi."
V.
From
(J^^> or
From
^fila^o comes
'
"Delhi," <^U,> Dihlavi "a man from ^ftk-ox^ also ^cy&^/o modern and corrupt.
^z
Marvazl ^JJJM
'
man
*
of
Marv
'
is
man
Marv)
of
;
of
Margh (the supposition being that Margh was the ancient name and Razl ^Jt; an inhabitant of Ray is derived from Raz jl; the
'
older
is
formed Kashi
^K
and from
Badakhsh).
If this
Badakhsharii
^\&
is
is
words abu
j*\,
ibn
disappear; thus, from ibn-i Zubayr : #j &\ Abu Hanifa &&i^*j\ comes Hanafi ^5*^ .
Remark VI.
used
in
Another form
of the
is
^\
s
as:
:
^l*^.
jismani
"
corpo-
real" (no tashdld in Persian on the final ) <yK ruhanl ^spiritual"; ^i^y nuranl "bright, luminous" ^iUai nafsani "psychologic, etc." vide
The
^L
or
^ of the object,
:
expresses
dast khattl
some person
tjb.*>
c~o
"signed"
:
J&d
la'nati
"cursed."
ya-yi fa'il cUl*
;
(5)
The
is
^U^ ^ are:
jangi
The
;
'
fitness
the of ya-yi liyaqat &J>(d ^Ij, or ya-yi qabiliyyat *z+*kti ^lj, " fit to be added to the Infinitive, as sukhtam this is the
'
^^^
burned
(2)
'
'
the c5 of indefiniteness
(3)
' ;
vide
41.
The
ya-yi khitabi
of
1
^k*- ^.,
or
'^5-
the
nik-i <^j the verb, as: kardl ^j* This second is, however, usually distinguished as,
;
of the
2nd
J*5
oUjif
(4)
fi'l.
The
ya-yi mutakallim
p&*
^Lj, or
'^
^\
ilahl or
MM
rabbi
4 '
first
Karlm-i va karlmi karam ast o^t f L$+?J^ J ' the accent distinguishes the generous and generosity is clemency, karim-i from the second which is a substantive karlmi.
tu
'
ETC.
403
This
Lord"
lj
^a**
mushfiq-i
"my
'
friend."
yd-yi muldtafati
The ya-yi si fat ^ that is ^b, ^ followed by the relative particle *>', and gives the force of the demonstrative pronoun vide 42 (b) for other names of this <^. (6) The yd-yi zd^id^j^b, or redundant ^,' occurs in the Imperative
(5)
;
is
also
called
after a quiescent
this
''
' '
:
alif
or j
as
a clever
(7)
%** workman " vide also (a) (3), Remark III. The ya-yi ishbd aUi ^k, the ^ of satiating
1
bi-gushdy ^U^J for bi-gushd U> open Also in other words as in ^X;K (for /;fl)
'
or filling up,'
is
the
45-
of poetical license
is
lengthened into i:
The metre
is
Jj*J
The
ya-yi istimrdrl
^j^\
^U,
or
^ of
repeated action,'
z
;
'
is
the
^
J )
;
vide p. 225.
so
The ya-yi ma'ruf o^**> ^Lj is the ^ pronounced i (as in police named by the Arab invaders because they were acquainted with
(10)
its
sound.
The
yd-yi majhul
J^^
C5"
^ is the
classically
sounded
like e\
so
named by the Arabs because the sound was unknown to them. (11) The L$ preceded by fatha and pronounced like the English diphthong
*
ai in
*
sdkin-i maftuh
md
qabl,
i.e.,
preceding letter being movable by fatha. ^L>, is the (12) The yd-yi izdfat o^Lit ^Ij, or yd-yi izdfl the substitute for the izdfat after the weak consonants and j, as in
quiescent
^^
that
is
^ ^**>
and J^ 4^.
Remark
I.
The ^ in adverbs of time may be either the yd-yi vahdat what might be called the yd-yi taqrib s-^3 ^l> (< the yd of
approximation," as in f<vof Ailiu tf ^sf** 'asr-i bud ki bi-khdna dmadam 'asr-i may also mean (m.c.) "it was about evening when I reached home"
;
subh-l
In shab-l " he must be here one of these bdyad bi-ydyadto\jg ^^xxo^^x^ (m.c.) may be either yd-yi vahdat nights or mornings, i.e. in a few days," the
this
"one
evening, an evening;
night"
<*AJ
With
C5"
becomes
trS as:
India.
8
he struck me." Obsolete in Persian" colloquial, but preserved in the speech of Afghanistan and
t5*Jf
"verily";
^j**
**
404
THE TERMINAL
Remark
for
II.
Yd
is
alif,
l
as: &\**jj
yarmaghan
armughan
(c)
^1**;! (class,
and
m.c.)
"a
present."
(1)
By
adding iyyat
First to nouns.
nine
o^i
"divinity": &}**
cordant";
"humanity; politeness."
:
Second to adjectives, as
&ix<~/>3
"
poverty."
jj
:
*JJ**XA>
mun'imiyyat
" bestow-
ment "
in solitude."
Fourth to particles, as
"
t
:
' '
what
is it
"
is
-
oj^S*..
OJJ>*A>
OJ^A
j:
^ri^
w'dte p.
400, foot-
note 3, and notes on Ar. Gr., Appendix. Words formed by this addition are
infinitives.
called
"*
^^
jaLaxj
"artificial
In the same way, the Persian words padshahat (Indian) and nazakat o/tJJ are formed on the Arabic measure of najabat ^*^, hamaqat
Remark
I.
Remark
II.
If
is
added to an adjective
^l*,
fern. *jJU,
no
lashdid, as:
but
98.
(a)
(i.e.
The Terminal
* is
*.
of
%dhir,
sounded), and
9
^^/o
makhfl or
^suo
B-M
8 consequently sounded.
:
As
it is
when mute is unsounded and transliterated a already stated, final considered a vowel by some Grammarians. 4
1
(class.)
and
ot^w
eawghat;
all
mean a
present brought
Grammar,
i.e.,
verbal noun.
Panja
**
4 After silent
8,
it
i&
written in the ordinary manner, viz. */*^ kasrah. dropped in writing before the ha of the plural.
Mute
* should be,
but
is
not always,
THE TERMINAL
405
The
final
in Arabic
kali-
x
,
mah
the pausal
orm
of
+A^
become
silent in
a of
(6)
mim
drops out.
silent 8 is
Mute or
(1)
A noun
"
to form a
relationship or resemblance to
it,
;
as: dast^^^>
"hand,"
dasta
&^^ = hammam
"
chahar-chuba &j*. ^-^ " frame Ujiyf reputation; singing (of door, " ewer." This * is called o^l^x> picture, etc.) aftdba Ajlwf ha-yi musha-
avdza
"
^U
bahat "the
(2)
of resemblance.'
'
from boston
of the verb to form substantives. Thus *b stem "to bind" comes bandd "a u>X~j (Imp. slave," band) and from didan o*^ (shortened Inf. did) comes dida *&:>* "eye": ginston
It
is
&*~?jZ (girl) "to weep," girya *>J ''lamentation": nalidan i^aJU (nal), ndla *HJ "complaint": shukufa &>^ "blossom": larza *jj) "trembling"
is
called
^L^O
^U
ha-yi makhfi-yi
fi'li
"the
silent
added to adjectives to form analogous nouns, as: safid **&* U-o "black," siyaha AA!JU "an (adj.) "white," safida fexJi* siyah "a claw, a bunch five," panja *=uy inventory, list of items" pan?
(3) It is
1
:
'
^ij
" chahar-sJidba *& every fourth night har-ruza fyj j& (t daily ; ; t^ shaban-ruza &(& "lasting 24 hours"; du-dila *)*j* "wavering, of two " &** " endurminds dvrbam JJ;^ " once more, over again" ; chand-ruza ing for a few days, short-lived": har-sdla *JU y, -''yearly": ruza *j " " " 3 " five du-ruya **)) daily, also a fast pronged panj-shakha a^ti Ju " " " of two men double, two-faced "; du-marda* ^yo jt> (task, work, etc.).
old
l
;
used to form adjectives or adverbs of time, age, number, etc., as: chaharsala,'1 ^JU^l^. "four years' old"; du-maha *Al/oj^ "two months'
"
"
"
This
8 is
^U
Safida-yi
(or
saplda-yi)
subh
**>
^jj*
"the dawn":
Tiisab
siyahl-yi
chashm
(m.c.)
*'a
list
Alx^ (m.c.) "the black of the eye," but siyaha-yi of the account, statement."
v -^
1
^^
j^,
panj-salagl
(^L-
^AJ,
etc., etc.,
"the
state of
3 Du-ruya sipah *^** fyjj* "the opposing (facing) armies." Du-ruya &>)) j<> sometimes means in two ranks, but whether facing each other or one behind the other is
doubtful.
4
knew
^^
tej*
***
p*"*^*
(m.c.)
" I
my limitations
capabilities."
406
(5)
of
participles
is
used substan-
tively in Persian, as
ied":
a feminine agreeing with surat, etc., understood: t}^* " vide "an inclosure." This is also the " h of resemblance (b) (1). " " mardana fit for a king (or kings) (6) In such words as shdhdna aUl the is g some called native cJ>lj{l by A>!<5j*>, etc., grammarians hd-yi liydqat
it is really
;
:
^^
"the h
of fitness or suitability,"
and
is
Ana
interested
(c)
&if,
manner"
however, occurs as a separate suffix, as in &>U; "in a " vide 108. dastana "glove" sdldna "yearly
;
:
are
(1)
To form
" the
"
the participle is past active, as: shumda guft oJtf jf*xxJJV " having heard he replied," the * is called -Al^ ^5 lA hd-yi atf "copulative
When, however,
is
and
"and,"
(2) It is
navisanda
used to form the agent (a present participle) of the verb, as: &k "writer" (also part, "writing") and is then called
&
oJbU
"the silent of agency." ^(A ha-yi mukhtafi-yi ja'iliyyat used to form the feminine of Arabic words, thus malik "king" malika " Queen" (in Arabic malikah). This is called eoJG ha-yi tanis.
^JUsfe.x
(3) It is
^U
Remark.
In Persian,
but not so
in Arabic, thus
(4)
96
(b) (3)
and Remark.
<J
Remark I. The final mute 8 of a Persian " in Arabic, thus 3&~J pista, P. " a pistachio-nut
Remark
Kina. 99.
II.
is (jS~- ?
fustaq in Arabic.
:
The
final
is
The
Suffixes
^
&j>1
ban or
van;
^ vdna;
and
(a)
un and &j
van.
be a corruption of man &(*, contracted " remaining" (also resembling "). They are more probably the Sanskrit suffix van or wan, and are, accord-
These
Gari-wan or gari-ban
e^j^
or ovfjj'^ Hindustani,
" driver
of hackney-coach
etc."
THE SUFFIXES
(6)
gar, ETC.
407
:
(1)
This suffix added to substantives forms substantives, as &(&(> bdcfkbdn (m.c.) gardener "; darvdn (m.c.)
' '
pdsbdn
is
c*
"
***^
^z
e<
AjU sdya-bdn "a shelter (from sun, rain, etc.)"; (this last written "collar of a coat" (that which u>UjL) giribdn usually guards the neck )."
of camels)
:
"
sentry,
watchman
:
' '
;
shuturbdn ol^i*
^
it
' '
^J
:
(2)
To nouns
*).
forms adjectives, as
cA^t*
mihr-ban
"kind"
(in
m.c.
mihrabdn
(3)
Gar dun
2
humayun OJ^+A
astarvana
fortunate."
"the wheel of heaven"; wazhun &$j "inverted" Van c/j, and vdna *'*j (and un) are also affixes
,
"moth
(feather-like)";
Wj?/-*', astarvan &jj*~1, satarvan cyy^, etc. (lit. mule-like) "barren, a barren woman"; pulvdn uL5<~L> (bridge-like) the raised path or partition
in
a field."
100.
(a)
The
Suffixes gar
/,
gar
^,
gari
^,
"
kdr
it signifies
is
attendant"
parvardagdr
:
(also a king)"
performer of service, i.e. God one who nourishment, provides *}^^^ " teacher " " successful" kdm-gdr jZ*^ dmuz-gar ffij*>\ (m.c.)
;
ruz-gdr
jtfjj)
"time, etc."
;^t| ydd-gdr
(in
:
m.c.
ydd-i-gdr)
"souvenir";
jg**$ gunah-gdr
"
(class.)
Remark.
is
In ydd-gdr
j&
;
"
memorial, souvenir,"
etc.,
not marked.
" it is even less In ruz-gdr jfjjj " time fortune prominent. in Sanskrit kar: kara and Gar is a in Zend similar (6) suffix,
;
it is
f$
probably connected with, or contracted from, kdr y<, gar )tf, etc. vide (a). It has the signification of the English suffix -er. Examples: zargar } " " " kdr-gar ^&ty tavdngar rich goldsmith (or a worker or maker in gold) "one skilful in business; also taking effect (as of medicine, of an
1 ' ;
;
oration, etc.)
"
^tx**^ Icimiyd-gar
" an alchemist."
By
affixing a
<jT
\ya-yi
masdar or
wo
;
jkj&
"
mihrbarii
^^jif*
" kindness."
Huma
I**
or
humay
^c^
reverenced.
3
" to do," Sanskrit kartum, All are connected with the verb &Sj' kardan, P.
and
Sometimes written as
408
ar, ETC.
Remark
while gar
I.
^ indicates a performer.
II.
Remark
which
*>\*
By
suffix
gan
<jr/ is
formed
^
If
signifies
(m.c.)
bawar-chi-Miana-gari
"art, business," as u shikar-chl-garl nami-danad ^c/ " he knows nothing about the business of a shikari." In India " the AiUL art."
^-^^
^b
culinary
it is
usual
Sufl-garl (s
add the suffix to the "the Babi and Sufi \f*+ $ <Jb
to
Kar ft
' '
work
' '
is
^
(in
gar.
lk$ gunah-kar India gunah-gar) "evil-doer, sinner "; taqsir-kar*1 j\6j>&& "one who has
;
' '
jafa-kar
)\t(&*>
oppressor
committed a fault."
Possibly in amuz-gar j(fjyf and kam-gar j^fK, tuted for kar^. s
101.
(a)
etc.,
the affix
is
substi-
Ar /, dar jt,
al Jf.
4
By
cutting
:
off
the final
of the Infinitive
and adding
kirdar
b
ar, verbal
Indicating action
as
"
guftar ;Uj
"speech";
j*j>
"works
j*>j^
)\&>.t> "seeing, sight." This termination sometimes gives the sense of an agent, as kharidar ' " a wor" " deceiver ' 6 (m.c.) buyer firiftar )^j parastar j&jt
;
:
didar
'
'
shipper
(3)
(class.);
is
kushtar
slain in
;
;lio (m.c.)
sacrifice
anything that has died of itself (m.c.) anything killed otherwise than with the orthodox Muslim rite."
;
"
anything
murdar y^'
"
carrion,
i.e.
also
If,
however, the
wa, as:
suffix
pronounced
foot-note
babi-gari va sufl-garl (^
taqslr
(ji^J
'
(Sjp
(*\*.
(3).
Similarly
Also jf^Jj-cW taqsir-war, jt^^^aft taqsir-dar and <*> ^-JyAftJ taqsir-mand. substantives like ^jff j./o^^ khidmat-gari "service, office of By adding attendant " zargarl " the business of goldsmith " c/JV^ kargari " skill (in doing or " are formed. making anything)
*
8
and
dar,
added
Note
Farushanda
ftoiwi
;L^J>y
farlbanda
^^
(m.c.).
ji,
ETC.
409
as
adjectives with a passive signification are formed by this suffix, ' ' ' taken captive ; arrested. giriftar ;&*/ " " " is said to be derived from dav 1 j\& " stratum wall (5) Divdr j.jj*
'
Some
and
dr.
(b)
Ddr y* is the Imperative stem of ddshtan (^\^> " to have, to hold," and in compounds generally signifies "holder, keeper," as: pishdniddr * jb^ilkAJ (m.c.) "fortunate"; db-ddr jla vf (m.o.) "a man who looks after
*>
" share-holder."
It
11
is
also
twisted."
If the
;^
noun be a compound of two synonyms, the affix is added to the second noun only, as: pick u kham "twists," pick u Tchamdar " <: u hush-ddr J& 3 " twisted
^ ^
-?
p^J %
'aql
y^
uy^
intelligent, etc."
:
Remark.
The
Infinitive itself
man &*
^Ax>f
my
coming
"
;
dmadan-i
vide
The shortened
farukht
*?>*
infinitive
<
kharid
^ tx^k
p*^
^
(c)
;
c^t
v^
(m.c.)
"I
m
:
| llfi
((*).
" claw
Al Jf is a relative suffix that forms substantives, as J&^ changal fork" JUia dumbdl " tail, after-part." In zangdl J^ij " rust " (for zangar, the letters I and r being interchange;
102.
The Turkish
Affixes Ji
or ch%
Bash
Task or Dash
(a)
The Turkish
1
it
;
falconer
;
"
qatir-chl
" a musketeer " shikar^sJi^ij banduq-chi " a servant " a muleteer "
occurs chiefly in
modern
Persian.
Example
;
who
^^*
^^
By
imala, dlv.
<jr;!^T is
:
Abdarl
Or ba
'aql
u hush
o^ ^ J&c b
Chi has
much
of Turkish
410
If
end
in
"treasurer"
scullion)"
:
mash'al-chi
parvanchi ^sul^j
^ "one who
cUi^
1
&,
the
writes parwanas,
or
Government
as
:
orders, etc."
^^
in m.c. sometimes
becomes
jt
(_$=*,
"a gardener";
ji
"a mediator."
Possibly
^^
j^**,
qush-chi-gan
^cj>
(^ u^>
100
(6)
Remark
II.
few compounds are formed by the Turkish words bash " head," and tdsh or dash " companion," as qizil-bash (lit. red- headed) " a soldier; a
Persian;
tash
Qizil-bash; etc.,
"
fellow- servant."
Dan
e>b.
The
as:
ej!>
;
affix
" case
khak-dan (m.c.) "the grave " kumaj-dan &\*** \+* "a, copper 6 cooking-pot" o'a Aj^ anfiyya-dcin (m.c.) "snuff-box."
e^tA^la.
;
1
^b signifies something that holds, or contains, a vessel, " a t**J namak-dan "a salt-cellar"; ^1^*^ 3 qalam-dan (m.c.) pen;
dan
Remark.
after
suffixes
-
j'a,
.
that
signify
as:
&tf
AJLL
^ILo
^13
'
!f
^
:
jb
(as
)
in
rud-bar), etc.,
v-^
' '
-ir^
pl
In Arabic the
noun
S\*AJ
of
"
"
; '
has special forms, as maqtal clia*= " the East (time or place mashriq (j^-M
'
of rising)
masjid
*
mosque.'
Those
the term
nouns
of place' that signify 'abounding in' (formed by the - -- are sometimes sar ;U, barjl, lakh distinguished by
&j&
'
c5^***'
nouns
6
of excess.'
"cursed"
are
For
^t,
104-
vide
^13,
!
68 VIII.
sar
6ad5
Zar
graA
55
f,
jL, s^aw ^l^ or istan &&*>, lakh $, kada ^f gard &jl -, khana AJl^, sfom t^, ?ia t>.
,
:
*>,
(a)
(1)
The
affix zar
Namak
grows)"; shura-zar
In Arabic
J*
is
c*,
2
8
specially-shaped handles, for cutting the paper. painted and are very costly.
*
6
are beautifully
Compare
<^U^
'
skilful
' :
vide
zdr, ETC.
411
oils
saltpetre
ground";
'alaf-zdr
;
;|j
"meadow"
(m.c.)
1 ;
kdr-zdr )\j
jf
"
field of battle
(6)
"
(place of deeds)
gul-zar ;tj
J^
"any garden."
:
The affix sar jU has the same meaning, and forms substantives and adjectives, and denotes plenty, magnitude, similitude, or possession, as 2 chashma-sdr ;U <x+^ "a place full of (1) Kuhsar ; U */ "hilly"
;
"
springs
sharm-sdr ;L>
I.
"full of shame."
Remark
Sang-sdr kardan
cwX;Uu.
'
to
Remark //.In rukhsar jU^; " face modify the word rukh ^>
(2)
born"
subuk-sar )(*>*
" light-headed; also unburdened by luggage nigu-sar, or nigun-sar j& or^L^y^, in classical Persian = "one who hangs the head from shame"; but in modern Persian only "inverted (= sar-nigun)."
"
;
"like." khak-sar* ;l~^tk shah- sar ;U*U "like a king, kingly." " (3) It is used for sar head," as \-sag-sar jL.
:
It also denotes
"
(old)
' '
dog-headed
(c)
The
affix stan
' (
" &^~* or istan &&*\ signifies place,' and is derived from The former is used after a substantive ending place.'
'
'
and the
(place of scent)
"
;
latter after a consonant, as: bu-stan c^^? "a garden " Hindustan* &\ij&i& " India garden gulistan ^^J^
' ' ' '
;
"Europe."
In a few words the termination gives the idea of time, as tdbistan ' summer zamistdn ^U-xj winter spring. cA*-jitf bahdristdn
<
<
' '
< '
' '
' '
'
Remark.
c/f
an found
in so
many names,
M. Chodzko writes
"
du
Quelques erudits persans m'ont assure qu'anciennement le formatif pluriel &\, donnait aux mots primitifs le meme sens geographique que leur stdn\ i.e. qui est tres probable; car an veut dire aussi propriete de,
:
appartenant a
appartient.
^f
:
jt
ez
&V
<>;f
ardelan
nom
d'une province,
nom d'une
province,
e^j^
mazenderan de meme,
zar j'j
*
3
Chaman is an artificial lawn or any stretch of good grass ^-^ a green spot covered with weeds and grass.
Kuhistan
\d*~>&jfi
or a
meadow,
etc.,
'alaf-
big
^,
Tchak-sarl
^U-S'l^ "humility."
an
(bamdadan
vi>^f5
*
6
For
^,
na-gahan
c>^
and
412
azer-btjan de
zar, ETC.
desht-i
haveran,
les
il
le
desert
de Haveran,
les Ardels,
doivent,
suivant ces
Hemeds,
les
marais
(jil),
dans
la quelle (ender)
y a beancoup de grands
du
(maz) arbres ou des chenes (mazu), les adorateurs ou les enfants (big-beee) feu (azer), les deserts de 1' Occident (haver), etc."
Remark.
cAL,
In poetry istan
is
sometimes pronounced
Jf
(d)
The
i
affix lakh
$ signifies "place," or
"numerous, copious," as
rocky, stony ":
&&,
* '
sang-ldkh (m.c.)
^^
div lakh
a demon-haunted place."
(e)
Kada
**>
;
compound, "place,"
may-lcada
mourning"
"habitation, house," and as the last number of a :Atash-kada ** <j&f (m.c.) " temple of the Magi " " a tavern " mdtam kada *** "house of (m.c.) ^3lx>* (class.) but-kada **? o*j " an idol
*&
signifies
as
temple."
Remark.
banujA]<tf
In kad-khuda \<&*f
"a
"a
of kada *^.
(/)
Oah *% (Sanskrit
"
Place," as:
;
gatu)
is
an
affix
*tf
(1)
bedding"
jarud-gah " a seat "
(2)
Khwab-gah ^^ bedroom, also a cloth valise for " an ^ cuu takht-gah (m.c.) open-air platform for sitting on" ^ ^ (m.c.) "halting place"; nishiman-gah er*A^J (m.c.)
;
denoting "
jjlf
dram-gdh
as:
itf
^*f;f
(m.c.)
"a
resting place."
"Time"
;
(m.c.)
of season."
"the evening time"; an-gah* a&f that" bi-gah j$Kjj " untimely, out "after pasangdh '^fo^ Sukhan na-bdyad guft magar dngdh ki maslahat bdshad (class.
Shdm-gdh
a'f
;
116. and modern) &k cusJLA/o *^ jjl^of ^/c oA^ ^Ui ^iu vide also suffixed to a noun denotes a city or place of (g) The word dbdd* abode, as Bahrdm-dbdd aUf ft^j (Bahram Town). The adjective dbdddn ^tk'f is not used in forming compounds. found in a few names of towns, appears to (h) The affix gird or gard have a similar signification, as &J> f l^j Bahram-gird : &j&> *jt Yazdijurd (for
^
:
Yazdigird).
In Ddrdb-kard
^ ^y*
is
perhaps a corruption.
no t to be confounded with
&
guh
"
Abad kardan "to cultivate a place, or found a cultivation; also the condition of being populous or inhabited."
*
&&}&$
umand, ETC.
()
413
"house" as a suffix has a somewhat similar meaning and & s(f as: kdr-khdna AJU^tf " factory": rud-khdna aiU. " bed of a river and hence " a river.' 1 properly added to nouns, also forms a noun of place, (j) The suffix sfaw
Khana
*JIA>
to kada i*
' '
'
as
gul-shan <^iJ?
it is
5 '
In rawshan <jj;
(for
rawzan)
is added to nouns or adjectives, as: narrow place"; tdz-nd or tiz-ndy j (class.) "the prominent part of the sword edge that does the work (lit. place of sharp" " strait." db-nd
Nd
tang-na U&3
"a
ness)
Uuf
In Indian Persian,
Remark.
Nd
is
:
also
of
cognate meaning, as
105.
dardz-nd
length."
,
Umand
is
***J,
Ndk
(a)
Mand ^^
"
and
signifies
"
intelligent
In arjumand
'
t>i*a>t) (also
is
" wisdom, wise"; aqlmand <yuiap tanu-mand ^U^i3 strong." s^ profitable " arjmand) "noble," and barumand <>i^ fertile,
of
' '
;
fruitful,'
the suffix
a form of maud.
Wand &>j is occasionally found for mand ^i*, as in khwishd-wand toji&jijtL <e hard (like steel)"; khudd-wand &>y*> "kinsman"; puldd-wand <^^|
"master."
(6)
Ndk
-^U
added
to substantives, forms
an adjective
of quality, as
gham-ndk uU*p "sad"; khawf-ndk clxj. "frightful"; khatar-ndk ^b^*. " dard-ndk <Jti " " *}* painful." dangerous used to form some substantives from verbs, JJfc is a termination u^f (c) from as: pushdk t^U^j "raiment" c;^^; khurdk Jt;>^ "food" from
;
oji)^
5MzaA;
tJ'lJ^o
"gonorrhoea."
Remark.
In maghak
^~
'
magh&
"depth,"
is
and tabdk
'
*M
termed a relative
suffix
by native Grammarians
115
(e).
106(a)
i.e.
Bar
&
and Ydr
;l>.
(1)
The
'
suffix bar
signifies
'abounding
in,'
as: zang-bdr jb
^j,
"channel of a abounding in blacks'); rud-lar $** (class.) Zangibdr " river" sang-bdr jb t^Ju* (old) abounding in stones, stony."
(
:
There
is
is
Any dry
nala
'
rain,
*
c5> l&hiradmandl
414
(2)
dvar, ETC.
Bar ^
used
;
is
and
"
signifies
raining, scattering,"
l
"scattering fcj* mellifluous." shakar-bdr raining sugar, ;l^ pearls (3) Bar ju is also a substantive signifying "load," and is also used in compounds, as: pur-bar jt^j "fruitful (of fruit trees)"; sar-bar jly (m.c.)
5 '
' '
and
is
to
form
compounds, "
as:
gawhar-bdr
a small extra load on a transport animal. In a few adjectives, the suffix takes the form of yar ;l>, as
(also bakht-dvar,
' '
"fortunate"
bakht-var or baTchtur,
and bakht-mand)
"
-4ww
jyf
(contracted /f
);
Far
j.,
and
var
c^; and
(a)
Man ^U
tives
The affixes avar ^/T, and o> yf, which are used in forming adj Acfrom substantives, are from the verb e^;/T "to bring" and signify
or displaying," as:
"bringing, producing,
:
j^
dil-avar
"brave
(dis-
;jT;^j; zur-avar "strong (bringing strength)." playing heart)" In solar jilU " chief," the suffix is the same, but contracted.
(6)
^*
and
tyj vara
these suffixes
}j (J>'^t
" hopeful; a candidate "; " " a gush-var (or gush-vara] )\yj ear-ring (becoming or adorning the ear) shah-var yj*>\*;i "befitting, or worthy of a king, kingly "; zarra-var " " sukhan-var " an animal "like an atom jan-var jt>l^ (possessed of life)
;
of, full
of," as:
ddnish-var
eloquent "; nam- var j^/oli "famous." In musht-vdra tyj&>>< "handful, the measure of a hand," the * is redundant. In ditirjd* (also dil-avar ))$&) " brave," is another contraction of the
"
same
suffix.
Remark.
''worthy."
The
suffix
var jj
is
The
suffix
;
gdn
signifies
cXjl&^
happy."
"
;fj,
to be cast
;
king"
worthy of ," as: rdygdn* c;&.i; ( tij ) on the road)": shdy-gdn* J&>& (for shdh-gdn) " merchant." bdzar-gdn ofe^b (for bdzdr-gdn)
signifies
2
3
* All adjectives
may
)\j
and ana O
ana, ETC.
415
Remark.
Dihqdn &\AA*
is
dih-Tchan
perhaps a corruption of
&
"sky" (like a revolving In shddmdn c/*>^ the suffix 'mill-stone'); ^U^ "guest." seems to mean ''continuity": or ,>& = " glad" (i.e. temporarily happy). Musalmdn cA+A*~*> is by some said to stand for muslim-man, by
cA* "like,"
Man
as:
ds-mdn e/*-f
mih-mdn
^U
pi. of
corruption of the
Arabic plural.
108.
Ana *f
l ;
Ina
&
*
In
&
*
j.
(a)
The inseparable
adjective
suffix
it
is
"like"; as an
as
:
ana added to nouns or adjectives signifies usually applicable to things, not to persons,
Marddna
' '
*i|ayo
"like a man,
manly";
dlv-dna
**[?>&
:
"mad
*Jlij
div)
rubahdna AJUby
"
"
;
wily
zandna
nine, peculiar to
AJ&JJ
**'>\j j}
"in an ugly manner"; ziringana " in a smart or clever manner" dast-dna &lLo "glove"; ruzdna " vide 43 also 98 and (adj.) (6) (6). daily" (aa)
zishtdna AJU^j
;
women"
;
^f^lc "helplessly,
" (but not mard-i dustana Kdghaz-i dustdna Aitt*o^ 6^(^ "a friendly letter a friendly man"); dustdna AJU**^^ could, however, be used as an adverb, " he acted in a as dustdna Tear kard friendly manner." ajli^a " he In khawfndk-dnapursid **jj ai^lii^ (m.c.) enquired fearingly," the added to the Arabic substantive khawf Jy^, forms an Persian affixed ndk
:
^^
"fearful," applicable to persons; while the additional affix ana Tarsnak-dna Aif forms an adverb or an adjective applicable to things. Persian. all are its has the same signification, but compounds
adjective
aitflL-y
(b)
(1)
In
trt
*
and
ma
are
for
(nisbat), as
zarrm^j)
(m.c.)
gold;
of
simm* e^*^* (m.c.) "made wool," or pashmma A^*J, subs, "a woollen stuff"
:
"
All adjectives
may be
in var
specially
silver
" daily; daily pay, pension." (class.) In modern Persian rim means "wire"; the Arabic word *> nuqra " " and tila &> for gold but khayll zar darad (m.c.) he is very rich
Buzina
:
' '
is
;
used for
zar-varaq
(m.c.)
gold
leaf.'
'
416
puslin
1
ana, ETC.
&**<*x>
coat"; pustma* &^~jj (adj.) "; dirina 3 dti^j^ (m.c.) skins"; pishin ^^-^ "of silver" (also "old, ancient: ^5 j^oi (rare) *;&, also ^^QJ and f^ftj).
Afghan
sheep-skin
"an
"made
of
"
of former times
Adjectives formed by the terminations asa Uf, -ana *Jf etc., signifying "like," or by fdm fti, gun &^ t etc. "colour," are classed as "nouns (adjectives) of similitude."
Remark.
(2)
The termination
in &J
also
"golden coloured";
It also forms superlatives.
c*>b
^&<
"like crystal or
made
of crystal."
Remark
but sangi
I.
c '
sangin ^^**
"heavy,"
Remark
pisJiin LJ-J^J
II.
&*
but in
and pasin
&*?"$ it
It is also
(c)
added to the cardinal numbers, as avvalin ^xfy vide 48 (c). 4 like the suffix in <^J, is used to form relative The suffix an ^T
; ,
adjectives
eAjlj
and nouns as in biydbdn &M# "desert" (from vt cs^) pdydn "end " kuhdn cAy "horse-saddle; camel-hump." " " The suffix in pishdni J>^% forehead is probably formed from this arc.
;
;
This suffix
6
;
is
found
in
names, as
Iran
&]jt\
and Turdn
<jf;y
Isfahan
Kerman). In dbdddn c>'^T "inhabited," it appears to be redundant. In subhgdhdn e>Ul^sUAC, bdmddddn ^ti&'ck, yagdn yagdn d&* &&, bahdrdn
(near
y
Mdhan ^l^U
the suffix
is
adverbial.
it is
In jdviddn
(d)
adjectival.
joined to some substantives forms relative nouns, as: riman from rim p*) " pus, matter," etc. jushan c^J^ " coat of mail " from jush L^>^ " a rm g ( m a coa t of mail, etc.)." It is sometimes pleonastic, as: pdddshan ^t^U for pdddsh u ib " " ^ z ^ sun or ^ or direction zibdn
(adj.)
;
An &
ct>^3
^3
&***
SU^K
side,
lafchan^s^
for
lafch
^"thick-lipped, camel-lipped."
" to blab out a secret" and
Pustln darldan
M)&?.)& (zj*?~jJ
(class.)
pustln kandan (class.) or dar pustin-i kas-l uftadan c>^^l ^5-^" " are classical backbite idioms.
*
eH^^J
^i\
;^
(class.)
"to
In
pust-i
mlshma
?
ast
ya buzlna?
"
M.O-J
^i
^**!
*i*k* ou*^J
.c.)
"is this
4
6 6
)\j
Ir ji\ and Tur )j> are said to have been sons of Farldun.
agin, ETC.,
(e)
alif.
417
is
added
to
some
substantives for nisbat, as: angushtar >&&T "ring" " " tavern " from lah tJ " wine." finger" lahar
;
Grammarians give instances of final formative vav (/) Native (vav-i c*lcU fa'iliyyat ^) in patu yj, from pat oo "goat's hair, wool"; (pattu in India is a woollen stuff, but patujbin. Persia " a blanket"): shashu ^(^ "bearded": the last, however, is probably a "piss-a-bed"; rishu
&>
corruption.
109.
" " to a contraction of agin from agandan fill gin and agin therefore signify " filled with." They are used as suffixes to nouns, to form possessive adjectives, as: g^am-gin (^+1 "full of grief, sorrowGin
is
Agin
^f,
or Gin
^.
^^f
;
^T
ful";
jchashm-gin
t^XJU.
"full
'ambar-agin
^\ ^jic
surma
(or
antimony
^^
"ashamed";
(class.)
"full of
khirad-dgin
^^jL.
(m.c.)
" wise."
110.
(a)
The Formative a
(alif T)
This inseparable suffix forms adjectives and participles from verbal " to know " roots, as, from dan crta the root of danistan ^-o'^ dana * lif^ bina Ixu vide also learned 70 (a) guyd k
, * * ' '
It is
sarma
added to adjectives to form abstract nouns as garmd (^ "heat," " " cold " pahna li^j "breadth 4>~> (also pahna-i ^^).
:
Remark.
The
of
under the
title
^U.
(
cUtf
p~*l
"Irregular
^-k'
or) <^Le|
*>
:
Jd
Ufa
' ' ;
<
^.|
Present
^|joyL
'
'
Participle
inanda
knowing
^^
:
* '
skilful
' '
:
"purchaser": ty "thief" (Imp. rt.) u*)^ir' (= ^.j* i^;) "hearer " of little sense ": "fond of learning": die of complaints ": vs*-ji ^JU f " 4 "of pleasing speech ": ;^ix5^ servant J^o^ ejiy^ "feeble"
:
^ o^
" a wise
uili^ as steel"
man"
cJf
" camel-man
"
j^ti
"
"
king
"hero."
head are also included such words as <j*r*lA> spy " kind " " of course, etc. Also, mischievous," y^ pif " the Arabic Present Participle of the form JUli, as: Jl " tyrant.
this
Under
" executioner
"
Sharm-ru j)
This verbal
j*
"shy, bashful."
Alif-i fa'iliyyat
' '
'
2
S
alif is called
Many
The "
r )
-^compound adjectives. f~( " formed by adding an Impera. root to a noun is generally
'
called
27
418
(b)
/am, ETC.
Some
by
to
two compounds,
*
as
lab-a-lab
n-Juf
8
"
lip
brimful":
140
sar-a-sar
j~*\j~
many
colours, variegated
";
sar-a-pa
U^
&
"of
Vide also
(c)
and
foot-note.
it signifies
privation, as:
ajumban
ejU&^t
"
(d)
or to attract attention
When
alij-i
When used to summon " the uUi called alif-i nida**** alif of calling." used in the vocative of distress, as in darigha *ip "alas! " it is called
form the vocative
singular.
it is
l
nudba &*>
-&!
" the
is
alif of
plaint."
2.
For the
(e)
1
Bukhara f;Uu
wisdom,
earning,"
prevailed
there.
Some native
as further
grammarians
examples
and give
ziba fj
and ganda
**
2,
be
Remarks
Fam*
suflfix
fl>,
Gun
Charta
colour, form,
:
The
fam ^>
is
orfj)
indicates
"of the
siyah-fam fbfcUu (me.) "blackish"; la'l-fam ^ J*) "somewhat ruby- col oured ": " rather like the "bluish"; zumurrud-fdm pti ^\ nil-jam (^ green hue " b = of an emerald misl-i surma (&^ (Ji>c). kuhl-fam j*l* J.*\.f Instead of ^J, sometimes (b is found, as ^U ^- sapid-barn " whitish." (b) Gun signifies "colour, species, form, fashion, etc.," and in
and adjectives
^
"
&ty "poppy-coloured, scarlet"; Idla-gun compounds of the colour of " rose-coloured " 6 "of various colours, also, &*&$ & gun-a-gun gul-gun
: :
"
of various sorts."
Charta
*>,
" ne s become ^3 o* pale (from sickness)." sometimes written charda tej*. and also jarta w^, means
*
'
"
colour,
in
^ ^3 and
Or
2
as bi-dih va bisitan
"
my
*
*rt
f
Syn. rang- a rang. In Tersian / and p are often interchangeable; pil or /tZ " elephant "; sapida " white " pam or warn are not used in modern Persian as suffixes 9 snflda ^jA*
Jf
,
but warn or
6
pam
(m.c.)
" debt."
KuTil or
Sr
many
asa, ETC.
419
zard-charta
*o^
^j
"
(old)
yellow coloured
this affix is
"
Accord-
ing to
some grammarians
Ji^*.
(d)
Rang J^)
is
I12(/).
(e)
^^
>u are also found for dls ^i^, as: "night-coloured, black'*; "the name of Khusrau's horse."
diza
^ and
now
obsolete
^^
|L.
;
).
112.
Asa Uf, Sa U;
Saw,
Fas&
ufc, etc.;
Das o^,
(a)
$a
'
like
musk "
affixes signifying
"
like," as
"
ambar-sa laj* resembling amber (in scent) like a man, manly." ;mard-asa Lfjyo
"
Remark.
These suffixes must not be confounded with sa L from sayidan "to rub," and asa Uf from asudan uj f a (m.c. intr.) "to be
Lo
both of which also occur in compounds, as: jabha'*> e,**^ "rubbing the forehead on the ground, (OT jabin-) -sa *^A^ or " ruh-asa Ut ^jj " soothing the mind." making a profound reverence
;
has the same signification as the suffix asa or sa, and is probably akin to the Sanskrit saman and the Hindi sa. Examples shir-san ^U^i (class.) "like a lion": sham ~san ^U ^i (m.c.) "like a candle": " like the sun " khurshid san d~* khurshld-war
(6)
san
e)U.
^;^ (m.c.)
(also
j\j ***>}?=*> )
Remark.
{class.) for
for istan
In modern Persian san-i qushun didan 8 c>^^d>>*?.u^* "to review an " Imruz sarbazha san dadand *>&)* ^< ^3^r*3j?/ x> or az s n guzashtand army " the ^xLi>f were reviewed."
'
) (m.c.)
troops
(c)
(I)
Vash
(Jtj
(pash
J^
or fash
^j
obsolete), is
an
affix signifying
"like,"
mah-vash oJS?i* (m.c.) "like, or beautiful as, the moon": " " like a bud (of a pretty mouth) qamar-vash <J*> j+* gliuncha-vash oj Af^ (class., rare) farMta-vash x&f (m.c.) [also farishta-san ^~> *3j (m.c.)
as:
;
or farishta-var
^ *Liy (m.c.)].
sa
(kala-sa
tl
like
* 3
me "
San
Probably connected with the Hindi dev ka sa " like a demon ").
;
"black-looking";
mujh-sa
In modern Persian
^^
is
Eastern Turkish
in
Uighur
it signifies
The
author Qazzaq use son cJ^> for either ten or a hundred millions (the
which).
uncertain
420
(2)
ish,
ETC.
In place of vash, are sometimes found fash and pash (but not in "like a Shah"; sarv-pash J^j^r modern Persian), as: shah- fash " like a cypress." " like a Native Grammars also give the form bas as: shir-bas <JMJ^
<_&
tiger."
(d)
dis
u*^
:
" like the sun" mdh-dis used to form adjectives, as khurdis ^r*^ ^^^ but dis as the same has das the "like signification moon"; <j^
tf*
is
^^
Remark.
fi*l
write
Khuda
bi
das va
daman
ast
c;^
(e)
j o"^
^ (ld
5 '
Persian)
:
= "God is
eternal."
Vand **j
' :
like,
as
hence by contraction khavand**^ master, "hard as steel, also the name of a hero.
5
'
"
5 '
^^
This suffix
is
mand
&j
v^Jj,5
dawlat-mand tUJjt.
Remark
vand
/.The word
55
<H?f
,
" avand "furniture," especially kitchen furni55 and appears to be derived from ab vt "water,
(old)
Remark //.These nouns and adjectives of similitude, formed by the suffixes asa Uf vash eA?, swr ;U, ana *if, gun u;/, vand *>j, man c;U, etc.,
,
Remark
III-
Kirdar )\^
is
also used to
form adjectives
of resemblance
The
Suffix
um J
The termination
as: chahar~um
fj!_
^;^
added to the cardinal numbers forms the ordinals, "fourth"; bist-uhaftum f&fc j O-AJ "the twentyis
seventh."
added to the
114.
The Termination
-ish
^f,
danish i^Jb
This termination added to the Imperative root forms abstract nouns, as " to know " liinish "knowledge" from danistan J^^ (m.c.)
;
"sight
(root bin)
jushish
t_^>^
(m.c.) "boiling
"
azmayish J^tf (m.c.) "proving"; arayish <J>*\$ (m.c.) "adornment"; nikuhish J^}& (m.c.) "reproaching, blaming," also sar-zanish J^jj** (m.c.).
Called shm-i masdarl <_)^*A>
is
Radical
sh>
as in the
word
CHAPTER
115.
XII.
The Imperative root of the verb is sometimes a substantive, as from " sukhtan &&;* (tr. and intr.) " to burn ", suz jy* (m.c.) burning, inflam" " " " to be grieved ", ranj **) mation bi-dih u biranjidan ^^^j grief
(a)
; ;
stan-i
man 2
z&
kar
&
as
(b)
c/f
" debtor " creditor." (m.c.) ft (m.c.) A few of the verbs ending in udan u^/f form substantives ending in an 8 " an order from farmudan paymdn c;U*j " promise jarman ^*j*
;
&*> c^JU-j j
%&
(m.c.)
"
my
bidih-
' '
from paymudan
Remark.
' '
to
measure
,
to travel.
'
'
Asan ^Uf however, is an adjective "easy" (from asudan). nouns are formed by adding ak few to the imperative stem, as (c) suzak " gonorrhoea," vide 105 (d).
(d)
silent
vide
98
(b)
(e)
Some nouns,
ya, to
hamza and
generally compounds, are formed by adding a yd, or *j ; rakht-shifi the Imperative stem, as: had-gu^i
J^
^jZ
(i).
c*^;;*j; bidih
(m.c.)
'*debt-";
^^J
bidihi
(m.c.)
"power
is
of hearing
"
;
guy
"revenue
(obs.), vide,
of
97
In bina^i
^M the termination
114.
For jahandari" sovereignty," vide 97 (a) (1). " as: afarinish J&i^f (/) For tsh added to the Imperative stem,
tion
"from
(g)
afrldan, vide
vide
101
(a)
(1).
(h)
The Infinitive
az
" there
dad ufaryad kardan hlch fa*ida-i nist <~~# " is no use in screaming and crying out
^^ J^ ^f
Js^
c;*/ &jp j tf*j\ (m.c.) 6 in harf khayli " I am very sorry I did not Ujf (m.c.)
1
l^
g*
az
nd
guftan-i
ma
anglicized
Or
fafida
(without
^
j
of unity).
is
In modern Persian
lj,
vide
(q).
422
and sometimes
plural, as
paridanhd-yi rang u az tapidanhd-yi dil 'Ashiq-i bichdra har jd hast rusvd mi-shavad.
Az
"
By
The wretched
and the beatings of his heart, lover compromises himself wherever he is."
In dmadan-hd va raftan-Tid-yi ma, samar na-kard &j& j+* '* " but it would " these comings and goings of ours produced no result (m.c,) be better to substitute here dmad u raft-i bisydr for the plural Infinitive
;
IfijjjO^(e)
af guh-khurdan-hd is a
common
expression in m.c.
affixing
is, vide
Further examples
From cj^Jjj "to smell" comes buy ^^ "scent"; from e;*^J intr. " to traverse" comes (m.c.) "he puy ^j, (but puy mt-kunad &*<* " " " to s searching ") e) J i&; intr. grow," ruy fj) &**')* intr. to mourn
^^
st fj* J>j& ^ ^~>>shus'ht u shuy washing, etc." rakht-shuy " a but rakht-shu^i washerwoman," "washing clothes the act ^V* ^; state of being a washerwoman."
muy
or
(j)
It
was stated
is
sometimes a noun.
Similarly the Preterite stem (or shortened Infinitive) " as sar-navisht 0*6^ j*o " destiny guzasht kardan
1
: ;
is
rikht O.SRJ>
*'
the casting
;
form
"
&*/
"
visiting
and returning visits" vide also 116 (;'). (k) Sometimes the Preterite stems or shortened
with or without the copula j, are used as a substantive, as dad u sitad " commercial transactions" kharid u at a (m.c.) farukht o*Ly*j ^^* dmad u shud * * ^/cf, or dmad u raft, oJ>; ^ <y/of, or in m.c.
:
also raft
u dmad
&*tfj
&*j
guft
u shunid
&**
^J$
:
(Syn, guft-u-gu).
These
forms are sometimes in m.c. used in the plural, as dad u sitadha-yi u ziydd " he has extensive ast o~*| ualjjjf ^UALo j^id dealings."
Lawh-i Mahfuz
J_t*)
of
Je^isi>o _^J
''the Preserved
Tablet,"
on
God
j
regarding
men
are recorded.
used for
the Qur*an
2
itself.
The law
jlj
tablets of
Baz-did
j|
raftam +lfj
8
^^*?
(na.c.)
can be used alone (for the return visit), but not did: bi-didan-i u not did " I went to visit him."
*
6
iS^i.
also kharid
is
farush
J^j^
somewhat
similar;
Ar.
(c)
j wa)
vide
16
uj
(in
Arabic
423
of the
guft-u-gu
(&)]
jZ
" search j ^~~= (or just u juy). This form, also, can have the usual plural. (ra) Sometimes in modern Persian two Imperatives of different verbs " arrestJ are used, as: u bi-kush subs, and
bi-gir
oJ, [=
guft
shuriid, 'vide'
J^
_,
(m.c.) (seize
kill)
ing";
or gir
bi-gir
bi-gir
u bizan
cJ,V
j^
(rare)
(seize
u dar y$ 3 jJ, or ddr-gir j4 )* u bi-band &**> j j*&> (m.c.) " tumult." (n) Sometimes the Imperative stems alone
as:
gir
u dar
y&j^f
(m.c.) (m.c.) "searching"; tak-a-pu jj** tak-a-daw jd& "running." 2 as: (o) Sometimes the Imperative stem of the same verb is repeated,
;
"tumult":
vide (m)
kash-ma-kash
(J&
J^
"
"
(kash ma-
bi-kush
8
and
kash-a-kash J^V^S ^i-'U/ "allurement, attracting"). (old) attracting" ( kashish, (p) For the Noun of Agency farushanda i*\$jj "seller" gu-yanda i^'^ i( speaker," etc. vide 43 (r), and
kill')
;
;
;
"
u^^o^^
tu-i
tu-i.
?
"
Who framed the lots of quick and dead but Thou Who turns the troublous wheel of heaven but Thou
(0.
' '
K. 471 Whin.).
in zuruf rikhtani hast o*~* chjt " these vessels have been cast " in rang pukhtani, na shustani Jb) ^.\ (vulg.) ai j^iJLJi 15^*^ (vulg.) "this has been coloured by boiling not merely
:
^^) o^
dipping"; in sukhtani
khurdani'hd (tfJy 9 c5^x ^
ast
o^f
"
^iii.^-
^i
(m.c.)
food, eatables
&
^^- f*"*
(m.c.) "Christ
ijioJ
had
to
"this is for burning"; Masih dar dunya dmadani bud come into the world" in khana
(m.c.)
"
kharab-shudani na-darad
strong
it will
^^
v y^
is
so
not go to ruin."
This
alif is
called alif-i
'at.f
eftkc cJJ|
'
'
doubled words.'
Mard bayad
Sang-i zlrln-i
asya bashad.
424
The negative
"unfit to
is
be uttered "
formed by prefixed nd ^ as: nd-guftani (m.c. " nd-shumdani-hd t^u***^ (m.c.) things unfit to be
)
;
^'^
heard
"
;
vide also
116 (m).
In modern Persian, however, ai can be substituted, as: l^^i^. stand for a noun, as: (r) The Past Participle, Persian or Arabic, can
s^-v
jt
^4z hddisa-yi
Va'z
liar chi
And
you
see
This ready-money breath set down as gain, Future and past concern not you or me."
(O.
K. 278 Whin.).
is
Rafta t**) and ayanda <xijf "what hence " the Past " and " the Future."
,
is
to
come,"
X,c
&
_v
j-su
&
An bih ki bi-jam-i bada dil shad kumm Vaz amada u guzashta kam 8 yad kunlm
" 'Tis well to drink, and leave anxiety For what is past, and what is yet to be."
(0.
K. 308 Whin.).
'
(p).
Guzashtagdn or murdagdn
CJ'^OT*
or
d&&^
' '
the dead
'
vide also
43
M.
Muharramdt ol^suc "things forbidden; black clothes"; mahsunn ^y&s^Q the beseiged"; manzur jj*'*> (m.c.) "aim; objection, view, " written a intention"; maktub v yx> letter"; almaktub v^^t "Holy
4 '
Writ."
Remark.
Persian nouns derived from verbs are called
verbal nouns," or
^^y
)
J>*AA> ^-t
"compound
when
j^*> J^U.
(J^ol^
^^o
In original zamana
A^J
Note continuative Imperative. Kam, negative; not " less ", but " not."
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
The Past
masdar.
Participle,
425
is
not called
hdsll-i
included in the hasil-i masdar J^A> JloU, as AJUjJ "a razor, " but this seems to be an error.
"a
COMPOUND WORDS.
116.
(a)
Compound
in
Substantives.
chiefly
Persian
abounds
compound words
substantives
and
adjectives.
Compound substantives are formed as follows (b) A compound noun analogous to such English compound as cart- horse,
:
is
izdfat,
formed by the juxta-position of two nouns (in the English order) without * as ruz-nama <^U>j newspaper diary account of daily expendi* <
:
^l^ "Asylum
of
the World
3
(in
addressing the
house
speaking)"; dsh-paz khana *U> _>A*f (m.c.) "cooksMb-khun *&;&* (class.) " night attack " barf-db 6 ^T J^ " snow" Ostrich" water from the hills"; shutur-murgh (but properly the j*>ji
"
in writing or
;
;
Shah
wrongly applied to other birds): gul-barg djd& (poet.) ''rose-petal"; but " gul-i barg tJ^ JZ (m.c.) any non-flowering plant with coloured or variegated " leaves "; khdvar-zamm ^: ) the e^j jj(^ (class.) (or mashriq-zamm Orient"; gkarq-ab v f "deep water": miydn-pacha *^b ulfr (m.c.) "a
^^ ^
' '
;
tah-jur'ah
A*^
7
*3
(
"
dregs."
This compound
is
Remark
I.
compound
is
lf
/*u
(m.c.)
"morning,"
also
sahar-gdhdn ^(A^S^. (mod.) manzil-gdh " place "; maklab-khdna Aili, ^i^xs "school
'
&
;
Jk^
(m.c.)
mashriq-zamm e^*}
*JUL
bakt^t-yar j^j*^
shir-dil.
Vide
44
(6) (3).
an
officer
whose duty
' '
it
In India a cook is called bawar-chl fjfrj^* (from " " a originally person to be trusted was to taste the chief's food, perhaps to prove that it was not
affix chi), i.e.
:
' '
&>^
j^-)j^ (India)
"cook-house"; bawar-chl-garl
(India)
*
6
"8
Better
shab-'i
khun
But
But
ab-i barf
tah-i
oy
(m.c.), also
426
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
(f
^A*X> (m.c.)
"any
In a few compounds an adjective is prefixed to a noun, as bad-bu " stench " *J* or khushk-sali Jl^ " a famine khusk-sal (also adj.)
;
JU
^L
year
(a
*&
lf
(subs,
and
adj.)
"grey
Remark
102,
II.
103,
Remark III.
"a spring
Many compounds
of
water," vide
sar-chashma
(c) Two substantives of the same signification joined by the copula, form a copulative compound noun, as: marz u bum (j j ),*> (me.) "empire, country" marz u kishvar j^*' j )j* (class.) = marz u bum (mod.); " tab utdb*-3j*-tt " heat nashv u nama ptch u tab v tf ^ writhing lt *(+> j&j) growing (i.e. growing and increasing)"; khar u khass (j~^ ^ ;l^ " dad u bi-dad " 2 thorns and for
;
' '
' '
* '
' '
crying
help
(shouting justice
injustice).
Remark.
Arabic,
(d)
lit.
qil*
In qil u qal JL?^ cl*^ the two portions of the compound are " it was said " and " he said." qal*
Also two substantives of different significations may be joined climate by Vav-i Atf <-fiK^ jj or by an alif, as ab u hawa \}*> 3 v f " " an 3 and air and zana u shikar (water hunting ) *;'<& j ;** outing sayr " wife " wedlock from zan " shu^ 5 husband and
either
'
c *
' '
^y& Cj
' '
in
ddam
misl-i div
u dad
(m.c.) 3^
' '
(&*>
(of
shuy
^^
' '
" this
man
like
a beast."
o^
"odds and ends, small belongings," the "noise no signification. Zur u shur ;^ ^ )
(m.c.)
a waterfall, river, or of attacking soldiers entering a city, Often the second word is a ' meaningless appositive' 6 ( tabi'-i muhmal
(of
r'l'->,
as: shur
)jj.
Remark I. Adjectives used as substantives are also so employed, as: garm u sard jy ^ ^f, and talkh u shirin ^AW j vtf "the ups and downs"
1
*
3
Compare
(adj.)
"intertwined."
Easterns attribute good or ill-health to either the water or air of a place. Hava can be used alone for "climate" ab alone generally means literally that the water
;
of
a,
place
4
5
6
is
good or bad.
y&
is
a sort of picnic.
114 (n).
By some
'
synonym.'
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
427
and "bitter and sweet" (of the world). In zir u zabar kardan &sjS jj ) jj "to make topsy-turvy," the words zir u zabar are in reality nouns used
ordinarily as prepositions.
tyti j
^~V "to
and
was not
'
compound
substantives.
Remark //.The compound may consist of two Arabic words, as: akl u shwrb ^j& 5 cUf ''eating and drinking; meat and drink" uM)^c( &* j >) " " and <Ji* " cleaving, closing a fissure, mending [Jp; ordering of affairs
:
' '
' '
rending"].
(e)
(c)
Remark. two
different verbs, or the contracted
The contracted
Infinitives of
combined with the Imperative root of the same verb, substantives as amad u rait eJj j *x>f such form did compound together vide 115 and ubaz-did &>>*$> ) 5 (k) (I). guft-u-gu
Infinitive of a verb
:
^ ^M
noun formed from two Imperatives or Imperative (/) For a compound 115 vide stems, (m) (n) and (o).
(g)
A Numeral
noun, as
chahdr-pa
or an adjective, with a substantive, form a " " " yak-shamba <*AX& si-pahar^^ the afternoon
;
^)^
all
char-fasl J-^
;^ (m.c.)
^ "
(open on
four sides)."
is
98 (b) (4)], the final formative adjectives similarly formed [vide " '* aJU* as into for nouns changed of fifty years gi, panjah-sala t?uj, adj.
:
;
From
panjah-salagi
^U
of
lt
jjl.u
Examples
safid-ab
(h)
rouge"
vT ^^>
(or
by a noun
tlr-andaz
the bridgegroom to induce her to show her face (for the 6 " a * *i*J cobbler, who patches shoes."
first
>s
time*)
pina
Also Charhar-paya
Ajlj
jl*A-,
but in India
this is
a " bedstead."
bishtar
(
'2
Ba
ij
(jj>
^>^H ^'
call
^J
ty^
m c>)
'
Ash-pazl
^V* jWf
the
or
business
of
cook":
i'tr-andazl
<_cj'*iol
&
"
archery."
*
The Afghans
first
wife "
my
father's wife,"
i.e.
the father: the second wife they choose for themselves. In Persia, girls generally refuse to accept him. manage to get a secret view of their intended, and of ten flatly rii-baz. are in not ru-band, they Ditto with the men. The Parsi women are
5
'
Kafsh-duz
utf
" a shoemaker."
428
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
In pisli-kash J&r
^AJ "present,
gift", pish
is
noun used
jjwj
as a preposi-
tion: dast-band
&
jf*i'
"savings"
is
not
in
(?) A few compound nouns are formed by adding the Present Participle cm to a noun, as: khil at-pushan ejl&jj o**i^ a place outside big cities where the recipient of a robe of honour from the Shah advances to meet it and
(
be
invested:
barg-rizan c>lH>
*-CjJ
"autumn";
ab rizan
is
ol>.-?;
vjf
a fete
thrown.
fast
Remark
I.
Slna-suzan
c/j>*
***
(m.c.) adj.
"running
"
Remark
II.
as:
compound, dast-mal "handkerchief," but in Arabic there are special forms, as: miftah " mibrad " file " vide Notes on Arabic Grammar. key ^U&c are formed by suffixing the contracted (j) A few compound nouns
' :
Persian 'noun of instrument' (aJf is generally a p*\) 1 bdd-bizan "fan": JUl*a u*y ptt "penknife";
'
'
(1) Qardr-dadtl* ^"arrangement, engagement "; sar-guzasht " memorandum ' adventures chashm-ddsht yad-dasht oAfa ^U
' '
"
expectation of favours."
115
Baz-did
(/).
"return visit"
baz-tihwast
o^tyL jb "calling to
taken"; bdz-dasht "to recover from (a o,^ jb jL>"" hindering"; [bdz ydft (k.) &sf " person) ] pish raft ddshtan or kardan &*/ or ^^SAi^ o^j ^AJ "to progress, improve" pish-nihad ^J^ "custom."
account,
retribution;
for
demanding reasons
action
ow&i
and a substantive may combine to form a compound noun, as: pish khidmat o*/o^ (m.c.) "a servant";
(k)
(I)
^u
(jSaj
(m.c.)
that portion of a
be ready
on
^fa 0^!
to
"fellow-traveller."
pish-khwan vDfy (2) Also a preposition and Imperative root as one who announces the arrivals of guests a leader in religious recita" first-fruits." tions
' * ;
' ' ;
pish-ras ^-j
J^J
Also a preposition and the contracted Infinitives, as: pish-ddd " an "a *'* early and (class.) law-giver" ; pish-khwurd yj^ <Jk> (rare) " for breakfast ^^j leavings." light f vulg. root may form a noun, as (I) An adjective prefixed to an Imperative
(3)
u^
^^ ^
i^
In India ru-mal
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
e^ji^ durbm
khush-navis
1
429
ijj&
"field- glasses,
opera-glasses,"
' '
durughgu^
"a
liar'';
^y u^" calligraphist
are
:
^ ^k
way
to
Eemark /.Adjectives
"
last
also
formed in
this
also, particular
about
(m.c.)."
The two
examples
in (1)
m&y
also be adjectives.
^
&^
(m.c.)
'
man who
clears the
man who
cries
'
dur-bash,
(J*k
way
"
dur-bash <J&*
%&
subs, (class.)
"a
(m)
An
as
:
Infinitive or
a noun,
t
na-shumdan
a Future Gerundive preceded by na may form non- h earing "; rast na-guftaniha ^Ajlfcli "the
t j>ii?lj
= durugh-gujtanha (m.c.)
ria-shunidam
(^jjUU
also
(n)
(m.c.), pi.
(h)
unfit to be heard
"
;
vide
115
and
Many
(m.c.)
Compounds
like pidar-
"blackguard," etc., etc., are treated under the head of Compound Adjectives. Shah-zada "Prince" is a substantive. Vide 44
sftkhta
(6) (6).
11
"a
Sometimes a phrase is used as a substantive, as dar-bi-dar j^j;^ mendicant" (lit. from door to door); khana bi-dush (J)*> iili.
(o)
:
(m.c.)
(m.c.}
;
such as the Gypsies, etc. (lit. house on shoulder)" " slave *&*> kun~wa-kun <^Co <jw*A> (lit. ring in the ear)" halqa bi-gush " " do and don't do ") (lit. hesitating also a commander also orders."
"any wandering
8
tribe,
Such phrases can also be treated as adjectives and joined to a substantive by the izafat, as ghulam-i halqabi-gush <Jj& Afll^ f&* " bond-slave." (p) In modern Persian there are a few Turkish compounds, confined
:
to titles or
offices.
In Turkish
lar is
These, however, present no difficulty. the plural termination, and i (after a vowel
si) is
the 3rd Person affixed possessive pronoun "his," as: jj-tu lj& daryabeg-i "lord of the sea (a title) [lit. the sea, his lord] ": beglar beg-% (^j ^IXu
(title)
lit.
"Chief
of
Chiefs"
= Mayor)";
ishikaqa-si
bash-l
" " a door, gate (q) A few Arabic phrases are treated as substantives,
;
^k
^^^
-*Af (modern) "chief usher" (apparently from ishik aqa-si L5~U>f "its master," and bash-1 ^k "its head."
as
:
^^Us
is,
;
rnd hazar
"
(m.c.)
is,
present
pot-luck or anything prepared in haste, (lit.) " ma-hazar-i (J^OA.U (with ya-yi tankir
;
that what
or whatever
II
lit.
"
laytula'all J*J ^
"
oJ
"
^o
<^t>
la-uba
^J Ll
if
"
prevarication, procrastination
Zarra-bin
^J
if
fy
l
a PI.
8
pidar sukhta-ha
izafat:
t^^** J ^(
No
the izafat
it
might be mistaken
for the
<^ of unity.
430
a
(lit.
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
layt
Ar.
la' all"
and perhaps
"
"perhaps," saying
"
am become
Am
Not
Your Lord
(0.
"
?
K. 272 Whin.)
<c
Am I
not
" and
cu^)i
hence in Persian
'
day
of the
' '
'
original
' '
man
*
;
&*? ^
\*c
the Creator
maker
of
be and
it will
be
').
Ma-jara |^U> Pers. "an event" " the Creation " a Kun
fa~kan
(for Ar.
d& &$
(lit.
" be and
by God
(r)
at the Creation)
c^
substantive, as
(m.c.)
Also a Persian phrase may sometimes be considered a compound l hdla va yak sa'at-i dtgar mi-kunad j^.^ *^ - **** ) il 1^
:
*xir
&^
\tjfr
})&*\ (m.c.)
"he
is
pro-
crastinating."
PART
II
CHAPTER
SYNTAX.
117.
XIII.
On
Something has already been said about the use, the pronunciation, and
the forms
'
of the izafat in
43.
it
Though omitted
speaking.
/.
(a)
cannot be omitted in
The izafat is, in Persia but not in India, always inserted between the proper name of a person and his profession, or between the title and profesMuhammad Khan-i tajir, na Muhammad Khan-i saqat-farush (vulg. sion, as
:
na-ki
the
merchant
not
Vazir y)j
Vazir~i
Kir/nan
" " u dikLJi^^ the Dabir-us-Saltana, the Vazir (but Dabir -s-Saltana Kirman oUy^j, jjLfeLJt ^AJ,* "the Dabir-us-Saltana, the Vazir of " "
:
tx*.**.*
"
;
Muhammad Khan
Dabir u-s-Saltana-yi
' '
Mvfayyid^l-Islam-i
Mudir^^o
j*3L,Vl
<yyo
Editor."
(6)
The
izafat is
Haji Agha " Hasan-i Afshar Tay"; Hasan-i Baluch* ^^Jb (?-*>> "Hasan the Baluch " j&] r**> Hasan the Afshar." The izafat also couples the proper name and a nickname, or a descriptive Gur Iskandar-i Zu'l Qirnayn fytf (not Bahram Gfur) epithet, as Bahram-i *~\ Alexander the Great (lit. the two-horned)"; lsa-yi Masih
;
:
"
of Shiraz*"
^^
(in (in
Musa
PaigJtambar)
.
The
izafat
:
^
t
and
f-
after silent h
after
it is
it is
either
* or
When
e,
its
stood,
is
pronounced
like short
or
as in
form, expressed or under" bid " and " bed "; in other
case.
gu'l Baluch and Afahar are to be considered adjectives. The latter word " an Afshari carpet." Afshari, as an adjective, qall-yi Afsharl (not Afshar)
*
a relative adjective.
is
also
28
434
to their (c) The words country, kingdom, city, river, etc., are coupled names by the izdfat, as: Mulk-i Iran ^j\ ^*> "the country of Persia" " the " the darakht-i bid *y cu^; shahr-i Kirman &\*j* j\* city of Kirman" willow tree" gul-i nastaran "the white nastaran rose, sweet-briar" rud-i " " the bird Nil J^ by " the river Nile (known as) murgh-i humdy (^+* ej* Huma." As the last two examples show, the izdfat is sometimes used between two nouns that in English are in apposition. (d) The izdfat is also used in the titles of books, as: Kitab-i makr-i zandn
; ;
c^j j&
v^
Wiles of
Woman "
kitab-i Gulistdn-i
Sa'di Compare also Injil-i Yuhannd ^Jju. ^ILJf v-jli^ " and the Arabic Kitdb u 'l-Muluk eST^Vi Gospel of St. John
U^#
<-^?u|
"the
v^
<<fc
he Book of
Kings."
used to form patronymics and surnames, as " Rustam-i Zdl Jij Isd-yi Maryam fo*> ^\~*? pl) Rustam (the son) of Zal " " Solomon the son "Jesus the son of Mary Sulaymdn-i Dd^ud ^t^y. (D^+d* " " of David ^T A^ia Khan the Eunuch Aglid Khdn-i Khwdja &*\j*(e)
The
izdfat is
also
"
' '
&^
crowd"; v^ quarters Nim, on the other hand, is treated as an adjective, and is always without the izdfat as: nim ndn-l
t
Umar-i Khayyam fUS^** "Omar the tent-maker "; Husayn-i Imam (but Imam Husayn) " Husayn the Imam." (/) The izdfat is used with the Persian and Arabic fractions, as nisf-i ndn-i ^U -ft>A> "half a loaf"; sih-yak-i jam-'iyyat oa*+a. -^j "^ "three ^^ " one- third of the book." of the suls-i kitdb
{
1
:
man &*
(g)
^
The
is
f#
mm
"half a maund."
superlative, whether Persian or Arabic,
is usually followed by of the izdfat but as an means the genitive plural, the two being connected by intensive epithet, it merely qualifies its noun like an ordinary adjective, as " the ashraj mard-i ^s^j* o^| a most noble man khilqat-i ahsan ^j-^ oJlU;
:
* '
' '
An Arabic
as'ad-i*
superlative before a
:
in such cases, as
oi^bj
noun used collectively may retain the izafat ^**^ dost khatt-i mubdrak dar ^Uj &*^\ ^ ^^^
ziydrat shud "your letter reached me in the best of time," but dar as ad zamdn-i or dar bihtann vaqt-i 3 without izafat) "in a most " u mard-i bihtann ast x fortunate time (Indian) or u bihtarin ^r
zamdn
1
mard
ast
o*|
ot ^O^
-5-
wljty
)\
(class.),
or
it
bihiann-i
mardum
Remark.
The
without the
^ of unity
is
Arabic construction
1
Khayyam, the takhallus or nom de plume,' and the profession of the Dar as'ad-i zaman-l t^^j ^**t )& is also used, but is incorrect.
'
poet.
Izafat-i maglubl.
izdfat.
435
(h) A noun or an infinitive qualified by a phrase must be coupled to it by ruz-i ba d the izdfat as though the qualifying phrase were an adjective, as " the az after this skirmish" az In zad u khurd *)j=*j aj trt j <-^3j; day or az du bdkhtan **J^ "from bdkhian-i du daf'a &*>*)* v*^)\ daf'a i^b j*j twice losing" bi-bisha-yi nazdlk-i shahr *J^>* && &> "to the forest near
J ( :
1
the city";
an sanduq\ tumdnhd-yi dar (j^*** kamar-am fj4f)*Lel*& *j!* "the tumans tied up in my kamarband." In rahm dvardan bar baddn sitam ast bar nikdn c^jj eu-| ^i*. ^fjj ^ i^/f +*>) (Sa'di) "to show pity to the bad is to show tyranny to the good," there
^'J*
(
Lff^/Sfc
chizhd-yi dar
ctfji/f ,
clear
" " (but dar In kdr kushish striving in this business ft &>)* &*jf (J>j* (m.c.) kardan c^/ iJ&jf wtj* ); bisydr lab-i chu la' I u zulfayn-i chu mushk u^i^c &j*. (^^3 j J*J &JA. r*0^ and many a ruby lip and musky tress " (0.
' '
mahrum
latifa bar-anglkhta
bud
fij****>
u4j^*^l ^.O**
o^ ^y.
St. 3)
o>iui^ AA>U (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, Introduc., helpless one could arrive there, the clear text
'
of
'the
avaricious
is
dis.
appointed,
etc.'
/.
(a]
jandb
mirzd
fj^-x*
v-jU^
'*
^^ ^^ vU^"
Mr. Clerk
v^> e tc.
:
&j^: Hazrat-i Sulay man cjUJ.^ ci^-aa. A'alq Hazrat-i Shdhinshdh-i Iran oi^f jjl^tLi o^-isHJUf (Title of the Shah). (b) The izdfat is used after the word mablagh. &*> (sum), as: mablayh-i " the sum of 200 tumans duvist tumdn vajh-i naqd *w ^j &\*j* ^ tjt &*> (m.c.)
Payg&ambar ^****$
in cash."
The Arabic word ahl<J&\ " people" (belonging to any particular place, creed, art, etc.), and its plural <^^ ahdli, is always followed by the izdfat, " ahl-i Islam as: ahl-i Kirmdn ^Lo/cUl "the people of Kirman f^U cUl " the Muslims" ahl-i va ahl-i "veiled" d*\ ^^ qalam f say v (class.); hijdb " the oJLxa. JAI ahl-i and civil" JAI (m.c.) khiydnat (m.c.) military j t^fljj*.
(c)
:
:
pti
"treacherous"
"hypocrites";
ahl-i
qubur*
)&
J*t
"the dead."
Remark
ahl
u'
I.
t'tariqat
is
used, as
religionists."
is
"the quarter
of the silent"
"
436
izafat.
of sense
as
Man May
For
I
mi-khuram u har-ki chu man ahl buvad khwurdan-i u nizd-i Khudd sahl buvad
like
every
man
of sense,
know
t>j>
*>.
r))t>
Duzakh bi-jahan
"
111
na-ahl buvad
company
will
make
this earth
(0.
a hell."
Az nd ahldn
;l
worthless keep your walk remote." U ahl-i in kdr ast (m.c.) " he is
(d)
to
The Arabic
:
plural
a
wordar66
j^i.
t-jb^f
v^;'
followed by the
ma'arif
3
izafat, as
arbdb-i kharad
": arbdb-i
ojUx v U;t
as
:
people of science." In m.c., arbdb ^)\ia used as a singular, " Arbdb-i shumd kist e j/ U v^t^t (m.c.) " who is your master ?
"
if
used independently
its
is
only
marhum
fe^j* precedes
p^^y*
substantive
with the
Marhum-i pidar-am
^tx*
^^
43
"my
late
father":
"
my
late
master."
(6).
and
in m.c. pidar-i
marhum fj=v
;*J,
used.
The word abnd'-r&l, pi. of ibn (vide III (a) (3) ), takes the izafat before " " men and the noun following, as ^^-^ o^' C5^' dbna*-i ins u jdnn jinns " (i.e. everything ^l^ ^lut abna*-i jahdn (m.c.) "men, plants and animals " *jlj t;l*> o**J^ ^5^1 abnd*-i jins-i mdrd bay ad in the world): people of our
(/)
:
";
^j
' '
"fellow-country-
when not forming possessed of, master of when more than a the This the case takes is a compound, izafat. especially
(g)
The word
sahib
"
*
3
Na-ahl cMf
&\J*
PL
of
izdfdt.
437
owner
of the house."
sdhib-i in khdna &\A. ^>\ *-*^l* (m.c.) " the expressed, as Vide also III (a) (5).
sahib u 'lOccasionally the Arabic construction is used, as: ooJf " sahib^.l-amr (m.c.) "The Mahdl." bayt (m.c.) ''the master of the house
;
^^U
is
used,
beauty" (woman) sdhiba-yi in khana ast o-t AJUL ^i &^\^ &j ^Mj (in writing), but more commonly sdhib-i In khana ast o*l &U. ^t ^-^Le (m.c. and in writing). The Arabic plural of sahib ^-^L^, is ashdb ^lsut ashdb-i tadblr j#&* v-lxu*f
:
as: JU?Jf
&^l*
1 *
the prudent
' '
;
good managers.
Fakk-i Izdfat (Dispensing with
the Izdfat).
jt*\, or
///.
(a)
(1)
The
bin
izafat is frequently
l
mir
>j^>, vail
^,
^,
sar
and sahib
v^
^ when
:
two
oJUt
<->.
Amir-tumdn
"a commander
of
10,000" (nominal, as a
also a goot shot."
rule),
il4pjA*h.
; l '
master of the horse. }y^1 j^o mlr-dkhur "chief of 5 (battalions); commander of 5,000"; also mlr-panj ij^.jj/o
amlr-panj.
<-.*&
' '
J*>Q mlr-cfhazab
" executioner."
v.jf^xxj
"an
official
in charge
of
a stream,
who
But
superintends the distribution of the water for irrigation purposes." ^jJlaxxj^jj^ mlr-i majlis and some other expressions the izafat. require
AbUf^jj/o mlr-i qdfila
;
(2)
Vall*^,:vail
6
(
V (^
o~**J
(lit.
^j
"
vail
'lord of bounty')."
^ 5
In title war is purely honorary. honoured by the title of mlr-shikar. The word \j} * mirza, which before a name corresponds to Mr., but after a name to
;i^x/o
mir-shikar, the
is
Prince,
4
6
is
a contraction of
JJ^Jj^J^o
mir-zada.
In
Kerman
^vf
=
ab-yar.
^f
).
"
:
^1)
" a governor."
438
izafat.
valiyy
u'
d-dam
"a
relative entitled
to exact retalia-
tion"
(legal).
al-vali
is
Vail ijy
the
title is
" The Helper" (one of the 99 special attributes). also a reputed saint who has worked miracles, but in Persia
given to any saintly person, generally after death. In Afghanistan and India the word pir is used for a departed saint and
' '
Karamat euUfy are miracles performed by ei>** are miracles performed by "prophets."
(3)
saints
' '
while mu'jizaf
Ibn
e>jf
or bin ^j
l
(pi.
abna* *Uu|
cjlkU
etc.).
&
bin sultan
official
documents,
Ibn
jjji,
however, is generally used with the Arabic construction, as: " a time-server " ibn u ~s-sabtt <JUx~Jf " " <^jf ^t (m.c.) traveller r
:
ibn u 'l-batn
^\ ^\
name
(glutton).
jf
loses its initial alif (vide Appendix) when o 9 of the father or mother, as *+.kb ^^-^ Husayn u 'bn u
^t
" a son"
Fatimah. In Atabak Abu Bakr-i bin Sa'd-i Zangl ^j&j *>*u Amw-i kablr-i FaTchr u d-din Abu Bakr-i bin Nasr
T^^J!
^&\ and
t
in Zikr-i
(^.^Ij^^^ j*o\ y3
is
^aJl^^Xj^jt
retained.
Usually, however, in such cases ibn is in Persian written in full and is followed by the izafat, as ^\ &+s^> Muhammad ibn-i Karim.
:
(4)
Sar:
' '
sar-maya,
capital."
"a sar-rishta slight knowledge of a thing." " sar-dard headache." * " sar-db " source, fountain-head."
sar-aghaz, "beginning."
3
"
"head
sar-angusht (m.c.) "tips of the fingers." sar-bar (m.c.) " a last small load added on the top."
This
is
in
genitive
is
formed by
simple juxtaposition.
2
Sar-dard &}&
j<*>
(m.c.)
"headache"
but dard-i
&J&
(m.c.)
generally
Sarab wf^*
Ar.
"mirage": but
v'tr*'
sar-i
ab
W.
C.
izdfat.
439
to point
J
:
between master and servant/' a 8 sarkdr " a head land-agent, an overseer J6j*
anything."
o j^
f
"
(of
account).
"the ringleader
of a disturbance."
sar-qufll
"money
*
of business."
ijy**
" the top of a Persian pipe." B " the head of a tribe (or of an army, or j~ sar-karda " address on an Gj* sar-nama envelope."
sar-qalyan
>
of a riot)."
sar-shir (m.c.)
(class.).
" the source of a qanat." vLr* sar-db (i-qanat) (m.c.) <c uW)j~ sar-rahi (m.c.) a present before a journey, to the traveller." Further examples of this common and idiomatic word with and without
&j& ejli*^ ;tjf ^> ^i- u dmhmanan-i dustan-i Tchud sulh kunad sar-i "vhoever makes friendship with the enemies
thi izdfat: *tf
1
^
"
^^
9
^^i
^ ^7* ^
azar-i
in his
mhd
zabdn " on the tip of the tongue." rah " on the road."
az sar-i
" eH**^-^ >> A-^Jy' j &\-+)l up and went to the table j5^r,AU jang-i Almdn u 6 Fransa dar sar-i hamin shahzada shud (Shah's "the Franco-German war was concerning this very Prince": I'iary) " sar-bala raftim " we ascended, went up hill n^UJt $(j^~> JyLr~ pttij 1 A> *^y^ bi*^ ki adam WMS| istada ast khud ar-* ***^JL>^ qawl-i cAi ^y f^f lavdnad harf-ash ra bdvar kunad (m.c.) "when has he ever kept to his word
&*tiqal a sar-i sang ast (m.c.) "the fort is on the rock." *L*l^^j A*J ba'd bar khasta sar-i miz raftim (Shah's Diary)
:
^^
!)
Also sar-ma^hq
^^o^
(m.c.)
"
copy."
if
2
2
One copy kept by each. Each month payments, Or mubfohir j\$* (m.c.) or sardar )^^> (m.c.).
The shops
rent
is
in a karavanaaray
whom
*
paid.
He
of the isir^byf belong to the owner cannot turn out a tenant who pays his rent.
labter,
6
1
Or
va.
|*^f
Note adarn
for
"one"
(indef. pron.
after *^
440
^^t-o
^^
mard
fuhsh
bi-dihi, bi-sar-i
man
advanced
1
matters
as
" oh bi-firistl (m.c.) you trollope so you've so to use abuse to my maid and set her at me
!
worry me)?": ^t^ <3^' ^y* _^ sar-i mu*i farq na-ddrad (m.c.) " there's not a hair's difference between them ": z?**> )j& v^ e^O* * " the db dawr mi-kard in sar-i circled over the water" (class.) eagle uqdbbar bar sar zad from az zamln the "sprouted ground": &&** i}_>j_>* t7i*JJt " to bi-sar burdan pass the days, the time" A/cf^-u ^?^ c^x^ ;^-J pisar " the dar san'at va quvvat bi-sar dmad (Sadi) boy became perfected in his art " and in his strength ^^t jt j j^j^j j L ^6** ^^ man muddat-i bo f^^
(to
^ v^
'
bi-sar
burdam
*
va az u sar
khwurdam
(m.c.)
"I
lived
jl
time and
sar-darakhtl
suffered
chiz-i
much":
naml-girad
:
^^^ c>^
(class.)
<J&)* ^**
cAb.U
duce of
cXuiA.
fruit
trees"
^
on
"the King takes no tax on the prosar bi-zdnu nishastan "to sit pensive ^i-^Jyjj^
* :
^^Ij^-yo
is still alive,
he's
still
"
:
fixJUy
^) ^r*
"I rubbed
:
his
wound
"to
(figuratively); hit
sar-i khir
:
^r
ishdrat
("intruder"):
let
\&&f ^jtj*
&d**
pus
sar dddan
^^
"a signal
it
wis
then made to
me
Remark
1.
It
is
a preposition,
alwars
Remark
gives the
II.
According to native grammarians the word sar sometimes as in the words sar-mast (<**Jl.x*)
<^*~*r,
sar-sabz_j**>j<*> ,
;U^
Vide also II. (g). This word is frequently used (without (5) Sahib. the izdfat) to form compounds. In modern Persian the izafat is sometimes used where it is omitted in old Persian. 5
Examples
of sahib
w^lo
in
6
compounds
' *
^=^U>
sdhib-mansab
an
officer."
at
Sar-i
man
w**^?"3
me":
<&
)}*
Zan
sar-i
^iu^o
t^
{jitj&y*^"*
&j
or
o^l y.^**
*
(m.c.)
dies."
of an unlucky animal.
Sar-darakhtl
5^ 5>i^
>
"
produce of
fruit trees
"
:
in
some
localities
applied only
to oranges
6
and lemons,
citrons, etc.
The Afghans
I
6
44
1.
^.^U,
O r sahiban-i mansab
the possessors of
izdfdt.
441
"a
master
(in
any art)."
" Lord
of the
happy conjunction."
sdhib-dawlat "rich."
JU w^U>
sdhib
mdl
(m.c.)
" rich."
power."
beautiful."
(b)
The
;&> tJAU
bdz
(local?)
'
ashiq
of the
knuckle- bones
(the
sides
(m.c.)
Duzd)
jJij
<^&-J
^^
to the
nd*ib-nasaqchi
^^UU.
na*ib
chdpdrchl
"who
looks
o UU s-JU
;
nd*ib-i si fdrat
(also
"second
^.SLi
ambassador/'
a
and
title
;
v-ikL
^.JLJ
nafib-i
saltanat
oikLJf
nd*ib u s-saltanat)
iitiuiKJ
:
^.JU
nd*ib-i
farrdshl
chdpdr (m.c.) = ^^;UU ^*5b nd^ib-chdpdrchl ^/ ^ Jj c^T shagird dsh-paz "cook-boy, cook's assistant "; J1>J j~$ pisar-bazzdz
bdshi"
jljU.
^IA shagird
^3 ASU bachcha-Turk "a young " ^l^ 'A shah-khana " y^ajj bachcha-shutur (m.c.) a young camel " " a noble house " " U shdh-balut chestnut oy IA shah-tut" a kind l^Jb ;
(m.c.)
"a young
;
cloth-merchant,
etc.";
Turk "
of
mulberry
"
jj
IA
"
;
" the longest flight feather in shdh-par or j^ Ai shah-par " " a bridegroom aU?a IA M7i ddmdd (m.c.) (polite
;
term for);
^
;
:
shdh-tir (m.c.)
(m.c.)
"
abeam "
;[^
shdh-savdr
(m.c.)
"a
good
daman kuh
or/ er^fo
ddman-ikuh
" the
skirt of
(m.c.)
the mountain"
4 *
mdhl
a small shell
'
*J^b
4jjf sag-dbi or
^T ^-
mikh-tavlla (m.c.)
'
'
horse picketing-peg
;
"an
otter"
^^
AJ
(m.c.)
a*^
"source
of
light";
(m.c.)
^^j
tah-butn
(-W
"the
ii*
dregs in a bottle";
a<y?*
ai
tah-jur'a,
(m.c.);
&
^x man-banda
(m.c.
and
but
better
l
than
*^
=
tah-jdm:
or
maw-^
6a?it?a
(^
man-i mukhlis
Z
etc.),
*;
iJ
(^ X
Jjj
|jJu ,^c.
va bdzdrj^ j *^/-]
After the prepositions \y sivd except," and b pd "at the foot of," and one or two words ending in alif, the izdfat is sometimes omitted, as
:
auspicious conjunction
(of
two or more
planets);
a fortunate
and
L# <>^
'ashiq-kush (m.c.)
"
"
lady-killer
(as
Joseph); or of woman,
"man
killer."
3
of the
cloth-merchant."
442
izdfat.
sivdman &*
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
o*~j|
&j^^c
U pdsandali
bi-ist (m.c.)
jUiU, jd-namdz
"prayer-carpet," but ^Ui (^^ ?-2A namaz " a back street," but &*.?> *^/<j^ pas-kucha (m.c.)
"a
place for
pas-i
praying";
L
jtitj?
.*
gul-andr (m.c.)
^^
Mc&a
(m.c.)
" Such " the blossom of the granate," but/JtJ? gwZ-f anar pomegranate. common compounds, as f nay-shakar (m.c.) -'sugarcane" and jj *Jf " have come to be db-ru (m.c.) "honour regarded as one word.
:
Before an adjective
dukhtar Farangl (m.c.) Turkish girl";
gunjishk-zard (m.c.)
(c)
pisar farangl
Frank boy
"
c^/ j*^*
<>;j
^5^*!^*.
halclm-Farangi
y^
^J^^jS
"a
By
:
silent
sanam
IV.
bini
Izdfat-i
Maqlubl
1
The oJt*f
*J* fakk-i
izdfat''
"tho
which
izdfat-i
in (III) is
^Ja* oJUf
maqlubi "the inverted construction": in the former the usual order of the two words in construction is observed, in the latter the order is inverted.
(or o***J jfy kdfir-i ni'mat) ungrateful of facts" (or (^^ are "denier kdfir-i ma jam) kdfir-mdjard j^Ujfa for Iran zamin-i of zamm "Persia"; Iran) fakk-i izdfat. (m.c. examples
Examples
Kdfir-ni'mat O**AJ
"
"
y'l
^/o-,
($jZ**>
mashriq
zamin
as
(m.c.)
"the East";
*Uj
World "
^^
jdhan-pandh
Adjectives that precede their nouns do not properly take the izdfat
are examples of the "inverted construction
V.
and
"
(vide
4'* (6)
).
(a) There is no izdfat between the proper name and the title following it, thus: &\*jf ^U*& ^'UiUJ= ^x*.* \JJ&Q Mirzd Mahmud Tabdtabd*-i s u Ald l-Mulk Hdkim-i Kirmdn "His Excellency Mirza Mahmud of the tribe
f^
Compare
J^l avval
first
night
" and
v^
/*txj
God "
is
an instance
is
is
who stammered).
tzafat.
443
the
other hand
the
Ala u l-mulk, Governor of Kirman." " u ast ^JLJ| s.&c Ald l-mulk-i Hdkim
l
On
is
mjd
"
1
ojj,>l*
Compound words are not coupled together by the izdfat, thus mddar-zan (m.c.) "mother-in-law "; ^j yUji. khwdhar-zan "sister"
(but
ij
in-law"; <Jj*> *>{=*> khdna-bi-dush "wandering, vagrant asbdb-i barham zada; JL* b^* mard-i bd mdl).
(c)
^*y
v.;Uat
The
izdfat
seldom
occurs after
quantity, as:
*v&*
ooUtf" ,_L*
^A^ ^ ^^
kunad
(Sa'dl)
jJua.
"he
a sufficient quantity
"
dam-i chand db dshdmld (Sa'd!) " he drank a few sips of ^/oUif v f ^*t> ' " 3 c5U. water ^S** mu^ht-l du, khvk (Sa'dl) a couple of handfuls or so of
'
" earth
sim
vO^
<*>b
' '
:
^^^
:
yak jav
a barley corn's, a grain's weight of a>aj ^ya. jav-t nuqra (m.c.) *>&- J^fi ^^ silver" yak sang db vT >-&* (m.c.) "one sang of water" " two shares of 6Zw c?awgr khdna (m.c.) the house *" v-jf os-U JL| yak qdmat b
(class.) or
;
dah nafar shutur (in writing) " ten camels " ndn-i p*> " half a loaf " 6 ua-ai <*>. but ndn-i and L*\4 m.c.) nisf-i (m.c.) (class, but^ili " *-(^ ^ du khum yak kdsa db" a, glass of water ;>* yak kasa-yi db or
ab
;
y^^>
**
^
;
mm
li
jav
two
c^lsxi'
jars
^^
(large
;
riim
man
p&
"
half a
maund
' '
;
y*J
^^
>
" a nuqra cup of silver" (i.e. either made of " wX> yak finjdn-l nuqra^l a cup made f^ai &(=
VI.
(a)
of silver."
izdfat,
Ivn/im
by
pLo,
Imdm-i Jum'a.
(with izdfat}
Yak khwurda-yi db
v f !^^ u4
"
may
be translated
Also
yk^^Uo
f
madar-shawhar
'
mother-in-law
(i.e.
husband's mother)
Also
3
(class.)
could be used:
v^
Musht-i
du az khak
*&*
:
j\
jd^JJ*.* (class,
and m.c.);
-^
viJ^j^ du mushtis
khak: CA-^^i^JjJ c^U. *JU^ kX; yak musht khak blahtar nlst (m.c.) "there more than a handful of earth " in m.c. the izafat is sometimes inserted.
4
i
not
or sang
t-&lii
6 6
Or qadd
^
+i
65
(6).
or sar
j>)
ab.
Izafat always follows m's/, subs., but not nlm adj. the tea-leaf; it is 7 A weed that grows in the qanata has a leaf resembling dried^ and infused to form a medicine ; hence Persians assumed that cea was grown in a wel
and have corrupted the word cha 9 l into chahl and chayi.
444
izdfdt.
water," while
;
(m.c.)
" in this case there is " the remainder of the perhaps day )j) c**^ baqi-yi ruz an ellipsis of the word vaqt. In IAJJ; ^U bdqi ruzhd, or c^^k; ruzhd-yi In India eyjaL* mddor-i zan " mother-inbdqi, ^5(t bdqi is an adjective.
;
no difference in meaning (unless water" Yak dasta muqallid ^a-o AX-O^J (without izafat and stress be laid on yak). " noun in singular) a band of mummers," but o!<UAA3 IL*^ dasta-yi muqallidan and ^ft*> &-.* dasta-yi muqallid (m.c.) "the band of mummers." Yak dasta-yi muqallidan ^i&lfeo &Lo t^o would be wrong. but in AJJ c/f (c) In o~~f e/f o*:JLa*> maslahat an ast there is no izafat and similar places the izafat should be inserted. The izafat bim-i an bud is used after the Arabic participle bdqi,' when it is treated as a noun, as
little
"a
there
is
^b
^^ mddar-zan without
' '
the izafat. 8
Bishtar
mardum f&f
bishtar-i
y&i-?
most men
' '
;
j&%
' '
;
mardum
men
' '
bishtar-i
^^ "
is
*'
the same.
Bishtar-i tshdn
y&#
with
awqdt
(^k)\
''the
izafat
1
greater part
of
them"
jt
(not
bishtar-ishdn
&&>\
j&y)
the
construction
c^**J|
Ghdlib-i
o^jt v^ *
ig
Similarly out^t ^JUt agjilab-i awqdt and oL5ji_>^i aksar-i awqdt are correct, though the izafat is sometimes omitted. The izafat is also correct in
o^l
e>T k-Jl
(e)
cA^ gumdn-i
ghalib
an
ast.
Persians omit the izafat before an Infinitive governed a the on by preposition ground that c>t^ y c^>jT f^; rahm dvardan bar baddn In India is the equivalent of e^jt /*-^ cJ'^/J &^y baddn rahm dvardan.
Some modern
omitted before a preposition even in such a sentence, as ;b- j' **? az savdr shudan-i dar Tcishti. The advantage of the insertion 6a'c? vi)^ ^^Afj.i of the izafat is apparent from the following examples: ^jj/y ul*^ ji eMiy
the
t'za/erf is
:
" " the people of Kirmanare going mardumdn dar Kirman mi-ravand (m.c.) "the people
(m.c.)
are going to Kirman"; (^'^ j* kishtl or C5xi^r jj> &sJl y^> jf ^*u
&*&
fea'c?
)\>*
jt
shudan dar
embarking").
dar-dmadan-i
amadan
khdna
1
^*J ba'daz agree that jt> }t az darba'd the of &k bacfh, being equivalent ^j! &?*$}&$ **! dar bag&, the izafat is necessary. In pas az dmadan-i Eustam bi-
^ ^^
*^u
^)
&**$ j!
<j**J
no
Rustam. 4
(chiz)
Maslahat an bud " that was the prudent measure," but blm-i an
In this case baqiyya can be substituted. Similarly in all compounds of madar.
was
incorrect
In m.c. pas az amadan-i bi-khana " after : the izafat should be omitted,
my
return
home"
though common,
is
ON THE USE OF
(/)
)&.
445
of oar
The
in
objective
neighbours,"
may
both
bear us or the love that we bear over neighbours. U&U* OASI.X> and mahabbat-i
are unequivocal.
Mahabbat-i hamsayagan
ma
nishat bi-hamsayagdn
VII.
On
the use of
is
jj
it is
plur.
)
Masc.
(;),!
( )
plur.
Fern. sing.
oily
ey
ofji ^
*
<j;jj "
*
^
'
Masc. sing.
oVjf X
<^f
ofi
'^
^
"
Subjective.
Dependent.
Objective.
Examples
zat^l-kamalat
"
possessed of
all
perfections."
>
zu-funun "learned."
/ 9
ulu'l-absdr" the prudent." this word is often wrongly constructed, no count being taken of the Arabic number, case and gender: so the month before Muharram
^f
In
Persian
is
in Persian *^sj)
or &*&J\
indifferently
it is
Persian words, as
o*^
L?^ "intelligent."
Moreover, the plural is sometimes, in modern colloquial, used as a singular, as in In shakhs Tchayli ulu'l-qadr ast o*! ;^^ ^\ " " this man has " khayll ulu'l-'azm ast great rank, is honoured (m.c.) very
^^u^^
resolute or enterprising."
sing, or pi.)
2
Ulu'l
amr "Emperor
or
Emperors"
(used as a
meaning of the definite article in the word following so e^A*^^ (m.c.) means the same in Persian as ui>M jc\ Some Persian Arabophiles, however, use the correct Arabic cases even
also the
is
i.e.
when governed
verb.
118.
The Cases
in
of Nouns.
Nominative
(a)
of this
word
is
Imams
only ulu'l-amr.
446
being independent of the grammatical construction that follows it. This use of two or more consecutive nouns in the
is
^ ^t
dlrak-i
without a verb, a pronoun or noun in apposition to the subject being l man chashm-am namiintroduced and followed by its verb. **&+> (*+***" " I can't see I don't blnad (m.c.) (lit. see) my eyes *y> *$ *** fj <jyj^ dukhtar-l rd did ki harki chashm-ash bar ijkjfo JUr ^Uii^o y^j iJ*+&*.
u mi-uftad kamal-i mihrbani mi-namud "she saw a young girl whom every one that saw her loved. In, & tjljii JT^ **&# ;b^j ti jL* jl^>> l *> j^?* -*ir* *i,3jj jw^j eft-aJ qanb-i jahaz-i ma du jahaz-i digar ki pur -bar budand
budand "near our ship were two other laden ships that had had half of their masts cut down," there is no verb for L& jl^^j>; and if there were, some conjunctions would be required before
anha rd
ta nisf burlda
A somewhat similar construction is common in English ballad "My heart, it loves a gypsy, oh!" In, "the Prophets, do
for ever?
poetry as
they live
"
pleonasm
is
*>*jl LTJ^;^ darwsh az (*^-k *l> cs-kk^jL* AJ^yL> rah va az muta*alim khasta sakhtt-yi pa-yash az jay namisadma-yi safar Darvish "the wearied the by journey and its hardjumbld (mod. Pers.)
lift
;
his feet/'
Compare the
" the courtiers their nosys." Thy Kinge hys eyes" The subject of a passive verb is called Alcl*
is
I*
Jy*^
the object
subject or patient of a passive verb, being the can in the case of certain compound verbs be put in the This construction has found its way into Indian Persian.
Urdu the
In the following example, taken from a public notice in India, the pronoun ura is incorrectly in the accusative: ju/oj3U j; \^\ <j$ c>*$- fj^* f'^^b " should 3 servant accept a tip, he will be dismissed." any ,>A|^L s^ oj-b,,.?
Genitive case
(b)
There
is
This construction
common
in
it
is
probably
obviously incorrect.
Thus Usko
kiya giya
qatl
kiya giya
<-ix5
Wuh
qatl
3
Kudam
/*t>f,
Instead of
girift
^ "he was killed." idiom. 'any' as the equivalent of the Urdu ko,l is an Afghan *+* it would be better here to substitute bi-girad
^^
^ ^ <J$J j~*>\
"him was
killed"
is
as correct as
447
are placed together in a "state of regimen" as " the son malik of the king," the first or pisar-i governing word is
(
called
ol^*Ji
),
that couples the two words together is called the izafat. but the izdfat is used, besides, to the proper genitive construction
;
couple the substantive to the adjective or adjectives that follow it, vide 43 (#), and also to couple substantives together as a name and a trade or
nickname, vide
117.
we
substantives coupled by the izdfat are often used where in English use a substantive and an adjective (the governing word having the effect
Two
of the adjective),
The
great experience." be used construction can also to izafat signify the material out of
:
as
*^3
"
which a thing
is
sd'at-i tild
"a
^fc
watch
jl
of
gold"
(also
tilla
a golden watch," or
^^l** sa'at-i az
watch made from gold"); <j*U\ yA&f angushtar-i almas "a diamond " a a ring," but angushtar-i az almas would mean ring made from diamonds."
"a
The
with a
genitive construction
is
^> preposition would be f^fy^ " one yak shab ta*ammul-i ayydm-i guzashta mi-kardam (Sa'd!) night I was pondering on olden days" here in Persian a preposition could be substi:
often used where in English a substantive AJ&a? f Ljl cU& *Jj used, as
tuted, as
t^ j*. d*& tat-ammul bar ayydm-i guzashta mi-kardam. (*i^^ This construction also occurs with the Infinitive, which is treated
:
*j-tf
as a
simple
noun (though
(
it
may
also
*>*j
ba d az savdr shudan-i kashti "after getting into the i^&JSif &*& jj* y. 3 SJS^ boat" [or {J ^ &* )\y* savdr shudan dar kashti (m.c.) vide 117 (h)~\; * ^o *j o-i ^cj^.t> o-yj l^f e^b \y sazd dddan-i dnhd bi-dast-i digari-stna man " " viJUs mine
(m.c.)
&>
hands
of another, not in
\j
jf
" he has power tdqat-i sazd dddan-i dnhd-st na mard L> **> b ad az nizd kardan-i bd u (m.c.) ; ^1 31
&^ ^f>
"after quarrelling with him," but y ^'^^i?j **> ba'd az nizd' kardan-i u vide also remarks on "after his quarrelling (with me or some one else)"
f
the izdfat
117.
In the story of the second darvish, Chapter XI of the Persian translation " of Haji Baba," occurs the following peculiar passage: L> [^Ujy ] c>!jta*J v^-cl o>JU. ba'd az an [bimdr] bd hdlat-i
When
2
qualifies
5
a noun,
muzayf ilayh are separated, as: U^ d&*J^j~i pisar-i Tchush-gil-i There may sometimes be a slight difference in signification between tha two con" &>k kasa-yi nuqra may mean either " a silver cup," or a cup structions, thus
full of silver
S
Or
" a silver cup kasa-yi muqra*i pieces," but *;> omit the izafat. In India this izafat would be omitted.
^^
"
only.
For er*
^^
bi-dast'i
man.
448
bd'is-i hayrat-i
the astonishment of
all,
va hakim ham, arugh-i ! chand zad " when, to not excepting myself and the doctor, he (the sick man)
man
"
In this passage f*^j <^./o manva (Haji Baba). groaned, opened hakim are in the genitive case, though, owing to the faulty collocation or incorrect construction, there is no izafat to distinguish the case. The words
his eyes
O^XA.
*b
balki, vide
120
(h)
Remark. Note the genitive case or the use of the izafat in the following " The road from Kirman to Yezd " * AJ &\s^ fy rah-i Kir man bi-Yazd "the B. Abbas road" (^Uc^Ju ; rah-i Bandar-i Abbas; "authority for
:
this" j*\
in
e>j
****
"
J>j*
^^3
"
tars-i
marg;
" he
is
"^-^yjD*
need of
money"
%a*-i
J*J ^Uw.* y
Devil"
tt>UL*
121
(a)]
Example
khud ^y^
cJi;y^
c5^
j*
bi-hukm-i ghurur-i pa-yi suturan-i H. B., Chap. V) " confident in the surefZ*** (Tr.
:
footedness of their
horses."
:
Example
''the
117.
(c)
Ijt
<^^ ^^.j*
Vide also
flight of
Haji
Baba";
me; my.
The Dative
There
are
(1)
two forms
2
of
p$s&
\j)
(2)
I said (to) him urd guftam (also In m.c. the dative with *j is usual.
:
"
"
p& jt
'j
bd u guftam}.
(3)
with
\)
is
These two forms are not however always interchangeable. The dative obligatory when it signifies possession, with or without the verb
c^
3 budan, and also with the impersonal verbs, as *^i;i4? c^-k&t &1^ jl^> *j*> CJ b A-iL \y j\ Jil^ td har ki tir az halqa-yi angushtan bi-guzardnad khdtim urd
:
that the ring will be his who shoots an arrow through it"; bdshad (Sa'dl) " 6 ki and dvarda gazhdum rd vilddat-i ma hud nisi chundn ki sd^ir-i hayvdndt Ct aCUa. ** lt is rd \) dU.xa.yu o*^i *t^ ^;jf (Sa'df) \j
1
^^
f^
stated that the scorpion has not an ordinary birth like other
1
' '
animals."
Arugh zjj is a belch which Persians consider relieves the stomach. Either form of the dative can also be used after f<Mi> da tan " to give."
The dative
is
Impersonal verbs)
used.
but when
*
the dative
is
&t
must be
Also instead of
*&k
t;^t
phrase
^1^1 JU^ACl
"
is
but
rnl-basliad
6
"
or
'
be"
Or
tlr-i.
6
t(
Sa fir j${<
signifies
rest," but
is
the whole."
449
Har Har
"
kird td*us bdyad jawr-i Hindustan kashad kira mahbub bdyad kunda u zinddn kashad (Sad!).
his mistress
a peacock must endure the journey to India, must endure fetters and prison."
Yak-i rd dil az dast rafta bud *# AAJ; eu^jf J^ j^c, (Sa'di) " a certain person had quite lost his heart." [Vide also (10) Remark].
va har shab sanam-i dar bar ki subh-i tdbdn ra dast az
ast va sarv-i khirdmdn ra az khajdlat-i u pay dar gil have each night a fresh mistress who shames the bright "the .rich (Gulistan) morning by her beauty and humbles the waving cypress by her exquisite In none of these cases could & be substituted for t> figure." &f -b ^1^ ^U** J&+A. "praise to In hamd u sipds Khudd-yi pdk ra ki \) " and similar the verb is understood. God the Holy constructions,
sabdhat'i
u bar
dil
|^o bagh-Vst ^AA I have a garden that no one has yet seen." ki Inch kas na-dida ast (m.c.) In the above cases, the dative by native grammarians is considered the
:
This dative
is
rare in m.c.
o^f xxoo
&
OM-*XPU
mard
cc
muzdf
ilayh.
^.jj^LU
Thus
^Ui
l*j
in,
^o^f
+&A. &}*.
savdrdn rd chun chashm bi-md uftdd tdkhtan dvardand "when the mounted men saw us they lyt^tj^o
rd
\)
charged chashm
\s)tyj>*
is
^^,
chun chashm-i p**> &?*. ideas to savdrdn should be in o>fjt^ according English
t>&>\ l+J
^fo>
Remark.
The datives
hamdn
tawr ki u bi-vay (urd) khil'at ddd, bi-man (mard) niz yak shdl-i Kashmiri dad
(4)
locality,
the dative in
' '
;
t;
cannot be
;
substituted for
we attained our object bi-maqsud rasidim " hit the 'game' "the bullet bi-shikdr khivurd gulula (m.c.) preceding examples could \y be substituted for *?
^x^
,i^afl4J
^^ j^t** djtf
none of the
^\
in
But
mi-dyad)
*jf j^o
v f^
\j
}\
" he
^ J^\^
u khwdb-ash
is
The m.c. phrase " what's the matter with you ? " can be rendered either by & Aa. |y turd chi shud ? or *& &*> j> bi-tu chi shud. (5) The preposition AJ has many other significations besides the "to" of the dative, as o~|^ v (^ b pd bi-rikdb guzdsht " he put his foot in the
: ' '
:
feeling sleepy."
stirrup iron
its
Another and
common
reading
is
ranj-i Hindustan.
29
450
(6)
2 time can also be expressed by as ; of the dative, ruz rd na'l tamdm-i chahdr ixjb yurtma A*JJJJ jj; ij JUj^l^ yd 0,5; fU3 must one trot or canter the whole day ? " shab 3 rd dnjd bdyad raft? (m.c.) mdndam f&ilo IssJf (^ t.^ (m.c.) " I stayed there the (whole) night." In the first example the preposition ;^ dar (dar tamdm-i ruz) could be
:
<;
'
'
f&iU Uof
^> j&
but not in the second for dar shab dnjd mdndam fj, would mean " I stayed there at night (not by day) " so also " I went there at rd would Uuf
;
^^
night," (shab
"by
few adverbs can also be formed by the dative in I;, as !j L5 qazd rd by chance," (but ittifdq, not t; <3&t ittifdq rd). Some consider this a form of the ablative case, apparently because grammarians
:
accident,
the ablative (az qazd UaJ' jt) can be substituted.* Andak fur sat rd gard-i (and az an bar-dyad ^f^ c>t jt ^' >/ '; 0,^5 ^^1 " at the (Anvdr-i Suhayli) slightest opportunity (or in a short time) it ceases " to exist rdsti rd khildf-i aql buvad 89 (h) (3). (Qa,ani), vide
: :
(7) If
is
f*\*
u Zayd dddam ft>\t> AJ) ^ ^>u \* V U^. (8) The affixed pronouns may take the place ^ *tf (.g* o^t (m.c.) tiich ydd-at mi-dyad ki
^AO,
\>
or kitdb rd
bi-
Amr(u)
as:
I/
of the
?,
dative in
t;,
or &?
" ki(m.c.)" do you at all remember that? J^ly^ vf^ \^\ urd khwdb mi-dyad (less common, ^khwdb-ash mi-dyad, or *>J
:
*$(j
&
*A
m.c.)
"he
feels
sleepy."
The
affixed
pronoun of
itself
dative case to which a possessive affixed pronoun is attached may be followed by (;, as c>\* <j, j ^iU sildh va diram dad lashkar-'sh fj rd (Shah-Nama) "he gave arms and money to his the more
:
jU
army";
is
ordinary construction would be <JjJ &> bi-lashkar-ash. (9) When the dative in t; has a noun in apposition, or
adjectives, the affix rd
is
qualified
by
or without
(j
is
dadan, as
*-^J ^JUs
:
" one of the vizirs kissed the throne of the king {Sa'di)
"
oiu ^b \^ j|
ra
\)
iJ^* malik.
2 As the preposition dar can be substituted for to consider this the dative and not the accusative case.
*
this
\)
it
is,
I think, better
*
*
Or shab an/a mandam f<^U Uof *_*. The Arabic accusative used adverbially,
j+*
'C/raar;
e.g. (qaza
an
)
final
j not pronounced).
are
common
in Arabic
grammars.
451
ki"
&f
f&
<fc
j\& j a^jf ^i^ ati*j*y ^^.s^> shakhs-l az mardan-i jang-azmuda va kar-dida ra guftam ki p*s$ t; "I said to a certain experienced warrior ." In Minnat ra 'azz a
:
>J^
Khuday
va
a
jatt(
jj
**>
(Sa'di)
"
thanksgiving to the
Great
and
Glorious
(
", the
I;
J^ jj*
azza va jall a
Similarly in *
^^
/0
J'L>
t5^* yak-i
ra az muluk muddat-i
'umr
sipari
shud (Gul. B.
II.
S.
Remark.
\)
When
the dative in
f;
ra
is
qualified
:
ra
is
of the phrase, as
^j<^
f;
<*->jc
v^lx>
j\
^j
bi~
<&j&
^J
Majnun
guftand(Gul. B. S.
(10)
still
The dative
mar
Remark.
dative
is
sometimes in
classical, rarely in
:
modern, Persian
Na-gardad gar
"
zarii
(Sa'di).
dog ne'er forgets a morsel (thrown to it) Even if afterwards you stone it a hundred times "
In the example,
"dog
' '
"
is
Urd
f '
(tS
j\
(m.c.)
he forgets nothing.
(11) The dative in ra f; sometimes takes the place of the preposition ^ir bardy, as: Khuda ra i^tsA "for God's sake." For further remarks on the locative dative, *J J>*A*> and **' J^*A^, vide under these heads.
The accusative case (1) The accusative has two forms: one form is the same nominative, and the other as the nominative plus the suffix f;. One of the difficulties to a beginner is the correct use or omission
(d)
:
as
the
of f>
(2)
(;
article
and should be
'Azza va
jail
(be His name) the wisher assuming the completion of the action,
:
"
exalted and magnified are Ar. verbs, Pret., and signify in Arabic the Preterite is used in precative sentences and in cursing,
(a)
<-U.
jj*
"
452
1 proper names, the separate pronouns, the demonstrative pronouns, the 2 A/, the reflexive pronouns, and the pronominal adjectives interrogative
and
indefinite
pronouns signifying "all; each; every; so-and-so; and both, a certain person one the others." In m.c. it also
;
;
;
pronouns when
(6).
affixed to a
noun
in the accusa-
vide
(c) (8)
and
40
Remark.
definite, as
:
After the
"I
name of a language, the t; is only added if the noun is wish to learn Persian" mi-khwaham p)j*l&. \f*j^* e^O /^t^Rj^o
(m.c),
zabdn-i
Farsi
bi-yamuzam
but
will
in
Arabic."
"I
fjyf ^y
15*^^ &ty
it
"I sound, as
am now
(3)
The ra
tj
mood
or of causal verbs,
when
the object
is
definite (not
when
it is indefinite).
Remark. An adjective qualifying a noun often makes it definite, while the omission of the adjective indicates that it is indefinite. Vide p. 461 note 8.
,
(4)
When
a
is
:
I;
must be added
'All
(raziy
end
of the phrase, as
{**&
vL*^
I;
*^ *^
<^*)
^*
*llah 'an-h' u) *
ra bi-khwab dtdam
Allah be
pleased with
him
in a
dream."
jtfd**&*jjb|j foyojf
^x^j
tan-i
chaud az mardu-
(Sa'd!)
;
"they sent
warriors
tiJjjj^j yak-i
of experience, I; Ji ^j ^!; " az 'ulama-yi rasikh 6 ra pursldand (Sa'di) they asked one of the
tried in battle, to
' '
^LU
learned
men
of fixed principles."
:
In
classical Persian,
however, such
is
not
tf **.'& o.j&a>
^.sv_c
^l/o
fj
^j
of
yak-l ra az muluk-i
'Ajam
Jiikayat
one of the kings of Persia that "; in this example the ra could with equal propriety be inserted after the word
ki
kunand
(Sa'di) *'they
relate
and
of explanation,
f;
must
^t
\)
an
qadr, jxax.|
In qadr.
is
in
m.c.
kudam kitab kudam, or <^J p\**kudam yak-i, unless definite, as: C5A [> :iHi/0 v^^* mi-khwahi (vulg.) "which book do you want ?": c^tj'^-it* (,5^! ft^ kudam yak-l mi" kJiwahl ? (vulg.) "which do you want ?
3 *
6
Final
RasikJii
means
of
sound
x**
belief, of
jt
In modern Persian
\)
^U
^J
'Ajam
ra.
453
be placed at the end, as: Zayd pisar-i Vazir rd didam f*jj> \) j&j j-~$ *>) "I 139 (b) (4). the son of the Wazir," vide " the of In (5) qualification," a past or present participle apposition denoting state or condition, or an adjective, is placed in apposition to a
saw Zaid
'
if
f
definite takes
*W
J^b*-
zdlim-i ra khufta
~ *&
&
Ij,
as
*
pi* f*--'*
L>
c**^
didam
"I saw
(*?.*
"
fil-i
ra uftdnu khizdn
(m.c.) "I saw an elephant limping and stumbling cH>^^tt^*l sang-i* dar rah uftdda didam f&* Jtolij't fy <^&~> (m.c.) "I saw a stone on the road vide also in these lying (8) examples ra I; could not be
b^V
' '
;
"
omitted.
Remark
I.
If,
to an indefinite
noun the
is
siydh-i ddsht
kawdan
according to the usual rule omitted, as: " " he had a slave, a blockhead (Sa'dl)
ablafi (m.c.)
a servant, an ass." In e>-i+3 _>J ;i ra didam samin va khil'at-i dar ablah-i 3 eH:*** f*i& h tj^\ " bar samin (Sa'd!) " I saw a fool, a fat fool, with a fine robe, a costly one the first substantive is definite and the second indefinite.
nawkar-i dashtam
"I had
^^
Remark II. Man mar-i rd s dar rah murda didam *.>yo *t>; \) \s^* &* " and man mar-i murda-i rd B dar rah " I saw a snake dead on the road fAp " I saw a dead snake on the road " zdlim-i ra didam f<^ t>\) \^ b^x> ;U^/o
;
khufta
didam
^
^
*iia.
I;
^Us
' '
(or
and zdlim-i
tihufta-i
rd didam
p*>*
<&&*
The shade
(6) If
of difference in
meaning
is slight, if
," especially if followed by the shumd requires tj, sawghdt dvarda-am(m.c.) " if rd be added it I have brought a book as a present for you signifies "a certain book as a present" and the sentence is incomplete and &f ki Idyiq-i shumd ast is necessary to some such phrase as o~-.U <Jjil
I;*:
if,
^JlJe^Isawa sleeping tyrant." indeed any really exist. article, its noun does not require
relative**", it
(
as
Kitdb-i bardy-i
'
it
would
U.
also
t;
and say
o~*U
(Jj^J
&f
p]
u^yf oUy*.
ast.
^|y ^liT
fil-i
am
ki ld*iq-i
shumd
Similarly in fx,>
j^t
^JUi
to-day,"
1
it
rd
f;
^U'
unless
*t^^
names used
'
in syntactic
Arabic grammars: the English boy learns that Balbus the Muslim boy is taught that Zaid is striking Amr(u).
*
'
is
2
S
But
The
',)
(fi
*^-* sang-lra
"a
certain stone."
(d) (11).
454
clause followed, such as
t>#
^\^
imruz didam ki khayll qashang bud (m.c.) " I saw a didam nest," but f&>& ( \) ) u*j*> &^T dshiydna-l " nest of a bird didam I saw the ^^/o &*U&f ashiydna-yi murgh-i (ra) " I saw ^3pj )(f*. dshlydna~yi murgh-% bd chdjidr tukhm didam (m.c {&)*,
*>
fll-l
(or fll-l-rd
' '
L>
(Sa'dl)
" he
had a daughter
unless
dukhtar-l ra here it would be wrong to say !;. ** ^ LSJ^* 0> a relative clause followed, as c^i *is; oLrt-k *> ra Tci didl bi-Tihrdn du]chtar-l rafta ast (m.c.) "the girl you saw has gone to Tehran," where the ra is necessary.
; :
"
(^^
^
'
<i
in
41
(),
J^f
t;
*$
definite
Nouns preceded by a cardinal number do not usually admit of f; Hazar sarbaz didam f*i* j^^jD* "I saw a thousand " soldiers ^^ v*" '-^ a5 P didam " I saw two horses," but f&& f; ^i ^^ ^w asp ra didam "I saw the two horses" cu^^ c)^;^ '; *i5 -b^^> u- er* x> wan In du la^ifa ra dar jahan dust ml-ddram 'ulama h tfajj (; ^ va zuhhad ra (Sa'dl) " these two classses I cherish dearly in this world,
unless definite, as
: :
Jt
tt
viz.,
Remark.
tive pronoun,
A
is
as: j^j
\j
AiiJ
^i
In
In du takhta ra bibur
takhta ra
o'~^-
/*#
\)
*i3 j$ ^\
du
biham bi-chaspan.
noun
but
in apposition to a definite
I;
admit
OA*ot
of
f;,
must be
^J(jL
affixed to
noun in the accusative does not A &) ^-^ A [y^ the first noun, as cM> f
:
^^
jj^U^* e*l5j
*1*^
^(^j
fj
t&
AA)
^.jt
tana-ra baray-i Hidayat Khan-i Rashtl In ast (m.c.) " I'll say that the wife of Hidayat Khan of Resht has sent this a jacket ( f; ) as a present (without I; ) for Shu'la Khanam" ^f^ ^J&
:
mm
a g u ft Khuday azz va jail mar a " mdlik-i in mumlakat garddnlda ast (Sa'dl) he said God the glorious has made me master of this kingdom." Vide also (5) and end of (4), and (c) (9).
OA-I
<HJ|j>/
^^JU/o
^
f
I
tJjU
\j*>
J^
If
it,
ra
to either noun, as
^f oUj->
^ty
c>^
chlz-l bardy-i
dvarda
am
(m.c.)
present."
rah-avard "a present or 8'j Sawqat ^\)j* is the m.c. for the classical " also u)U4)| armaghan (class, and m.c.), curiosity brought from a journey
4
^T
455
it is
Rd
\)
jir
ml guftan va dor ugh guftan ra tark namikunad il he does not give up loose talk and lying " SJ|*AX> V>JL ^ lii " he is a shina kardan ra khub mi-ddnad (m.c.) good swimmer." (10) With several nouns coupled together by ^ it is necessary to add
^3
t;
the object, as
&&
J)
^y
t;
example above
in (9).
' '
Two
j>y
affixes of
I;
oy^
I;
fjAJ^ uj*
jl
the grammatical
(11) Finally
^ ^j&$
I;
heavy to the Persian ear. Thus the father and me" would in Persian be rendered by my u man u pidar-am ra da' vat kard and rarely by
1
' '
\)
is
added even to
u mard va pidaram ra da'vat kard. j*;^ 3 \j*$ indefinite nouns if its omission would
cause any ambiguity, vide 41 (t). " sirka shir ra " In the sentence mi-burrad, the ra vinegar curdles milk In speaking, however, if a pause be made after sirka, and stress is correct.
laid in shir, the ra
may
guity.
Vide
Remark
mki
to (12).
ra bi-badi muqabala kunad va khayr ra bi-sharr paddsh ravd " Damna ddrad (Anw. Suh., chap. II, S. 6) answered, If one return evil for good, and think injury a just recompense for benefit (I am, then,
(East. Trans.).
is
Remark.
shardb
ra
sometimes omitted
nouns, as:
^a^T
it is
sometimes
'awaz
unnecessarily inserted
bi-db
after indefinite
u^v^Ov!/^
bi-db
'awaz*
kardan
is
o^
u^* v^
vLr^
is,
-shardb
indefinite: the ra
in speaking, unneces-
may be
omitted.
Vide (19).
is
An
{** \\ ?*
'mar
formed by prefixing the particle " urddidam (old) " I saw him
;
In
*(**>
&&j>(& shina
", the object
is
kardan
mi-ddnad
(m.c.)
"does
and ra must be
inserted.
The
affix
I;
its
omission
In
the Persian
first.
is
used
instead of f^ mara. It should be noticed that \) &*> man ra is a vulgar of man : in the example given ra is understood after the first object.
*
accusative
'Awaz colloquial
for 'waz.
456
should
case
:
indefinite.
This,
however,
is
not
always
the
(14)
Rd
t;
therefore,
the accusative
:
is
definite
and requires
of bi,
as:
(m.c.)
be expressed by bi if the dative does not admit then the I; rd of the accusative must be omitted,
v^
v^
:
kitdb-rd
give
ata
(m.c.), or
<*j
.tj
ij
fcli
%$ t; Shah tdjrd
:
bi-man bi-dih, or kitdb mard bi-dih Shdh pisar-i khud rd tdj dad **^S~i " the Shah khud dad
bi-pisar-i
(m.c.)
\j*>
his (own)
td
son"
*a*-t
i*iu ^jy
<^t
^
fl
' ;
<H^
Lrf^
am
wept
till
He
mard In farzand bakhshida ast (Sa'dl) long nights " = td bi-man In farzand bakhshida ast gave me this son (^ U (mod.), QI td in farzand rd bi- man bakhshida ast
;
t
^i U (mod.); here t; rd is really necessary to show that clearly A*^ farzand is not the subject its omission in such cases sometimes causes ambiguity. (15) The rd must be omitted after nouns preceded by cardinal numbers
unless
definite
si
vide
(7)),
as:
^u^i^t v^-k b
*j&
j& *^
***
jj)
ruz-i
shamba
thieves
*>*)
** nafar duzd rd tandb anddkhtand, means they hanged the three on Saturday"; omit t; rd and it means "three thieves":
c>i/ \)j& }*) ^ila.i^, V UJ? t; j& A^ si nafar rd tandb anddkhtand va du nafar ra gar dan zadand " they hanged three (of them) and beheaded two."
first
cardinal numbers
may
be
-f
<3A,~jjj
^A: j^j^
^\ ^l^
four
(^
^^
^.a.
jam'-i si rd bd chahdr in
tawr
minavisand
*
"three
-AJ
plus
is
written
thus,
3-1-4
five
";
f;
;l^.
)j& ^j)
:
tajnq-i chahdr rd az
LJ
j^
4"
x P^Jaijt y^a.
|;
multiplied by four, thus 3x4": A-^-^^kij; ; l^ U f; O^A ^flJ taqsim-i hasht rd bd chahdr in tawr cl eight divided by four, thus 8-^4" o^t j,^ Aan.jf U;
:
r
e
...
b
*
t^-i^-
cuXi.a>j,
^.^
* *
j^
amma
dnchi kusur
ast,
du
khums az hasht
eight-ninths
haft
is
tis'
rd chunin mi-navisand
-|
written thus
~| "
;
V
;
+~ &^*-
u*^ j
O.AA j
va
sumn va du suds
;
rd chunin
J+
t"
-^y;^'-^;^ Ij^jdjtw
by
half, thus f 4-J."
2
du
thirds divided
from
left to right as in
English.
<UiJ
^f j va in nishan
dalalat bar
musavat darad.
457
'
The ra
etc.)
is
"greed,"
omitted after generic nouns used generically only when the sentence is very short.
(as
" wine
' ' ;
In dar drad
+k (Sa'di) "it is greed that the net/' a ra would be necessary in prose. **S jb ^Ui ji o~o<> Similarly after nouns used in a vague or general sense, as dast az to* am bdz kashid (Sa'dl) " he withdrew his hand from food, he
** ^U^
^^
and
fish
into
(the)
is
here ra could not be inserted stopped eating verb dast kashldan. But in pound
:
' '
dast
really part of a
com-
bi-kas
(Sa'di).
By
the word
dil
my brother does abide with none, the world's maker let thy heart be won"
"thy heart" would
in prose require ra,
though used in a
general sense.
Compare the following examples ^J^A. ^^} asp-i hdzir kun (m.c.) "get ready a (any) horse"; &? J*\A I; w*^l asp ra hdzir kun (m.c.) "get ready the horse" (which has been mentioned or discussed): but " ^/ j^(~>. ^^o( a sp hdzir kun (m.c.) get ready (the) horse" (used generally) the \) ra in this last case is omitted even if the speaker own but one
Remark.
:
horse.
verbs such as <jj&!^ CUASU^ suhbat ddshtan being considered one word, the first portion of the compound does not admit of ra.* (18) In classical Persian, \y is frequently omitted after an accusative with
(17)
Compound
sometimes
it is
added ^~^jxi^<v
:
|;
cf^fb
-&feJ
cA'#^ lutf-i tab'-ash ra bi-didand va husn-i tadbir-ash bi-pasandidand "they saw the kindness of his nature and the excellence of his " in the administration is both inserted and omitted
(Sa'dl)
;
jjjo^
ij
J^jf
(10).
3u3j
\)
:j)j>* &?*
sirat-ash ra bi-pasandid.
Vide also
Remark.
I;
Generic nouns may be used definitely, indefinitely, or generically as "the man, a man, or simple man." " she li 2 Binakard bi-baradar baradar began to (m-c.) guftan )fy )^J *? >/ " here the call on her brother (to say oh brother, oh brother) position of the preposition
&&
^7 ^V
In another edition
ra
is is
JjV*>
tadblr-ash.
In
458
(19)
mis sometimes
(11)
omitted when
as:
*&t*>
it
would be
correct
rafiq
bdr-i
^iuo ^f in sukhan bishunid (Sa'di) "the companion heard what was said" in makes the noun definite without nukta pish-i [the ]
[vide
also
}
Remark],
&h
buzurg-i
I
hami-guftam
was mentioning this point to a certain learned man <i.vxJ ^^ harf-i -ir man na-shumd* " he didn't hear me " (*/ <x>& & y jSj&jSt** ^f JLA " otherwise safar hargiz nami-kardam (m.c.) vagar na, shdyad khaydl-i I might perhaps have never entertained the idea of this tour" in these it would have been and examples correct, grammatically idiomatically, to
' '
:
flfck
^^
m
I;
<J^ jt^
:
*i&
^\ CO 1
(Sa'd!)
"well,
insert the
<*i~j
I;
^"^) j
ra
8
AW&
j**.*>
)) &*>\j$
*j
^o*
*$
^.-M
marduman
did ki har yak bi-gurdza-i zar dar mi'bar nishasta va rakht basta " he saw a band of men, who for a small piece (Gul., Chap. Ill, St. 28, East.) " of gold had taken their places in the ferry boat and loaded up their goods
:
(there
is
either *M
^ ki must be omitted).
is rare in Persian. The following is an u khwabid khiuabtdan-i abadl ra (class.)
^^
literally
pronouns when themselves the direct object do not admit of t;, as: J^^ zadam-ash (m.c.) ''I struck him." Neither do they admit of the dative \) ra, as <_+* guf tarn-ash " I said to him."
affixed
( :
The
(e)
f^
tuhi-dast didam, I
6
in the least
understand you."
^>'^.iu;X3
^^
coll.)
t,)^ v--'^ [y
and Afghan
= ^>
bi-kunam(m.c.)
"I wish
to
^ make
s^oU |y ^A jiAx>
you
my
agent."
Also m.c.
The
2 3
Commoner
to insert ra.
the indefinite
Here ra must be added (though the accusative is indefinite). Note that after there is no izafat. It would be correct to write guruh-l az marduman
without
4
6
ra.
(5).
Vide (d)
Better tura.
Note that
*
*-+$& (pi.
uJy nuvvab
is
is
^L>
*
nayib (without *
).
In m.c. the
in
such words
But
in ^-jlJ
"
(pi.
*-3\jf*
is
retained in pronun-
used in m.c.
''
(class.)
?/&bi-darydft-i an ravdn kard' (class.) *j* cjfj;^>f oJlj;i>j I; " he sent some one to enquire into the matter." ** ^^ ^ bd khud guft ki sar rd nami tavdnam p\,i *3)\i f^lyc** t) j**
1
m
'
buzurg bi-kunam
o^tiia/ojjj.c
l
"he
&(^
said to himself
I can't
make my head
'
larger.
*^
\)
p**
&**. *r
mi-ddsht
as dear
as
l*iy>
&
\)
^cjj j
f*i^ 5 p t^
^^
\<*>
\)
'
person in
&}+>
*' X^^Jt )\f>& j?j \) iS*** jsti^b pddishdh <u^f cu-s^ ;i c^^ " th& shakhs-i rd zir-i dlvdr istdda did ki murgfa-i dar dast girifta mi-namud king saw a certain person standing under the wall who held a fowl in his hand
a separate place."
<M^y
*j>
firistdd
"he
present."
.ioxx
t>ii^f
^^
jj^fcx*x>
but ^i&>
is
^a
8
!;
^h^
is
^^
&#:***
is
do you know mi-ddnid chi-tawr gus/and rd ml-kushand ? " In m.c. the distinction between the two killed ? previous
but
if
how a 8
sheep
not observed,
insdn were substituted for gusfand, it would be incorrect insdn as can be definite only, as it means the species man.' to omit the rd, "I saw some birds," fvja ^*J' ^^ba'zi murgha didam (m.c.), but ^-^
'
the word
u^l
cu-oJ UJjt
latter
x> ba*zimurghjia rd didam kidar injd riist(m (**>j^ b t^7 rd is necessary because of the *?. the example
&f
c.)
in the
&
qdli-yi
t; (jJif
J^
H^L!
Ai^t^^^L
^U ^1
ki
An
j'^c
'a&ar also
sells
Dava-farmh m.c.
"seller of
2
He
Kas-ior mard-l might be used without a ra. a small head and a large beard was a fool. had whoever that a book He I can the beard." therefore thought to himself "I can't make the head smaller but " a an of unit y)> i- e with * Or habba-l slm ( g rain of silver," and y) <jr t;
(d) (2);
7/afc-*
one.'
(without
or with
6
\)
-the lamp
grain of silver":
yjJ>* &
*~ jt az
i.e.
6
T
Vide Vide
Indefinite
460
misl-ash rd
to,
p*\je*>
<jk& ^L.
^tjj
jj&
^Jli
^iU.
hdld
khwdham kard
2
(class.)
"I'll
now
myself."
o*>l
*xxjj
*-*>>'
^ &*
o*^
&i>l**'t>
iA***^jtt
V*
" sanduq-i rd kushdda libds-iJcuhnava kasifpushidaast. what did he see but that Ayaz had opened a certain box and (taken out and) put on some old coarse
clothes."
a;_yf
chi d^d ki
Aydz
^-o
^AJ
'
t;*jJU:
U>*
_j
^^^iii j^
^j ^jjjl
"
va madda'd
a/a?/& ra
ptA mi-dvarad
(jj|
(m.c.)
Qarfer
persons, plaintiff
iXvSl/oj* f;
and defendant."
^ar* digar-1 rd farmd*id (class.) "entrust this work to another, order another person to do this" l^-Mt jt *f (J\A Ji;^ e^' c?ar e27 birun ravam waw ddshtam ki az (m.c.) "I inwardly injd fJL> vt>Jtf#
Lfj&tjf
intended to leave this place " 6 u^r' /a?<? |; *=^-^-fc c>f ^ bd an tapdncha zadi yalc-l rd kushtl " supposing that you used that pistol and
:
(
J^
^ ^j
^^
*-ft^ ^-^ i^Jt^Jj agar ^t &j*& ^^ In pisar-i za'if td'un bi-girad albatta khwdhad murd (m.c.) " if this fragile boy " were to catch plague he would certainly die."
shot one of us
6
(or
them)
"
^t^
^^
ddnistam ki sabu'-ird dida mi-davad (m.c.) lc I guessed that he had seen some wild beast and that was the cause of " (A his precipitation 8 chizhd-i rd ki dvarda v^=" cA^' (*W **)$ **
>)***>
tbJz
\j
^5*^
A^^i-^(,i
^ J^
Khwasta bashid *
>
^ &i*\jo*> 9
Dida
n m.c. considered more polite than " bashid, **&^ *J.t> Past Subj., =
of
which
&>
*<\!i
dida Id
seen the
Chiz-l e^)*^- "a thing," or \) txH^ chiz-l ra "a certain thing"; both right. In m.c. the Imperfect or the Perfect is often used for the Present.
2
3
Or better nayib-l digar: nayib-i digar ra " the other." The Turks pronounce beg,' but the Persian almost like the English word bag.' The ra of the accusative after the demonstrative pronoun is omitted, because the
'
'
dative has
it
if
bi-dlgar-l
\)
after
kar should be
modern
Persian.
Or yak-l az mara Jcuahtl. The \) could not be omitted after the pronoun yak-l. 7 Here t.a'iin At any rate the word "plague" is giriftan is a compound verb. in Persian a generic term. If, however, a man fell sick of a fever or of plague in Persia, and it were said " ha brought the fever or the plague (meaning this fever, etc.) with him
6
from Bombay,
8
\)
is best inserted since if omitted sabu'-l might be taken as the subject, vide (d) (11). In speaking, the ra might be omitted, the context or intonation preventing ambiguity.
Ij
The
461
I
Tchub
1
Jl^x; rnuhal ast ki good hunar-manddn bi-mirand va bi-hunardn ja-yi Ishdn girand (Sa'dl) " it could never be that the skilled should die and the skill- less should take their place *
1
;
j4 o ^
c5 ^
' '
my way 8
dar biydbdn rah gum karda budam (Sa'd!) " in the wilderness J& y e>LxA^ <^JU ^^.^t
$-*
:
hay*at-i u nazar kard, shakhs-1 did siydh-fdm za'if-andam (Sa'dl) "the king looked at his figure and countenance; " he saw a person * black in complexion and poor in physique ^ (J^Aacuo ^
:
^jjl^
ovix
ij
Lp^x^k j
Ai;l*
OA.J^ va suhbat-ash rd ghammat shumdrand va '* and they think his conversation a
to themselves":
uA^?j
a favour
e^" ; J^ b c5^^;^
3
^^?
kdrvdn-i rd
(Sa'dl)
"the
"
dU-/
;>
^A'
at once sent
7
him a pretty
slave-girl
":
(class.)
^UA^aa*
i;
^-^ &&*
(Gul.,
*$j*
har-ki dushman-i
^-
^J^
hikdyat-i
shikar
is
be omitted and in this case the word anha ra would be understood after
2 5
ra.
if
Here rah
is
be inserted.
*
Here there
is
no ra because the
45- is
for
signify
6
"a
certain person."
Ij
Here
must be used
as the
signifies
" a certain
clearly
."
the object
;
is
indefinite
and
Jcanlzak-l is
there
is
conse-
Busa dadan
cw!.>
*^
dative.
V*' U-Jb^j zamm-i In modern Persian zamln ra would be preferred in modern adab Maid, or ***)*. h V^t (i&j zamm-i adab ra buald are both correct the ground or merely Persian writing. Whether the supplicant actually kissed
<H^
touched the ground with his hand and then laid doubtful. The expression is now used figuratively.
8
it
on
is,
think,
Here ra
is
the two
noun
}
sdefinite
make necessary in classical and modern Persian, because the epithets " whoever thinks an (his) enemy mean' In to (Remark (d) (3) ).
AS^A
tj+j*>
^*^i
is
is
equally necessary
because enemy
to be considered definite,
"his enemy."
462
namudan-i shakhs-i humd^-i rd bardy-i ishtihdr-i hazdr rupeya about a person shooting a lammergeyer for an advertised reward
rupees"
*M;
\j^t
(m.c.)
p3\& j^
/**
\)>.t>
^*
)t>
td-yi digar rd
:
ham
fc^U
bi-u
iJ*c
dddam
'amal-i
(m.c.)
"
.yfa
o^^a
padishah du taraf ddrad (Sa'df) "the service of a king has two chashm-am jd-i rd* nami-did (m.c.) "I saw t; ^51*. aspects": ***
f+&**
nothing,
my
eyes gazed at
o*j| txi/o,^. ^t^ (jj^ rdhat-i 'djil rd bi-tashvish-i mihnat-i djil munagh" to disturb one's kardan Ichildf-i rdy-i khirad-manddn ast (Sa'dl) (jhas
comfort by anxiety of future wrong, is to act contrary to the opinion expressed by ths wise": ^~^ olsb ; V U v |^ shardb 6 bi-db 'awaz kardan kdr-i 'dqildn nist (m.c.) "to exchange wine for
(the)
o^
vacancy"
(JA*\>O
JU/f o*isx/o
^j^u
ij
<J^Lc
o^tj
present
^^ ^^
?
water
is
Remark.
To the query,
&>.&
\)
%^^
the answer
ty *$ ki bud the reason ki padishah u rd did? the answer would be darvish-i (without rd) in the first reply there is is that in both replies there is an ellipsis
might be
\)
*L^.ib s$
an
ellipsis of
did
an
ellipsis of bud.
the
of extracts
the
from the " Tuzuk-i JahangirV or "Memoirs of this extract Hikayat-i shikar kardan-i humay janwar
dar kuh-i Plr-Panjal bi-ishtihar-i in'am-i hazar rupeya : owing to the omission of ra this sentence is quite unintelligible to Persians. In India the word janwar is specially applied by falconers to birds of prey, just as a muleteer in Persia styles mules
" cattle." The ra is mal, while this same word in Panjab villages means necessary here the direct of the Infinitive which is specialized by the clause to distinguish object In hikdyat-i shikar kardan-i buz-l "story of shooting an Ibex,'* the ra following it. is not required as the Ibex is not specialized.
The ra necessary after the pronoun yak-l, vide (d) (2): the ra would also be Yak-l bi-dih " give me one, any one ' but yak-l rd bi-dih required according to (d) (4).
4
'
**
give
5
me
one of them."
td-yi dlgar
But du
Here
Vide
*
5
jd-i
therefore definite
" rd
preferable."
rdhat as
Remark
the
the adjective
\)
also could be
omitted.
6
Though
;
this is correct, it
would be better
).
mark
the
object clearly
vide
Remark
to (d) (11
463
suffixing a
is
also used in forming interjections, and in to writings 1 (prose or poetry). Ex.: 0^1
safar-% digar dar pish ast (Gulistan) before me."
"O
is
J^^ ^
!
^ ^^
t,^^,
Sa'diyd
Sa'di
b (^* J 6^>
(thou)
; t*T jU
^ ^
*>
ill
^ |^y
)UL (Sa'd!)
of Spring,
And
leave
Hand
man "
^(
3
1," but
is
rare
and
J*j*
f>^
S$ J* ^\A> j~ j)
AXX5
Ay man-am bar sar-i Jchdk-i tu ki khak-am bar sar (Sa*dl) Oh I who am standing on your grave, woe is me " *
4 '
!
^^JU.
thou to
o~ix>
whom my
:
(Sa'dl)
" oh
is
vocative.
Dil mi-ravad
zi
Khudd
rd
\
Dardd
ki rdz-i
My
heart
is
leaving
my
Alas
help that
!
me
my
in d cannot be followed
izafdt.
Shdhd sitdra-manzilatd
' '
!
;lxw
UU
oh king whose dignity is high as the stars Modern Persian letters often begin with dust-i muhtaramd, instead of the correct classical dustd
But darlgha " alas! "and K&udaya " O God! " are still found Another reading is bi-bum-i sham instead of bi-bum baz. Another reading is In man-am.
in m.c.
*
3
Khak
<4
kunam
bar sar-am is a common saying in m.c. ; akhir chi Ithak bar ear-am bioh what shall I do! " In the example, khak-am bar sar might also imply
of
you"
Ra
is
1"
equivalent to baray-i.
464
muhtarama, which
tion,
The usual
if
classical construc-
however,
is
to
add the
the noun,
or to the
noun only
as
but with two or more adjectives, the a of the vocative ILoj,} is in modern Persian sometimes added to the last only, as dust-i muhtaram-i
Jk*x> j fj&c
:
0*^.
common
:
The following
are also
The
ablative
is
az.
For
its
various uses
vide
90 Prepositions
(h) (1).
119.
Number
of Nouns,
(a) As in English, nouns of multitude denoting living things are followed the verb in the singular or plural according to the unity or plurality of by the idea in the speaker's mind, thus 1
:
e^l^xiJoa*) |j J^U lxAl Shahinshah-i 'adil ra ra'iyyat lashkar ast &# 04**^ j&* ^ l> (Sa'dl) "to the just monarch the people is an army" " the crowd extended right ta dam-i qasr jam'iyyat bud (Shah's Diary)
:
Ai^f & y^j *-^*ij ^^=^ Tchalq-i* bi-ta'assub bar u gird dmadand (Sa'di) "a whole people through fellow feeling collected round " *& J* ** *. ku^t guyand chi gham gar hama s 'alam murdand him xia^o +ttc " " **^ v[>^ Jj^sr** they say what care we if all the world die (Sa'di)
up to the palace"
:
ahl-i
still
shahr hanuz khwab budand (Shah's Diary) " the people of the city were
**\ a)\j^ ci^f ^ n ta^ifa-yi khirqa-pushan l)l#j* c^^^l **^" " this sect clad in shreds and bar misdl-i hay van and (Sa'd!) patches are like
"
asleep*
6
^^
animals
":
*>?>
v^
sits
4
5
unity.
is
izafat,
4
5
In modern Persian hama-yi 'alam. In poetry hama hence Indians always omit it after hama.
is
not *jlis
ta"'ifa
alone
c^J
in
&*j
&JU>
^'^.
ta ifa-yi Tchlirqa-pushan.
Hay van
eJ[ri*>
*&>)
j^
1)^ para-l
sarbazha
raftand
(m.c.)
or
" some
of the soldiers
went" both
is
the
subject
(^kr*
sarbazha) and the verb should be plural, but para-l sarbaz raft
used
colloquially.
6
Or
bUj**^
^tfjG
Arab
is
an
rabic collective
noun.
465
*-*>
<J^
&+&
" he
" is The word p&j* mardum people plural, thus: mardum mi2 mdrdumdn is also used. In the m.c. phrase guyand "people say"; ** ^mardum hama dar fikr u khaydl-i j j& }* cA>Uf J (*^<
(6)
.
f
dsdyish-i
khud
ast s
(Vazir of Lankaran),
;
the speaker
at
is
people of his
(c)
own
" The wordc;-*^ dushman "enemy * is treated as a singular, thus dushman gurlkht (not <iii=su^ gurikhtand) the enemy fled"; dushman dah hazdr bud (incorrectly xi^ budand) "the
:
any rate
ast
' (
(Sa'dl) "enemies pressed him (the king) on all sides," the plural noun is used to signify more than one enemy, i.e. a collection of enemies. In djta ifcym* c^jjAoli. jtjxi e>li~y j ^(yk p*yo ^^ dar in mawsim
lj
havd-yi bdgh
* '
synonyms cAx*yj eb bdgh u bustdn clearly indicate the plural it is therefore unnecessary, but not wrong to say lfli-ojj ) ib bdgji u bustdnhd (or (^^^ basdtin) j^& ^ o.sv**x
gardens of Shiraz are particularly delightful," the
;
^^^
*' the mosques and houses of the city." 6 masjid u khdnahd-yi shahr (m.c.) (d) (I) Generic nouns denoting rational beings are preferably used in the
thus it is better to say ivf Jl^i^ah ^t^jf ^l^ij zanhd-yi Iran khushgil-and " the women of Persia are 6 good-looking," thano~*f Jlij^^i^i ^j zan-i Irani Zanhd-yi Bangdla khush-gil ast "the woman of Persia is good-looking." " the women of are means Bengal mostly dark," but siydh-jdm-and properly
plural
;
zan-i
Bangdla siydh-fdm
ast
of the
women
of
Or hama-yi buzurg u kuehalcan-i shahr ra (;_t plural termination added only to second adjective (or noun).
l
o^j
'-
**.
is
Note the
It
plural,
'folks.'
3
In classical Persian
mardum
is
sometimes singular
1st
Book
dog
Pa-yi
nikangirift
u mardum shud & f&j* J cu^5 ^Kxi ^b : m shalch.8 mardum-l Iran ast a.^> o**ot and (&*j C^J^ (if man mardum-i Kirman-am (m.c. and ^|^jf ^/o LJ mardum for ^>JM mard. Indians occasionally use vulg.).
*
6
" enemies
"
(*>>/*
is
is
of course used.
Here the singular &>k- khana would be incorrect, as "the house of the city would convey a singular idea in Persian just as it does in English. Note that the plural termination is added to the last noun only.
6
"
Not
cJ>!t
Ir.'
.'
Zan-i Iran
cJJ^I eJJ
of
meaning
30
466
->^ u$j$ j^y sarbdz-i Iran khub ast are also used and considered correct in modern Persian. It is correct to say *# ^\ l oj;^ bisydr zan dnjd bud (or *^ budand, not so good). It is not, however, obligatory to use the singular. Thus ^j^ V\ ulagh-i Bahrayn, or ^1*^1
budand and
^jjsu uldg&hd-yi Bahrayn "the ass (breed) of Bahrain Island," or "the asses of Bahrain," are both correct and both have the same meaning, though the latter might mean the different breeds of the Island.
(2)
o|
Generic
nouns
unqualified
in
the singular, with a singular verb: thus the Persians frequently use 'amal for cU* use the we plural; they say singular when in English
the
" The rule is to use the singular when sticks," etc. actions," ^j*. chub for the noun is employed in a collective sense, but the plural when separate numIf, however, the noun is qualified by an adjective, it is usual to put ifc in the plural even when it is used collectively. Modern Persians are, however, slovenly in their use of the singular and plural.
"
Examples:
^A!^<^
^^^
(-*(&& d}jj| az rudkhdna-yi ziydd-i guzashtim (Shah's " ^^j C5^^ *j) 3' az rudkhdnahd-yi ziydd-i guzashiimf we
;
ala
ejf^t
jl
<^^j o|jl>
Rus
talagrdf-i ziydd-i
^^
^ap-^Ju talagrdf
-chi-yi
Master handed
a lot of telegrams from Tehran : ^b *b \\ az pilla * ^i?; " we went up the steps, or we went up the step bald rajtim (Shah's Diary)
' '
me
&ji \j*p}
<j&^
vs*i,jj>
5
l
"on
the edge
townlets and
6 <vf ^Uo^/o trees, etc." I; JU* vineyards and cherry mycj&> *^-eMl &Lj f^ ^x-s j i^itjjilJMT guft in chi hardmzdda mardumdn and ki sag rd kushdda and
o^
va sang rd basta 1 (Sa'dl) " he said what a set of blackguards are these, have let loose their dogs and tied up their stones "
:
who
signifying
"much," J^~>
biaiyar,
^-^
khayll
and
may
be in the singular.
Or d") cfV^^J rudkhanaha-yi ziyad (but not riid-khana-yi ziyad without ^): all three have practically the same meaning except that the makes the noun slightly more emphatic.
Or
The
step."
8
Kinar-i^ "on
U^Ur Tcinarha would not signify the banks of one river both banks." tarafayn would have to be used to signify
*
Jji> ji du
taraf or
8 1
Dark sour cooking- cherry l*p alu balu dessert cherry ^jt^ gilas. Persian Note that Ail and is understood after AW basta. In moc7
I
its
noun.
467
shutur
va
Jof
rama mjd ast (m.c.) "there are many camels and and would be unidiomatic) 0^1 ;U-^j <*~o Udj| ^ j<*>JJi
:
i
shunlda
am
Injd kisa-bur
binydr
ast
:
(or
and)
(m.c.)
common here"
shuda
3
^ jd\*>\ ^U &
anddkhta
^
(or
,
"I
have heard
jl^^U-o
Isuf
dnjd bisydr
jahdz jam'
ships
langar
bud*
"
{m.c.)
many
their anchors
"
&*# budand)
;
(here ^U-o
collective
it
is
however, the noun is qualified by an adjective (other than the or cMy fardvdn), adjectives or adverbs (bisydr ;U~j Tchayli^J^ usually in the plural. Thus, it jahaz in" the last example were
fa
qualified
43^
aiktj.it
by the adjective buzurg, the sentence would run ^IA J<^ ; U~j Ujf _^U *,x& *o. ^j aw;a 6%ar jahdzhd-yi buzurg jam' shuda
langar anddkhta budand*; ty l?uf ;U-~j ^lAjl^ jahdzhd-yi bisiydr dnjd bud is better than &# l^of l*}^ ^l-jr^ bisydr jahdzhd dnjd bud ; jU-Jj^ jahdz-i
bisydr
is
also correct.
"
large ships
^j>^ ^-!r^
' J
:
cf^J^
"
very
^)y.
*4y3i
is
"
^U) jl^
<j?^>
^)y
j^**^
^5^^^*^
^Lx-J
to
<^*^
"
many
however, necessary to use the singular for the plural, even when no ambiguity could arise fchus the asses of Bahreyn 6 are fine could be
It is not,
'
'
' 5
rendered by either,
ast,
cu^>l
^^
jU~*J i&ij**
or
xil
uldgk-i
ity
would be necessary to use the plural as various breeds of asses would be meant and not one Similarly o~.( ^s* eb ^i hulu-yi In bdg& khub ast might single breed. be rendered "the peach of this garden is very fine" (signifying peaches)
In referring, however, to "the asses of Persia"
^U
:
and there would be no misconception but neifeher in English nor in Persian would it be correct to say "the tree of this garden is fine,"
unless of course
cu-f
there
(J.JI
of
tree
under
discussion;
darakht hd-yi In bdgJt bisydr khub ast (m.c.) ;U*k? ^U v ^IfLkji ^*the trees (generally) of this garden are fine." to a word, or to convey (e) The plural is also used to give prominence
the idea of
number
or quantity
j>3
&)&
(;
<jy
;d
\j
A^LJ'
qdfila rd dar
V^^
it
jib-bur,
"a
cheat."
i
were used,
would here
men
the idea of
3
to the ships.
l j t^ (m.c.). better budand). bisyar kashti-yi buzurg an/5 bnd (or
*& j**>
d;fj
;^
4
>>
;U-J
famed
white asses.
468
s
NUMBER OF NOUNS,
rah duzd zad
3TOUNS OF MULTITUDE
arz-i
(m.c.)
but
*J&)
dbhd bi-riz (m.c.} biydr "bring water," but J-^J l^f ^t ;U? v "throw away all this water (in different vessels) 2 ": , ^^jl kj* c^j;
f db
&
jj ^jj-j
<_c/==v>
Diary) "the surface of the sea was covered with ships and boats and great steamers.* Yak muddat-i bimdri ddsht o^ii (.5; Ug ^^o Jo (m.c.) "he was ill for an age without a break," but vr*|a ^Ux* ^J^ muddat-hd bimdri ddsht (m.c.) "he was ill
for ages
on and
off
"
;
<xixxj
l^*suti
ta'ajjubhd mi-kunad
(k).
Vide also
objects which in English do not admit of plurality are used and only in the singular, as gold, silver, wheat, wine, butter, water, etc., in Persian require the plural to signify variety, or diversity, thus:
Nouns denoting
In gandum
is
ast
o^|
"
this is
wheat "
is correct, as
the wheat
&$ gandumhd rd jam* kun (m.c.) \) \*cZ ^\ " collect this wheat " in the latter example the singular f^x? gandum should not be used as the wheat is in scattered heaps. Similarly db rd rikht " he spilt some of the water (from one vessel)," but dbhd rd rikht (i he the waters of various kinds or in various vessels "
:
spilled
dbhd-yi In
du rud-khdna bi-ham jam' mi-shavad ^ +^> *H^ 6 (m.c.) "the waters of these two rivers join ": the wines of France shardbhd-yi Frdnsa ^^^i^o ^\ u rawghan mi4< he sells butter (clarified) 6 ": tukhm farushad (m.c.) "seed," but f&> tukhmhd "various kinds of nan l^su seeds"; &(i "bread," I^JIJ ndnhd " vide "loaves Sometimes the double plural is used for variety (and (k).
^ ^
' '
' '
^^
quantity), as
and
i.e.,
the verb
!
is
equal to a passive.
With an
and
In m.c., however, words like sharab, etc. vulgarly used in the plural when definite. 5 Note the plural termination added to the last noun only.
*
C5^>
Though the
first
two words ^5^^ kashtl and (Jj^ qayiq are in the singular
I
^5*^ Jcashtiha
vide
end
of (d) (2).
6
*J'j&
Pas angah U-dustl karha kunad ki hlch duahmnn no-tawanad kard t^>*'*> i^>T o*^ *^ Ai f here )K kar could be used generically instead u^-i (Sa'dl)
^
:
m<
would not be so
in
forcible:
J|
karha
Uj|^
signifies
"such
great or such
(or
numerous works"
modern
.
Persian *'
O^AX
&\^
chunan karha
)^
c;^
Vulg.
\t**j)
vawghariha.
469
,U5lxu
ajd*ibdt
"various
wonders.
(g)
' '
Vide
requires,
except in rare instances, the plural all such sentences, as "to act
:
a wise
ki
eJi^i,*^ J^. ^^Ux c**y. ^f tf harakat mundsib-i hdl-i kh,iradmanddn na-kardl (Sa'di) " you did not,
etc.,
man,"
etc.:
^^
' ' :
u* *^ bi-libds-i darwshdn (or darvishi **\ bi-tarz-i mastdn adj.) (m.c.) J^^ c;U*x> "he dmad came before me like one drunk." The (mod.) pish-i man " not fit for a Christian " would in Persian be rendered English idiom by the
:
man
' '
eJ^-L?;^
"
disguised as a darvish
plural.
Compare with
(o).
An adjective might also be used, as bi-libds-i darwshi. The occurs in poetry or in the rhymed prose of Sa'di, but is contrary singular to usage.
Remark.
(h]
etc., or
47
(g),
and
"
this
**
a month old":
j&
i
**L <*&*.)& budand ^^> &ijf &:\ |; ^x pair of birds was caught when they were i dah nafar shulur "ten camels 4 ": (*^f
^^
dah mard
'
After
117.
U* mdblagh,
in a verb,
and
^^>
used.
(i)
Vide
The substantive
compounded
of a verb
and substantive,
is
used generically in
the singular,
^jaU ^xj
^U>y jy \)jt l^iy* farrdsh-hd urd kul giriftand, 5 mddar-ash (m.c.) "the f arrashes took him on their shoulders and him off to his mother."
' '
^j
carried
(?)
The
A*A
t
plural
;
is
tjt AiLL
o^(
sometimes used where the dual might be expected: " there were atrdf-i rah hama khdna bud (Shah's Diary)
6
";
hama
('altogether')
of Arabic broken plurals are frequently treated as singular: the Arabic plural
LJ
tajir
but vulgarly U>Up3 tujjarha is used as a plural. is^lij tujjar, du haza " But "the men were two thousand jjj ;|> cMi^ mardum&n
budand.
5
oJU
^jj In
juft-i
murgh.
*
I
dah shutur.
^ J^
tarafayn-i rah
is
dukan bud
there were
colloquial,
sides of the
is
road";
ot^Jbl
atraf
common
is
modern
but
^>
or
used by the educated only. The plural dufcoftinri would be used if qualified by an adjective, vide (d),
470
cc there would be wrong. (Atraf-i rah khanahd bud l^l^ t; Ji^fc| (m.c.) were different kinds of houses on both sides of the ways "). (k) Collective nouns such as wine, water, etc., and snow, land, butter,
l
etc.,
are used in
to; thus
bottle,
^j
:
tJli.^
the plural when different collections or heaps are referred j^j sharab ra khunuk bi-kun "cool the wine (one
"the wines
of
of
France"
ttA/cy
**>
but
csV^j zammM-yi
(t3fc*
u>U/ e^j zamm-i Kir man "the land (or tract) Kirman " the tracts or districts
Kirman,"
;
j&*>
d&^
j&
jam
in
mi-hard
gathering
wood
(collective
and general)
1
the jungle":
^^A
J&e-
;>
mi-kard (m.c.) "he was gathering collectj+*> tions of wood (either different kinds or different heaps)"; vide also (r) ' *^*0 lf*>^ khunha rikht he shed streams of blood ^:>>** f>*J luhum
'
" *&** "they eat the flesh of various animals ^fsuJ ta'ajjubha mi-kunad, vide (e) and (/). In m.c., however, the plural is frequently incorrectly used for the singular, as: o-i *** **&* ^A^/O muha-yi sar-am
ml-Tchurand
;
vide
(/).
;
In qism
(
'
this sort of
worm
'fa r
tf/^^-
this sort of book" jur kirm f/;y.ut " but l^UT p~$ ^\ in qism kitabha these kinds of books " (l kirmha these sorts of worms (or insects) 135 vide also
'
^"
'
' '
(i)
Concord.
(m) After ^l^l aqsam and similar plurals signifying various kinds, the singular or plural is used, as: A' c^t^^ ^ t%**' lt ^ \&J f yt anva'-i tutiha va td*us-ha va qarqavulha-yi tilafci ki bisyar ^j J&9 jlu-j qashang bud* (Shah's Diary) "there were various species of parrots and
^$&
here the singular could be used but anva'-i jdnvar the plural gives the idea of numbers in each species ( ;yU ^ty
;
' *
incorrect).
(n) In English, a noun taken figuratively may be in the singular when the literal meaning requires the plural: such expressions as "their face," " our life" are common in Scripture. The Persian idiom, however, admits
"How
"
Jt
^-i chiguna az dast-i ishan riha*i biyabim ? (m.c.) O**A U o UA jan-i ma dast-i shumd-st (m.c.) "our life (lives) is in your hand": ^ &* ^^ U Shah gardan-i hama ra zdd " the Shah beheaded them all." " In such sentences as "We have our mind JLj^
J^.
J
I
I;
fj^
' '
better to use the singular, i.e. if only one purpose or opinion is meant allow us to go home or to depart to our houses would be correctly
:
_
*
------changed
^*5
Ij
j^
it is
for dual.
Should be bildand: elsewhere the Shah correctly uses the plural in a similar sentence. The plural termination is ordinarily added only to the last noun.
2
471
&teu ;f && bi-guzdr bi-khdna-yi khud bi-ravim, rendered in Persian by pi^ the khud though plural khanahd-yi might be substituted without offence to the ear vide also jib in last example in (v}.
;
(o)
Contrary to the English idiom, the predicate to a plural subject is thus in the sentence, " These men are devils, the
' J
;
"devils" would in Persian be used generically in the singular. Examples ^U* o~^ >li*Su && ^A- y *$ lei bar sufra hama dushmandn dust " numdyand (Sa'df) "because at your table, all enemies show like friends
:
:
word
oJ| cJijA*.
and
Jb"0 jj tt)&}J *S>. AJbUs <^jt intd'ifa-yi khirqa-pushdnbarmisdl-ihayvdn 1 <M &*> f^ij &+*> tx> ^(&>\ ishdn dushman-i man and (Sa'di) (m.c.)
1
<^^
^jJL^
IA&.
ma hama
banda-yi
(g).
Khudd hastim
(m.c.)
"we
are
all
creatures of
God."
Compare with
In the following, Sa'di has one predicate in the plural and one in the
singular
:
^Ij*)^
'^
vju
^ ^ fj*
^\^\^L
tS
jtti,x>
\^ ^U^jf cuxi^i
^s$
'
Guftam
'
mazammat-i Ishan
ravel
Guft 'khatagufti ki~ banda-yi diram-and* (Gul.) (the rich) down for they are the lords of bounty.
, '
it
hersbanda is used as a collective noun, but they are the slaves of money would be better to use the plural bandagan, which is the reading of another edition.
;
"
"I said, 'Do not run them He said You are wrong, for
,
In the following sentence from the Gulistan, the singular word darvish might in ordinary prose be plural Sa'dl has used the singular to preserve
:
the rhyme:
txvvyj ^JlxJ
OAXL/O
ji
fj^t^ oJ^/o
^A^
y
(
*i^i
ijL>)j&
aUisb ^Ij^* e> f^ cA>k ^ j ^^ ^)^ jf* agar bi-masal bdrdn na-bdrad va yd tufdn
l
^^
bi-i
Vide
(a).
" two du kas dushman-i mulk u din-and (Gul.) cardinal the persons are enemies to Church and State," the subject du fca*, because of
*
In
*t
cH^
t_^lx> itf+Sf^
<_yf')$
number
du,
is
to be considered a plural
is
not usad.
U*
In 0*+&^&)J i\i| c;Lu*J^;i^ ejju <J>*?.))!* &>\ ijf^P 3 ^^ muqarraban-i Hazrat-i Haqq jail* va 'ala tavangaran and darvlsh-slrat
^
is
^J
(^
ci>j*fl^
,
^.j&>
va darvishna
and tavingar-himmat
(Gul.), the
first
cJ^&y tawangaran
to be considered a subject
with ^j^ M tjtj)t> darvlsh-slrat as the predicate, and not as the predicate of O Awk *fr > muqarraban; the singular tavangar would be wrong. In i^fAU^A. and (m.c.) the <*i\ (jwj-*^ Ja^^ vuzara-yi Shah hama khiradmandan-i ba 'aql u hush to correct be } ****j* *** would it but be say would wrong, singular khiraimand ^j| tjS^A j (J&c(j> hama khiradmand va ba 'aql u hush and.
8
Ki
**
*^
balki.
*
5
In modern Persian tufan-i and jahan ra. In modern Persian the plural would be preferred.
is
here
472
be substituted for va az Khuddy la'alq na-tarsand (Sa'dl). Even if <j^. Persians prefer the singular, for euphonic reasons.
The
plural,
however, can be used, as: ma hama dust-im (m.c.), or ma " both are used in modern Persian, but are all friends
:
correct.
(Shah Nama). in or a collective If, however, English (whether subpredicate plural stantive or adjective), be qualified by an epithet, it is frequently plural
in Persian also, as:
*f
In khalq hama kharan-i* bd afsus and ** <3^" " these folk are v*J~*< ^ ^Lr^ asses, laden with conceit." (0. K. 227 Whin.}.
In addressing people, however, as
"You
<^i
requisite, as
l^I^**
j<xj
shumd pidar-sukhta-hd
:
c;Uu^!
ay ahmaqdn
ye
The
plural
is
o~~xJ'U jU&kl
safd-yi
31 oj>jj ^Ift-c jl\ (j^J pas agar aghyar kudurat-i pazirad iTchtiyar bdql-st (Sa'dl) "then if your valuable time is wasted and you become bored " by strangers, the option still remains with you (to leave the city). 3 In &t>j> ^*f) ^UUa &Uu UJtfi a-iUioUU^ )**$ layiq-i qadr-i padishdhdn na-bdshad iltija bi-khdna-yi dihqdn-i rakik bur dan (Sa'dl) " it is not becoming in a king to take refuge in the dwelling of a common villager," the plural
^jij
J>))<*f )^**\
oJj
vaqt-i 'aztzan az
suhbat-i
ejlAlAiij
(g)
the application of the advice is made general and is not directed so ^ J^xU pointedly at the particular king present before the speaker jt if d,*i cjlia. cA*^ matmul va matlub az dustdn chundn ast ki "I hope
^L<
you-."
In the following, this respectful plural is carried to excess, the writer assuming that he is not worthy to address his superior direct; consequently he addresses the feet of the servants of the threshold,
etc.. etc.;
^b ^Uu ^b
^a,UiAl& ^^i e^rsuJUi ^l^y fc^AJ bi-khdk-i* pd-yi falak-farsd-yi A'lq Hazrat-i aqdas-i shdhinshdhl: JJl^^< ^J^jU* c>UUf c>^*}^ <^-lj ^tiu bi-khdk-i
pd-yi
^UeT
j&j*>
'arz
J'liu
pd-yi
javdhir-dsd-yi
mubdrak
mi-shavad.
name
2
3
Khar would
not so good.
;
king here addresses an <M* 'abid by the plural cJiX-Lr* 'azizan him to leave the wilderness and spend a little time with him in the city.
*
he has invited
e/^V
(,^t-f
\sfcj*
qurban-i
Shah
only.
473
On New
:
Year's
Day and on
special
occasions the
Zardushti
Anjuman
telegraphs direct to the Shah addressing him in such terms as the previous the reply is sent direct by the Shah himself. Terms far more involved and extravagant than the foregoing are found in old Persian, and are still in use in India. In modern Persian
,
however, these forms are daily approaching the simplicity of Europe in fact few Persian gentlemen are now able to write these long involved expressions
;
special occasions when they are necessary, a Munshi is employed for the purpose, and the Secretary to the Royal Recipient paraphrases the text
on
by,
" The usual congratulatory address from ." The (q) plural is sometimes used instead of the singular to avoid
.
a pointed allusion
Thus
Book
of
the Gulistan
when
to the latter
says
*ij>y
^} ^j
&&MJI&J
^$f)j*
c^ ;*
o^t ^f
jfjJU i$ ki
muluk-i an taraf qadar-i chundn buzurgvdr-i na-ddnistand va H-'izzati kardand Some one informs the master of the Khwaja of the matter; (Sa'di). ujl* (j l^^o^j cr-^ &? \) &&* ^+& gult fulan ra* ki habs bd muluk-i navdhl murdsalat darad. In both these examples the farmuda-l
>;|j>
ai-lyc
^y
plural JfjJU muluk is used, though it is well known that the agent in each case was one king and no more. &&> In m.c., the plural is often used for the singular, as: lt~*l&t L darad (m.c.) J*^* fulan kas bd-Inglisha dusti-yi makhsus yta (je^aitxs
'
'
So-and-so
is
great friends with the English (there being but one Englishman
3
in the place)."
(r)
In a sentence
like the
Persian languages,"
b'lr^ ^y
J
the
following
He
is
zaban-i
the
the
it
plural
Ifibj
an
ellipsis
of
the plural 1^3 zabdnha were used word c;L3 zabdn before (mS^^> Farsi: would signify the different dialects of those languages vide (k) and (i).
;
are ordinarily followed by a (s) Cardinal numbers, as already stated, such after noun. expressions as "all three, all four, However, singular
etc.",
har
si
not wrong in modern Persian to use the plural, as y >^o A*y* dukh'tar-i u, or^t ^lAyU^ A^y* har si dukhtarhd-yi u "all three of his
it
is
daughters."
is
preferable.
The meaning of the word **-t>^ here is doubtful. In modern Persian, Armenians and Hindus are addressed as *^>^, and the Jews and Parsees as Mulla.
1
u ian ra is the object of the verb in the relative sentence. I; &&* f This substitution of the plural is not an uncommon vulgarism in English men of this town do take "Really," says Harriet to the overbold Harry, the young
*
Note that
'
liberties."
*
"Give us
ra.
a copper"
is
another example.
No
Vide
474
ji
3b
p.3*.a>
<xb y&jj
eA**-j^
va
bind-yi musdhabat-i
md
har
si tan
bd rukn-i chahdrum, ki tu bdshi, tamhid ydbad chi akdbir gufta and har chand dustdn bishtar bdshand hujum-i bald bar Ishdn kamtar bdshad (Anv. " and the Suh., Chap. III., S. 6.) pedestal of association of us three
will be
'
supported by a fourth
pillar,
they be exposed to
the assaults of calamity" (East. Trans.). Arabic broken plurals being in Persian often treated as singulars, such U*o> asbdt "the twelve tribes (of Israel)" constructions as aajfja davdzdah
1
are occasionally
(sibt)
the
singular construction
Remark.
it is
nouns coupled by an 'and,' are subjects of the same verb, usually necessary to add the plural termination to the last only, as:
If several
vs.-/
JUl^i^yi. ^i
Jlx>
and
and horses?
j
js>.
U^
^j| in kharhd
o*~j/
Uyf
(jj)
^oi in
?
"
;
would signify "whose is this ass (one) and this horse (one) ? " In,;$U> ^t mddar va khwdhirhd-yi ust (m.c.), the word mddar from the ow*y (_(& j&}j^ )
^^
in
"whose u asphd: " whose ass and kist khar u asp mdl-i kist
incorrect)
zjS*-
\djj~*
^^ )^ ^^V
*&2<&5 ^S+A \)v* 5 *-/^ ^ ;j> ^ j!>ja. ^ c5>^ bi-hukm-i ghurur-i pd-yi \) suturdn-i khud, dar vaqt u bi-vaqt, juy u jurda va dara u tappa-hd.rd bi-bdk u parvd hami-guzashtim (H. B. Trans.) "but my companions rode over
lAAjj
everything with the greatest unconcern, confident in the sure-footedness of 8 their horses" (Haji Baba, Chap. V. ): j*]*tjMifj $f* * $1^$^ ruy-i daryd az jahdz u qdyiq u kashtlhd pur bud = ^&? j &^*j j^^ $ kl
&
ty jj ruy-i daryd az jahdz u qdyiq u kashii pur bud. Note the following ways of forming the plural of <^^J j " the ups or), past u bulandi (or pasti u bulandl-)yi dunyd,
In Arabic the numbers from 3 to 10 govern a broken plural in the oblique case,
mean "whose
n
ass
the=e
is
"
_^
^|
^i\
^ ar
va
n asp mal-l
(m.c.), there
no ambiguity.
8
^*xll?
f^
jif*
*^"^jfi
\J
^)J-*.
^A
^)
fs
better than
<^.^
*?
O^V^
j!
hama-yi buzurg u kuchak-i shahr ra talabid & +& hama-yi buzurg u kuchvkan-i shahr ra
taldbid.
475
of this world
l^L-j
"
;
(1)
U^
<^U> ^iJb^
o~o
past
^AjJJb j
pasthd u bulandhd
yi dunyd, (3)
I* bulandihd-yi dunyd, (4) UJj> (^^J pastihq, (5) Ui.5 ^Ifj^ilj j o~~j pastf ^t bulandihd-yi dunya.
c^^j
if
u bulandihd-yi dunya,
Similarly in
modern Persian
izafats,
JJJU3
\)
united together by
as
:
a number of plural adjective-nouns are the plural termination is added to the last only,
ULa. j fj& ^j ^bj &*aJ ^U ^'^Uu^ U ^J**. *i->/ ^1 in ad bicharagan bay gurisna-chashm-i luqma~ruba-yi bi^o> sharm u hayaha ra lamalluq guyim, jib-i shdn rd pur kunim va khayti ham " 'tis thus we (Tr. H. B., Chap. 22) pay the wages of the king's servants a set of rapacious rascals, without shame or conscience and the worst of it
j* i^JULu*.
^^
^
JjA
j ^xif
is,
of
A^
""
bachcha-shutur
a young camel,"
;
is
l^.j
yU
shutur-bachchahd, or vulgarly
ivS
similarly ^] ^ij tukhm-i murgh "an egg" modern Persian fo* ^*iJ tukhm murgh, with the plural \j* p*** tukhm-murg&ha. The origin of these barbarous plurals is perhaps to be attributed to the difficulty of qualifying such words, when not com-
pounds, by an adjective.
pjf &j
"Hot eggs"
*
:
t^$
*^
bachcha-gurghd-yi
daranda
yi gurg-i
at least
clear in its
meaning; in
>J;i *3J*
LS^&
bachchahal
daranda the epithet would refer to gurg, while J^ l^jj c5 t?^ " those bachchaha-yi daranda-yi gurg might mean young ones that are
daranda
'
'
(as
opposed
to
those
that
are not
daranda)
[*^j
mard-
"We
used to halt on Sundays" ruz-i yak(*>*&* JU \) *M^ ) here the Imperfect gives a plural idea to the
;
Substitute the Perfect for the Imperfect, and the noun must be in the plural *JM ijU &A\^ji> j^ ruz-i yak-shambahd rd lang kardim. pitjS Were the singular used in the latter case, it would signify that there was
(i.e.
that the
march
lasted less
(m.c.) "exactly this amount," but (y) Hamin qadr j*> hamin qadrhd (m.c.) "about this amount" ^^. JU ^J *$ ty f**j hamin vaqthd bud ki pdrsdl bi-Tahrdn rasidam (m.c.) "it was about this time last year that I reached Tehran "; if oJ^, &*** hamin vaqt (sing.)
:
^A
Note no
ixa/at after
ma
bl shartn
u haya
is
note
jib is
" hot seeds" Tukhmha-yi garm +j ^If+aaJ might mean that have a heating effect."
2
476
PRONOUNS.
(z)
an object
of
Sometimes a substantive is repeated in the plural to indicate that 'l-umara* " the Amir is the greatest of its kind \*\j*X\ j**\ amir
tt
Amirs";
:
djS&\
>**,. etc.
In
*fxel
" Lord of Lords " ejtoli U Shah-i shahan ($(*, u>^ cJl^jl^ *>j)OA Khan-i Tchanan. Shdhanshah al^U "king of kings," the first word of which is a contraction of u>UU Shahan the plural of shah, is an example
;
-,
singular
<'
of izafat-i maqlubi.
vide
45
(c) (3).
CHAPTER
120.
(a)
XIV.
Pronouns.
The Personal Pronouns are not usually expressed except for perThe first personal (g) (h) (i).
is
pronoun
with
common
'
in poetry
^i*
me
(1)
as long as
'
am
'
I.'
"
^*
^/oG a&f
^?y
is
The
1st Person:
The
pb&X LT
by a
man ml-guyam
(m.c.);
p&t* u^c
banda
'arz
mi-kunam
(m.c.).
Persian Muslims maintain that the 1st personal pronoun man is which to applicable to the Deity only. The Persians seldom use man
Many
their ears
If necessary
emphasis
to
use
the
1st
person,
etc.
they
say
*^\,
banda, or occasionally
<>/
^^f
ikhlas-kish,
^^ haqir,
The Afghans
and Indians use man frequently. Occasionally in m.c., the 1st personal pronoun plural, even, is used to avoid the use of u-x> man, but care must be
exercised or the pronoun will give the idea of the Royal plural. The Shah, speaking not in a mere individual capacity, but as a representative of a country, adopts the plural ma, as: ^JWUUA c^otXa.^^. U ^^.jU&^Jai chun khidmat-i shuma manzur-i nazar-i humayun-i ma-si z
:
kl
ma amr
farmudim.
In private he
is
individual. 8
The
1
following
is
8^ banda
'arz
ml-kunad
is
also used.
jj<i>ij
2 The ic Aclfred Royal plural was not used by the Anglo-Saxon kings (I Alfred). The Anglo-Saxon writer makes himself plural. William the Conqueror was the first English king to adopt the Royal plural. 3 Forms and ceremonies at the Shah's court have been much simplified of late
years.
PROKOUJNS.
477
Imam Razd
:
at Mesh-hed, to
whom
he had sent
apparatus for an
electric light
L o~>[
^^ w^yfc ^ ow>t
har shab rawshan ast yd khayr mardtib rd mufassal an 1-Mulk I hope you are well. For how many hours nightly does the electric Send detailed light burn, and does it burn nightly or not ?
l 11
Nas%r u-l-Mulk
particulars."
An
^ (^ ^y^
" Our pen
is
plural, as
e*:**l=F^
fails to
t5^
fj; claim to
f*i
** t^oAt^^ ^ U
all
We
U we
<
are
all
In
considered a sign of overweening pride. The plural is occasionally used for the singular in vulgar language. ' I or ' he may include a person's immediate belongings, as
'
^Ai^iuj/o
;a*^
^rL
^t
tlsj
\j
U&
K)j~>
khayll
(said
ma
v* man sar-i rah-i 8 shuma ra girifta-am, "I'm in your way, please excuse me
My;
either
"My
^U^
himdyat-i man,
may
signify
"the
defence of
me by
another," or
"my
defence of another."
In Persian the ambiguity can be removed by adding a pronoun for the person o*jU^ himdyat-i man bi-shuma, or e>*J U poU^ who is defended, as U&?
:
^ ^ ^^
]&*
vf*
man
(m.c.)
may
I called
some one
else," or
else called
"me."
me"
(instead
of
"my
not
The Deity is addressed in the 2nd person singular, as: (j*^ j* ty*** " God! thou knowest which of us two is speaking Khuddyd tu dlim-i (m.c.)
l
the truth."
More
civil
-*
shark dihld.
tx>
A
8
*
Anjuman
will
sometimes use
ma.
Or |*t*i>^ I; U J5|; ^cp tu-yi rah-i shuma ra girifta-am Said by both parties who witness against each other.
(m.c.).
478
PRONOUNS.
'uzr pazir
f
'uzr-pazir-i
hama kas
" Grant
me
my
plea,
J '
!
of all
K. 276 Whin.).
)\j*
is used in precations even when addressed " umr-at daraz bad " may thy life be long CL^*C -^y may I be thy sacrifice."
( ;
also
singular.
Parents of the poor classes address their children, even when grown up,
in the
2nd person
singular.
as
when grownup,
)<j>
;
and
X)
;*J pidar,
jan-i pidar
(*^
(
**jj*
farzand-i
mukarram
j*.^* 'aziz
\^& ert^jJ ;^ ^'3 ^^ )*$ &^ fin-i pidar tu bihaz an ki dar pustin-i khalq ufti (Sa'dl). Brothers, when young, address each other in the 2nd person singular.* Friends in familiar conversation will often change from the 2nd pers. pi.
^1
(3^
c/^
mz
agar bi-khufti
.to
when joking
and in
^^y
tu-bimtri.
lover, in poetry
2nd
person singular. Servants, and dependants or inferiors, are addressed in the 2nd pers. but if the person addressed be an independent person or a person not sing.
;
a dependant
of the speaker, it is
much
Persian gentlemen
may
People more or
less equal,
pi.,
as
t^fc^j
^^
<^t **"=*
jf^
saya-yi Khuda-st. 2 Parents of the better classes do not habitually address their children by an affectionate diminutive or abbreviation, as this is apt to be copied by servants and to become
ast,
and cus(Aa.
a permanent name. A mother would call her son Hidayat All Khan in full. For the same reason a gentleman would, when speaking of his young relatives to a servant, " the children." say Khawarwn or Aghayan^ and seldom bachchaha
'
Persians often address children by the same terms that the children use to those
who
by
are
*
grown up.
the usual polite forms are used, brothers addressing each other
When grownup,
their titles
6
and using the polite plural. The Shah is said to address his own ministers as
tu,
l*A shuma.
PRONOUNS.
chi mi-guyid ?
:
479
^*.
Jl*
a*5l*,iA*
v ii^
janab-i
'alt
chi
mi-farmayid
As
lation
'
thou,'
is
also used
when
special iso-
^M.y
fcfcayK
pidar-sukhta-i*',
sing.):
thou thief"
t>H
c*M>
y ^ Ichayll
^t ay duzd* (with verb in 2nd pers. amln-i " thou (and thou alone) art honest."
As already stated the Deity is addressed in the singular.* The use ofy though common amongst the vulgar, is by the educated restricted to the expression of contempt, of affection and familiarity (children and trusted servants), or of reverence. Hence its employment in
addresses to the Deity.
(3) The third Person The 3rd person plural is often used for respect instead of the 3rd person singular, especially when referring to a person present, or when speaking of
:
a person in the presence of his relatives or dependants, as ishan mi-farmayand " he says."
^Uyu/o o^l
As
in
is
is
*xi^f
^*
mi-guyand "they say people say." Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of another noun, 6 In Persian (as in English) one should avoid
such sentences, as cu*jf J^x/o^x^ [ ^ ] ^^AJ J,j a .^4, A ^-^ r^c AJ &*, Sayyid Javdd bi-Mirza Hasan hamisha pul mi-dihad, [u] Tchayll mutamavvil " ast Sayyid Jawad always supplies Mirza Hasan with money, he (Sayyid
:
^^
is very rich" [in vulgar Persian the pronoun y u would probably be inserted even though it is not properly emphatic]. " He " and^t u when retrospective should refer either to the noun immediately preceding (" Rule
Jawad)
of
Proximity"), or to some noun that is markedly more emphatic than 6 intervening nouns [" Rule of Emphasis "].
1
all
etc. in
is
The singular is in m.c. always used in abusing a single person. to Sir Andrew with regard to the challenge, " if thou thou*st says
2
it
shall
3
not be amiss.
' '
Not Even
^y
in
tu duzd.
is
singular.
To use a
plural
verb after
the
considered <-^* shirk or polytheism. In the Quran, Allah frequently speaks in the 1st person plural. The Zardushtis address the Deity, c^t^>J Yazdan, in the singular. Modern Parsees generally use the Muslim word
name
of
!** gbuda, for God. ^ This rule Vide (q) (6). applies to the relative. In English it is better to adhere to the rale of proximity, as the rule of emphasis
is
sometimes misleading.
480
PRONOUNS.
Reporting a speech in the 3rd person may cause ambiguity in Persian, as in English. The remedy in both languages may sometimes be found in
the direct narration.
" to prospective referring to the following clause In Persian the sentence would be inverted, learn to speak correctly." the Infinitive standing as the subject as i>*iyiL** oJ^ ^^UsL f^ S(^ &&) ^j**Similarly in the sentence harf zadan-i sahih khayU vaqt mi-khwdhad (m.c.).
correctly,
"
the pronoun
it is
>
expects to clear a hundred pounds by the transaction, and I am sure " i& he will do it," the it referring to the clause "to clear a hundred pounds
"He
omitted in translation, as ^ftj ^ &(*> (Jj4 *jd **> &U>Ux> ^jf &f o*f fo **cl umidvdr ast ki az in mu'dmala sad lira gir-ash bi-ydyad va y/f **'j^ o*-*^
:
f*;!,}
(rn.c.).
is
cold ",
"it
ax
dark ", are expressed as in English vs**t shuda) e~l ^fi tank ast (or *^> shud).*
is
;
^^
^o^
8 or ^f t5* ^j\ barf mi-ayad "it snows." "It is I "or "it is me" 4 fix man-am (m.c.): "it was I that did it" ftf \) fe 0)1 ** (*^? (^ man budamki an kdrra kardam (m.c.) "it isyou that
:
command here" &J& ^&. l>j| &$ yjJU& shumds-id ki injd hukm mi-kunid " I who command you am the man" **&T p*>&**> ^^7* *^* man ki (m.c.) an mi-dikam kas-am, or ft u&^&'f ^ jU te cA*/ *&' man ki farmdnfarmdn
:
dih-i
shumd-yam an shakhs-am.
Remark
originally
I.
though
pronouns, are, in modern English, should and not therefore stand as antecedents to a relative. adjectives only, " it is doubtful whether his ' or " I am his who me bondman, In, bought
genitives
the personal
'
'bondman'
cx^L
iS
\j*>
is
If the
firsfe,
c^- f i-^> Remark II. Except by poetical not refer to a noun 6 following
<*jj&. \j*>
:
man ghulam-i dn-am ki mard kharid ; jjMXjlU ^* man guldm-ash hastam chun mard
Or
(V*^J
& t^-Ht^f
muddat-i
tul
darad
:
ta Inglisi
yad bi-glram
me
to learn
English"
to
pronoun
refer.
it
is
no noun or clause
^^o jo
Jcar-i
which the
guzasht.
it
can properly
"It
Also
is all
up with me
'
'
o-*i
man
^j^aRjJfc
hichkas (m.c.)
(m.c.).
The same
PRONOUNS.
481
life
man
wedding dress
U *a wa/A-i kifdf na-ddshta bdshad hlch leas 'arusi nami-kunad (m.c.) till he has sufficient means, wo out " this marries construction, though occasionally used in m.c., is incorrect in
A*.,
;
xi&J
man.
'
written Persian.
to his love of wine and his habit of going to bed late, the Khan seen before noon eM- 'c*H'ij^^ &d* ^*Vj vlr*? -kj** <Jv v** jl rarely <x cU* az sabab-i i&& mayl-i mufrit bi-shardb va bi-jihat-i ddat^x) jaU j$& j\ 1 Khdn nadir qabl az zuhr dlda ml-shud; in m.c. JUx> ^*x 31 dir khwdbidan, L^Js ;Ax3 as; sabab-i mayl-i mufrit-ash might be and is used but it is incorrect,
"
Owing
was
' '
as asA might refer to a second person and not the subject of the sentence.
"^
$U1
^Lx*)
jj,i
^.^
^Jy
I;
o*>^
^^
When
Khudd
pidar-ash rd biydmurzad
munajjim
" then
God
bless
him
the
yJ|
<J^>
The first person is more worthy ( o^f "more definite ") than the thus, contrary to the English second, and the second than the third :'
z
idiom
the
speaker
1
mentions
,iilj
himself
first.
&*+*
j*Ljl
j&
pb
^^!
->* j ydd ddram ki dar ayydm-i c^a- (^^ti i j^i^Jji pishm man va dust-i clmn du maghz-i bdddm dar pust-i* suhbat ddshtim " I recollect that a friend and (Sa'di) I, in former days, etc."
AxxitA oj-sx^j
X)
*i
j-
j*jj>y
'*
(m.c.)
J^
pjjte
^i^LJ
* &j~j j ^yo man va pisar-i nd-khudd-yi jahdz ham budlm " ^i the captain's son and I too were present there ^b U^J^ :; " neither ddrim* na man va na shumd bi-in kdr
\(f
<^tiA.
ta'alluq
(m.c.)
you nor
am
dir
khwabldan "going
to
dir bi-Jchwab
raflan
next day." sujj*, as the former might signify "getting up late It is usually this rule that determines the person of the verb when different
persons are
3
its
subject
assume
the
first place.
In modern Persian yak pust. a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers connected by the nearest to it. For the conjunctions or or nor, it should in English agree with that
*
6
When
31
482
PRONOUNS.
Remark.
i.e.
is
2nd
and 3rd
In modern Persian, the 3rd pers. singular of the affixed pronoun may i>xt *-^j an inanimate noun, as: j(f*- v&)j\ ^^^ of b JiP ( &(j~ ) t_oU^ ^ an mikh-hd az zamtn chahdr vajab buland bud va sarhd" those yash (or sar-i shdn) iiz (m.c.) pegs stood four spans out of the ground and were pointed" *xj> J^ljju-i; rdstiydt-ash In ki (vulg.) " the truth of it
refer to the plural of
(d)
(1)
is
pronoun
If the antecedent to a demonstrative, possessive, or relative not distinctly known, ambiguity results, as " No one as yet had
:
human
lf'
;o few Kif
pfi
kidneys, Vesalius having only examined Jt^ & u***'^*** ty J5^J vJ^^o t^ ^iUof Inch leas td bi-hdl tarkib-i gurda-yi insarii rd
l^^jy
'
makshuf na-karda bud; hatta Vaseliyusham.dn rd faqat dar saghd taftlsh karda. Read kidneys (ij (** 1^ gurda-yi saghd rd) for them (lyf an rd) as the
'
'
is
<x>k
^j 0^,35;
tu
bdyad bdshad va chasJim-at khayll dunyddida-tar ki ma rd rudast 1 bi-zarii (Haji Baba) "your beard must be much whiter and longer than it is, and your eyes more wide-awake, before you can
i^U A>'y
IxJ^
^a
^. IZ++&A.J
dardz-tdr
xiUy y^ l^t jj
rish-i
khayli safid-tar va az
m-hd
the singular rish, which the speaker, thinking of the hairs of the beard, incorrectly treats as a plural. (2) Though the affixed pronouns may sometimes be the source of
deceive
me";
here
the antecedent of
m-hd
is
sative
2
31 (a), (3) ], the position of the accuambiguity as already shown [vide and dative rd will often determine the antecedent, thus
:
" here the garment of it, will not Ziba Khanum want another like it ? Ij rd shows that *&;,> dukhta is the object and ash cannot, therefore, mean "to her": (jij^iu Aikji dukhta bakhsh%di-sh would mean "when you have given this sewed thing to her."
;
O^A. i^Al^io f^jf JjLc^Xj^ ^JLk U>j ^J^iuJ t^| AA<kj^ *&ii>j J&A \S\ dqd s magar vaqt~i ki dukhta-ash rd bakhshidi Zibd Khdnum digar misl-i an rd nakhwdhad khwdst*? (m.c.) "but Sir, when you have presented the made-up
In,
i*^^ k
L>
cA^^ **
5
fuhsh-ash rd
mdbi-shinawm?
its
(&f.* b *** p# nim-tana rd dtgdr-l bi-pushad (m.c.) "shall another wear the jacket and we
?
account
"
mean
her.
Rudast
is
Na-khwahad
AAf
jiu^ nami-khwahad
**
want one."
" Digar here has the meaning of again," and does not refer to the cloth but to
time.
PRONOUNS.
Remark.
It is
483
not necessary in Persian to repeat the possessive pronoun, as "From his birth to his death " az ruz-i tavalludtd ruz-i ; 13 marg-ash, or Ji^ j^G y a z ruz-i tavallud-ash td ruz-i
:
^Jy ^
<j^>
*)))
marg-ash.
The former
(e)
is
the better.
(1)
In English,
in
when
of
*
are
used
the
'
sense
and
'these'
that
and
'
those
'
with
:
'
former
9
'
:
These for devotion and for pleasures rule holds good in Persian the same Precisely
:
those.'
"
Dogs and porters when they see a stranger at the door, The latter seize him by the scruff of the neck and the former by
his coat-tails."
vtf J 1
<^
^'
G ta ikhtiydr kardi az
an in
fariq ra (Sa'd!)
''
that you chose the latter class in preference to the former." " in the " " Compare the use of inja here" and anja there following:-
lxuj| ^
Lj
c
^^**
U l:sjf CU^t ^Ij^j ^jls Ja^ jjJls^X) ^AXsv^A ^iULJ <^I*l^ ^A^i ^c^flJ hamchumn majlis-i va'z* Tculba-yi bazzdzdnast dnjd td (^Ui <yMjl
naqd-i na-dihi bizd'at-i na-sitdni va Injd td irddat-i naydri sa'ddat-i na-bari (Sa dl) "just so the house of worship is like the shop of cloth- sellers,
you pay cash you get no goods, and in the former you bring sincerity you get no lasting reward"; here dnjd and (Injd) tnjd are reversed, not by a slip in writing, but because dnjd refers to an object more remote to the speaker's mind, viz. the shop. u "he" is used for an "the former" in (2) The personal pronoun ^1
for in the latter (anja)
till
till
Shakhs-i
hama
all
Chun
Umar
bi-zist
(Sa'dl).
night beside a sick person the weeper (the former) died and the sick dawned When day one recovered and lived."
is
Here
require
tc
.5!
be answered by
Chu
Jasj
Must be pronounced
girlban-sh, to scan.
4
8
u"!?^
any
religion.
In prose
^l*^
bimar-i.
484
(3)
PRONOUNS.
:
This and that as demonstrative pronouns Like it (a) (3), the pronoun this may refer to a preceding or a succeeding noun or clause, as: "I tried to lift him, but this was impossible" **** L*!' w^j 4^ t> J' *' f**ija. khwdstam ki ura bar pa ddram vallkin
' '
(>!
in na-shud
*iS o~-oj
(4)
(rn.c.)
"this
is
*ljf
^ ^^^
is
! ;
my
khdhish-i
man
^ <_*>*
Such
"'such people"
a demonstrative adjective when qualifying a noun, as, but omit the noun and it becomes a demonstrative
I will
pronoun, as
not trade
When, however, the speaker's sentiment is intense, the specification that should follow such (and so) is often omitted, as: "it was such a
lovely dress
"
(that
it
beggars description).
In Persian, the
^ of
'
a certain intonation
lx wa db-i sard-1 khurda im demonstrative adjective, as c^'tr vT p' (m.c.) "we've drunk such a cold water (that I can't describe it, or I hate
1
,^
to think of it)."
(/)
Classically,
J^t
sative
is
and in m.c., dnki is "he who," and its dative and accuan rd ki but in modern Persian u ki and ura are also used
:
A:e
An chundn bad-zindagani murda bih (Sa'di). " He whose sleeping is better than his awakening
Such an
ill-liver
^
muhdsaba
chi
<Sx-.t2R.xj
jf
cu^f
5 accounts are clear and straight Even in modern Persian A&f an ki and 4/yf an rd ki are to be preferred
an rd *
ki hisdb
pdk
ast az
to *^f
ki or *$
\) j\
ura
ki.
In English
they,
also, these
and
those
should they practise arts of cunning who have nothing to e>^*P *^ei^l <ioJ^j ft jijS^. ***^ Lr^ U'^ **U Ishdn ki tars-i shdn bd'is na-ddrad chird bay ad
bi-tazvir kdr
"
Why
e^t
ishdn
In
ftf
tftwr
2 3
U^
mardum j*^o^luut t or churiin mardum *^ *^^ t5 >^ ;^^T an gady Zi&as-^ Mw6-5 6wd
J
U^
c/i*
'ar?
fcwnaw
* Here though \)j\ ura ki could be substituted for tfVf an ra U, it would not be considered good (shirln) Persian. 5 The complicated Persian system of revenue account keeping <Vl>!.i (J5^* siyaq-i dlvanl can only be understood by a ^jl^o mustaw/i, and he can twist the account to make it show either a debt or a credit.
&
PRONOUNS.
(g)
485
is
When
emphatic
is
person:
^^
<^+j
omitted, the verbal termination sufficiently indicating the bi-man guft " he said to me": o*ft> &+* j\ u bi-man guft
"he
said to
me."
owi *i>iy j\ A^uf anchi u navishta ast " what he has of u is necessary, unless the subject has just been
I
But
in a sentence like
mentioned, for otherwise o~* &&y *^T anchi navishta " what is written " and not " he has written."
ast
might signify
Remark.
signification of
*if
anchi in the
li-
Jk ^
o^l^
)\j&*^
amma
sirat-i
arbab-i
himmat mst
" but as for what gardanidan va baz bi-na-ummidi khasta-khatir kardan (Gul.) you did as regards snubbing him and turning him away, it is not the part of a magnanimous nature to first encourage and then disappoint a person."
(h)
similar rule
question;
"Where
is
hold good with regard to the object. Thus to the " the answer narniSo-and-so ? might be fi|H+J
may
f^
danam, na-didam (or J^/o^i na-didam-ash) "I don't know, I haven't seen him." To say {&>&> \) j\ ura na-didam instead of na-didam ash ^^^i
would be wrong, as the separate pronouns (unlike the
emphatic.
affixed pronouns) are
Remark.
Where a pronoun
express the meaning, it is see the beautiful variety of colour in the rainbow and are led to L> consider the cause of it "ffc&t <^ J^^ f^# <y *^ l> LT** C5^A> o3Uk| ki mi-binim bi-khiyal v-*~oa. c xcL> *t ma ikhtilaf-i rangha-yi qaws-i quzah ra
or a pronominal adjective does not clearly better even in Persian to repeat the noun. Thus
"We
mi-uftim
o-Jja.
ki
ba'is-ash
chist.
Better
say
"the
is
o^i^i
If,
an
ikhtilaf chist.
(i)
inserted, as:
created
creator," ^su "I chashm-i khud-am didam (m.c.) myself with my very
(j)
^^s^o U ma
^ f^
it
must be
are the
"we
^^
Mahmud
lost."
kitab-ash
^ (Jk^
tj**" (m.c.)
book was
(k)
For this construction, vide (a) (3)* For the position of the relative and the construction
(q) (6)
relative
clauses, vide
and
130.
to only two objects, English 'each other' is correctly applied (I) In is while one another' is applied to more than two, but no such distinction ham digar signify either >* observed in Persian >*S* yak digar and
'
'
one another.'
486
PEONOUNS.
In English
'
each
'
is
'
'
every
*
when
J
to are only
two or
'
at the
most few.
'
out persons or things when the number is used for either each or every.'
'
is
Every on the other hand singles more than two. In Persian har
is
'Every' har, though properly singular, may qualify a plural noun that regarded as a unity: ij& **jtf bi-har dah nafar-l "to every ten men"; " " i~~AJ yk^a dar har list qadam-t at every twenty paces ^/cU;^ ^A " >j har chahar sa'at-i once every four hours." yak martaba
;
Remark.
4p
But
\j
<j*J
Har kasna may often be substituted for hich kasna j "none returns" is correct; you could not here substitute
:
in
***>
jj^
is
'
Uia
^.jjjt
*$
i^f
'
or
o*O
'
^ ^
:
(m) In English
and
'
neither
relate to
for
'
'
any
^ji
and 'none
is
should be used.
In Persian there
jt>
no such distinction
hich az
j& har du with a negative har du with a negative verb, can of course
;
For examples,
used alone,
is
vide
is
39
(/) (2).
The word
self,
predominant"
e~-t
Jsi~^o
hubb-i nafs bar insan musallat ast, or 3)f^ X5 khud ra az hama chiz dust mi-darad).
(o)
o^^o^^all
*+&>
^UJ y \)
&jL. j*^f
adam
&+#
Hama
**A
"all"
all
"He
gave them
a
a turn an
(m.c.)
"
^^t
*\z
o> tx
bi-hama-yi
Ishan yak
collectively
tuman dad
cA*.*-'
',
properly
-/i
signifies
but
^^y
"he
(m.c.)
tuman."
(p]
"Both,"
js j*>
liar
in Persian, as:
"you and
I both
agree" ^^f
8
:
p&s&A
j&
&* man
ki
(both)
met," Zayd
u Amr
(har du) digar ra mulaqat kardand tj j&&+& ( j* j& ) j+z ) AJ) oUil/o "these two hats are (both) alike " *>i f*> (J*J A *$* j* ^f in du kulak (har du) misl-i* ham-and (m.c.). In "they (both) met"
ham
^^
&*
'None' stands for not one' and should, therefore, be followed by the verb in the $ )\tf- etf j' hich yak (az an chahar ta) na-raft, but in m.c. singular.
I
'
^^
^^^
^i
jl
yak
raft).
Or ^*j*> har yak-i. 3 Even if the meaning be "you and I both agree with a third person," the is not wanted either in English or Persian. 'both' pronoun * But in A*l /** J& )* j*> \*9&f (^>f In kulah-ha har du misl-i ham-and (m.c.>
the
wo rds
har du
"both "
are necessary to
PRONOUNS.
487
f*
()*j*)
han
and
Which' in English sometimes has for its (1) antecedent, not a noun, but a clause, as "he lost his pass-port which cost him a lot of trouble." In Persian this sentence can be rendered almost literally by the connective
:
gum
'
; |ytf jt fl ia zkara^i khud ra zahmat bardy-i u shud 1 (m.c.). In, -however, the " The man was said sentence to be innocent, which he was not," the word which cannot be rendered by ki ^)^> j* % o^[ sU&o ,\ tf &&
v
t
ki, as
^
:
jf
ou**,j
V U^I
AT
^^
guftand
ki
u bi-gundh
(2)
In English, 'that' is frequently preferred to 'who,' as: "I that " speak unto thee ^U> ^ i>*o J^> y b aU, man ki bd tu harf mi zanam ' * hamdn-am Also that in English is preferred after a as
superlative,
woman
: f
that I ever
saw"; in ^U ^j JUu
c|)
zanhd-1 ki dida-am
^ 7mn
f**!*
^^
fa U-Jidl zan-i
bi-m
khush
^.y
Jt^L
cuvo|
^i^L &j
more restrictive than who.' *' Yesterday I interviewed who came to the Consulate " <*Jl^ JLJ^jl ^ ^i* A^A *$ jjj.* all the Hindus ^?mz A; hama-yi Hunud bi-qunsul-khdna dmadand d.li'iU fyt^Jt ^i^of ftjS ishdn rd muldqdt kardam (m.c.), signifies that all the Hindus came and were " interviewed. But yesterday I interviewed all the Hindus that came to the " that all who came were interviewed, 3 but some Consulate signifies stayed
'
(3)
That
'
is
behind.
In +zj oU^to ^ixcf ajll. <J~.^j iu A^J^XA <Lo> j^j^ diruz hama-yi Hunud-i ki* bi qunsul-khdna dmadand muldqdt kardam, it is not clear whether only some of the Hindus came and were interviewed, or whether all came and
were interviewed.
in
From
*$(A> &
these remarks
'
it
will
that
a>U^r
AjJaJl-Jf
>,jj*^>
'
Sa'td^-s-tfaltana ki hdkim-i
s-Sultana,
Kerman,"
*
it is
rendered by
I
that
'
:
it is
therefore =
who.'
If
to refer to
a
8
tazkara.
;
Not
bud
ju**|
^^ buda ast.
<i>x>f
<5JUk JLj^jl AJ
iS
or
ki bi-qunsal-
+b
e*Ufiix)
ft/
jLJy
*j
>
I;
Ichana
amadand mulaqat kardam (m.c.): \) ra could be omitted in both the previous must be added to the second example in (3). examples, but the relative
Or
j^id,
ra.
488
PRONOUNS.
" There were very few passengers who escaped without serious injury. Times 8th Jan., 1868. [This might be resolved into and all escaped,' etc. That would exactly reverse the meaning almost all the passengers were
' '
:
seriously injured.']"
miisdfirin
in Persian
Hodgson.
l
In ***> l^U
&*>**o
kam
budand
;
ki sadma-i
bi-dnhd na-rasid,
the ambiguity
preserved
My. p> *~i>* ^J A/O^ tf ^*jb~* musdfirin-i ki sadma bi-anha na-rasid kam budand is also a little ambiguous, but would primarily be taken to mean **<*& ^; **>**> ^ i^/&** jl az musdfirin khayli kam bi-sadma rihd shudand, or *&>) ;^ox>AU^ (^j^'U/ojf cr**" kamJ az musafirin bi-saldmal
^ ^^
bi
dar raftand.
'
(4)
What
'
In the sentence, "The host provides what fare he pleases," 'what' is both a demonstrative adjective and a relative pronoun, and must be rendered in Persian by har with the relative ki, as mizbdn har khurdk-i ki
:
The relative what' with its compounds ( whatsoever,' etc.), both The interrogative what in English and in Persian, refers only to things. to be but when so applied refers to neuter also applied persons, may though " the of or as or What are you ? " character the person persons, quality tijJ^jk AA> l* shuma chi hastid (m.c.) ( = what sort of person are you ? shuma chi-kara hastid (m.c.) f( what is your profession ? " but H iwA ty^ *^ " what have you to do with this ? or
(5)
' '
:
^
is
' '
'
Whatever
'
'
'
l*;}^ j**>
*^y'
^**1
er* *^J
4
.
^rit
bi-hich vajh
1
pj^j^
(6)
The following sentence is, therefore, "He is unworthy of the confiequally objectionable dence of a fellow-mortal that disregards the laws of his Maker," ;Ux*t &V jt *^ o^A.i (jLJ) u (J&atta- ^^ j>jjT ig+* Lapu layiq-i i tibar-i insan nisi ki hukm-i
placed as to prevent any ambiguity.*
in
both languages:
\)
" He that disregards the Khaliq-ash rd bi-jd ndmi-dvarad (m.c.). Corrected: " *&f laws of his Maker, is unworthy of the confidence of a fellow-mortal
^-*V
&^\
y*fcl
&$
*tf
cs*'
^^
tj
c^^ an
insan nist (m.c.). Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer, without the intervention of another noun. Avoid such sentences as Muhammad pisar-i Ghuldm 'All ki in kitdb rd bi-man dad " the son of Ghulam
i tibdr-i
3
:
drad layiq-i
Muhammad,
'All
of
'
who gave me
who.'
this
book
,"
unless
Ghulam
'All
be the antecedent
&*
aalan
Remark
II.
Not
PRONOUNS.
In,
489
" David the father of " Solomon, who slew Goliath, and " David, the father of Solomon who built the temple l ", the position of the commas in English indicates the meaning. In Persian this distinction cannot be made. In e-AT l; c^lU *' ^UA!*, ;*j a^u the *S may refer either to Dd*ud or
to Sulaymdn. Even in English the writer should not be at the mercy of commas. For further examples of error of Concord, resulting from confusion as to
136 (c) (2). the logical subject, 4 vide the is sometimes in familiar In relative (7) English, language omitted. "he a man I is relative the 'whom' is omitted in In, greatly respect,"
**! ^^aii^ English, but the connective ki cannot be omitted in Persian: f;f<V Jkc^Aswo &? u shakhs-V-st ki muhtaram-ash mi-ddram (m.c.).
y
in
'
(8)
Hodgson
says,
abrupt transition from a relative clause to one of direct affirmation, as have read of a man who was very rich, but he was very miserly."
Persian
also,
In
this
error occurs
^Xxi.
Uf
Jj+i*
^^
tf (*>*
irt^/*
ki khayli
mutamavvil
ammd u
is
Persian,
sometimes erroneously
:
vJ* JtVl
42
** L^^/
&
tjz
.sijbj
(e),
137
and
119
footnote.
:
are further instances of errors in the use of the relative " All these and every princes are tributary to the Chinese Emperor second year repair to Pekin, whither they carry as tribute, furs and gold-
The following
dust which their subjects collect from the sands of their rivers x;^ J !
' '
L/' o- ^**
1
8 hama-yi In umard muti'-i Khaqan-i Ghin-and, va har yak sal dar miydn 4 bi-Pikin mi-ravand, va bardy-i khardj bi-hamrdh-i khud Tchaz va rizaha-yi tild mi-barand ki ra dyd-yi ishdn az righd-yi rud-khdna-hd-yi khud-i shdn jam
1
mi-kunand
'gold dust' is the furs cannot Persian antecedent of which both in the English and in the whither they be gathered from the sands of rivers. Correct as follows
(m.c.).
'
'
as well as
'
<.$* carry as tribute furs, and the gold-dust that' U bd mi-barand bi-hamrdh-i khud khuz riza-ha-yi IAJJJ
tild-i
ki.
"
who
For confusion
" Errors
in Rhetoric."
Classically the
Emperor
of
China
is
means " a bowl of the best china." * The singular *)j; rlza could be used
idea of different collections.
490
'*
ADJECTIVES.
Luckily the monks had recently given away a couple of dogs, which " were returned to them, or the breed would have been lost
\\
(JLJ
^j; &J)j
c;
1
iXu*
%&'&
^*J ^lijU
'
M &>^
JJ^Aiu j^*^
>-& *
^j*
sagbi-kas-i bakhshida
mi-raft.
budand
Here
the principal assertion is incorrectly placed in the relative clause. Corrected Luckily a couple of dogs which the monks had recently given
'
:
bi-kas-i
away, were returned to them, etc.' bi-husn-i bakhshida budand pas ddda shud ."
ittifdq
yak
juft saq ki
ruhban
CHAPTER
121.
(a)
XV.
Adjectives.
Diminution of quality cannot as in English be expressed by preand least to the adjective. Resort must be made to paraphrase, " as: j>jli oJjajl jiy p> )\ u kamtar az u dawlat ddrad (m.c.) " he is less rich " he is less cu~t df^d 3' j*+? J^kl*^ shujd'at-ash kamtar az digardn ast (m.c.) brave than the others." " few " or " little " (b) In English the indefinite article before changes the meaning from negative to positive, as: "there were few persons " there were a few " needs little and
fixing less
:
persons present
"he
aid,"
little
aid."
first
The
translating the
two
kumak dddan bi-u kamtar Idzim ast, and ^^ yak kam-i kumak mi-khwahad. The negative use of kam and kamtar is also illustrated by the following examples: t^v-^x ^l> &S p$ kam kun tama'-i jahdn ki bdshi khursand (Omar-i Khayyam) " crave not of worldly sweets to take your fill," (Whinfield Trans.): o^^^ ^^J ^ AJl*)^^ ** *> of an bih ki dar in zamdna kam 3 gin dust "choose not your friends from this rude multitude,"
l^uf dnjd kam-i bu-dand\ chand the second two by -** and dnjd nafar budand;
sentences by A^JJ
by
^^
^^
*.i>
(0.
K. Rub. 77 Whin.).
Compare the m.c. phrases ^j** l; 31 (&#$> j**& j\ u bi-kam-tar chiz-i az rah mi-ravad " he goes wrong for the least thing * " ^jl^f Ij jK ^jl in kar rd kamtar bi-kun (m.c.) " don't act like this," and o& \^y^j^ kamtar fazuU bi;
2
*
In m.c. often incorrectly used as a singular: In m.c. cuft^ juft is often slovenly used
'
pi. of
^A^
rahtb.
like
the English
word
'
'
couple
for
two
3
properly signifies a pair, male and female. Kam here means "not" as may be seen from the whole context,
;
it
it
does not
mean
*
'*
less."
means
and
vide
(e).
*!}
)] j*+> gfyj j\
ADJECTIVES.
491
kun " talk less rot, don't talk rot," (more cutting than the direct ^o (Jj^* fazull ma-kun "don't meddle, etc."): o^'lj j>+ &j> .-Jib <*Jiyia* chanddn ki talab kard kamtar ydft (class.) "the more he searched the less he found."
1
Andak
(c)
71
(?').
In English, adjectives implying unity or plurality agree with their nouns in number, as " that sort of person," " those sorts of persons." *
:
ftf )y+
e^?
1
&i)
ddam and
l^.*if
;^ ^t
in jur dddmha,
or better /*i/
)^
:
in jur-
mdrdum.
In comparisons, the noun in Persian should be repeated, as <^* y *i^V .y ^*f jt asp-i man az asp-i tu bihtar ast "my horse is better than yours." Colloquially it is sometimes omitted if no ambiguity arise from the
(d)
t
siM
ji
^/o
Jf
"I am
umr-i
man
az
shumd
older than
you."
" horse" and "thou." example the comparison might lie between In the m.c. phrase 0^1 ^f 3^> ^i In baz-i an ast, the word baz
a corruption of jt AJ bih even educated people.
az.
yt
Baz-i an ast
is,
comparative degree is employed, the latter term of comparison should never include the former. Thus it is correct to say " Iron is more useful than all the other metals ou~fy ^jJu>^,> c^Ki> *+a>)i
the
:
When
' '
^f
ast.
But
it is
incorrect,
in Persian, to
say"
filizzdt
metals" o*t
(m.c.).
y cjJU
ej>l>
&*.* )}
^f
dhan az hama-yi
" improper to say Solomon was wiser than any king" y>> y c;UxL was ijyGt^ ^l^^b Sulaymdn azhar pddishdh-i ddnd-tar bud, because Solomon is form a king and he could not be wiser than himself. The correct " 3 **^"Solomon was wiser than any other king y Ufa ^,3 cjl* ^ <** 3' o
It
is
Sulaymdn az hama-yi pddishdhdn-i-digar When the superlative (e) The opposite is the case with superlatives. the degree is employed the latter term of comparison should not exclude " The former. Thus it is incorrect both in English and Persian to say
.
:
elephant
is
the largest of
all
other* animals
Modern olj
glr-ash
tj>
~+& y**xj
"
is
;<
iJ
^A
(or
*
amad
(m.c.).
'*
Those sorb
of persons
common
of
English vulgarism.
the
kings"
f li
vide
/^
VyO^
(e).
ast is correct
vide
(d).
492
fit
ADJECTIVES.
buzurg-tarm-i hama-yi hayvdnat-i digar ast
(m.c.).
"
The
vice of covetousness of
^j,c
all
others
is
the
worst"
^-=^
^*
%+*> jl
ayb-i
Mrs
^j?
].
correct (m.c.)
Covet-
ousness hirs
ness
is
Say
covetous-
v^
%+* t*[/
^^ v^
hama-
yi 'uyub
(/)
ast.
Though grammatically speaking the superlative is followed by the (Sa'dl) "the best of plural, as: <*&f ^11^ ^^j bihin-i darvishan an ki darvishes is he who," still it may sometimes qualify a noun in the ordinary i^trV $ u bihtarm manner, as erirH? 1*5*7*^ & mard-i bihtarm (m.c.) or cu*l
:
mard
ast (m.c.).
If,
is
Persians insert
^9j <f
Arabic and precedes the noun, some " ^^j ***( ;> dar as'ad-i zaman-i in the " in a time the dar bihtarm
;*
vaqt-l
most fortunate."
(g)
"This pen
az
hama
qalamhd
is the best of all" o**l **AJ| ^15 ^' * w qalam bihtar ast (m.c.), or cu^l _yy 1^15 &*jt tn gaZam az hama-yi ^X5 ^t bihtar ast (m.c.) ; the former is the more emphatic and simpler
y^
expression
both are in
common
:
use.
Double comparatives and superlatives are occasionally used in Persian even good writers, as y J^'l afzal-tar j* *-*~J\ ansab-tar ^^e &** by p\*\ a' alam-tarin-i hama-yi mardum (m.c.) "the wisest of all."
;
;
^^
(h]
Some
adjectives such as
strictly
^^^>
sahih ''correct"
of
,
J-^
Tcamil
"per-
fect,
complete,"
comparison, either in
English or in Persian.
pur orjl*x: mamluv "full" ^U^ khdli or tuhi "empty"; rast o>[; "true"; i^ durugh "false"; ojlfi nihdyat " extreme " or cut; rast " straight." (subs.) ^AaJL^o mustaqim "More complete" is, however, in common use in English and " most
:
-^
complete"
is
not
uncommon
in old ballads.
&?j-&*^ kamil-tarin, and the expression " this tar ast is much more correct," is
owt
common
modern
Persian.
" The words 5^/0 murabba', AT., and ** square," char-gusha, Pers. have no degrees of comparison. However ^S gird or ** mudavvar "round" has in Persian a comparative and superlative.
"Zayd
of
all
others was
j&
\^
iama muqassirbud
ADJECTIVES.
(")
493
When
noun, the order in Persian is (1) numeral, (2) noun, (3) adjective, as U oUJ&y j& du navishtajdt-i dkhinn-i shuma "your two last letters ^jJikl*- J^l JL jji ;a dar dah sdl-i avval-i saltanat-ash "in the first ten & " du ism-i avvali ra qalam bi-zan ^ <^l ^\ years of his reign " strike out the first two names." (m.c.)
^^T
' '
^^
A
of
Kerman" cA^y
Lc\
du mard-i
dlim-tarin-i
jz du a'lam^l-'uldmd-i Kirmdn).
Remark.
fours and
(<jr!y
It,
it is
however, the articles specified are arranged by threes or decided to specify the first three or the second four
'
'
'
^
(j)
*"* si ta-yi
awali and
^^
^G
it is
in
first.
To avoid
repetition,
is
joined
to the
in Persian
the
singular
thus,
for
"
oU*
j 'alam-i haydt va
mamdt
things animate and inanimate," oL^ ^JU is better than c,U* j cuUa. ^Jb dlam-i
^U
3 (This is really haydt va dlam-i mamdt, but the latter is more emphatic. " naw va rd kuhna o&a* oUa+)| biydr Jv \j a^jy ^(S signifies Qdll-yi bring
:
the
new
qdlihd-yi
and the old (one) carpets"; but jU? (; &'\^ j y cfl^jJ^ naw va kuhna rd biydr signifies bring more than one of each [vide
(one)
(r).]
i,
also
119
it is
of the adjective, Remark. not clear to what two objects "Between" refers: " Between such a such a before who can steer clear ? (repeat Scylla and Charybdis
' ' '
'
*> (^Otr^J *J^J>jy eH^^- ^- j az miydn-i chunin Charbydis '), &)&& ^j*x rud-khdna va lajun-zdr-i ki mi-tavdnad bi-guzarad. [Say ^i^- j chunin rud-khdna va chunin lajun-zdr-i, etc.]
'
(k)
In " a well-dressed
^W ^^
man and woman" oU) u*^d[3J *->* mard u &)j y* mard u zan-l khush libas-i, the adjective
" a well-dressed
libds-i
both in English and Persian qualifies two nouns. But in man and a woman" j<j*^ <^A c?*/ mard-i khush
va zan-t 9
du navishta-yi
3
Ar. br. plurals are often treated as singulars. It would, however, be better to say In modern Pers. akhirl preferred to alchirln. akhiri-yi shuma.
The Old and the New Testaments &** J *** *t* ^hd-i jadld va 'atiq. The Persians have a great dislike to the close repetition of the same word an ambiguity they delight in ambiguity and study sound rather than sense, therefore,
;
is in
494
or
ur>3 ^
ADJECTIVES.
u*^
is
restricted
to one substantive.
men and boys" is ambiguous, for it may mean (1) twenty men and twenty boys, or (2) men and boys, in all " or (3} twenty men with some boys." twenty," In Persian, however, *J j ty*j& ^~~# bist nafar mard u bachcha could have the signification of No. (2) only. No. (1) would be expressed by j& ^~~*?
In English the expression "twenty
*j*
bist bist
cu~ jo
(I)
nafar
nafar mard va bist nafar pisar, and No. mard bd chand pisar.
sets of adjectives,
(3)
by
When
in English
two adjectives, or
connected by
'and,' qualify the same noun in the singular, it is better, if two nouns are intended, to repeat the noun after each adjective or set of adjectives,
-& &* man yak "I ate a small addle egg" jo;>^ <Jd thus: /* -& or *-&*jf zj* tukhm-i murgh-i kuchak-i laq-i khurdam (m.c.) p**3 but kuchak va a^ tukhm-i khurdam man murgh-i lag y C*D*- (^ J
^^
,
f^
if
one
fresh
and the
other
addle,
it
;
would
be better in English to repeat the noun in order to avoid ambiguity and in " I ate a Persian the article, if not the substantives, must be repeated, as " Jo fresh egg and an addled egg (i.e. two eggs) jJ ^Cjj $1 yc va tdza man yak tukhm-i murgji-i s.*-! yak-i laq khurdam: JM I; j
:
^^
pJ
asp-i
e<
horse ";
^j*
" only mean bring the bay Arab v ^* asp-i 'Arabi vd kahar rd biydr would mean
8
'
^^
o^lj
ness"
In
is
preferable to
J^I~*j
y^
^^1;
rdhat-i
should be coupled to each other by an izdfat; as in the above example, " asp-i 'Arabi-yi kahar rd biydr bring the bay Arab horse."
(m) Sometimes one or
^^-^ cujl )* aJ^ :>;yf ^^^ >~j* )\ I; c^l JUa. j yak-i rd az muluk-i 'Arab kanizak-i chini dvarda budan dar ghayat-i husn u jamdl (Sa'di) " a Chinese slave- girl, possessed of great beauty, was
place of
:
an adjective, as
^^
:
^*
Some
by the
genitive, as
o^jebUI
qdbil~i
"capable of cultivation (of land)"; _*>*aj ^J &_, khasta-yi tir-i " " wounded taqdir (class.) by the arrows of fate jfi &*>** mutavajjih-i
zird'at
;
It
is
much
by the
copula.
ADVERBS.
;
495
" " shdhr "going towards the city wounded by him" ^ j^*> majruh-i u J*c J(x^ muhdl-i 'aql; khwdhdn-i" desirous haris-i" covetous
j,!
;
of"
of";
tdlib-i" desirer
of."
and Arabic
1
participles, active
and
passive.
122 Adverbs.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. The following quotation from the Gulistan, therefore, contains a grammatical error it is
(a)
;
probably a misreading
>
^^
(Sa'di).
aaj
Compare the English errors "thine often infirmities"; "the then " " the seldom use of it." Prime Minister
;
(6)
An
In Persian, all adjectives can be used as adverbs * adverb qualifying an attribute to a noun is ordinarily placed between
:
its
attribute,
is
as
ju^l
c^*^*
^*^ j**
a very strange matter" or *-*&?& ^L. ow*j^c| ^jf " in amr-Vst In m.c., however, the adverb is often misplaced Tchayli ajib. and this causes ambiguity, as the before noun, *# ^)j* ^i-^ lif " there was a dnjd khayli kashti-yi buzurg bud (m.c.) very large ship there " (vulg.)" but correctly =" there were many large ships there ^i^ '^f
"this
(
^^
:
cAv? c?^ dnjd kashti-yi Tchayli buzurg-i bud is clear. (Phrases, etc. signifyIn <Wf ^ji^ia. ing state or condition are termed hal JLa.. Zayd Ichanddn
dmad, the word ct^^ Ichanddn is termed JU. kdl and <x>j Zayd, zu'l-hdl). that adverbs and adverbial (c) As in English, care should be taken
adjectives are so placed that they affect what they are intended to affect. This rule is oftenest violated in the use of " only," "not only," " not
<f more," "both" and not." " In the sentence these books
will
grown-up
persons also
"
Jw
!;
&
(&j* *&>
*^
x>
)js~~*
t>
In Urdu also, such adjectives are often followed by the g-nitive, inflected or
uninflected.
* 8
The
Another and better reading is U ahista sabaq burd az. is used figure of syntax by which one part of speech
Also occasionally in English as
Enallage.
high." In difficult cases to decide whether an adverb or an adjective is required in English, the rule is to consider whether is proper, if the latter quality or manner has to be expressed if the former an adjective " *' stand firm " " maintain ; an adverb. Ex. " I sat silent " ; " I sat silently musing
*
"he
flies
496
ADVERBS.
na
'
masrur mi-sdzad balki mardum-i bdliph ra niz (m.c.), no obscurity either in the English or the Persian, the collocathe words not merely,' do not refer to the verb tion is faulty in both " these books will interest but to children.' interest not Reconstructed,
faqat In kitdbhd atfdl rd
is
though there
'
'
'
^J
j*^
ndz
!
in kitdbhd
(m.c.).
na faqat
"
*<Jb ^jU.
biligh ra
In " 'Umar was not only the destroyer of the Persian nation, but of its " &&, ty &\jj\ oJLo x^r ^1U kv &J^+c ejbj \*& v fyL language and religion haldk na Umar _>^ o ^l;Jt faqat kunanda-yi millat-i Iran bud balki
l
v*^
khardb kunanda-yi zabdn va mazhab-i Irdniydn 2 mz, the English can be ' corrected by merely transposing the words not only and placing them ' the destroyer the Persian sentence however must be recast after j+c
'
'
'
'
j ^bj ^j &j& cJ'^, Jaw \j\ji\ ^*kc 'Umar millat-i Iran rd i^ na-kard balki zabdn va mazhab rd nlz az miydn burd (m.c.). haldk faqat " i " Because the parrot used to say this phrase only to all comers \^
&ji
^Uxj^tjjo
k_AA&/o
^. ) cui^o \j &ti <j j#\. rd tanhd didam would accordHusayn j*<3^^ (^ " " or " I I either intonation to the saw (I alone) signify only ing Husayn " but {*** |; e^-^ (^ kii faqat (or l^ tanhd) man Hiisayn saw Husayn only rd didam, and f&t> 1^3 \y (^-^^.xs man Husayn rd tanhd (not faqat) didam, or
)
0^x3
ijS j$
t;
^w
*** t5-M>
[better
8
^^
In m.c.
(^-^
;
t^3 ^.^o
man
(j-j^ f*.j>
\j
ti^ju-^
i^
man Husayn
rd didam va bas
(m.c.) could
each of them
The
commas,
is
not at
first
sight clear
XX)
ay
o;y
<J&(
&J
" the lower part of his dress was particularly improper" should be inserted after the na, which has to be read in connection with the
o;^yL*
*Z UJ^jj
words preceding
Remark. " of
it.
" Compare, It is true I boarded in the house of Mr. Cherry the headmaster, but I scarcely ever saw him out of school, and I never remember to have heard his voice except
ment
Hodgson.
when
in anger,"
A*'
f;jT
^b
<3,xx
W-^OP
ojijj..a.t ;
tjb.\&*
o^ ^ ^Uu man
g** j f<^^ **;**> Jf ^jli. \^\ I5j<sj nudratan urd khdrij az madrasa didam
va hich vaqt bi-khdtir nami dvaram ki sadd-yash rd juz vaqt-i ghazab shunida
When "
'*
is
followed by the
sama
part of speech
*
8
In slovenly modern Persian, cJ^I lahan might be substituted for u^l^l Iraniyan. The Afghans would probably say lfi> &*> man-i tanha, if l^i* tanha referred to the
classical
pronoun. * This
idiom
is
common
in
Afghan
colloquial.
CONJUNCTIONS.
baskam.
'
497
:
In the English read I do not remember ever,' and delete when' in the Persian, insert the words oJj hick vaql after *$ ki vide also 123 g+*
;
(b) (5)
(d)
Remark.
Adverbs are occasionally substituted for nouns, both
'
:
in English
and
15
Persian, as
Till
now
'
ta al-dn hich
(e)
maliyyat
"
M\ i&\i
olJU
_** ^5l
One adverb
is
in English
wisely,"" but
serve for two or more verbs, as &&*(* j u 'aqilana *jf >K j *) <J>j*>
may
"
:
He
harf zad va
ambiguous, as the adverb may qualify both verbs or only A * Xllc y u 'dqildna ham >j <J^ f harf zad va ham kar kard,
;
the adverb qualifies both verbs and in cwj *-/*4 *jffy eJ'jt ***j &j* ;^ djXslc y u 'dqildna kar kard va ba'd az an bind kard bi-harf zadan, the adverb qualifies
the
first
is
verb only
also
if
;(
kard
ham
^ jK y u
negatives in the same clause are generally equivalent to an and can be elegantly employed to express a positive assertion affirmative, The captain was not unacquainted with the port " ^*i ^JL L>;^ jf |>^U as
, c *
:
Two
nd-khudd az bandar nd-balad na-bud (m.c.). (g) An adverb qualifying an Infinitive used as a verbal noun, may be A*>^ ^li.U j| az bdkhtan-i joined to it by the izdfat, as: x Uj^Ufy
^^
du,
An
shud " he was put out at losing two games." adverb qualifying an Infinitive may sometimes be regarded as
:
part of the verb and be preceded by a preposition, as ^*& **K (&\ &*>&*) &)& 8 rasdmdan-i mkdghaz kutdh-i ma-kun (m.c.) "don't be careless e^xj dar zud
in delivering this letter."
Subjunctive following a verb of prohibition requires a negative * " I forin Persi an as ^y laajf a*' p&jf ^o man' kardam ki dnjd nd-ravad b urd az raftan bi-dnjd man> bade him to go there = lap-ilj )\ $ \) ji
(i)
, :
' '
j*j>y
^;
kardam.
123.
Conjunctions.
as
(a) In English, conjunctions should not be unnecessarily accumulated* " but and if that evil servant say in his heart, etc. Matt, xxxiv. 48.
till
vaqt).
is
)\+
*
5
zud-tar.
bi-ravad
**
commanded him
to
go there."
32
I
498
In Persian, however,
l*>lj
CONJUNCTIONS.
j vagar,
&& 3 vallkan
',
U>(j
va
ammd,
)
va yd,
are com fa-ammd (in writing for U| ammd "but" j va chun, monly used by even good writers. conjunctions are composed of two corresponding words. (b) Some
Examples
(1)
of corresponding conjunctions:
Both
and:
va
"
He
"
iJL
^^
&j>
<*iA
^>^\
clear
ham
girya.
yet, still, nevertheless:
"
Though, although
*
"
gawd
"Though
jb
never full"
rud-khdna
(jj&
Ji-ti
AiU^jy
A ;i>
pur naml-gardad.
Remark.
may, when
prefixed to nouns or pronouns are prepositions, " " Before as my illness joining sentences, become conjunctions,
Words that
Gj!
JJL.AJ
aCif Jt (_iJ
"before I was* pish az nd-khushl-yi man (m.c.) bi-shavam* an ki mutavallid az (m.c.). pish
:
born"
Many
(3)
conjunctions are also adverbs. Whether or: "Whether they are killed or
aiiy ^x? jji^
Ishdn tafdvat
him, or I
"
ty&J
I, it matters naught" khwdh man kushta bi-shavam khwdh p&> na-ddrad: "it makes no difference whether they killed
f^
M^(J Alls'
^t
e)^
** j
&* *^
c^t
waw
kushta bdshand farq na-ddrad. or: c> l ~Jf j( ^ 0^(6 (4) Either
insdn (m.c.)
he of
z f^j| jj^ !u na tarsaz Khudd ddshtna az either God or man": "either go or stay"
(5).
Neither act nor promise hastily && <J+* JUsv^ *J 'amal bi-kun va na va'da (m.c.): "he feared neither
Jf
"
"
wj
o^
khdliq va na az makhluq.
Remark.
'
neither
nor.'
Especial care must be bestowed upon 'either or* and These are correlatives either ' expecting 'or,' and neither
'
'
'
i.e.
'
either
'
must not
'
neither' a preposition, nor 'nor a proprecede a verb nor 'or' a noun, noun. Though there may be no ambiguity in such sentences, as I have not
'
heard either from John or Charles,' they produce the same ill-balanced effect as would a pair of awkwardly hung pictures." Hodgson.
i
8
Also pronounced lakln. Note that the Aorist and not the Preterite
It
is
used.
Khuda
or
u^**""M
insan be put
first.
CONJUNCTIONS.
499
Compare:
without
"
" in these times one can neither speak of Church or State oaaa^ t*J|^/o oJjj> jf AJJ vsJUjt <_-*& tjUj (^t^ dar in zamdn
na
kas-l az millat va
be"
jl
na az dawlat mi-tavanad suhbat bi-kunad (m.c.). The speak of neither Church nor State": the Persian c^JU *J^ y AJ na az millat va na az dawlat. Vide also
' '
Remark
' '
to
122
(c).
am
(
(it
*
should be
'
I
*
am
not
an ascetic either in theory or in practice'). (1) Ulc AJ man na amalan murtaz-am va na ilman and (2) J+e
l
,
man
XM^
riyazat-kash nistam
.
.
na dar
^.j*
Carnal
*
na dar
an
*
'
but
(3)
(jctij*
UU
,'.*
U
;
&+c
man
..
amal
ya
ilm an
murtaz nistam
an though correct is not good (4) f (J&j* Ulc A} ^ $+c A) ^/c ma n na 'amal an murtaz-am va na 'ilm though correct is faulty in collocation, vide (1).
f
(c)
Some English
as,
:
is
as amiable as his
brother"
' e
c^t u misl-i baradar-ash mihrban ast, or cuof j*& y ow As he excels in virtue, aw gac^r-* A;i baradar-ash mihrban ast u ham ast (m.c.). " <xiCk/o so he rises in estimation ijAxxj ^y\ J^o]j^\ j ^Jy ouUi*^ Af ^joftil^ haman qadr-i ki dar fazilal taraqql mi-kunad bar ihtiram-ash afzuda mi-shavad. " as:'* No riches make one so happy as a clean conscience (2) So
j>jU
ra
^
(3)
jiy-^
fj
il~JI
tA^
*A
"Speak
so
as to
be
understood"
c>^
^$fj
So
that (expressing
' '
understand him
^
?z
consequence)
&f
fahmlda " He
Ai-Af
bi-shavl.
^^ j
^tir
tawr-i ahista
(4)
Not only
AxJb
"He
is
(also)
;
blind"
better
*A )f
vjut
y
ta^
:
ka?
*j
<w jt
w na
/a^ai[
asZ
6a^*
^am but
^ ;y *^y
(5)
Such as l
$\*.
j^xi
(^fe^J
j( faqat kar balki kur ham hast. '' There never was such a famine as the present famine JAX oJ^s^A hich vaqt misl-i hdla qaht-i na-buda: "A man
na
'
'
such
as
such a thief as he
kas-l na-dida ast.
(6)
(?*
*j<io
d^
misl-i
man
adam-l.
^S
' '
duzd^
are
Such
"Such
is
the emptiness of
'
'
is
a demonstrative adjective, as
'such people':
amsal-i
of
shuma
ashWlfia (m.c.)
colloquial).
Note omission
t;
(modern
500
lazzat-i
CONJUNCTIONS.
dlgar hastim (m.c.). because of the preceding j^&T.) (7) More, sooner, etc. than:
hamisha dar khaydl-ilazzat-i (Here *sul>^ chunanchi could not be substituted for tf
ast ki
ma
"
WjsJj y J^y j>^.j ;j> dar bihisht bish az dil-khwdh bi-insan mi" dihand (m.c.). " The Greeks were braver than the Persians yj>yd& ^G^j CJAI *><& cJtr!t cU' ohl-i Yundn dilir-tar az ahl-i Iran budand (m.c.).
^XA*^
^(~Jlj
(8)
Pas,
hama chashmhd
Al? *soUa. "
p. 99)
it
bar
man
3|j
dukhta,
tafsil-i
qaziyya rd chunanchi
i&*>
vdqi'
f&&
^
(d)
<x
aL
sj
<><
*jlia.
\)
Ax*o5 J^afiii
Chap.
XXXII,
then, while
all
matter, not as
One conjunction may serve for U JL\ agar ma biravim va ura bi-bmim *j [if] see him \^\ 3 pty Compare: "The Shah, the Prime Minister, the Foreign Minister and the War Minister were there <^^ tjf *Ji\^ j ^)^ )S^-}J (& )*"> *^ Shah, Sadr-i
go and
on me, I related the had been related." two or more verbs, as: "If we
} '
^
' '
'
.
We
ma
have
8^^
^ JyJ
jl>^ j
^i^iol/c
kashti
danm
kashti
(m.c.),
3^-r* (*tj*
^^ ^
f&
s^i
{*>)]&
J^j
ma
danm,
as
danm,
pul
darim, zakhira
ham darim
(e)
(m.c.).
The conjunction 8
U td " until,
long as,
as far
to a little ambiguity as it may either be followed by the negative na, or not. Thus "stay till I return" can be rendered either by l*
rise
*X
if
it requires a negative does not require a negative. Td vaqt-l> ki &j&^ is not followed by a negative. In the English sentence " In England people do not 133 (a)], there is but one negative: marry till they can afford it" [vide
'
^ shuma sabr kuriid ta man bar gardam, or *f*Jr jl e^* ta bar na-gardam 5 shuma na-ravid. 6 If ta means until
'
by
'
^y
U-^
f$j&
y*.
^
;
as long as
'
it
in the Persian
dar *^) 13 ^A ejlLj&i Inglistdn hlch kas ta vajh-i kifai na-ddshta bashad zan nami-girad (mod.) there are two; ta in this example means as long as (they have not got )
AiAfj-J
' '
^^^
^b
olK
Misrelated participle.
j Vazir-i Umur-i
And
f^'
J**
Sadr-i A'azam.
Preposition.
used.
4
6
^"^ J^^
^**
(*^7^
' *
3
.
ta bar
not be used.
can be rendered by either stay in the verandah till I return jab lak main na a*un barande men baithe raho, or turn barande men baithe raho yahan
In Hindustani
tak ki
main a 9 un
Manual, Lesson
38.
CONJUNCTIONS.
501
U td
is
is
not a necessity,
will
be seen from
*i~^ khasta shudand ta urd ddna sdkhtand = 13 \%\ urd ddna na-sdkhtand dram na-giri/tand = (> au^Xi ^tyf dram na-giriftand td urd ddna sdkhtand " they were wearied
td
c^~>
o^
j$j*
AJ
say, I will not sit down." w4Ja*ijf U a tn, matlab rd bi-man na-guyid j>y p*\j> d+jjk\)] *j3>& (j4J \) " till you tell me about this I will continue to In tawr 'amal khwdham kard
my
act thus
(usual)
;
id
td man bar na-gardam bar man na-gardam mjd bash (less usual), or f^y ^a maw 65^ bar-gardam (usual) = lijf y /jU> ^13 tw^'a man na-ydyam az mjd na-ravl (or ma raw}.
:
"
f^&^ &*
Jt
^}
l:?tijf
3 az
1
mW
na-ravi
u*lj lJkJi
(.}*& td
^xj>il andishtd ki agar bar mold uftad fitna &*j>^\ na-shavad (Sa'dl) the negative is in some editions omitted, but the sense " he feared that is slightly altered; with the negative the sentence signifies:
&\s
is!*!
&>
AS
if
without the the matter become public, I hope there won't be trouble "he matter that should the become it thought signifies: public, negative it may cause mischief."
; '
"
(/)
Seldom
if
ever' and
if
'
seldom or never.'
"He
agar
^.JJA
seldom
ever
Jehayli
9
\
comes" may be rendered ^ *>!# p* ^\ Team (m.c.) and "he seldom or never comes" by
J^
I could help" (g) and similar expressions can be rendered in Persian by j-^fi p' ty &+* tl td mumkin bud kam dddam p$& ty &+* J+> *^* harchi kamtar mumkin bud bi-u dddam j-^f^y*^ ^LJty *^A harchi tavdnistam kamtar dddam. had (h) "I had no sooner addressed him than he knew me "or "I
;
u bi-nudrat mi-dyad yd hich!1 The universal English blunder " I gave no more than
scarcely addressed
hanuz
bi-u
harf
tyo
&f
pt>+>
(m.c.):
l^ftf
"I had
l
scarcely
oj
*****
Na-ravl ^j>y more polite than the imperative jj* ma-raw (or m.c. jj* no-raw). in the affirmative after e>;A\J bi-nudrat, and in the
negative after
^>A
hich.
Therefore in X{T
g**>
^.
O)^J )\
bi-nudrat
ayad
5
the
o;^J
bi-nudrat.
however,
though
incorrect.
&*<*">
Hal-l ki
to
man
in sukhan bi-guftam
p*&
is
^1
^^= *>
^^ (GuKstan) "
as soon
spoke
him."
Hal-i ki A&Jla,
almost obsolete.
502
PREPOSITIONS.
bi-mahz-i in
ki pa birun guzdshtam saqf-i utaq pdyin +&\t& (or bi-mujarrad-i ). &}j L; 15 ta pa birun guzashtam The .() conjunctions *>f jf <j*J pasazan-ki, ora&i jl ^j ba d az dn-ki A~ sdbiq bar In ki, <*&ut jf JLxji qabl az mki, or ''after that "; *&^J " before that," are usually in Persian followed by A&jfjt pj S ^ as w&f. the Present Subjunctive, even when referring to past time. That this
amad
mki
or
^u
may
is
in
modern Persians have an objection to the repetition of the (j) As same word in a sentence, &$ is often omitted where in classical Persian it would probably be inserted. Thus in, " He was such a fool that he
didn't
know
1
,
(is)
' '
(tS)
o~J(^x*J *'
(J+^f
;*&f
~^ J* cs^
sar-iu'st
writing.
c>U*f an qadr ahmaq bud ki nami-danist (ki) asman bala-yi the second ki would be omitted in speaking though inserted in
124.
(a)
Prepositions.
preposition in English can sometimes in Persian be expressed by the izafat, vide 121 (o), " Tempted by the Devil" u azmuda-yi Shaytan
bud = u az Shaytan azmuda shuda bud* (b) Preposition repeated and not repeated. " In such a In the
phrases a difficulty or in such a dilemma So too thing, the latter two.
3
English
difficulty or
:
*'
in such
'
'
differ
Ij
^^^
the former signifies only one J^l e^^ ;^ dar chunm ishkal ya
L;
sakhtl-i
refers to
^^t
(1
ishkal-iya dar chunm sakhti-i refers to two. It would, however, be better to express the first thought by ^xii^o ^iaj J^^i <^xia.^,} dar chunm ishkal ya'nl
sakhli-i.
Though phrases
the preposition, as
*
;
:
like
'*
in joy or sorrow
" and
states
<(
in wealth or
poverty"
two
more
"
k
distinct to repeat
;^
"
j& ^
pe ;> j &e
to
^3^
of the preposition
is
be preferred in English,
in
and though the repetition in Persian keeps the two states more distinct,
the Persian ear
objects
to
repetition
(even
the
previous sen-
tences),
The the sake of emphasis " " I see no difference between the dwellers in cities or in phrase villages
except in
certain special
cases
for
It
aat.
Here ^j jf^x^f azmuda bud would not be correct as it might be mistaken transitive verb. In the first case B.iyjf azmuda is obviously a past participle.
'
for a
Note the
^ of unity
is
only.
In m.c. /* ) (^$&
used.
PREPOSITIONS.
/ar^-t
503
jljj
in
td inki
*J *&>! G rasidim f >***>) &\j* vf <y ;'j (Tr. H.B., Chap. V) "till we reached the uninhabited salt desert of Iraq" (insert bi before ^laljf dbdddm, otherwise the & bi of jl^-^ namak-zdr may be understood before it).
^l^j
'
-^
(c)
Besides,'
tumans a month"
'
" His pay including allowances is a hundred s mdh-i sad tumdn mavdjib-i u bi-inzimdm-i jira va aUq
'
including
^AU JxU^
az signify e^' ^ *J^ f-la ^^ -^JL) C*;? (Bi-jvzjwtaa&)j& bi-ghayr xi<>f "exclusive of, except," ^| )] guzashta as In (m.c.) "leaving this
3
yU
v,Uj^) ^U>
^^
aside)."
(d)
'
refers should
refers
may
be singular, as:
barf);
c>'i
x3
"Among
tl
his
snow " <J>jj ^Uxs miydn~i barf (not 4^ (^.^ md-bayn-i darkness" o*.Lfe ^Uxj miydn-i zulmat (orjji dar, or ^.fi
In
is
^^ md-bayn-i
if
(or
^o miydn-i)
c^lfi*;
amidst the
miydn-i tdnki}.
' '
Persian,
'amidst' refers to singular environment c>U/o miydn only divide between two (>j*
' ' ;
^j fj^flii
among
(e)
" distribute &>>>(*> mdbayn-i du td) taqsim bikun miydn-i du td (or md thousands {J f i~& (Aj\y> ^U/o miydn-i hazdrhd (or U;[>A
;
&
*
o^
^^
Betwixt,' or
'
between
'
is
parties,
but
among' or 'amidst
'
following are examples of a misuse of the preposition between to a confusion of thought in none of them is it clear to what two owing between The English passages are from well-known authors refers. objects
:
The
*
'
'
and the Persian translations have passed muster with educated Persians. * "Between each plane tree 8 are planted box trees " )&* <jr t^;* ^X )^!
l
oUj>
only.
(Ja
j va
ahl-i dihat.
is
noun
*
8
in villages."
given in its stead to a private servant in camp, nominally a kran a day: lucky the servant that gets it. 'Attq, forage
money allowance
and kah (chopped straw). wa bayn, be noticed that though ^Uxj miyan can take the place of the latter cannot always take the place of ^Ux miyan the former refers to singular or
consisting of barley
* It will
(^U
plural environment
6
Taken from Hodgson's " Errors Insert " and the next."
504
nishanda-and. 1
PREPOSITIONS.
"
ma bayn-i har &jijj*j* (^ " where between she bud: stitch could look juzv* every up and see what was ^i J &*. ^UU?^ <& y^j~* a*iu ^A ^jL* vs**Jfjju* Uof j going on in the street
In kitdb juzv juzv chap shud va fdsila-yi ziydd-i
' '
^y
va dnjd mi-tavdnist md-bayn-i har bakhiya sar bald Jcunad va tamdshd-yi tu-yi kucha bi-kunad (m.c.) " between the junction of the Tigris and the Euphra:
a considerable space is left dry ">lj j>^?3 J ^jPj *J^o JtAJ! Jls<.x> ^*jU o*f * md bayn-i mahall-i ittisal-i Dajla 3 va Furdt khushki-yi ziydd-ivdqi,
tes
^"^
shuda
ast.
*
121
(*').
f^*
(/)
With,'
UTJlr^
81^ liamrdh
A cj^ *L>-*
'
association with
'
:
^^
(i.e.
'
ma n
"I was up
at
hamrdh-i bdng-i khurus bar-khdstam (m.c.) " "I b fought with him j|
'
ia u jang kardam
may
on
^ J~
in a friendly sense
p&)
l;j}
v^ii3 b
him."
'With'
' '
(b bd),
sometimes
is
'
signifies
in spite
of
^UU
'
with
all his
wealth he
an unhappy
man
"
0*0!
(g)
On sometimes
'
signifies
I left
him
'
'
fi>;
(J>
tf,
)}
o^^
" on his immediately after, as saying this, In az nazdash e^ e^^ bi-guftan-i harf raftam
:
(m.c.).
Remark.
practically so
:
Td
in
" as
soon as,"
^i>;
uty Jt
(*^
i;
raftam (m.c.) "as soon as I said this, I that the two actions were simultaneous.
(h)
left
him ":
0'
td
properly signifies
Az
)\
'from'
?
(m.c.)
" what sons and daughters have you (what have you
^***'j*>*j j~$y
az pisar va
and daughters ? " ): ^f^ a^. ^y* J^ jl az mal-i savdrl chi ddn ? " what riding animals (horses, mules, or donkeys, not camels) have
The
on
on botany
and
zoology.
*
&+
colloquial but incorrect: also ^>^ J* JA (i>#^ m bayn-i har dujusvvfould " between both the signify parts" and would, therefore, mean that no more than two parts were published. Write ma-baynri juzvha.
Modern
Also Dijla.
'
"Between
"
*\.^&
^#^
r'
^l/ J
zadam
X>iJ <jk;<**
^^
tJjtf
"I
shot
him
in the
head," but
i^P
butt of the
"I
struck
him on
rifle."
505
you
*i j! ;tkju JayJar az ancfo' c?ar jt fTu <^^ ^bb ;U. p&*. chashm-i char-payan kardi bi-chashm-i u kashid "the farrier dropped into his eyes some of the medicine he was accustomed to use for animals."
:
^x
"
'Toward* or 'towards' may be used for both place and time, as were We travelling towards Tehran" pi$fy*^&* &[?& J>A? U ma bi-iaraf-i Tahran safar mi-kardim (m.c.) "towards morning" o,.b taraf-i
(i)
:
subh (m.c.).
_
AORIST.
is
^e
CHAPTER
125.
XVI.
The use of the tenses in classical Persian differs somewhat from that of modern Persian. The Aorist is used both in the Indicative and Subjunctive moods and
expresses indefinite time. (a) The Aorist in Classical Persian
(1)
used
With or without the prefix & as a Present Indefinite. Examples oJb (& AiAA c/f )& pA jX* 6ijj$ guyand malik, ham* dar an hafta shifa yaft
1
:
(Sa'di)
"
they say
shikar-1 bi-barad
Not every day does the sportsman kill his game; It may happen 8 (or it happens) that one day the leopard rends him."
Vaqt-i zarurat chu
na-manad guriz
Dast bi-girad
*'In necessity,
when flight is impossible, hand The perforce lays hold of the sword."
Ouft tarsam ki bind shavad ^ft Uy tf ' " lest he (should) recover his sight fi|*i
:
^ ^
oi^
l;jf
(Sa'dl)
&*
(Sa'dl)
" he said,
is
'
I don't
know
him.'
'
(2) It
*J,
^
'
ya'ni turd
Pres. Indef.
"
they say
"
:
As the sentence stands ham could refer either to malik or to dar ay, hafta. In In &&& ^U* j* dar haman hafta speaking, the accent would show to which it belonged.
2
The Aorists
be
')
of ^Ii5t uftadan
(uftad
and bashad
it
it
may
*
perhaps.'
;
In modern Persian
naml-shinasam
i)*
506
khwdhand pursid
"
that
will
is
(Sa'dl)
you
Judgment day) what your deeds were, not be asked * who your father was
you
will
be asked
(at the
' '
Gul hamin panj ruz u shash bashad Vtn gulistan hamisha khush B bashad
(Sa'dl)
this
"The
of
rose
season
will
last
' '
:
but
-
mine will blossom always *l,*(j _^f ptf <yU Jkf cujU oJi? guft agar jarmafi man ura khdmush kunam. Padishah
1
Gulistan 4
^^^
^^
guff
"he
said,
If
I will silence
him.'
f*jj
halat
j^ifAAfj
The king said, 'It will be a great kindness on your part'" oJ ^^ e>Jdia. A*U 1^0 t[s<> ^ cJU. ^i j.txot_,fi guft agar anjam-i in bar murad-i man bashad chandm diram zahidan ra bi-diham b (Sa'di)
"he
many
^jj jt
Ay
Nay nam z ma u nay nishan khwahad bud Az pish na-budim u nabud hich khalal Az in pas na-bdshim va haman khwahad bud
The word
will last long after
Khayyam's fame
:
Has passed away, yea, and his very name: Aforetime we were not, and none did heed When we are dead and gone, 'twill be the same." (0. K. 150 Whin.).
Guyand mard ki, U khud na-dihad
'
var bi-dihad
man na-kunam
'
!
"They say, May Allah grant thee penitence He grants it not, and did he, I'd rebel."
(0.
(3) It is
leas
K. 329 Whin.).
used as a Pres. Subj., or Conditional: ^jf l^ A^ AiiyLi " na-tavdnad ki bi-ja dvarad (Sa'dl) 7 "none is able to perform it.
In modern Persian t>*-oj ^iAt^.^3
\\
az tu
khwahand
pursid.
Note the regular Future and the Aorist in the same sentence, apparently with precisely the same meaning. 8 Khash old for Js&ush. * Gulistan of course means Rose Garden.' 5 Mod. Pers. ml-diham. ^f^ /*A^-^- fehwaham dad, or *>
2
'
6
T
Zahid
tiAjj
a religious person
The Subjunctive after ^Luujjy tavanistan, though the ordinary construction modern Persian, is not v^ery common in the classical language.
507
*>" i) (>*/ tarsidam ki az bim-i gazand-i fw 31 man kunand kh.wish qasd-i haldk-i (Sa'dl) "I feared lest they (the ministers) through fear of their own life might (or should) determine on my
destruction
<^^ cuc;U G i^yt bi-farmud td musdra at kunand (Sa'dl) " he " ordered them to wrestle (i.e. so that they should wrestle) JU-jj-c ^\ ^=*. j*\
6
' :
"
Khuda-yi*
chi milk-i
'azz a va jail
man
astisdr-i
ki pushida
am har
vasf-i
Sa'dl
''such amplitude have you employed in praising them would suppose that they are the antidote for hunger's
of the
poison tj eu<^
or else
s\)'A'
the key
treasury
of God's
bounty":
b;t
"were
bar fishdnad dast ra (Sa'dl) the Qazi even to sit with us he would wave his arms in time to the
4
j> ^ixij
^^
qdzi ar bd
ma nishmad
music."
OjJ^ jlj;LL(
j)
()\j*-J
$ jf
bihisht
bdshad jay
6 *i^ cti^ p&> Gujtam chundn khufta-and ki gu^i murda-and ^fi ^ " I said they are in such a deep sleep that you would suppose **\ *t>j*> (Sa'dl) they were dead."
Tu
gu*i
to,
qiydmat
zisht~ru*i
Bar u khaim-ast u bar Yusuf niku^i (Sa'd!) Thou wouldst suppose that, till the world's end, ugliness
'
'
Has reached
its
height in
him
as beauty has in
Joseph
the past tense would have been used here had the author wished to the idea that convey they wrestled then and there on the spot. 2 Note Aorist the Present could not be substituted in this condition Izafat incorrect.
1
Kardand
^^
p*^^
or
ml-kunam
are
also
jt
j*in
in a
shurb,
or
majlis-i
tarab.
They
expert
making a loud
1
snapping
think,
noise
with
their
t,
fingers
(taling
zadan).
Contrary to
the dictionaries,
^ilAi^j c^o^ j a8
motion
of the
No
Persian
whom
f
,i
Note this meaning of gu l and compare^ gu \' say, suppose, although." Elsewhere Sa'di usee the 2nd pers. sing, of what may be the Past Habitual (identical in ** this person with the Preterite) or the Preterite, in the same sense as i^j*-
^/
508
(i.e.
just as
none can be as
beautiful as Joseph).
(6)
(1)
is
Jf; *' **> Examples in m.c. of this rare use are (**) " it is said that Zal the father guyand ki Zal pidar-i Rustam (Prof. S. T.) oJia ; ,*-; ^t <*-lj cjU. ^/^-o & *$\ j** Nasr Ullah of Rustam" " Nasr Ullah Khan ra Karwi in rasm bashad Khan ki pisar-i guzasht (m.c.}
in telling stories.
^
:
Khan who
is
the son of
l<
Karim Khan
"
&*9jf 1^*5-
chunm guyand (m.c.) so they say." The Aorist is, however, used as a Pres. Subj., in place of the Present " U Ts there any one of you who knows (to know) Turkish ? English, as
* c
:
in
jl
&>!&>
is
c/j3
uiA~,A
(JfM
.<
" There
it
*'
o~~jj
'
<_c~
In neither
It is
* guyam (Sa'dT, also m.c.) "he said 'what shall I ^f " ** chi kunam ? (m.c.) " what can I do, what should I do ? " say ? " ka r ra bi-kunam ? (m.c.) " shall I do this ? )K &$ ^A^o ^/oU ^^o " I'm s ** man zamin mt-shavam ki u guarantee J^J j pul bi-dihad (m.c.) for him to give (the money) " jjl# &' i**& *<^) wa'da mt-kunamki bi-yayam
^
:
f
oif
'
but
^^
^A(^
that I will
da mi-kunam ki Tchwajjt^.%
!;
^^
^*J>
bar khak-ash rikhta (Sa'di) " you would have said that bits of enamel had fallen on the ground *' (the leaves are compared to
ki Jchurda-yi
;
mma
bits of enamel).
>
t^
Bavur na-dashtam
Bawg-i murgh-i
ki tura
(Sa'di)
the Preterite (not the Past Habitual) is used for the supposition " I did not believe, I would not have supposed that." Tn modern Persian the Imperfect would be used instead of ^'^ gu 9 i or ^'^ guftU
in
&$
ham-chunm
is
mi-gufti ki.
Gufl
i^f&X
1
The word^5-O
common
is
in India for
Dastur ;j-i^^
6 U-^ (m.c.) is a vulgar joke ra dastur mi-kunlm f**^' )j*~& ]) addressed to a Zardushti priest. The Arabs use the word for " permission."
or perplexity
sentences
*
obvious.
But
*$
dad
(m.c.), * Vide
"
(*A^
he
e^^ c^
ma zamin rm-shavam
ki
u pul khwahad
I guarantee that
(b) (4).
509
zin va dahana-yi khud rd hamrdh bi-baram yd az " shall I (should I) take my saddle and bi-giram (m.c.) chdpdr-khdna ndyib-i " bridle or (can I) get them from the owner of the post-horses ?
;L>U.
^li
Jt
(j
'
The Present
participle in e/f
of eJ-^
shudan
also expresses the Future, vide (o). Present Subjunctive,'2 (3) It is used as a
introduced by t ki, 13 td, &ZU td-ki, 13 *>" ki td\ and also where a doubt is expressed in subordinate clauses, expressing an object, order, advice, hope, duty, desire, distinction, fear, permission, doubt, etc.
ki bi-bdzdr bi-ravi (m.c.)
:
^y
:
;|jL>
AJ a&ijj vaqt-i
to go to the
bazar"
LSJj*
)^
**
*^m>
(but
(said to
a person
who
about to go or generally goes ) tf \) vsyfc[ji. ^IAI^O bi-Khdn bi-dihim (m.c.) *' you know that
* '
when
(or if) we (happen to give) your sister in marriage to the Khan "; when we give, as we are going to give " $\A mi-dihim would mean ibrat-i hama-yi ^SkJ JU <u& e^c tf /*ij ^MJJ** hdld divdn-i bi-kunam ki " now I will 'dlarn bi-shavad (m.c.) a that will be a warning judgment give " to the whole world. In writing the Definite Future could be substituted
Ao>jxjjx>
: *
and
come " ^Uj U^ f;!^Vf umrmdvdrhope you am shumd bi-ydyld (m.c.) " I hoped you would (might) come " (^jtj-^t ^jJUi l*> ummidvdr budam shumd bi-ydyid.
Aorist could be used.
"
any
*'
:
able to
"
The magpie
(
steals
it is
>>OM>
td
cJlfij *ifjixx>
G ^ J^x-o^^j^
J^|/
it
or )
;
mi kunad va
mi-kunad
(4) It
or
panhdn
i<&\^.>
" whatever
may
be able to."
:
"I had
" no book to read p&\*J ^U^ kitdb-i na-ddshtam ki bi-khwdnam fJI>so " I had no tools to cut book to read, that I might read) (m.c.) (I had no
:
" with
J^j
AJ
/*jj
*$
(or thread)
c*^^' asbdb-i pish-iman na-budki bi-buram (m.c.) " with which to strengthen the snares <j-x3 &
6
j*|^
t$ ^AJ
^ nazd-i'
man nakh
:
na-bud ki
dam
ra mazbut bi-kunam
(m.c.).
(5)
It
is
used optatively as
Shagird-chapar J-^
C hapar-chl is
^^\8
the
man who
the postboy with the horses, while the;^ chapar or na'ib-chapar is the carries the post, and the
J^ ^^
:
master of the
2
is
subject to a conjunction
vide
126 Subjunc-
tive
Mood.
3
" I had not." Compare Hindustani mere pas man na-bud nakh na dashtam ki-~. Better (*&**> I had not (there was not near mo)." na-tha
Nazd-i
&#<>*&
510
may your have eaten) blind me, if I have misrepresented the facts." used for the Imperative as ti (6) It is sometimes (J& \jo.* <JjJ ~& td vail pul na-glri, qatra-i db bi-kas-i na-dihi (Tr. H.B. Chap. IX) ^A*J C5 " " but till you receive payment don't give a drop of water to any one
'
"
(m.c.)
salt (that I
^^
Mood,
as
^,
biravlm
t:
let
us go."
used for the Preterite Indicative in English.
Vide
126
(c).
is
Remark I. It will be seen that the Aorist (Present Subjunctive) used in subordinate clauses expressing an " object, consequence, order,
advice, hope, fear, duty, desire, inclination, effort, permission, necessity," and often in conditions. Vide also Subordinate Clauses and examples
Tenses Appendix. In sentences expressing <c purpose, resolution or wish, etc.," the Infinitive can usually be substituted for a subordinate clause in
of the
,
Remark 1 1.
fia ^^
ddshtam or py.
'
^M^
khwastam bi-ravam.
tavdnad bud " to be down weighed by trifles is ty &\jttsLc ft &*$ }j*j* ^m>^ (class.) to be like an old woman"; were ast substituted for a# <^*fy tawdnad bud The writer however implies that even some ^k*^ it would show certainty.
Remark
III.
ajafiz
'ajatiz
(c)
Persian
the
Present
Tense
&*>
is
is
chiefly
^^>c
*
tf
mi-guyad (Sa'di)
what
he saying
"
Ki az dahdn-'sh* bi-dar mi-kunand danddn-i ? (Sa'di). " Hast thou not seen what pain a person suffers
While a single tooth
1
is
"
?
Karda basham
fb t^
is
an example
Vide
126.
a
3
is generally, if not always, observed; but in the Anvar-i usually used for both Presents, except in the verses.
Dahan-sh (poetical
license).
Persian dentist (who has but one pattern and one pair of forceps for every kind of extraction) first lays the patient flat on the floor and then sits on his chest. Operator and operated-on then roll on the floor for a few minutes in an agonised embrace. As a Persian rarely submits to having a tooth extracted unless
he
is
Some modern
with his back to a wall. The tooth is then secured and the patient dragged round the room. In Sa'di's time the methods were perhaps more primitive.
511
Persian rarely used as a Future [vide (d) (2) for the modern use of the Present for the Future], an instance of such usage
in
classical
& ^ tf ***/* -^'3 being ^^~J o^^L^' *-***[** ^b+i** j ^vyi OA*OJJ ^-J^XAX a*jj zdhid farmud ki man si ruq'a rni-namsam ; tu bi-dast-i amin-% u mu'tamad-i ' sdhib u l-ikhlds bi-sipar " the pious man replied, I will write three letters and
:
l
'
do thou deliver them into the hand of a select officer, and a confidential oif (Gul.,Chap. Ill, St. 14). and faithful person:' " fA^*/>Uj ^ ojo (d) In modern Persian the Present Tense is used
(1)
As a Present,
"
definite
or indefinite, as: o~~y >^ jf u hdld mlA u har ruz mi-navtaad writing" ^^.^ )#j i\
:
^
*!
In m.c. and in
modern writing
it is
p&* ^U3
pZ**.
show you
:
(instruct
*^\
*U**I
J5>xf
JL,
sdl-i
dyanda
inshd*
"next year
:
I will go to Tabriz
D. V."
(9)
man
(^j.j &&,\js ^-AJ O^AJ^ agar u bi-nawkarl pish-i shumd biydyad kdr-i khub-i *st(or ml-bdshad or khwdhad bud) m.c. "it 'would be a good thing if he came to you as a servant " o~^t <kjv& t^y farddshamba ast (m.c.) " tomorrow Ll# A*A hama-ruza in will be a Saturday v^Uy ^ j*>
(&
nami-ravam, bi-man cM? man naml-ravam (m.c.) Mi^g**w " *' ^ won't go, I won't go ^1^? U ^jiu isfj**. $ j>\ *^ o*
1
.
or^b
or
'
'
ot
^^
^^
*st
worry and annoyance." It may also be used like the English Future in issuing commands, and is in such case more polite than the direct Imperative, as: Ui^> )& \j )j+$ ^tj Taymur rd dar har jd-yi <*w> ^M^ lacujj jj;^f *4^X& ^*J |A>O 8j>/
^^^
^AJ
^(^
b 6 dunyd bdshad surdgh karda paydd namuda mt-girld dast basta mi-dvarid " track Taimur to whatever injd (m.c.) spot in the globe he may have and find track seize him and him, gone, bring him here bound." This Future is more polite than the Imperative.
of
[vide
^ty ^iu
f^
v ltf ^f J\
Note
2
to the
3
*
6
The Present here is for the Immediate Future, an idiom common also in Hindustani. would be added <^ of unity. In modern Persian this second word only. Insha 9 Allah " if God pleases, D.V." corresponds to the English "I hope to." " Compare the English I'm going now; I'm going home next year."
The Present,
In
to indicate certainty.
Here
not **-*
\)
J&t>
ra basta "having
bound
his
hands" but
the intonation compound adj. dast-basia to agree with \\ ura understood: in speaking, two constructions. between these distinguishes
512
man
it
fa*-
ida-i
"if
buy
this
book
will
be of no use to me."
sometimes used in m.c. in a Potential sense as ^ o^ojS ^tj> ^^3 zanhd-i ddrad Kir man ki >jjj c^" B^A* o^ 3' b p^* **)j rd az miydna-yi safida mi-zanand (Profess. Story Teller) zarda-yi tukhm
(3)
is
The Present
8
also
A3
of women (so tricky) that they can steal the yolk of an egg from the midst of its white." (4) In quoting an author living or dead, either the Present or the Perfect " Tensecan be used, as Shaykh Sa'di says "( OM) *ii or) *>j*'Q ^z*-*
'
f*j
va Shaykh Sa'di mi-guyad (or gufta ast) (m.c.), but the latter might mean "he has spoken " whereas the Present would refer to his writings. (5) In dramatic narration, the narrator will sometimes transfer himself
to the time of his narration, and speak of past events as present, and conIn modern writing sequently employ the Present instead of the Past
this Historical Present
is
common.
Examples
j&>
\j
\**>
f*j.t>
\)
j ^<j
Khudd
-
rd shukr
kardam
tS
<xxx'
ki pisar-i
man
"
saw
son"2
"
<i^T
ki
>;'**
^c
^^ AJSJ
^J^ j>
dn-bud ki " when he be made in he s"aw that there was no to went, gain 3 was the reason he returned." Raftam did am jahdz nisi* " when I arrived I saw that the +&) (m.c.) ship had gone,
fd^ida-i bardy-i-u na-ddrad,
;
mi binad
it would be equally correct to say <^-J jahdz nabud or ty a&j^C^i jahdz rafta bud, the tense used depending on the dramatic
3^
vice versa,
&$
f^
cuiu
^L
31
Haji Baba, Chap. XI). saw an ourang outang coming towards him," it is better to say ^jf ^*> y Ojt ^^liuwo &' 4Xj> did ki nasnds-i taraf-i u* mi-dyad **& did nasnds-i taraf-i u mi-dmad (m.c.), L5*^' ^j* c5(m.c.), than
(Tr.
In,
"He
is
also correct.
^j^
^(i^ ^4
A/
(i,uj
Indians and Afghans write and say <yo &*. chi mi-binad ki yak nasnds-i taraf-i u mi-dyad.
chi
Note
2
8
i^s of unity with pi. and its signification. This however may be considered an example of direct narration,
Note that
Better i-^X^o^j OA^aaJT j| az an jihat bar- ml- gar dad. this is not the direct narration.
513
er-^c^/
r;
<x>
r x>^
:
**.
**1 lUf
^Xj
Jtyj^
it is
(Tr.
his voice
seemed familiar
is
what do I
my
sometimes used
wast a thief
know thou
"
<^ip
*> it
j*i~J|j^
If
that you were the thief (of that article then)." that are at all times equally true or (7) Propositions equally false should generally be expressed by the Present, whether in English or
in
know
Persian,
'
as:
"He
was such a
fool
that he didn't
know
l
" (not was') above his head ow*y ^ u chunin ahmaq bud kinami-ddnist dsmdn
%
the sky
'
is
^b ^Uwf o~of^ *f
'
(m.c)
tf&jljPj w* o*^ vs*-fj* C/* )^ 5 f*if pidar-i man u tu Adam, va mddar-i man Havvd ast? pas man u tu barddar-lm (class.) '* the father of you and of me was Adam and our mother was Eve therefore we are brothers.'
'
:
(8)
The Present
is
action that
am)
in this place
"
^A l?d.J|^
:
A>
^xx> or
o~f
-*1
JU
dah
^f shavad) kidarmjd hastam (m.c.) ^-* c^y^j ^ *> t5^ khayli vaqt (t l have been for a long time (and still am) ast ki bimar-i bistarl hastam
confined to
my
bed."
"I have
jjJ*T
Persian"
(*jyf
^ ^^
:
been striving
0*^.3 *$ os^f
JU
chand sal
(m.c.).
Remark
Both
in
classical
and
in
modem
is
dramatically used for the Future, as an dah dinar mali ust cu-jt JU
'
^^^*
it
'
'
*&
him
(class.)
bring
"he said, whoever may happen it to me and ten dinars of that will be
8
to have found
his reward.'
Remark II. A Continuative Present can be formed by the Present vide' (o). Participle and the verbs, &*j* budan and &*~ shudan,
(e)
(1)
The
classical Definite
Future
4
is
,
of
as:
asman)
to avoid repetition.
i8
2
3
Bud would
signify that
Adam was my
not now.'
Direct narration.
The unapocopated 33
Vide
79
(6).
514
Gar tu dar khdna sayd khwdhi Z)as w pd-yat chu 'ankabut buvad
]
' '
(Sa'dl).
If
you hunt only in your house, Your legs are weak and useless as those
(class.)
of spiders."
*T
f;'a
man
yaqln ddram
&*>&
^ ^^ ^
ki
"what
will
you
do ? "
^aj
."I
^yc
u khwahad dmad
(m.c.)
am
fULa ^* man gamin-am ki u pul bi8 dihad (m.c.) "I am security for him to pay the money"; the Future here would mean I am certain he will pay it **|^ y s$ fj </ " I think or am of amad u khwahad ki mt-baram opinion (m.c. only) guman that he will come," but AJ^J &f pj* uf*\ifa& guman mi-baram ki bi-yayad " I think he JU*^| ihtimal mlmay come." So too (m.c. and correct) ravad "there is a probability," expresses a doubt in itself and is therefore
certain he will
come," but
'
J^y
*^
'
^^
followed, not
tive,
by the Future
*J
Indicative, but
by the Present
*?
or Past Subjunc-
as: a^J
will
fi
&>
&jj**
JU^t
bibandad
(m.c.)
"it
ki
^j
^^
JUxa.f ihtimal
mi-ravad
yakh basta bashad (m.c.) "it has probably frozen." This Definite Future (and not the Future- Present Tense) used in speaking by Indians and Afghans.
is
regularly
indicates certainty.
:
" but y^J <*jb " this must be (m.c.) (certainly will be) some animal, L&*W> t*M " be be to or must this bashad (m.c.) (doubtful) some jdnvar-i bdyad ought
might say
<*k[yk
<^;y^
animal
"
i^|j.s6
^Lj(
^UJ ^t
sS o.*t j&Ub
(J
^
is
it
man";
be,"
while
"
AJfjii
mean
it is
impossible for it to
(2)
This Future
vide
sentences,
place
is
frequently used in classical Persian in conditional 12S (<T but in such clauses in modern Persian its
is
;
(/)
taken by the Aorist, i.e. the Present Subjunctive. In modern Persian the Definite Future is not much used
when used
:
it
*^ ^ ^ ^^
in a conditional sense,
(Pres. Sub.)
would be
"
O^
mi-jchwahi
(class.)
This construction
is still
do not say he
will
am security for
his
dad
.MA
*A|^
II.
would be the
narration
paying it Vide
khwahad
131
(/),
Remark
*
*'
it is
probably freezing."
515
am ham
though
bi-mirad in kdr ra
father were to die
my
(m.c.)
"
j\
I
(1
will
do
this
even
^io j&\
kdr na-khwdham guzasht (m.c.) agar dunyd rd tufdn bi-girad man az sar-i "even though the Deluge were to come I will not give up accomplishing
this."
yo
^L ^U^t ^ Ui d J\
sdlhd ast ki mi-sitdnam va IjJLs " for many years I have collected girift (Tr. H. B., Chap. VII) and will continue to collect (this sum)," the Definite Future is necessary in the second verb.
In, j fJU**
(^/o
OAy f*!^
&f
e^|
khwdham
Preterite or Definite Past is used in narration and usually to the same tense in English. As it is used in narrating events corresponds that closely follow each other, it will sometimes take the place of the English
(g)
The
Perfect
and sometimes
(I).
In classical Persian, a
is
however affecting the sense, as: p**\k *$ &j e*~/o ^lia. *$ ^^ f**i*jt c^ c*jj JUvo y chun bi-ra$idam bu-yi gul-am chundn mast kard ki ddman-am az
dast bi-raft
(Sa'di)
" when
I
roses
so
intoxicated
rne that
lost
This pleonastic
** is
very
common
In, (*x^J
in poetry.
oJif guft bdkhsliidam agarchi maslahat na" didam* (Sa'di) I have forgiven him though I do not approve," the two verbs in the Preterite signify an action just past and done with, the time of which is therefore known bakhshida-am f|jjJUu would mean that
:
t^y^ a/
C5
?
is
guftl ki khurda-yi
rikhta*
the second person of the old Past Habitual tense and not of the Preterite. Vide p. 507, footnote 5.
(Sa di), the verb oJif guftl
5
In,
f<^ *jy
<^t
gi) j
p~-&
j\
(3-^-5
(!>te
*&
(*^**
ma'lum shud
ki dvdz-i nd-khush
(Sa'di)
4
"I
see that I
it
ddram va khalq az nafas-am dar ranj-and, tawba kardam have a disagreeable voice, I repent me," <^shud is in
refers
the Preterite as
to
and
it
also signifies
/0
have
while
if
the Present
Sj^
^*
ma'lum ml-shavad
were used the signification would be *it is now appearing to the Perfect ou^f o^> o*** ma'ium shuda ast would signify
me
' '
that
'
:
it-
has become
tty
known
that":
also
the Preterite
pt>j>
tawba
'
Bett r than
^^^
a
3
correct.
Guft,
:
chi
mubarak khwab-l
shud ki
'avaz-i
ki
dldl
inki
.'
mara bar
gardanidl
tna'lilm
naJchuah daram
516
is
The Preterite is used to express an action just completed, provided there " have no continuance of the action, as: Dava Jchwurdl ^^^^ Ija? you taken the medicine (now)?": al-an khwurdam py^ vy)li "I have just
swallowed it."
The
Aorist
(S&S*
Preterite
is
also
in
conditional
sentences,
to
(^&^^
(e)
you move
128
on, you are safe; if you sleep, and (/), Conditional Clauses.
Vide
It is also
shuma fahmidid
it
bi-navisld
' '
j*> har chtz ki u guft va whatever he says and you understand write
j!
,
^j
***&
** j**-
here the Pres. Subjunctive could be substituted, AJ^J jt *O**- ^*> U& har chiz ki u bi-guyad va shuma bi-fahmid. j -XM^IJ After verbs of ordering and the like, the Preterite in classical, not in
to
;
me"
modern, Persian shows that the order was forthwith executed, as:
*>t>\
&j*j* ^-^c
o**Jj OA*!.
f;
.iLUf
li
malik farmud
order,
to
b
ta ustad
(Sa'di)
honour
l>
"
:
&>><*>
JU*AJ
j ojda.
issued.
Vide
125
In, pidj> cu/olUj ^!A j pisf Uj j ^Ui* j OA.J *>" ft^ixi vj>f j*> ijU chara-1 juz an na didim ki rakht u silah va jama riha kardlm va jdn bi-salamat burdim 6 (Sa'di) " we saw nothing for it but to give up our goods 7 and our
AU
arms and our clothes in order to save our lives." For an example of the Preterite supplying the place
Infinite, vide (m) (9), footnote (3).
of
an English
Vide also
(k).
When
1
8
a servant
is
p^
-k^
f&)j^
&>
f&j$
&..
In the absence of an adverb of time, these Preterites might refer to Past time. In'am fUif might be a small sum but *-^*+*i ni'mat means " benefits " generally,
and has a wider sense. 5 The Preterite shows that the king saw the order carried out. The Aorist merely shows that the order was issued for the benefits to bo bestowed then or at some future time an order that in Persia would be but imperfectly carried out, if at all. In mod. Per. however this ambiguous Aorist is always used. 6 In mod Pers. riha kunim and barim. 1 Ralcht is not clear it means either clothes or baggage.
.
517
vide p. 13
(8).
:
Preterite always refers to a definite point of time Vide Examples at end of this section. indefinite time.
The
the Perfect to an
In m.c., the Preterite, like the Imperfect [vide (h) ], is often used for the Present * cr^ jt? ^*) ** /** J )^ ^ p* )^j$*> -^^ jl t/ >^*j jt
:
1
kunam
ta bazar
ham
ki
rajti
karda ast (Vazir- i Lankaran) "then I must make you acquainted with the matter before-hand, lest when you go to the bazaar and meet somebody, you spread about that the Vazir has confided to you such
khidmat-t
ruju'
d**j&6 &* man digar misl-i tu pisar" I no baradar-i ham na-lchwastam (Vazir-i Lankuran) longer want a nephew like you" harf-l dashtam bi-guyam-at (m.c.) "I have o^j^ p&\* to to daram ki bio-*..^> ^ pti <^*f*> harf-l you": say something *' to to I am have I say something you." going guyam-at (h) The Imperfect denotes (1) The frequency or duration of an action and frequently takes the place
and such service
' ' :
^^
" ;>iU ^f gave back the echo again and again an cu*ol ^;jj ^^&> xikyo bi-nazar namij&v ^t ^t*^^ jl <^V janvar j*^iAX) amad Ukin az sada-yi u ma'lum mi-shud ki khayli buzurg ast (m.c.) " that animal continued to keep out of sight, but from its cry I thought (kept
ml-amad
" the (m.c.)
hills
^^
!**>
3'
&&
bar bar az
:
kuh sada
^^
on thinking) that
CA^*<J^O U/i ij^a.
(m.c.)
" while I
<y
" *$ AT ^i*j must be a very large beast {*>* f^f 4 i ml-sukht shuma ki dldam mi-amadam ki chiragh vaqt-i " *-&*> was returning I saw that your lamp was burning \j
it
:
:
u munag&ghas shud b -chara 6 nami-danistand (Sa'di) "the king's enjoyment was disturbed (by the blubbering of the slave) but no remedy could be found"; here the Imperfect <>*wit<xi^ naml-danistand signifies that the people kept on thinking
^xwi|dJ^ ^la.
^aAvo jt
'j
cA^ malik
ra 'aysh az
Bi-gufta
(Sa'di).
Vide also Subjunctive Mood for use of Preterite for the Present.
^
8
128
(e)
Remark,
Here
i^sij*
bi-ravl
is
^'j
/0 raftl or C5Jlrt
m*
rav *
Or 53^^
ml-suzad
is still
burning."
bud, or
^
har
been used
J\
cT^ *&*
'ayah az u munayhghaa ml- shud would be correct. 6 In modern Persian chara-l would be preferred.
518
of a
IMS ^ remedy but couldn't discover one. f^j^l up*^* L) " I studied Persian on and off for a year," but JU <Jo l> Farsi mi-amukhtam ta sal Farsi amukhtam " I studied Persian continuously for yak ^.kLjxjf {J^^9
a year."
In the sentence
mi-guftand
(m.c.)
(&*'.]&*+*
^ ^J
tikin
man
na-danistam chi
"I
Imperfect
didn't understand what they were saying," the nami-danistam could be substituted and would be more
'
dramatic, signifying that all the time they were speaking I failed to understand them.' The Imperfect therefore also signifies that an action is a " it was habit, as my p&j$* >\ &*}& jj) j* liar ruz didan-i u mi-raftam (m.c.)
l
:
habit to visit
' '
" The Preterite is used in (2) Doctor Rosen says narrating events which Whenever the narration is interrupted by follow close on one another.
a description or a simultaneous action, the Imperfect
is
used as in the
\&+o bi-shahr rasldlm bazar following example: & ^jj;^ ^tjb p>**) jfa raftim, shakhs-i sada kard 'we reached the town, we went to the market,
a somebody shouted.'
^sj
But in the
&**
(tx^
we reached
the town, we went to the market, some one was shouting,' the third action took place either simultaneously with or before the second one."
", in narration, can often be ren(3) The English phrase "I began to dered by the Imperfect, as "I went to the city and began to look (i.e. while I was looking) at the shops, when suddenly I heard the sound of firing^ *J p&j
:
ajiyL
pj&
y>> <_c!^
ulfli
8
&f
dukanhd
ml-kardam
ki-
<^LiU3 j raftam bi-shahr va tamaslia-yi nagah sada-yi tup bi-gush-am khwurd (me.): the
f*fy \^fo
reason for the Imperfect in this sentence is explained at the end of (2). A similar use of the Imperfect is illustrated by c*~& ^j^Zj*
fcr*
j;
bj$
^lA J&&
^^
&te
)
&$
murcjh
"the bird was going to alight when suddenly some one " " Ai~*^J nishasta bud was sitting " would be expressed by fired a gun; " was mi-nishast has either the previous seated," and the Imperfect o**i
tufang khall kard (m.c
^
;
" used to
sit
"
also
Dldan
for bi-dldan.
<5j>
*
S
Sada kard
(>^ could
also
mean
"called us."
bi-tamasha kardan-i dukanha would
'
Ui bina kardam IfJfo (Dbjf IwUxj f&jf to the gun.' I I heard as look, began just
*
AS"
mean
Also
fj}ty
<^^J ^)
\j
14* mi-raft
bi-nishlnad
(m.c.)
"wanted
to settle."
p**j
&*
when
"
v^
man
daram
ki
this
sitting still
" I was just going to lift the book who did not rise from his seat.
519
dddan va bi-yak dast asbdb tlz kardan khayll mushkil bud balki Inch kdr sakhta nami-shud (m.c.) " to turn the wheel with one hand and sharpen the tools with the other was by no means easy, in fact no work
could be
' '
done": kar-l az u sakhta mi-shavad (m.c.) ^* AJukU^i jf was he capable of doing any work ? (5) The Imperfect is in m.c. often used instead of the Present. Though
'
:
^K
considered vulgar,
it is
this
construction. 1
Thus
AJJ^J
^jo^iu/o
^^
khwasfid 1 biravid (m.c.) "what shop was it is considered a more polite (fasih} form than,
sometimes more polite to use ^x, bi-kuddm dukan miyou were wishing to visit?"
<UA^.i4A> p\& bi-kuddm " what 2 " *A* shop do' you want to go to ? " what did you expect to tj&i (Ju-fjiu/o chi mi-khwdsti bi-shavad (m.c.) &*. chi but mi-khwdhi bi-shavad (m.c.) "what do *j&> ^Af^iuxx) happen?" " A dispensing chemist might say to a customer who you wish to happen ? had come to him before with the prescription, *** o*t ism-at chi bud ?
a^
^^
(m.c.)
(6) Lastly, the Imperfect is used to denote conditions and not real actions, vide (i) and Conditional and Optative Clauses.
^
kim
l>
(&1
^ f*M j^
tj.-
rabavar mi-kardam*
(Vazir-i
that she sends a jacket worth some 50 or 60 tumans as a present to your wife! That is to say. am I such a fool that I should believe this? (should
have believed
this
)."
In modern Persian, the place of the Imperfect is sometimes taken the Continuative Perfect; the difference being that the latter tense by signifies that the speaker was not present on the occasion mentioned or has no
personal knowledge of the facts, whereas the Imperfect leaves these points doubtful. Vide (t).
The Past Potential* or Habitual Tense (obsolete in m.c.) differs from the Imperfect and was possibly merely another form of it.
(i)
little
It is
Even
is
Persian
well-educated Persians frequently use this construction. The best colloquial not undersimple and not too correct. One of the reasons that Persians do
stand Indians that speak Persian, is that the lattar speak too correctly and employ even. An compound adjectives and words that Persians do not use in ordinary writing clause to a short use will Persian where a use one will Indian (correct) word, frequently that word. express
2 S
The time might also refer to yesterday. Or better fiXi bi-kunam: also i/ f*t^ khwaham
This tense in
its
kard.
127.
is
This sentence
is
prac-
still
used in conditional
it
sentences
Afghans
in
speaking.
in
writing only.
520
it
AJ.
^a
is
and
in this
always omitted. In classical Persian, it can take the place of the Imperfect to signify habitual action, as e)|/&!>> j ^*j^ \) ^-JUe ^5'V'LA e^^jj^ (*>** t$
:
^^
&^
jJaj Lff&]&
f)
zalim-i ra hikayat
kunand
% s lavangaran ra dadl bi-tarh (Sa'di) "it is told of a certain tyrant that he used forcibly to buy wood for fuel from the poor, and sell it to the rich at a
good profit"
kardandi
11
^aii&o AJliasR/o (^Jaj j ^j*>^ S*H) V*J vagthd zamzama-l* va bayt-i muhaqqiqana bi-quftandl'1 (Sa'di) "at times they were " 5 humming a little and reciting mystical verses jb j c^y ^U~o &y ^1 " a certain one ^^i-^Cij yak-l tawba-yi* bisyar kardi* va baz bi-shikasti* (Sa'di)
: :
used to repent oft but ever fall again." (2) It has also a potential sense, as:
jlj _>**
I^ A
**)*> **
jdvdnl bi-badraqa hamrah-i ma shud sipar-baz u charkh-andaz u silah-shur va bish-zur ki dah mard-i tavana kaman-i ura bi-zih
h^
na-kardandi'1 va zuravaran
{<
(Sa'di)
zamin pusht-iura bar zamln na-yavardandi there went with us as an escort a youth, skilled in the use of
i
15
ru-yi
127 and
128.
Remark I. In certain conditional sentences this tense can be interchanged with the Imperfect, either the same tense being used in the protasis and apodosis, or one tense in one, and the other in the other.
Remark
II.
In
usually take the place of this tense in Predicative and Conditional sentences.
still
in
India
is called
and Afghanistan)
it
is
in
pronunciation
1
by grammarians the
(j)fj^***J CS ^ yo-yi
Bi-tarh dadan
In old Persian J>fr^ <^\t ya-yi majhul i.e. kharlde, dade, is an idiom still used in Persia, but is rare.
;
etc.
*
6
Zamzam
(*jfj is
lit.
the
'
name
of a well at
Mekka supposed
away
from
to be
Hagar's
well.
Tawba *J^
turning the
heart
sin'
signifies
renouncing
sin.
6 The Imperfect tense could be substituted for the Past Habitual and would be correct either in classical or in modern Persian.
1
in this sentence,
Note the
last
j only
is
pronounced
va.
521
and Past Subjunctive or Presumptive Past. two are identical in form, as ^f ofy j| Aj* $ ^Hr J lx) <^ ta tarydq az 'Iraq dvarda shavad mdr-gazlda murda **j* bdshad (Sa'di) "before 2 the antidote can be procured from Iraq the " person bitten by the snake will have died J? u **) ij *&.$ x^b ta chubdn bi-rasad gurg gusfand rd khwurda bdshad " the time (class.) by " the shepherd arrives the wolf will have eaten the lai ^ ^Ij^t sheep
Perfect,
The Future
In
^ ^^
,
dar nazar-i a'ydn u buzurgdn-i Hazrat-i Khudavandl fa-kayj azz nasruh" ki...ast agar dar siyaq-i sukhan diliri kunam shukhl karda basham " how much the more then were I to display boldness in (Sa'di) pursuing in the of the speech presence distinguished nobles, etc., etc., shall I have
(
Td mard sukhan
'
8 na-gufta bdshad
Ayb u hunar-ash
" As long as a
man may not have spoken His good and bad points are hidden."
AJ
^ guyand ki kas dar sardy mst va bi-haqiqat rdst gufta bdshand (Sa'di) " and they (the doorkeepers) say that there is no one in the house, and they may in fact
j CU-AJ
^^ j^ ^
&$ di
^iiif |; ^^ w^L p\ UJjjxiJ o~f u/ijf *$ ^^L ^li Aiiy OA^^ |;j| ^^^r a^ sdhib-dil-i rd guftand bidin khubl ki dftdb ast noshunida-im ki kas-i urn dust girifta bdshad* (Sa*di) "it was remarked to a
;
^^
certain
wise
man
we have
never yet heard that any one has looked (should have looked) on him as a friend.'" Vide % 126 (k).
(2)
' *
**j &*&* 1 (; &*s jJiJvSy kdghaz bi-Landan bi-rasad bdyad u 55^ f< ta*lif-i khud rd tamdm karda bdshad (me.) by the time this letter reaches
bdyad
<xt>
In modern Persian this tense *Alj J^y must "or **L> shay ad " " perhaps ,' as
(
is
:
' '
'
usually preceded
by
^
&
*M <^J
*fiL>l
id inki
In
iJ^-^
murda
ast
instead of the Future Perfect, to signify certainty. 2 Perhaps a more accurate translation of ta in this kind of sentence time that." In m.c. it also means " as soon as."
is
"by
the
Na guyad ^J>& or na gu/ta ast ^+*\ AiA&, alteration in the meaning. * i.e. the rich owners inside count as ' nobody.'
3
6
little
Ai^
or
^^
girifta ast.
6 7
of
*&jf ^
London he
will
his
book "
is
probably
his book,
must havo
[vide (5)].
another method of expressing the Future Perfect, i.e. by the Past Participle of the verb with the Definite Future, as &*& **\t *^ f ^ I; a>^ v^j' ^*r? td In kdghz bi-Landan bi-rasad u kitdb-i
:
W ^^
khud
Persian (In modern (Afghan). or o**f or khwahad kard karda tamam tamam ast ibjf j-U3 tjf AAtjA. |*U3 could be used. Possibly it may be a translation of the Urdu tense kiyd
rd
tamam
karda
khwahad
bud
Remark.
bud
in kitdb rd
;
13 Compare (1) ^iC ^1*3 \j V UT ^t oJj (ay fardd td in vaqt bdyad " tamam bi-kunam (m.c.) I must finish this book by this time tomorrow (2) & i*1j^ or ^A/O p\+> ij v lif ^i tsJ>x.M 13 f^i fardd ta m vaqt In kitdb rd tamam mt-kunam or khipdham kard (m.c.) '* by this time to-morrow
^
"
have finished)
td in vaqt
this
book
5
(3)
^W
^ >jUcu5^
&>)
13
|ay
^tb
ui^r pU!J
^ fardd
(m.c.)
"by
this
in kitdb rd
tamam
karda bdsham
(4)
kunam
AA.
(m.c.)
i;^"what he
)
e**f *tyy^
khwurda
ast,
khwurda bdshad
(or
?
^ ^|y
ow*| or
^b
)
*>/ - OA^I jf^X A;arrfa ast karda bdshad " what he's done, he's done what can one do
;
(or
'
'
^*-' or
?
*(*
JJXJA
o~|
^AJ;^
darida
ast,
mi-tavdn kusht-ash
(but xlj
>.j;5
"what
XJji
" it
him
for
o^!
let it
be)."
The Presumptive Past Tense may, in modern two ways as illustrated by the following examples
(5)
:
v= * 9 '^
l>
L&O*
*^
^
"he
*AT^
yasli rd
ydft (m.c.)
***^ albaita
in
some
<V^
Yahtamil
A.^
shayad
523
^* i^ karda buda ast might be used and albatta vulgarly o~t ->-i is but this incorrect: omitted, *'j ^t &*) j& dar vaqt-i ki In *$j* / "he have must shud u murda bud been when that happened." dead vaqi
it"
iS ,xlj
is^
meaning
Vide also
vi~| %^y jjb
jj^x>
(2).
Remark.
1
vaqi
1
shud =
:
2,
^^ jf
for,
fi ^\ *
of
Z[j
jj^/o
y u murda buda
a*t ki in kar
vaqi shad
but
*k
,
"
i*j*
*&
y ^ $ Mid ^j
u
ki in kar
' *
bayad murda bashad he must u hafa murda buda ast could not
The Continuative Past Subjunctive is in Indian Persian formed by prefixing ml to the Perfect Subjunctive. The following examples are from the Iqbdt-Nama-yi Jahangiri, Ed.
l
cAu^ ^
** *
*
(
(k)
The
Perfect Tense:
Preterite Tense [vide (g)\ have already
(1)
shown
and " I
that
sometimes supplies the place of the Perfect in English. The Perfect Tense in English expresses an action just finished
it
it is
incorrect to apply it to an action finished in a past time; therefore have seen him yesterday 2 " is incorrect.
If
however no time be
because "though the action is passed, the doer credits himself with its accomplishment down to the present it is therefore correct to say I have ' seen him 3 whether the meeting occurred to-day or a year ago.'
'
:
' '
Since
'
refers
to
time
distinctly
past and should therefore in English be followed by the Preterite: it is incorrect to say " I have not seen him since I have been here (or since I have " since I came here." * " come
here)
;
say
for following examples illustrate the use of the Persian Preterite the English Perfect: " and I have cited 6 this apologue that it may be understood, that in travel the most complete exaltation is attained and
The
This tense
is
a
8
Say I saw him yesterday." In Persian also the Preterite. him In Pers. also the Perfect Tense (#' ura dida-i "have you seen
i^
' '
Az vaqt-i ki Inja amadam ura nardldam f*!*> Ij^l f**( **iH> j (seeing that) indicating a eequel or consequence can rightly be followed by the Perfect. ^ The Preterite in Persian (for the English Perfect) is here used in accordance with
*
1
^^l
'Since'
m (g), para.
3.
524
that
(East. Trans.)
" -
yU
j^ *r
^>
pl*/c
1
13
va
wasaZ
bi-jihat
an Irdd
kardam
id
ma lum
(
shavad
ki
And when the disdar safar taraqqiydt-i tamdm ast (Anwar-i Suhayll). course of Dabishlim was ended the other Vazir advanced and said, 'That
explanation
"
which His Imperial Majesty, the Shadow of God, has been pleased to say of travel and its advantages (East. Trans.)
'
in
zill" 'lldh
va favd*id-i an farmudand
"
;
budi. (m.c.)
all this
is
past,
sar
English Preterite, thus: ff >/ ^j>y J^ *$ ml-rizad ki chird 'arusl karda am (m.c.)
^**
^is
' ' ;
^^ khdk
bar
"he
on his head (and saying) alas why did I ever marry is used because the effect of the action continues.
AJ<>3
(m.c.) mjd dmada am ft ll. I have not seen him, since I came here " or 8x*f j j\ (ft ^i-A o*x4U az ruz-i ki mjd haslam (or dmada am) saldmat am "I enjoy good p] health since I came here " have just j^dt^t ^** hold urd diddm (m.c.) "I {{ seen him" he has just died," but o-t JL&j* ilU. hdld murd (m.c.) o*-*t ^o ?/aA; sal ast murda ast shuda fawt ast) "he has been dead a year." (or
f^t ft
u^x>f
Ujjf az ruz-i ki
*^j
}l
* '
Another use
Preterite^
of the Perfect
is
thus:
c*|
ast
j^
^j**
mu'tabar-i
' '
place
in B.
'Abbas was once an important (m.c.) ^j buda ast signifies that the city is one of the has beens/ before the speaker's time, whereas bud would signify that the speaker was
;
buda
^ "Bandar-i
^
Bandar-i
Abbas
'
shahr-i
here
Note the following miscellaneplace. ous examples: c>~;x.** &** muddat-i madld-l 'st ki bar ft " here the tu 'ashiq shuda am "I have been in love with you a long time
it
Abbas when
^ J^y y ^
p]
***
was an important
_^>\
^.\
-*yc
&f
jj^r ^jlj
^^
&{*. b
ki murtakib-i in
amr shuda am
"
have run
risk
my
life
in
;
doing this
' '
;
still
continues the Preterite would indicate that the risk had been run and was over; the Present pX*> mi- kunam would signify "I am running a risk " and would be followed now, by another Present. In classical Persian however the Preterite is often used in such a case, thus i>j bud could be classically substituted for OH .*# buda ast in the first
525
Also dj/o^' JA+JUJ Payghambar farmud (class.) for cu| **y*j farmuda The Perfect however clearly indicates that the writer was not present. The Perfect can indicate an action recently finished if the time is in-
definite,
but
if
the time
is
'
V^
(&*>
have just arrived," but ft a^j ilU, kdla rasldafAx*; am would signify that the arrival though recent, was perhaps an hour ago,
hdld rasldam
man
"
^^ ^
hala hdjl
shudam
(m.c.)
"I am now a
become a
am "I have
recently
hdjl
Remark.
here."
the
Perfect
is
"I enjoy good health since I came used in Persian to signify the con:
tinuance of the effects of the past act. If however the words )|la. l> td hold, or c^t 13 td aknun, etc., be inserted, the Preterite Tense should be used, as
^t ^-/o
e^*2U,
\)
y>
ejjtf
13
j**/of
loj| A*i5j
jl
(m.c.).
This rule
in
The
,
contracted
third person singular is sometimes, in old the final * being discarded, as vs*JLy
:
and
lj
in
modern Persian,
^v
&f c**f
0^3
guftam
(Sa'di)
"
^^
^
a
bad writing
in letters of gold.'
Karm
<{
bin u
(Sa'di)
Behold the bounty and kindness of the Lord That his creatures sin and He feels the shame."
is
The
person singular
often omitted
altogether,
as
aJU-^
j*
&
mashaqqat va
'arid*-
bar
okx> 3 ib ^ cuxs^o y A^ST dnchi az mihnat va bald va man guzashta " as for the travail and affliction which
have passed over me." isj*** j^ j^^ "Shushtar was formerly a nourishing town" Shushtar shahr-i mu tabar-l buda (m.c.); (were bud here used in modern Persian instead of o~,t ^J buda ast it would signify that the writer or
speaker saw what he is describing). In the other persons, the substantive verb can be omitted only in such house was that I did, sentences, as: "The reason for my coming to your
and
' '
still
^ \^ u* * W of U
:
2
8
t( It is the Prophet himself who saysPaycfhambar ast ml- far may ad is used. Haji, Pers. for Ar. frajjiyy, or colloq. hajjl in Arabic writing al-hajj only for the sake of often written is though form In modern Persian poetry the full
scansion the
4
8 is
omitted.
O}4>si
taken away,
i.e.
understood."
5 26
^t^A/o
.
o*j,i
tj
|*^
dmadan-i
d n bud ki
(Vazir-i
man
khwdhir-zan-i tu Nisd
;
Khdnum
Lankaran)
aJUla
is
mentioned once, the substantive verb can, however, be understood for the remaining cases in any person, as ft *#J ^ a^a ^ &&j rafta va dlda va shunlda am, where am is understood after each verb.
If
:
(t).
"I do
^*
j fj
W4J
p
:
jJ-**>
oJlj
&
man
pl^^j
:
AJ&f<xi
eu*.^ f;jtJ^A e/
&t*.jb
foj*
&&>& CU~A
&f
^^
is,
'
ma hama mdyil
"we
' '
are
all
will be.
correct only
if,
where the
ellipsis
verb can be inserted without change, i.e. in the same form in which In the last example be (expressed) it occurs in one clause of the sentence.
In Persian however such an ellipsis is not incorrect.] is used in nearly the same manner as in (I) The Pluperfect English. It indicates a time anterior to the Preterite.
In classical and in modern Persian
instead of the old Past Habitual,
Sentences.
'
it is
or of the Imperfect
'
:
vide Conditional
It
is
also used in
modern Persian
after kdshkl
vide
'
Optative clauses.
i^^lg j>tlaLs| j j>jj *i&;j hargiz az dawr-i zamdn na-ndllda budam varuy az a gardish-i dsmdn dar-ham na-kashlda magar vaqt-l-ki pdyam barahna bud va
JLifjJ
ndllda pdy-pushl na-ddshtam (Gul. Chap. Ill, Story 19), j*^j used to budam is express time anterior to /*xi,i ddshtam. As stated in (g), the Preterite is used in narrating events that closely Thus in the following sentence, the Persian Preterites follow each other.
istitd at-i
^M
English Pluperfects: "When I had rested a " little and regained my breath I got up c>^ a>^ (^j* (j**> > (**-* *^f lj /of chun qadr-l dsuda shudam va nafas sar-i jd-yi khud dmad pd P&& shudam; here, if the two first Persian verbs were put in the Plupertakes the place of
the
^^
fect, it
'I
had
yesterday,
Am is understood.
Budam
is
f>;_>7
illustrate
Supposing a master were to order his servant to bring a <_5^;^ shikar-chi and were then to go out for an hour or two, and on his return ask The reply might be his servant if the shikar-chl had arrived. "he has amad <>^f come." (just) (i)
:
(ii)
(iii)
>*T amada, or vi^f amada ast he came and is still &j* ^of amadabud 'he did come (but has gone away
'
t^
here.'
]
again).'
(9).
Remark.
*$f karda
budami
is
Pluperfect,
only
in Conditional
and Optative
(m)
or
(1)
is
derision
"
:
^* *^
*x|,>
C^AJ
^b
*<&
o*)A
&&jf <j*>x>^
&*f\j
wWf
&
|j
l^CJfc"
kaliska-ha ra
nigdh ddshta dmadand payin-; khamush kardand, durust shud (Shah's Diary) "the train was stopped; they got down and extinguished the fire, and all
was put right" ^f ^xj f; Uf j^J^o magar Taymur iaUu,ii Agha ra zamin-ash zada pish-i madar-ash nafiristada-i (Vazir-i Lankaran) " but haven't you thrown Taimur Agha to the ground* (in wrestling) and sent " him (in a state of insensibility) to his mother? ^+* ^f ( A*' )
:
:
^dU ^j ^
* pas rava'st (ki) akhir-i 'umr (dar) 4 baghal-i la Khanam bachcha na-dlda bi-miraml (Vazir-i Lankaran) "then is it " right I should die without having seen a child in Shu'la Khanum's arms ?
j
(
j&
'
^ib
sufal
**.
J>)
o.*^
guftmikhzada
rtipiya ra giriftam, az
mark
chiyaftam? "he replied, I got the rupees as a reward for hitting the (with an arrow); but I have got nothing as yet by my begging": " we started before 5/J5& na-zada rah uftadim (m.c.) ^>J v^'f fi^ui *lj
sunrise
' '
:
<WT
mam
vil
na-
^^ karda
just like
UI^A
j>)^j Jj
^t
^*r-6'
*^Wt^ *-^
me
^J
'-r*
V**
'
a ^^
man mi-amad*
everywhere,
but followed
me
a tame goat."
consider the final
a
Some grammarians
*
3
The Conjunctive
Vide also
(n).
In Urdu, the Pluperfect here would have this same signification. Participle is also common in Hindi and Urdu.
In the original, ki and dar are omitted.
*
6
Not mi-raft C^AXJ; b u t e^*x> y .-..ib 'aqdb-i u mi-raft would be right. In modern Pers. writing, this participial construction is preferred to coupling
'
finite
verbs together by 3
and
'
528
A*
l
*&
i&fty)*
&&
dvarda-and ki buzina-i
darud<(
vami-burid (Anv. Sub. Chap. I, St. 5) they have related that a monkey saw a carpenter sitting upon a piece of timber, which he was cutting, and ". (East. Trans.); (either elide the va or
insert
<Hi|*?
b^**^
j&
o-jUr^
0^30
tj
^^
&j|
bi-'ivaz-i
inkikhudrdtaht-ihimdyat-i-Amir-i
Bukhara bi-danid bay ad Tchud rd taht-i himdyat-i Dust Muhammad Khan. Hukmrdn-i Afghanistan ddnista va ism-i Amir Dust Muhammad Khan ra dar Abd u r-Rahmdn Khan, Amir of (Mem. khutba-yi khud ddkhil numafid.
'
Afghanistan, Fasl-i awal, p. 12). iKj f<3Aj *A.J-A Jl*^ shighal j>j5^MO j BAJAp mi-ravad (m.c.) in this example if duzdida In cation might be, " goes secretly." should grammatically be omitted. " is This Perfect
;
'
signifi.
'
Participle
having
not
much used
in speaking.
Remark
I.
The va can
:
of course
participles together, as
hisdr
2
*jf oJiljU
^Aolyo
\^
Ua=w
ma^yus, bdz-gasht
kard.
(Mod.)
Remark
II.
It
may
e^ ^ makdn
^i
1; J-?
(2).
Remark III." This very idiomatic use of the Past Participle will present no difficulty to the reader if he will translate all these (subordinate) Past Participles much as he would an Ablative Absolute in Latin, i.e.
''having done so-and-so (and) having made this (and) having completed that deed, he acted (principal verb) thus."
rendering into idiomatic English, the sentences must, of course be broken up." Introduc. Vazir of Lankaran* by Haggard and Le Strange.
'
"When
(2)
3
:
^u
JL^X^J
o^yo
man
&f **if
ki
*
(m.c.)
"kindly explain to
'
me
": t^gfe***
A^J Mjf
cU^ (^
O '
cXo*
e,^ ^
bar
Tchiftat-i
aql-i
it
haml kardand va nihufta mi-khandidand (Sa'di) "they imputed weakness of my understanding and began to laugh secretly guzashtaaz in (m.c.) "besides this, in addition to this."
' '
:
to the
2
8
In modern Persian the form **ijj luzlna is preferred. In classical Persian baz gasht without kard would be used.
'
'
Devotedly
and
'
529
s_y
O;^-AJ bi-surat-i
'
:
murda
in
o*w
*j^A*
been
existence since the days of theSafavi dynasty" f*i^ \) &**$ guzashta " rd khwdham navisht (m.c.) I will write what happened, i.e. the particulars "
o^i
I;
)\ t5
^y
didam
(m.c.)
saw
A*,
joj,* a
ily
<^j|
in navishtard
ptf
a&^A ^ii U .Ba nafs hamisha dar nabard-am, chi kunam ? Va'z karda-yi Tchwishtan bi-dard-am, chi kunam ?
f :>;*
!
ey&^i
i/J3
i' AA.
ftj*>)t>
"Against
I think
on
"
Farmuda-yi nd-karda siyah-ruy-am kard Farydd zi karda-hd-yi nd-farmuda s (0. K. Whin. Rub. 418).
^4z fam-i
Az bud u na-budagdn* bi-kulli rastt (0. K.) And, when you drink of His entrancing cup,
You
can take the place of a clause: t>?+J }e \j khddim dida va shunida rd 'arz namud (m.c.) "the servant related what he
(4)
It
had seen and heard": &'&X J>| ^iJ tukhm-i avval-kdshta "the first-sown seed, the seed that was first sown." (5) It can take the place of an adjective: f^yo *li fl>( JUU i.Ji JL> " one yak shab ta^junmul-i ayyvm-i guzashta mi-kardam (Sa'di) night I was
:
f^ysuxx) ^ju>U
^^ *J&
^^
^ va bar umr-i
"and was
regretting
my
wasted
"
quieted, quiet."
Compare the
(j*V"
(dressed), pi.
ejU^O*
malbusat, used
But (*i
AJ&jj
I;
"I saw
this written."
Sins of omission
(^-*
and commission.
of fc^jr^u
nd-farmudd
for
Siy^j*
*
5 6
nahl farmuda.
Or
JW"^ shuda.
1
is
preferred.
34
530
Td
Couplet.
I
need the quiet night time and the pleasant morn That to thee I may the story of all my sorrows tell.
as well,
(Eastwick's Trans.).
can be used as a passive participle: Aiiy eJ'j'**/ in latlfa bar tdq-i ayvdn-i Faridun navishta bud (Sa'di) 2 of Faridun" this pleasantry was written over the arch of the palace
(6)
It
pa-yi
(7)
man
"my
foot
is
tied."
Sometimes
:
in English, as
sj*
Shirdz
stages
girifta td
to
^ y Wj JjLJ^ mandzil-i rah az p* ?*> ^j* ^^-^ **;/ bi-Tahrdn arz khupaham, kard (m.c.) "I will tell you the
' :
y^
cu-t
AXJ^ khwdblda
is
ast
" he
is
&~^
nishasta ast
:
"he
sitting,
seated":
out ^lwot Istdda ast " he is standing" t^-* vj);*- ^*c ^ j* du sd'atbi-ghurub mdnda (m.c.) s< two hours (remaining) to sunset." Vide (10).
(8)
Sometimes
this participle
Davida ciple with but a slight shade of difference in meaning, thus: dmad *<>T **V^ ( bi-dawdmad ^f^*v ) (m.c.) " having run he came, he came
running," but ^^ c>^ o>^^ dawdn davdn dmad implies that the running was continuous: "he ran the whole way."
(9) The Past Participle frequently indicates a state, and in this case is It sometimes supplies the place of the often in apposition to the object. Pluperfect: aUj| (b jt p*** l;jt ura didam az bdm uftdda (m.c ) "I saw him fallen (i.e. after he had fallen) from the roof" has the same signification as
(
ol or
)
:
Jte&t (L>
iy'jL>'<
:
jt
AJA j
)\
urd didam ki az
:
(m.c
<^i **>
di)
bdm uftdda bud (or ast) 8 "he saw that the caravan
*i*.^k
had departed"
<j*f.k^
^ AJUI^L^J
^^j^i^
<G^
which better
doors.
In mod. Pers.
&j*\
**
** lafifa is "mysterious meaning." than the modern meaning of & latlfa. ayvan is a veranda or a room with pillars and without
*^
But
roof"
4
:
az bam uftad "I saw him fall from the {*** \))\ ura didam in this sentence the Preterite takes the place of an English Infinitive.
(\*
j>\
^t
XJ* did ki
karavan rafta
ast.
531
nashat-ash burtda va gul-i hivas-ash pazhmurda (Sa'di) him when he had taken a wife and had grown-up chiHren saw "afterwards *' &U and his joy had departed and his ambition declined ": $ *J^llj .3Lo >^f o;Uj <*/ j&~> *i->^f shabangah ki duzddn baz amadand " at night when the safar-karda va gharat-avarda silah bi~ kushadand (Sa'di)
^^
The Past
;
Participle of certain transitive verbs is also used in a " he has written " or cu*i <uj.i navishla ast may signify
"it
is
ali^jjf avikhta,
*i^;
rlkhta,
>*?y kubida,
* v*&
Wj
Mf
Compare No. (7). is usually, in classical Pers., formed (11) The negative of the participles &* Umar-i Khayyam uses is na Pers. b modern In na with preferred.
etc.
'
.
both.
"Was
But
for the scansion,
Na-karda gurtah dar yahan kist ? Bi-gu ever man born that never went astray
uf
"
(O.K.).
d^
Ay
11
and
ill
alone."
Hodgson
"
says,
of
means
of condensa-
tion,
as instead
two
two
is
finite
and
is
when
there
common
"
subject
;
also,
" Too
'
great care cannot be exercised to leave no doubt as to what a participle really placed in apposition to, if one would avoid the error known as the mis'
related participle.'
known English
writers,
cities as errors examples from wellwhere the sentences sometimes contain no word to
1
which the participle can possibly refer, or where the participle refers to a Possessive Pronoun only, or where the true relation of the participle is obscured
by faulty collocation. The error in, " Sir Charles Wetherell addressed the House
(of
Lords)
instances of the
few
phrases similar to
generally ":
selekar
(Hindu.)
commencing
from"
etc.
concerning, notwithstanding,'
etc.,
in English.
532
three hours
;
when being
oXUxj
^fjj)}
fatigued
is
by
day,"
*>
*&j &)&
;k>>
Jl
repeated in: ^Jj <_& cutL. p*j 13 *U &sm^ ^fji Shah id riim-sa'at nutq kard va pas
blrun
raftand
(m.c.)
az an khasta-shuda
vuzard-yi
*
mamlakat az darbdr
In
c^f>
U^AJ ^/e
tej! j(*
)t> e>j
raft (m.c.)
" the
'misrelated'
there
is
door the man went out," though the participle may no ambiguity whatever. Further if the view
final x of the participle is equiva5 to the lent conjunction 'and, the sentence may also be grammatically correct according to the laws of Persian grammar.
The misrelated
na-shuda,
participle is a construction common in modern Persian. ^j ,xJ J*!\A l:?uf )& jy* hanuz dar dnjd jd-gir
bi-shiddat-i
(Tr.
H.
B.
I, Chap. II), and knocked violently at the door.' In u~f &\&& j o-k&l 83 ^il^ oUa r, (Tr. H. B. Chap. XXXIV, p. 288), the parti" ciple (misrelated) being" is understood. Also as there is nothing to show whether there is an izafat after (^^ sukhan or not, it would be better, to
:
f
down
there, an old
JMJ
^U
g*
j*^-o
mardum-i dih
;
first.
To a
speaker:
o^it
8^
is
hardly intelligible
l
to
a listener, the
ambiguity might be removed by the gesture and the intonation of the ^>A .5+**tv* c.f'H)/ li -*y ;^ *^u ^t *^f &M &% &J+*A*
^^j
-f;3
&
f^)
3^J
*^
(*^-o
Chap.
ow*t
XV,
8^
p. 128); here ^*i namuda refers to the na-karda ast to the son.
Though
this
construction
is
common
in m.c.,
vide
142
(/).
is not much used. (o) Participle in e/T stated, the past participle sometimes takes its place.
The Present
an
As already
Whenever the present participle is used, it makes the action continuous: ?**J p*J$ (***!> eJ>>;# cA* ^j)j<e ^^V bi-hukm-i zarurat sukhan guftam va tafarruj kundn birun rafttm (Sa'di) " I was forced to open my lips and we left (the garden) rejoicing as we went."
^^
Their Lordships or Sir Charles ? it was the Shah who was fatigued and not the ministers. If the word vuzara. were placed before the participle ktiaata shuda it would be clear that the vazirs were tired.
1
Here
533
***$ *$
grief to
your enemies
% /*^ V) Zibd Khanum-~(lund
{
For they
Lr5-
will
or*
*ij***
*r**j*j ***;
& *'
{
^^
'
zir-i lab
mi guyad)
^
"
says under her breath) tjA-i (J*Z jij* j'/^i az pahlu-yi abadariiha ba kamal-i ihtirdz
:
Man chird " Ziba Khanum (going off " Why should I J'-+?b ^la^f c^^tv^
"we
travelled
murur
(Tr.
H. B.)
with
much
precaution
we were
day,
ubisydr Tchwdhdn-i an bud Jci (m.c.) very desirous to ": &l*,j> ^Le magar tarsdnbudtl (m.c.) " were you in a state of fearing (when you saw him) but t_*-i*y j& magar
(H. B.):
*\
^ cT ijU^^lx%.j
by during the
"he was
tarsidi
^y
"did you
"
tXxI-A
think
"
formed from the Present Participle and ^Uy^C* magar tarsdn hasttd "you are fearing
^j-*>y ^/o
ml-tarsld
present. &f
jju.fjwjj*
he
lxjl tf
^^
^ ^^ Ichwdhdn-i an budam
^^
griydn shud
ast
might
refer to the
future
lei
as well as
the
injd bi-ydyam
girydn
might be future
,yo
&b/
&>
^^^
mi-giryad
b*.^ d+\
J
l
31
>
An
'
lahza
Chun barg zi shdkh-i umr rlzdn gardam Alam bi-nashdt-i dil bi-ghirbdl kuriim 8
Zi'dn pish ki khdk-i khdk-btzdn gardam.
(O.K.)
receives,
When Khayyam
And
quittance at Death's
life,
hand
sift this
world away,
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 309).
Ere dustmen
sift his
La hawla wa
i.e.
la
quwwaV-
ilia bi-'llah
" there
is
God,'*
*
3
there
is
This exclamation
emergency.
Stage directions
:
called
et&Jt
iltifat.
Possibly there
is
a misprint for
kunam.
534
Adjectives end ng in a, as; li'>> &*$* M*HiB5n-i tavdnd (Sa'di) "powerful " "a &iir-t noarms Hjlj L>^ ^y-fc tuti-yi guya (m.c.) talking parrot bind (m.c.) "a blind man": khatt-i khwana (m.c.) "legible writing":
'
l
1*1.3
.^j/c
mard-i dana:
fji
(p)
Noun
of
Agency
in
anda*
is
occasionally used
as an adjective as well as a
(Sa'di
noun
of agency, as:
;
nakhun-i daranda
and
m.c.)
Avval-i Urd/i-Bihisht-mah-i
Jalali
Bulbul guyanda bar manabir-i quzban. ( Sa'di.) " In the Jalali year, the Urdibihisht the of month of of beginning When the bulbuls were singing on the pulpits of the branches ."
(2)
CU~A<. ^cli j
tf
w&
jf^i-jy
nama
:
chlst (Sa'di
^pA^yi'j'
SdJ^
)&
"a
wayfarer passed
by the assembly": cuitx* ^Ir^ ^tjtjj Ji^;d (jjr*-* fsiii^ khwahanda-t " an African 4 maghribt dar saff-i bazzazan-i Halab mi-guft (Sa'di) beggar
was saying in the company
5.3
of
some
(
cloth merchants in
' '
Aleppo
u!3
AT
"
And
Thou
Directors, born of
men,
me,
!
" Their counsel comes to naught, but thou endurest (Whin. Trans. Rub. 449).
(q)
Noun
of
Agency
is
rarely used.
It is
some-
times used as a mere adjective, as: s^i^io &J* mard-i bakhshanda (m.c.) <e a " khayll balchshanda (m.c.) very generous": generous man," and *xiu
^^
&>*>
jyU.
c/f
an jdnavar-i daranda-i^ st
(m.c.)
" that
is
a beast of prey."
An example
An
:
:
of Persian ***
hashtt-i qdblh,
2
gri,
" " bakhshaya da, bakh^hayandagl (class.) liberality bakhshandagi from : jumbidan darmandagi. (m.c.) jum^andagl 8 Urdibihiaht-mah "month of Urdibihisht"; but Ur'Hbihfcht alone would stand The Zardushtis always add the word mah to the old names for 3rd day of the month.
as
l
Abstract noun can often be formed from the noun of agency by adding
;
'balch.8ha 'idan,
of the month.
*
535
Even
in
modern Persian
it is
occasionally used as a
noun
of agency,
o*~^ klst kubanda-yi dar? (Prof. S. T.) "who is it that knocks at the door ?": ^ o,^ t^i^y ^a.^^ an shakhs navtsanda-yi khub-1 's " " he is a oi i*>f asl writer an
as: )* a*x>r
(m.c.)
jt
good
^^ ^
jdnavar gazanda
(m.c.)
o>
ust
;
singer
(me.) = o^y JLJ15 qatil-i ust (m.c.): ^)U " 8^A?j raqsanda (m.c.) ^;i^J navdzanda "player
;
"dancer":
(2)
c^\^c
>ij(yL
khwananda ml-ddnad
lei
(H.B.) "thereadei
".
is
The following
an Afghan idiom
}
^Owiy^o
bar jahdz-t ki bi-ddn taraf ravanda bud savdr shudam " I embarked in a ship that was on the point of sailing for that country." In modern Persian *^ A;i bi-ddn tardf ravdn bud, or uj'o iJ^tJiAj o^ji rfar
o^tV
(J^ >>.-o j* dar sadad-i raftan-i bi-ddn taraf bud, or .>j would be used. bud ^ijL>; raftam The Future Noun of or (r) Participle Possibility, formed by adding the
sharaf-i raftan bi-dan taraf bud, or
J;feJ|j)j
^M
is
illustrated
by the following
examples
''Christ
Hazrat-i Masth da,r 'alam amadanl bud (m.o.) had to (or was to) come into the world" ^^>/ oJty*^ jyA&jKj! az kar-i shudam nami-tavdn gurikht (m.c.) "it is impossible to escape what " <** is destined, what has to happen ^^U ^_^er0^e^ ^? u**" mahz-i
:
tark-i
vatan dar
jazira
mandani shudam
:
(m.c.)
"by
leaving
my home
have
had to remain in this island" <^i">j- aukhtam (m.c.) "fit to be burned," or " for burning" o^r^ khwurdani " what has to be eaten" khwurdariiha* "eatables": (*l ^>) ^^ ma n raftam am (me.) U^Ji^i, " " I have to s ^-HJJ t5 r* <-^ e;^ j*^- ** wa khayr in gul murdam mst go now
:
)<3
at
A^A Jiar healthy)": ,i^ " what has to happen, will happen." (s) The Infinitive is used as a noun, as: raftan-i
J
o*J^
man
khub
riist
V-^" .U
az raftanhd yi
shumd bi-hammam
"I'm
tired of
daru gh-guftanha " tellings of lies"; eJ-^/li cue Us! ita'at na-kardan (in m.c. As a verbal noun it may govern the gen. na-kardan) "disobedience."
genitive, as:
j!
u& ^J
baray-i kushtan-i
u "for the
:
killing
him."
It
Corresponds to the Hindustani idiom jane-wala. Participle can be used in the plural. ^ wi*danlat ya malldanl (m.c.)? #V}^ h*
In dava
Ichur-
^^^
is
An
But
unusual expression,
if
correct
cJ^ *V:$
4
or
^^ ^^^
khuahk ahudan
or
pazhmwda ahudan
*
*l>
\^
536
\)
" Majnun's ^*! muldqdt kardan-i Majnun Layil rd (Heading of a Chapter) " jo *Uf o, rd Laili kushtan Verbal ^^U ^Li/ fuldn f^ .(vide Nouns): meeting
nist
gundh
cu^j
B'J
riist.
(2)
In
formed
preferred.
The
Infinitive of a Transitive
Verb
is
<^J&j |^| they banded him over for their killing him)." (t) Just as the Perfect Tense signifies that the speaker was not present [vide (k) ], so the Continuative Perfect gives the same notion, but with the idea
*xi,i!d
sense, as:
(lit.
wra
bi- kushtan
killed
of continuance.
is
rarely
if
Persian,
its
is
13
Perfect
a^jj/o
place being supplied by the Imperfect. rare even in modern Persian. Examples
The Continuative
:
td hdl
mi-karda
ejJU
JU.
this
up
till
now "
tit J* toj^>
]ulan shahr dah sal ast taraqqi mi-karda here o^t ^,^o _^3 taraqqi mz-karda ast
(
11
In the sentence
o**oi
tj
&j^ /* j
^xb ^ JJ^AX>
jtj^yT (.5^
jJt^ao.juo
^f^ji
^ax~*o
*$
XtXl^
\^\
l
/w
wm
dida-l ki
mi-khwdnda vasar-i khud rd pdyin ml-dvarda va buland mi-karda ast* "have you seen him standing in the mosque while he was reading the Qoran, etc., etc.?"
similar
The Continuative Perfect of the Subjunctive is used in a manner as the same tense in the Indicative, but expresses a tf t; Ifif *$ tyt JUS^t doubt, as ^j o-| Aii^x* ; ^UUJU- tf f\ >J^ xil Ai^f jjf uj^j <JiaJ| -*afcij) shunida am ki Musalmdndn rd ml-kushta ast ^/o
Remark.
:
f
"I
killing
Muslims but
The Continuative Pluperfect is not used in Persian. The Imperative is in m.c. sometimes used in a precative
;
sense, as:
|*k Khudd 'umr-at bi-dih (vulg. for dihad) "God grant thee a e^*. " in classical Persian, the Optative form *^ dihdd would probably long life * be used in this instance.
AJ
Note omission
<X>I^>
ij
of ra, the
o^t^
cfjJ
Qur*an khwandan
the
but
**'
effjJ
Qur*an ra Tchwanda id
Qoran?"
(i.e.
he whole
2
of
it).
Example from
Grammar,
537
is
even
in classical Persian
used preca-
Yd Rabb!
tu
'uzr pazir
Ay
!
tawba-dih u 'uzr-pazir-i
hama
kas
"Grant me repentance, and accept my plea, " Thou who dost accept the pleas of all (0. K. 278 Whin.)
!
prefixing
ml or harm
:
is
not
In classical Persian
it is
common
only in poetry
Oar
Also negatively
rahat-i javidan
tama mi-dan
(
J^V^4^
is
C5* (Qa*anl).
The negative
of the Imperative
classically
formed by prefixing
AJ is
<*-<>,
but
In rd guftd bash
In rd Icarda bdsh, an Afghan idiom
1
<J&* Ali?
preferred.
<j*lj
:
saying this," (Jk **f \> i&\ ALJiJ, nishasta bash, etc!, is an Indian and perhaps
^f
it is
is
prefixed, as
bi-Jcan.
of
For the same reason the Pres. Fut. the Imperative ^j^ ml-ramd " you
2
:
will
go
"
"go."
CHAPTER
126(a)
XVII.
Subjunctive Mood.
The Persians use the Subjunctive more frequently than the English
use
it.
The verb in the subjunctive sentence is under the subjection of a Conjunction, which in m.c. is frequently understood. Uncertainty is generally
supposed.
:
Conjunctions introducing the Subjunctive are &> fj& giram-ki, t U^JL* sallamnd ki "granted": A&Jt j J^k/o mashrut bar in-ki, idoj&> bi-sharfa " " " 1 " ki "provided if agar Uy farzan ^j* farz kun supposing"
: ,
*[,&.
'
';
a&jf^
juz mki,
A&J|
'
unless",*
and
etc.
" " "though ", and ^.^^^Id-vujud-i ki, etc. although " however much; notwithstanding": $ ta, and tf ki " &o<*|jia. chandan-ki " " ere" that *Cfjt cf^* pish az an ki J&xUj ^Jutj' JLw ^a6Z az mki before *S ki mabdda fiUx ki etc. clauses "when"; "lest", vaqt-t Subjunctive *X are also introduced by the relatives whoever 8 j& har-ki, A^fyfc har-an " whatever 4 " and *$ ki, etc. and AA. yfc har-chi or *suf y> har-an chi oJj yk
;
; ;
"except"; *^/l
'
'
^ar vagi ki (mod.) " whenever." From the above remarks it will be seen that the Subjunctive Mood is generally employed to express a condition, desire, intention, doubt, or end,
&&jS
SU
0-4*3
fcjj***-
^b
&)$
&
t* Mji^j o^*>^
JU j| ^vt
A^
4>ilj
bashad
ki
taraft az mal-i
ma
"
may be
it
f
"
[in m.c.
*'
crr-A
JL
^^
jt
*$ *>\~
shayad ki az
ba^z-l mal-i
ast ki in
hama
chiz
pdy-mdl shavad].
In m.c. also hargah, chunanchi, har angah, and agar chunanchi " if." Khwah hayvan bashad ya insan, kushta khwahad shud (m.c.) " whether
it
it
be
man
or beast,
S
shall be killed."
&&\}S*.
&
bi-qodr-i
the thief,
^^t ^3^ *^ har ki duzd oat chub-i y^s vsJlkXit ^J )<&> j\ " yak angusht daraz jchwahad s'tud (class.) (He said) the stick of whoever is will grow one finger's breadth in length * here ast is used because one
'
:
v^
of those present
*
was the
thief
to
b
do "
(i^J (*tj*
;
" do whatever
I tell I
"do what
am now
you
o do."
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Remark.
It
539
when introducing
Subjunctive
fjf
:
usually followed
(indirect), or
<x>f
^ ^^
**
nami-ayad
by the
*ii&*
1 English in the Infinitive, in modern Persian it is usually in the Present Subjunctive, even when " C( I wish to go the principal verb is in a past tense, as p^> ( *
When
the
second of
two verbs
in
^5^*
"who
iy
mi-khwaham
fM>'#
\+*
(H
2
)
bi-ravam
"I
seized
him
to
bring
gave you
giriftam
td
pish-i
shuma biyavaram
AJ
&> &\&
harem"
^f
c/jUa &
mi-a>i might turd ki ijdzat dad ki bi-haram-i man dar a*i\ (here ^'f be used, but with the signification 'since you are coming'):
fJ!->^
p*3j>
jjJo
&A.
namiddnam
but
chi
&*.
tawr bi-raqsam
"I
don't
know how
to
^ii^J naml-danam chi tawr mi-raqsam "I am dancing"; vide 123 (6) (4):
".
:
(m.c.)
In
"k
classical
-+*
eJH^y^ cr^'i
(^y maslahat na-didam az in bish va namak pdshidan (Sa'di) " I did not consider
further or rub salt on it"
:
wound
i\j
{b)i
*t ojtf ^UaJ
j^xfiS
o^a.
<xjy
Luqmdn
:
guft ki
hikmat bd ishdn gu/tan (Sa'di) " Luqman replied that waste the words of wisdom on them " ^UxSu 31 AJ
&f c)^)^-
tj<\ oJ
fl'w/^ andisha kardan ki chi guyam bih az pashimdni khwurdan ^iis Ija. ki chira guftam (Sa'di) "he* replied it is better to think before-hand what to say than to regret afterwards for having spoken." 6
^-j &f & )^o ^.j a^^ sukhan bar in muqarrar shud ki yak-i rd bi-tajassus-i ishdn bar gumdshtand (Sa'di) "it was decided to despatch some one to spy on them (the robbers) ", the
In, ^*il*
.j
Remark.
^l&jf ^JM^SU AJ
|^
Preterite
used instead of the Present Subjunctive to show that the order was carried into effect. Vide page 514.
is
'
are instances of the Present Subjunctive used instead " I did this before I arrived in Kerman " of the Past Indicative in English
(c)
:
a
8
Expressing command, desire, object, consequence, etc. In m.c., these Conjunctions would probably be omitted.
bi-kharasham.
cA-*^Lj
^^
&Z
o*~>f
^(jf
y^j
^j^x>
AA.
Ai
^J^xw
**'
f*
chira guftam.
Note the
540
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
az
bi-
Kirman
bi-rasam
in
cv
Tear
rd kardam; "this happened before I was born" f> <x>y a&f j\ <Jty pish az an ki tavallud shavam in vagi' shud: "I feared lest he &tj
* f^y^/o mi-tarsidam ki mard nafrin kunad ^j aA&t j &&*& f)ja* ijejjxJi ^.j* u^J *~ j* ;l*4rf'e)f *&T j! (J^ * (rn.c.) ""k *-*** *xjf ^>A- ) &^j) )\ (*^ c^'Ay lf&('ji cy'-^r2 vT j va pish az dnki an u bi-chdra bi-rasad nass-i sarih-i al-haris mahrum latifa-i bar angikhta bud va
might curse
;
me
' '
^ i^&
ij*
*t
*'
hirman bar atash-i sawdd-yi khdm-i u rikhta va sabab-ash dnki t: and before that helpless one coulp (Anv. Suh. Chap. I. Introd. St. 3) 8 arrive there, ill fortunes had poured the water of disappointment on the fire
za'f-i tali' ab-i
of its crude
p.
" two or three hours before I saw you the Sardar ordered me to " there were few who did not or would not throw bath" to the money go &$ j : was "there the A'^J scarcely a man (to Story-teller)" ^3!^J J r " <^<* *$ but " there was who would not give me money JtJ (^ ay ^<^
311)
:
.) p) pl>*. M alLoy^yjy.
fy tf
^ y j^x,_(Tr.
^
(East. Trans.)
o*cL* *
H. B. Chap. XXXVIII,
scarcely a
man
me money "
^ ^^f p'
"few
remained behind in the city who did not come" ( *io^LJ or) *x;^ *& *>&\* after that ,' etc., the modern After such expressions as before that/ Present Persians prefer to use the Subjunctive. This tense may, and does,
.
give rise to ambiguity. In the sentence, "This happened before I was born" the Present Subjunctive causes no ambiguity as it is evident that the
speaker has been born but in <y>J &> *^T (J^J c^*^'"* C*"* ^*/ A>'J *&^ J' LT-^ f> pish az dnki vdrid-i Kirman shavam mdni'-i pish dmada bi-Tazd raftam,
;
it
Kirman
or not; he
may have
3'
reached Kirman or he
may
not.
But
in,
^1
*^if
didam
it is
clear
there/
" (d) After ^^ily tavdnistan the verbs (^^.^ bdyistan and
introduced by ki [vide
used, as:
to be able
"
and
e^J^
],
shdyistan,
Subjunctive
Remark
:
to (a)
>jUi fj AJ^ na-bdyad in kdr rd bi-kuni, or j^' in kdr rd na-bdyad kard*) j&> !; ^1 (yty^J, or &jf \) ^1 c>tA+i nami-tavdn *' in rd kard* or nami-tavdni inrd bi-kuni : fyiw f; &J&&J, or ^.^ \y \&\ tj&W
<^*
f;j^
e*!'
nami-shavadin rd kharid
?,
or nami-shavadkiin rd bi-kharam
*^&*-> *f;
*&, or
reach
*
From the Subjunctive here, it is not known whether Kerman with rasidam there would be no doubt.
:
Or Or
*J
du'a-yibad. arrived."
^l^
*
6 6
&}* (^o mi-shavad, and ^^ tni-shud, and ^* s/iwd. This latter might also mean " we (or one) must not do this." This might mean " we, they, or you can't do this."
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
raA bi-yuftim or
:
541
must
<*T
start
"
(*A# *A
&%ad m& w/^ "we ought to start, we " jjli shayad bi-ydyad perhaps he may come"
1
;
JulA> shayad mi-dyad (m.c.) "perhaps he will come"): tj ~J6 In kdr rd na-shdyad kard, or ; ; fc ^| *T <x,UJ ,y turd na-shdyad ki In kdr rd bi-kuni "it is not suitable for you to do this."
^
;
The Future 2 Indicative sometimes takes the place of the Future 3 " Subjunctive; "I would go through fire and water for you \> &jL. y ^j (fjf*l tf* or ^'*Jf f* y* u^l? vf ^ bardy-i tu khud rd dardb u dtash khwd(e)
f
ham anddkht
see
(or
mi-anddzam)
but
in,
I
is
(
you to-day?", the Persian subordinate clause and must be in the Present Subjunctive or Aorist; ^/o
^jUi
jjjycf
?
Af
***j*
y Jl*^
tu
y
l
^AJJJ
:
bi-lchaydl-i
tu
mi-rasid
(ki)
man
bi-dldan-i
imruz
naydyam
^f
cr*
biydyld
(Xii^xj
(^
man gumdn kardam ki shumd diruz mi-dyid &f +$ oUf *^ ^ e ^ certain you would come yesterday," orx>U "I JA^-^ "I thought possibly you might come yesterday": e)U^ ^j ^i
(m.c.)
U^> A^
(or
cxiL^
^TI
shumd rd ml-kushad
kusht)
you and will kill you", but AViXxx) &j you a^. l^f ^i^j to see what they are doing" (Present only) **** pl~*>j*# jjjl^^ ^t o>ftf b Ax>f LA\} guftay khuddwand biddr hastam chiguna duzddn khwdhand dmad (class, and m.c.) "he said 'O master, I'm awake; how can the thieves come ? " (*3^f ^*|^ or) A^V 3y' )\ ^ **j> ^^s^V gfi* hich bi-khaydlam na-rasid kiu imruz bi-ydyad, or khwdhad dmad (m.c.) " I never thought he would come
' '
:
"this poison is strong enough 4 to kill **& bi-kushad "is so strong that it might kill raftam bi-blnam dnhd chi ml-kunand I went
' '
'
to-day"; here the Pres. Subj. leaves it doubtful whether he did or did not come the Future gives the idea that he did come.
;
Note the
in
**U
The
Definite
Future
'*
modern Persian would be contrary to idiom. " and " are the " suitable ^*
;
In colloquial, *S jl& shayista shayad only parts of this verb used. perhaps In classical Persian the Future Indicative is frequently used in conditional
sentences where in modern Pers an the Present Subjunctive is used Vide 128. 3 In their enchantnot is would would a as "he often English, regard past tense, '* nlents but it is often hypothetical without any regular respect to time. After verbs ;
:
of wishing it denotes
it
would rain
"^^J
u*'^
kash birbarad
(not Future).
tional
In conditional clauses, it denotes hypothetical hearken to reason " ; "if his wife would have permitted him."
he would
my
son."
*
and ardent desire, as " Would to God I had died It h is numerous other significations.
:
for thee,
oh Absalom,
my
son,
But C^-^AAM;
you." Or Xx.jf
af
j^j
oivs &(**.
y^j
killed
5
Jci
shuma
ra ml-Jcusht or
have
m l-ayand (m.c.),
^^^
("i.e.)-
542
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
In classical Persian, the Future Indicative is frequently used where modern Persian requires the Present Subjunctive, as f*M >&j*\* ttfj* ma har du khwdhlm amad an rd vrJj? *t* f*> f/Jf **T guftand ki hargdh
:
l
^ *&
take
khwdhim
it
ginft
(class.)
,
"whenever we both
here
Ax>f
of
us return
we
will
(the
we
return as
do
'
;
^ fA
y**
Tchwdhim amad gives the force* when fi in modern Persian ^'^ bi-ydylm would be
A ty*-
*^ A
in
khwdham kard
" whenever
my
"
f*>^ )^ *JA f *'^ f^? Mj* hargdh bi-chashm-i khud khwdham did " whenever (if) I see it with my own eyes I will bdvar khwdham kard (class.)
believe
you";
^jj
AJ
here there is no apparent necessity for the Future and biblnam would probably be better in classical as it is in modern
it
;
Persian.
(/)
is
:
correct
*U
jWoJ*T
?
&f
OAXWO
j&iiij(
~*s>>^ tl *$ kashlda ast would be useJ) ^-> **&j*i J^jj* qabul nami-kunam ki Shu'la Khdnum sdhib-i In amr buda bdshad (m.c.) " I will not believe that Shu'la Khanum can have done this"; o~*f ^j buda ast
(class.),
(but in m.c.
^^
^^
o^ilj
*&> y^
it
has not,
^
s
hope, been patched and darned ? namak-i tu kur-am kunad agar khlldf
I
"
may your
salt blind
me,
if I
iu gulula bi man na-khurda bdshadl (m.c.) " I hope that I may not " have been hit, I haven't been hit, have I ? ^~~# c^lr )* <^r* ** *V. 3 ^JJib aiA^ ^-w.f; oJL&4Eu ) va guyand ki kas dar sardy nlst va bi-haqlqdt rdst gufta bdshand* (Sa'di) " and they (the coarse ruffians at the door) say there is no one at home and in fact they may have spoken the truth in so saying '
:
'
'
^U. j^k ^*AJ jfyk hargiz bi-'umr-i khud churiin hamla na-dida bdshand (class.) "I don't suppose 6 they had ever in their lives seen such a furious onslaught."
<*\lj
BJJ*;
&Ua.
the Past Indicative is in m.c. often used for (<7) (1) As already stated, 125 (g) last example. the Present Indicative: vide
is
Agar
jchi'.af
'arz
kunam
misrepresent matters''
(immediate future).
8
In
<*^ A*^ ^L
***& v^ftxaay
If ^| 8iX)v5 dlda and (without the doubt and the sentance would then
X>^ ehayad) were used it would do away with mean " they never saw."
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
This
is
543
'arz
rm-kunam
ki
chiz-i nishdn-i
tan
mi diham*
ki misl-ash ra
*U
(m.c.) "let me say that if you want (wanted, were wanting) a really good carpet, I will show you something the like of which AJ o*-| .x I don't suppose you have ever seen" o-y ^r+J ;t-i.*j ^&.
:
*^>>
Jjs
A-^I^-J
\)
^v
^ ^'j
<-M^
hukm shuda ast bi-Kdbul rafta hisdb-i kh,ud ra parddkhta ma'zul buda bdshad (Memoirs Amir Abd"r-Rahman, Vol. I, p. 123); in mod. Pers. bi-shavad
:
umidvar-am ki vujud-i mubdrak at js^j cu^Ux) .^.j ^fj-xj^c| ft l hope you may* have been well"; bi-saldmatbuda bdshad (mod. letter)
^-ib
*j^*X*j
aS'
^~t
asJ,
would
also be correct.
is
*y t5* LS^** fi ^=?^. OA^I^X) )& o^cf j A^A harchi kam dar muraja'at bi-mjd kdr-sdzi mi-shavad (Vazir-i
is
dmad
Lankaran)
"whatever
(may
money
is
(/).
now
when you
Vide
128
(e)
and
" to have, (h) As the Aorist or Pres. Subj. of (^Jib ddshtan signifies the Past. Subj. of this verb is usually used instead of the Present; ow*t &}*>)* *lj aJUb Ji* tZijt^j* hw chlz-l ki mayl ddshta bdshld (or ^jlo
"
ast (m.c.)
is
Indicative, take
<**)$)$
Indicative, and the Pluperfect the place of certain tenses in the Subjunctive Mood ** *) f c^lrf ) va avdz-i bar dvard ki murgh azhavd dar dvardi
:
(Sa'di)"and he sang with a voice that might have brought 6 down the very birds to listen to him" in modern Persian ^/f mi-avard would be used here for the Past Habitual. 7 Vide also 127 (c) jl), Remark.
:
(;)
Present
libds-i
In the following Afghan m.c. sentences, the Imperfects should be Subjunctives f j>yV<> J^ ]yf ** *& jL* ^ va dtgar khushk na-bud ki an ra badal ml-kardam (Afghan in modern Pers.
:
J^ ^d
;
'ivaz
bi-kunam)
fj^f
^ ^j**. ^
j'^/l agar
Or ^-J^^^ bi-khwahid
Note Future Indicative.
'
if
you want."
:
na3 The Past Subj. here indicates doubt, I don't suppose' *jl **>**jfj* hargiz the like of which I'm sure you aida Id could be used, but the doubt would vanish, " have never seen."
* i.e.
6
have been
all
along and
still are.
o.l
*
"
*^y* harchi Team ast would mean that the protasis or if-clause is understood.
money
is
not
sufficient.
is
544
jahdz
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
ham gharq nami-shud chiz-i no-bud ki mi-dvardam (Afghan: modern Persian fj>y# bi-ydvaram).
(k)
v.*U*f
&$
<_^uA.
^^ jj^^
l
\j
^^ ^^.(^
ixU
&.&jt *z~j$
^^Z
&$
^j(
s^jXij
cuf
sdhib'dil-i
rd pursidand bi-din
;
khubl ki dftdb ast na-shunida im ki kas-i urd dust ginfta bdshad the Subj. here expresses the doubt. Compare eu-^$ \j t$ ** *>\ Uf ^*O.SL 3^ib AJ^J dyd shunida id ki shakhs-i an khdnum rd dust bdshad girifta
^^ ^
"have you ever heard that any one has ever made love to that lady ? (I think no one has ever has)," but **~\ **/ girifla ast would mean " have i.e. the latter tense you heard that So-and-so has taken her as a mistress
' '
:
would
X*^AJ
fj
(-d
&>
AJJ
was beyond his sagacity to understand this " if A****** mi-fahmid were used, it would signify surprise that he was understanding or did understand
*'it
;
time rather than to the past. l^j ;> ex*|y ;*&. in qodr firdsat dar u kujd bud ki in imd^rd bi-fahmad
t
it.
of
the Subjunctive,
vide
125
(t),
(ra)
Note the
:
the following
es-;.^
<JW
second example of
*^ J^
*t ; J
^M
cook only such a quantity as you are able to consume (now)," but t5jj>^ t^'^V &* J*v ^ )&&*}! in qadar bi-paz ki bi-tavdni bi-khwuri *'cook only such a quantity as you may be able to consume at any time."
khwuri
'*
CHAPTER
127.
XVIII.
When a sentence is expanded by explanatory clauses it is called a Complex sentence, and the explanatory clauses are called subordinate clauses.
Adverbial clauses include Conditional, Optative, Concessional, Temporal, Local, and Modal clauses. In other words adverbial clauses place conditions
on the action
and
manner
1 object or cause.
Conditional (Adverbial) clause limits the action or state of the (a) principal clause, and is introduced by^^agar 'if ', or some particle of kindred 2 The conditional or subordinate clause generally stands first, and meaning.
is
3oj&
and
is
followed
(
by the
).
principal
*]>^ or wf>x
Remark.
The Apodosis
of
a command as
I'll
^.^
is
bi-guyam in ty *>;&
called
LXJ
"come
here and
tell
"by God
^T
you,"
8
-
&*>
v'>^> while
is
called
p~3 vL**-
(6) There are three classes of conditions, viz. (1) impossible, or those that might have been and were not realized or that cannot be realized or that are mere suppositions and (2) possible, or those which may be (or may
;
conditions in which the apodosis or if-clause is understood; these latter belong partly to (1) and partly to (2).
(3)
(c)
classical
Persian, as
also
in the
language, the tense most in use for the first class of conditions is the Past Habitual, obsolete in the m.c. of Persia. This tense is interchangeable with the
2
8
" Vide " The Syntax and Idiom of Hindustani by Kempson. Expressed or understood. In m.c. the Conjunctions are frequently omitted.
The
Conditional
to
particles ()j
Ojj=**
are,
agar,
f*. ohu,
and according
chun,
4xljj
^'j*
ty
^T^-*
vaqtrl ki
t.aldbld,
and
^b t5^
Aj
sentences.
35
546
Imperfect
the
in the
protasis
:
and
other.
Examples
ayn-i haqlqat ast ki agar dar silk-i suhbat-i an baddn tarbiyat yafti'*' yak-i az inshdn shudi (Sa'di) "it is quite true that had he remained in the constant
society of those evil
<j-JJ^^J
of
them
(Sa'di)
dar
A^xixJ^-e AJ **of
i
"the
of
mountain
it
of
iron"
its
"
(lit.
if it
up from
place)."
Gar na-budi umrmd-i rahat u ranj Pd-yi darmsh bar falak budi Var Vazir az Khuda
bi-tarsidi
8
malak
budi
(Sa'di).
Were there no daily anxiety (for food and clothing), The darvish's rank would be 4 high as the sky.
If
God
1
As he
t^
3'
he would* be an angel.
(/* ^ c^
J^V*
^*^
-^
Jl-fl*'
Ij
Ujl
agar shuma rd
had you insaj budi va mara qaria'at, rasm-i svfal az jahdn bar khdsti (Sa'di) 8 of would custom from the the I and content, begging disappear justice
"
world".
*l*xJ
e;U^
J>\
(Sa'di;.
" Ah
if
To
his friends
and connections."
iq-i
qadr-i
(Sa'di)
(6).
man
1
dnastl
khirdmdn hami-raftami
is
Vide example in
125 (h)
In
8
*
classical Persian,
and
and Afghanistan,
is
majhul
(e).
Example
of
^5^ u^?^
tajnla-i Mkattj.
Note the time. Though future, the first condition is one impossible of fulfilment ; while later, the same tense is used to express past time, for conditions that might have been, but were n t or could not be, fulfilled. 6 From an obsolete verb, "to be": aste = ast in ancient Pers. Later aste is used only for the Past Habitual. In mod. Pers., no-bud, or na-ml-bud, or na-bashad would
be used in prose.
547
rather were
it fitting
dignity that I should be strutting proudly on a ' ' 1 with a fellow magpie (said by a magpie imprisoned
my
Sud-i darya riik budi gar na-budl bim-i mawj Suhbat-i gul khush b&di % gar nisti tashwsh-i khar
(Sa'di).
"The
be great were there not profit the terror of the deep. Pleasant would be companionship with the rose were it not 8
for the thorn."
m da tar navishti*
f
(Sa'di).
Were
come to life Majnun would learn love's methods from this book They
Laila and
to
of
mine."
dam na-yuftadt balJci sayyad Tchud dam " na-nihadi (Sa'di) were it not for the pressure of hunger, no bird would fall into the snare, what's more no bird-catcher would ever set a snare."
jawr-i shikam na-budi hick murgh-i dar
Gar az
'ahd-i khurdit
yad amadi
Ki
Ki
If
man
jafd
6
man
u man plra
zan
thou hadst remembered thy childhood's days When thou wert a helpless babe in these arms,
When
1
Zagh
is
the English magpie, but Persians are not very exact iri the names they Elsewhere in the same story the zagh is called a ghurab which
Zagh
is
the chough."
Budl, poetical for budl. Note the Past Habit. for mere supposition referring to no special time.
,
though future, is expressed by the Past Also note the singular verbs, Laila and Majnun being by a poetical license In speaking, Laylq. is gener125 (h) (6). Also va for u. treated as one idea; vide also
*
Note that
Habitual.
ally Layli.
&
Note
Properly Tchurdiyyat read jchurdti for scansion. stand for the izafat this feminine pira, or does the
;
Persians
always
548
is
understood, as:
UA/^ .~jtah.^Mj
^'ri* o*^'_>?
l
v u ^f^ v **"
1
u^
>j
|w'*'
'^f*
yuK-i
Q.Z
ishan ra ki
rd jalva-gari dmukhti va az tdb-i 'izdr kirishma-yi jamdl-ash arusdn-i bihisht ash dftdb-i jahdn-tdb bar dtash-i ghayrat bi-sukhti, chashm-i mast-ash (Anv.
and one of them (the damsels) the winning glance of whose beautv might have taught blandishment to the brides of Paradise (if )and at the glow of whose cheeks, the sun, which warms the world, was '* consumed 1 with the fire of jealousy whose languishing eye (East. Trans.).
Suh. Chap.
1, St. 8)
;
"
Vide also example in 126 (i). an Imperfect Indicative (2) In the following examples,
the Past Habitual without any change in meaning
:
is
substituted for
^Jt* Jr^
!X;^
tfijS'isW
-J*t*
murdja'at kardami
pidar mard qabul mi-kard "if I had returned it would " for better have been me, because my father would have received me back OJM T jii >>* L*M /** T^f j &y*p a) .& j*'-* ^&>S j& dar kashti hich badban jOy&x na-bud va agar ham mi-bud* dar an vaqt chi mi-kardam? "there was no sail in the boat, and even if there had been what could I have done with
bihtar budi* chirdki
;
f/tnf
it?
f*^*^ nami-kardam
:
"
\)
(m.c.)
o*
I
^' agar
man
jd-yi tu
budam in kdr rd
:
you
would
not do this
"
8 ^* yy (*^* agar bd ishdn haldk mi-shudam bihtar mi-bud (m.c.) "had I " &*>* (^j oJ 9 <$ jt\ perished with them, it would have been better for me
:
<J&&
&\JL>\
i^^ jb agar an vaqt zamin dahan bdz mi-kard bi-khushi-yi ^X^A/o }J> j*l*3 tamdm faru mi-raftam (Prof. S. T.) "had the earth only opened I would
^5^3*0
b u^J^^' O r) Wj^J>**- *( &# gladly have been swallowed up in it zy jile.) agar darin bdgjt si chiz-i digar bud (or mi-bud) bi-nazir bud (m.c.)
:
"
it
bi-qadr-i
(Prof. S. T.).
the previous examples it will be seen that the Imperfect Indicative (or the obsolete Past Habit.) can in conditions or supposii
Remark
L From
Or
In
might be consumed
classical Persian,
'
ml-budam are
in
common
budami, and the Imperfect (*5^ (s* In modern Persian however the Past Indicative fty
^^
Sometimes however place of both these tenses. ^^J ^* ml-budam is still used for euphony, in conditional sentences. 8 Note that a supposition, almost with a future signification, can be expressed in the Imperfect Indicative. This might also mean " If I had been Persian
" the context would not have done this (qarlna or matlab) gives the time; either Past or Future time is indicated.
;
by
you,
549
l
;
as
' :
'
If
had wrestled
f*
(or
with him yesterday I would have thrown him" f^*> ^xfiX^t lijgj&'jA vV6) I; jl flj/flw diruz ba u kushti mi-giriftam ura zamm mi-zadam
eri^
riist
l (V*^ cf*^ ^'-^' ^' J vs~-oJ <j.x> ^Ui jjjSf layiq-i va-illd agar farda ba-u kushtl bi-giram ura bi-zarmn mt-zanam
';
-?'
f^Lr**
khwaham
f*^
i^*>?
t; 3!
^i|^*i narni-danam agar bi-danam guftan" I don't know, but were I to know (as I may or ash mushlcil ast (not bud) " but JCk/o ^xiif I tell couldn't nami-danam not) may
ml-zadam: o~l
Jx*
f**^
va
*JZ5
agar
jar da,
^^
^xiif
^i,^j ^f|
^
f
p~j\^*jt\ ^IA>>
' '
agar rm-danistam guf tan-ash mushkil bud (not ^*l but even if I knew (as I certainly don't) I couldn't x tell
^j^j^xo
pty.*>
jjiijjxsj
ast)
dont know
"
:
e>
^Sj^/o ^X^,'
I Ji
;^+xi
lj
^'U
javab
dadam
layiq-i sh*an-i
man
Aqa
kushti ml-giriftam *
(Vaz!r-i
Lankaran)
"I
not fitting to my position, otherwise in spite of my fifty years, I would wrestle with Timur Aqa and throw him; you would see for
replied *it is
' " I was* yourself (lit. wrestling and was throwing, etc."). In modern Persian, the Imperfect Indicative is the tense most in use in
:
conditions,
though occasionally
;
its
place
is
supplied by
the
Pluperfect
Indicative as in English
Remark
//.
For the
(d) In modern, and occasionally in classical Persian, the Pluperfect can >*< J? c/f take the place of the Imperfect in the protasis, as I; s man mi-didid budam dar chida ra an *j<xj^jjx> ^o jjUf utaq-i gul fty agar " if I had would seen have would flower that (or (m.c.) see) you plucked
:
^
:
it
in
my room
' '
,ilw(
^ 1^
&iJli
J rt
^ ^^
)]
a.i/(!<XJ|
taraf
v-^jUg^
C^AXS
^buo
<UJ
xjl^t
Lcf
Uc|
agha, agar andaza-yi nlm-tana ma'lum ml-shud bisyar khub bud (Vazir-i Lank.) " here the context " but, Sir, if the size of the coat were known it would be better ;
j*
amma
had been known, it would have been better " o*t v_>^ (^*- *j&j f^-^ <3l^t j$ agar andaza ma'Jum bi-shavad Miayll khub ast would imply it was not possible to obtain the size of the garment but ^w>|tH^^'f f*\*+*
sh&ws that the meaning
is
not "
if it
(m.c.)
"I don't
know, and
o**3t
c*>v/i.x3
if
ij\.\.$$
^J(AJ
can equally well be expressed in m.c. by jf\ p>\**+> nami-danam agar bi-danam guftan-ash mushkil *ast (m.c.).
:
* The Imperfect Indicative is used in preference to the Present Subjunctive to indicate a supposition that is not likely to be fulfilled the Vazir's position forbids such an unseemly action as wrestling.
Or
"Hf*8
mi-chldam.
550
our part taken any action, the conspiracy would have been public " P^A ^x) ^is. ^J^j %^ C5*~f fAlj agar inhd bd-ham dshti karda budand khushnud mi-shudam (mod.) "if they had been reconciled (to each other)
c^uU j^ c/f^ft jf ) ^$oy ***** ^\ agar an ruz 'dqibat-i in bi-dida budi va az kfrun rikhtan ijtindb karda budl dar in vaqt in vdqi'a ruy na-namudi (Anv. ** Sub., Chap. X, Story 2) if on that day thou hadst seen the conclusion of this affair, and had'st shunned to spill blood, this event would not now have ocI
*-&>^\
^^j e^
^
c^r** <*)
^5 (&\ )* C5*>?
8l>
(East. Tr.).
(e) Similar constructions in Optative Clauses (which are but a form of Conditional Clauses) occur after the optative word o*( kdsh, kdshk* " or &&kdshaki, and c5i>? ** chi budi, etc., "I wish that, would to Heaven r
^ZM
followed in classical and modern written Persian by the Past Habitual, and in modern colloquial by the Imperfect and Aorist ->'"*' ***** >* ** > V*"*** ****** J~ J* fA * fe3
i.e.
it
is
*<s^
^^
(Sa'df).
"Oh, would
that, the
8 day death's thorn pierced thy foot struck me with the sword of destruction."
** & bd rafiqdn dhista mi-guft, c,hi budi ki man an darakht rd bi-ddnistami ki kujd ast td du'd kardami ki pidar-am bi-mirad (Sa'dl), "(The son said) Oh, would that I knew* where that tree is,
[
up a prayer for my father to die": C5 4*~i'd t^&ifc "would that I knew": &*>1 j^^ ^^ kdsh diruz mi-dmad (mod.) " would that he had come yesterday"; **f (^ \&j t>i kdsh fardd mi-dmad "would that he had come to-morrow (instead of
so that I might offer
kdshki ddnistami
<Jk kdsh fardd bi-ydyad " would that it would happen that he should arrive to-morrow": kdsh in javdn barddar-i shumd bud b
to -day)," but ^jl#
\*j
(^ (m.c.)
tamiz-i 6
ki
1
&*A
cuot
bi-tu
js^y
Ua* ^L
i^
&f C5-H*-*
(irt
u*^"
Khudd
'aid
hama kas
The meaning
is
'
would that
didst die
*
^ *& f&-> p-^J bi-kunam ki bi-mlrad would be Murdl the construction. pidar-am ordinary ^i*(Past Habitual) could be substituted for 3tftH bl-mlrad in the sentence above whether the two last verbs are both put in the Past Habitual or both in the Pres. Subj., makes no difference in the meaning.
Note that the meaning
is
*
would that
I were
knowing now
ta du'-a,
" " would that he were (but he is not) would that he might turn out to be (as he may)."
(m.c.)
*b u*K
kash
551
bud
(m.c.)
"would that
all
possessed
God has
given to you."
Kdshki parsal in rd guftami ki urd kushtandi (old) ^Js$ l> e*N J^V <**~^ would that I had said this last year so that they might ^ail^T \) ,i t
'
him (by now)": if the Pres. Subj. xi.i> bi-kushand were here substituted for the Past Cond kushtandi, the time would be indefinite and
have
killed
killing.
it will
From
can
in
(/) In modern Persian, however, the Optative and Past Optative can both be represented by the Aorist or the Imperfect, and the Past Optative by the kdsh murakhkhasi ddda Pluperfect also, as: ( * ^* or) *?*.> JiM^ ^^yo
'
^4
"would that leave were granted" ^C* ,t (jM u rd famida bud (or mi-fahmid but not bi-fah+ if* or hukm kdsh ij >jj^. " would that he had understood the order " m.c. mad) y e>*^ 3! ^^u Jifc " az man az da'vat budi kash would that
bi-shavad (or mi-shud*) m.c.,
(
^^j
t**~jj
pish
purslda
^>
,
budam
(or
f*
*Jj**
naml-shudam)
m.c.,
Kdshki qimat-i anfds bi-ddnandi khalq, Td dam-i chand ki mdnand, ghammat shimurand.
(Tayyibdt-i Sa'di)
"
Would that people knew the value of life That these few moments they have to live, they might not
" Until
I
'
waste.
say
Sacrifice
(g)
me
youth
"^(
Conditional
:
clauses
By inverting the order and substituting ki for agar, 8 may occasionally be changed into predicative clauses, as
nice
it
"How
if
I In Urdu kash is followed by any one of the three Optative tenses as kaah mare "would that he would strike him" hash marta "would that he had struck him" kash marta hota " would that he had been striking him " kash mara hota " would that he had struck him" (remote time).
:
Mi-shui xuj>o
Vide
(g).
m ay
refer to Past or
552
murkhkhasi ddda * ( <* ^ or ) mi-shud (m.c.), or i>t>\t> a. ^~*) vj> <^^j jf\ a^ chi khub ast agar (or ki) murakhkhasi dada bi-shavad [ Fut. vide *<*. (/) ] <^.j or ) j$\ chi khub budl agar (or ki) murkhkhasi dada <JT<XW ( shudi* (Future or Past) o~| *^ -S^C/M &/m& ast agar ^^\ o^f baharalan shuru' shuda ast (better shuda bashad) "how nice if spring have
l
^ or
&^
^^
:
^^
^^
commenced"
(h)
*f&> bi-shavad
is
would
signify
"were
to
commence
just now.*'
The apodosis
**
e^
fi*f
first: j>\
^^
si
& ^*
ib
^i
[vide
(c) (2)].
^ J*>\
an
chiz-i
&l* j*v
JL\
^^
digar bud
^ ^j
kardlm; [vide
(c) (2)].
128.
(a)
We now come
may
be
(or
the Present Subjunctive 8 (Aorist) introduced by^l agar but the Indicative Mood can usually take the place of the Subjunctive Mood 8
if
there
is little
Examples
masalan agar darvish jur*at numayad haml bar tahavvurkunand* va agar sakhavat varzad iwajnam nihand* va agar dar hilm kushad an ra ajz va bi-'izzati shumarand* (Anvar-i Suhayll, Chap. Ill, " thus for example, if a poor man show boldness, they ascribe it to Story V) rashness; and if he choose to be liberal, they call it extravagance and if he fEast. Trans.) try to be mild, they account it weakness and want of spirit"
l
e~j> ^iUxJ^j txixio lx> tjjt ^>(S gazi ar ba ma nishmadbar fishanad dast ra (Sa di) \j "were the Qaz! even to join our party he would wave his arms in time
e
Or
agar.
used.
and ^o- shudi would probably have been M kash murakhMiasl &j* JJ^ 8ib ^^^-j
shudi
Mi-shud
but
not be used after the previous tense c$J>? budl. S If the Aorist is used in a conditional sentence
tion
it generally supposes that the condiin a future possibly be fulfilled, whereas if the Imperfect Indicative is used vide Remark I condition it generally supposes a condition that will not be fulfilled
may
(c) (2)
+
2, p. 548.
The
'
Aorists
'
in the apodosis
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
(continued).
553
to the
dancing"
l
:
&>]& cui-o
your condition he would gladly assist " *> rd bi-jihat-i man bi&}*+* ^5^ ^'^ &M you t?v? b &$jf\ cigar kum khayll mamnun khwaham shud* (m.c.) "if you do this for me I shall
of
:
^^
be
much
obliged to
i)i>>/cf <J
you"
JSAJ^
cU>L>[
c^j feai
6
(^
<JU*
^f
^i*;f
o~jj y^j
Ja
j>y
Aristu
ra navishta ast ki agar faqat yak dmadan-i bahdr nist (m.c.) " Aristotle made the
masal
proverb that one swallow does not make a Summer": i)J ^J t<>jo \) ^li^^fi iULy ^A:^^ U ag'ar A;^a& ra pay da bi-kunam nazd-i shuma khwaham firistad
(m.c.)
"should
I find the
book,
I will
send
it
to
you
"
)j;
*Jlx
oty UA ^f
:r<-^x> ^^^^ *? Lr'" ^6 jy ^Sj~>* *j^* 0*3^ ^t A^ shabana-ruz-i mara bi-binld mutahayyir Tchwaliid shud ki
^ ^'^
sar ml-barad
(m.c.) "if you were to see the manner I pass my daily would be **f J. astonished how I live" o -jr jl.L) life, you j rd az miyan-i rishva-sitani ^*ty^ ^rr c*j* cigar az dast-am bar- ay ad
6
: l
^^ *A
^* ^
1
mardum
(m.c.)
"the prevention
of bribery shall
be
contrived
take the place of (b) As already stated, the Indicative Mood can the Subjunctive when there is little or no doubt, as: o^t _>L>-c eJU.^f <j& cUs ^xs 0*^*30 AJ agar jdn-at 'aziz ast bi-nasihal-i man 'amal bi-Jcun
(m.c.)
"if thy
+s\
life
is
dear to
thee take
j^o
my
advice"
jl
\)
^A^man
$\
o,At
&$ o*i?
p*'^
ki
^^J
is
(^
agar haqiqat rd
az
mi-
pursid*
khwaham
guft
u ahmaq
10
ast (m.c.)
"if
a fool
'
"
:
iJ^-jJO
^ f^ ^'^
^.i)^
agrar
ghazab-ndk mstid
why speak
so angrily
l Music and dancing are generally held to be forbidden. The writer says that the music at his parties was so delightful that even the Qazi, the judge and administrator of the law, would fall a victim to its temptation.
2 3
'Azizan
oiV^,
pi
used for respect, " you and other dear ones like you.'*
Darad
t>)\&
*
6
Or mi-shavam Or misal J
(m.c.)
If the
l
Direct narration.
The
3
indirect
fr*
"
j"^.
**}^ tX
man
baram
7
would words
also be correct.
j**^ e^** jt az miyan-i mardum were omitted, the sentence will try to give up habit of taking bribes."
might
be taken to
8
y
mean "/
my
Or " And
H^
554
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
(continued).
of
j^^f^ khwdstan
is
usual after
agar,
follows, as:
.5^ >i&! jj.* oj>/;A ^i* (JjJe j p)te ^lia. khidmat kunad va tawq-i minnat-t dar gardan-i man afkanad tavaqqu' chunan ddram (Anvar-i Suhayll, Chap. 14, Conclusion of Book) "and if the king
ovo^
&' ^lys*.**
wishes to do
me
service,
my wish is that
bi-rawd
"
:
of obligation
round
my
neck,
A^J ^bl^.
1
^^
bdyad chapdrl
bi-ravid
it is
"
(m.c.)
';if
you want to
8
here
there
is
A*AI^.J jS\* agar bi-khwdhid (H) properly a slight shade of difference in meaning.
(*O
In conditional sentences the past is, in m.c., often used &>{* * for the present, as <JJ/f ye jt ^.^ ^J^a. f\ agar chlz-l digar khwasta bashid* az dih mi-arand (m.cJ "should you want any thing
Remark.
&w^
besides these,
(c)
it
will
The
*?&>
ib
^^j*
"how
o
if
V^A.
&*.
nice
leave be
granted." (d) In Classical and in Indian Persian, the Future Indicative is often used instead of the Present Subjunctive (Aorist), as: \&fa' jf* jSi if tjAjii ty ^&*1
er*t^ ahan-gar rd farmud ki agar baz j~ fjM}&> fjj j& khwdM sakht 7 sar-i tu du chunin jawshan khwaham kard (Indian) " the king said to the smith, if you make again (for any one else) such a good ' coat of mail I'll split your head in two " vide also 125 (e) (1) and (2).
o^U ^\^
'
mm
*
^ ^A[^
sahar
JUaL Jix5f ;a
ki shawq-t ghfilib
JUa. 9 AA^J f*At^ ysuJ| p+~J ;f cJ^lx) ^\ hargdh khwahad shud akhbdr-i sa'ddat-asar-i malik az nastmu -slj
U JU^
e^U* ^UV
*A|^
^U
^J>j
^ i^j^
khwaham pursid va jamdl-i bd kamdl-i Shah dar d*ina-yi khaydl khwaham did (Anvar-i Suhyli, Chap. 8, Story) " and hereafter whenever desire prevails, I will inquire of the morning-breeze happy tidings of the king, and will
behold in the mirror of imagination, the perfect beauty of his majesty
"
*
8
Or incorrectly &jj* &jj ***> ^. *^<t^ jf| agar khwasta bashid zud The ki is omitted colloquially.
4 Bi-kh'pahid BO polite.
6
of *$ ki.
^ff)^
^ A)j
&^
chunan
zirah-l bi-sazi,
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
(East. Trans.): ***> **\j*> &)*> &kf>
rasid (Indian)
bi-rasad.
9]
(continued).
555
u^
chun u
(as
bi-vatan-i
;
khud khwahad
m.c.
"when he
reaches his
home
he
will do)
" but in
a*y
Sometimes the speaker assumes that the condition is realized and puts the verbs in the protasis and apodosis in the Preterite or the first in the In m.c., howPreterite, and the second in the Future or even Present.
(e)
;
ever,
this refinement
of
meaning
^z>j
^) JS\
''if
The example generally neglected. burdi murdi ; agar rafti agar khufti (Sa'di and
is
you
<^*x*,y *-&*;> $\ agar " fear in battle, you'll lose j is*)J*> c?^^'
(g)
:
125
<^tj
dor
<^*i}&. o^./o (j-^y C^ASUO^I agar zadi Ichwurdi va agar mahabbat kardi mahabbat khwahi did (m.c. saying) "if you do ill, you'll receive ill; if " you are kind to people, you'll receive kindness (i.e. kindness wins kindness)
:
Hj>/# er* c&tf agar pul bi-shuma dad pish-i man bi- ydvarid J^ "if he the (m.c.) gives you money (which I think he will do), bring it tome": ^AC (j^j or ) (** jt\ agar hukm shud (or bi-shavad) mi-ravam ^AJU O^A? (m.c.) "if I'm ordered to go, I'll go" j c5^ J -^/!
afa
*****
\
J*^>
v^-jJil>i3 <jlj+
} agar imsal baray -i u blkhatar guzasht ba'daha'umr-ash tulani'st (m.c.) "if he escapes danger this year, he will have a long life" (astrono1 :
b a^Uxj v^JU *j ^^dx) ^tf , <xiUi f* ^** agar ghuraba* ra gazid asar-i saTcht-l mi-numayad va gdh-% munjarr bi-halak
mi-shavad (m.c.)
:
mer's prediction)
^ ^
j* y
y j\
^U
^ uftkli) A'
cu^jj
^+0
ty *} agar gav az sar-panja-yi shir Tchalas yaft mumkin nist lei bi-talattuf va tamalluq-i u az rah ravad (Anv. Suh., Chap. 1, Story 26) "and hereafter if the
ox should escape from the claws of the lion, it is not possible that he should be moved by his courtesies or kind speeches " ovcUf^ ^^^^ jt\
:
JU
na-kardam muqassir-am 5 (m.c.) "if you order then I shall be guilty A*^ ^1 f\ *$ f~^\* &**! * ^ C& *A\}. |j ki ,y>of ddnistam in ^l^Ja yaqin jl^ agar dap a tufdn amad jahdz " I felt sure that if a storm came ra khwahad shikast now, it would (m.c.) " break up the ship : or ) &f agar faryad zadi turn (
^Aflxj
va
ita'at
' '
p*M
^ y ^y
;
&?.j*Jt\
mi-kusham
(/)
is
admissible
Or
Ar.
>>
therefore luckier
*
is
pi.
vs/^
gharlb
vulgar.
The
*k
malla or
is
hence
AO gana is said to be a sort of poisonous bug that bites strangers only, and nicknamed _>? v<j* gharib-gaz. Here the Present tense is more forcible than the Future ty (*'>* Tchwaham bud. Or ,yl>k tu/an-i.
556
CONCESSIONAL CLAUSES.
it
to
(e)
tome" <^^Lo (j^j^iaUkj J^ *H^ vaqt~iki % pulrdbi-shumddddpisJi-i man biydvarid 3 (m.c.): "I cannot talk Persian when (or if) there is a third
person present" ^>? J/^
vaqt-i
^)^
ki
(or agar)
:
sheikhs- i
zanam
(m.c.)
kunam
*tf o^lti (&U* (j-* *&-&>j vaqt-i ki man shunidam itd'at mi" " when I ^ab $$**> get the order from you, I'll carry it out (m.o.)
3
:
*>^ j**** (/'or ) &&*h fi'y^** salis-i hdzir bdshad 4 nami-tavdnam Far si harf bi-
^^ u*^
turd didam 5 turd ydd khwdham kard. |-<xi |y hargdh yddgdr-i j>y *&\)& ,sb ty (g) A conditional clause may be converted into a relative clause, vide
&
130
(d).
Remark.
* '
temporal
clauses
'f
have
often
the
whenever "
j* hargdh
(class.)
is
meaning
' l
if."
129.
Concessional Glauses.
in
(a) The Concessional Clause is a form of the conditional illustrated 127 and 128. The difference is that the protasis, instead of being
' '
" introduced by if although "^fi agar, etc., is introduced by *^.^l agarchi 6 or one of its synonyms ^a^l agafchand (class, and obs.), *i*y* harchand or
A'
j)j *\*.j&
"
harchand ki (mod.),
1
*'
or
gu or gu-ki t
va-law
(m.c.); AJJ>JA.J b bd
^!
f<^
ma'hdzd,
8
'
standing";
fij
girim)
(b)
b &a tws/-f or *^-e^l 6a vs/-J ^'"notwithaif J'a- ^ va hdldnki "whereas, albeit," and fo$ glram (or admitted, granted.'
^t
^^
bframki,
'
The Apodosis
by the Correla-
tive
&l
ammd, &**
llkan
and
vaU. 9
These
ki,
but this
1
is
modern and
is
vulgar.
not used in the apodosis, the whole sentence will refer to past lr* C5^5 ^b^ &*<* chun faryad zadl tura zadam (m.c.) "since (or when) you screamed, I beat you.
'
If the
Future
'
'
Chun
Or
in writing.
*?jp(i?
ex
& **** ^^ b J^
incorre'ct.
*&ft
va?<
fc*
pwZ
ira
man
bi-yavarld (m.c.).
*
Shud would be
Or *J*
fMj^
Tchwaham did
(class.)
{&.*
dldam or p*&
*?
bi-blnam
(class,
and
m.c.).
6
in the
Shah Nama.
7
8
"and
if."
p*-
Also in m.c.
Also by ta
ham
CONCESSIONAL CLAUSES.
Remark.
of
It is not necessary for the apodosis to
557
be introduced by one b <*&f a^j b ,J^M
ast
]
these
correlatives:
*~J
^y
*j;'3f
OH
&ili.
^ ^^
bd
dnki
mardum ham-khdna
I, St. 6)
bi-vdsita-yi Izd
"
though
of the
annoyance and injury which result from it ." " no matter how " or (c) The English phrase
"however", is rendered har har etc. with the hdlat, Aorist, followed or not qadr, oJU.^A by j*-^*
:
by &^j& agarchi
"No
benefit
matter
in
is
from knowledge"
or) insdn
:
M>*
<ylj oJl^ ^UJt |&tjJUjj dar har hdlat bdshad az 'Urn fd*ida hdsilkhwdhad kard (or *'no matter how many cases are on the file, it is impos-
AAI^. J^>1^
^^
i&l&U j&5 .A they should not be decided on the appointed date Af J^a>j har o->;3 ^UJ (1f^o.^\j tAj;j> qadr muqaddamat dar* pish ;^ax %j^U j
' '
bashad
though it be an four will farsakh be visible to distant, object may you by means of the telescope, as though it were close at hand AftiyL^fei) e* ^^**.^* trt^ Ja-yo
:
mumkin
nisi ki
"
dur-bm* har )t^ a^ft chundn bi-nazar khwahad dmad ki guyd dar pahlu-yi shumd ast agarchi bi-fdsila-yi chahdr farsakh- ham dur bashad: "where a man's condition remains the same for years, no matter how good and pleasant that condition
i^b;^^ ^A
chiz
&j
^l^lij
may
becoming tired
of it at last
' '
^ JU ^
l^
j^
salhd-yi sal
khub-1 bdshad
bdz la-bud az
an malul mi-shavad: "however easy a thing is, it always seems difficult to a beginner" jk* c5*k" j^> 3^ ^^ o *f ;<>^> j* (j$
l
tijf
" I
^c Hr-t har qadr dsdn bdshad bdz bi-nazar-i mubtadi mushkil mi-dyad : shall not sell it now, no matter how much you offer" )*$ y> f**)j* us** *^
hold naml-farusham har qadr bi-dihi.
ast
*
The subject
for
Conjunction.
8
collocation.
(J"*$ ;* does
*
6
Dar pish
Or
^J ck^t*
iaysal na-shavad>
Or agarchi
558
(b)
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
:
The following are further examples of concessional clauses Though monkeys may not have the gift of speech, yet they must 1 have some means of communicating their thoughts to each other" *jLlj *xi a &j. cA*^s (^K* uk) *k c^ ^ # *)* *tV** )* *<*/\ agarchi dar
"
{&
maymunhd
ddshta bdshand
me
left, albeit I
i|
am
so devoted
o*xuo lj ojf>* er* *&f J ^ j ^=-rf ^JU> to you" jy $ wrg 6a f^*^* ^A wan hich mahabbat bdqi na-mdnda ast va hdldnki man fidd-yat mi-shavam " though the debtor kept excusing himself on the ground that the bond was
^U
^
"
forged, yet
his
own
l
signature
^t
ja'H-st
dkhir
no-char shuda
na-tavdnist
"though you do not know me, I know you 4 tu mard naml-shinds-i ^.Ij^i ^to v>^ ty ^^ agarchi
shindsam:
clothes, I
*^/
man
"notwithstanding that you have disguised yourself in a man's voice that you are a woman" i; ^i. *i*t+j ^ ** **" c= ^'^3' ^' ft*|)f Aiia/e^rV^ ^^ vujud-i kikhud rd dar (J* f^** <y3
drdsta-i ammd az sadd-yat ma'lum mi-shavad ki zan-i: that men's natures are different, yet this is no reason why there "granted " a*, should not be concord in a family o~t -ftixivo ^U^t g)U.b * ^t
libds-i
marddna 6
^J
c^ftyo ^i^la. ) &> o^t s.-^o ptrom A;i tabdyi -i insdn mukhtalif ast in chi sabab ast ki dar khdnddn-i muvdfaqat na-bdshad?; "though the story
f
*\M
is
long, (J^i or
it
is
interesting"
3'j
or
or)
"*
OMI 7 >_*-.sJj \b& go o*| J^fc vi*j%^. ^f Aa-^t agarchi an hikdyat tavil ast ma'hdzd (or bdz or vali, or " 5^: you are addicted to drinking, albeit the practice
'
contrary to Islam" ^5!^ ^*i c/f ACS/ta.j <NJ^X ^/o bardy-i shardb khivurdan mi-mirid va hdl an ki an amr khildf-i shari'al ast.
*=*-
^^^
130.
o^
^d^ ^^
Relative Clauses.
(a)
(1)
Another form
Relative clauses are introduced by the pronouns "who, which, what, that, whoever, whatever," etc., and by the pronominal adjectives of quajity
and quantity.
1
JU obj
It
zaban-i
is
tial is
zabartri gal.
It
is difficult
to translate
the former.
*
%
Or
Or
sfiakhs-i
madyun.
In m.c.
tikrar.
*
6
AJrA
harchand, or AT
Or Uj
amma or
jb baz.
the plural
Or instead Or shirin
of the adjective
;
^^x^
but mufld
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
559
A
way.
compound
Something regarding the collocation of relative clauses has already been 120 (q) (6). said in the Syntax of Pronouns clause in Persian often relative the of The (2) position nearly corresthe in its of to the principal English. Sometimes, subject position ponds
clause
is
introduced
first for
its
relative clause; the principal subject is then left to stand alone without a
a final finite verb is introduced to out that this construction is analogous Kempson points his to the old English "Mr. Pepy's, diary."* Vide also 138 Order of
verb, while a
secondary subject to
l
Words
(3)
less
and that
^jf Uy
wilt set
to tranquillize
who
(Anvdr. tiuh., East Trans., Chap. VII, St. 1) o*zi.j tj a+* ^ja. chun hama ra rukhsat kard shakhs-i " when he had dismissed them all, the person (class.) had committed the theft, began to feel afraid." Vide also (6).
:
my my heart."
cA^^t v^r* *' $***^ ) ^*J> &*# \j*f\ " if thou mind at ease, and give me a solemn promise sufficient
of the principal clause) frequently come sentence; this construction is not considered bad,
may be a demonstrative pronoun, an indefinite a proper noun, or a personal pronoun. If the pronoun, a common noun, antecedent is a proper noun or a personal pronoun, it is by Indian grammarians
(4)
4
3i
t
The antecedent
to *'
termed
is
o^y
'
is
qualified,' or j~~&*
'
commented
connective *S ki
mufassir" commenting
" on
kaf-i bayan,
and the
relative clause
j~&*
J>/^ mawsul; the connective, kaf-i kaf-i sila\ and the relative clause itself *JL* sila. A sentence containing a relative clause referring to such an antecedent is termed *J^py<s Ai->.
is
called
mawsul or *X*
oK
The pronoun
which
1
^f;
raji*
or
*$(e
'a id
'
that
Syntax and Idioms of Hindustani." " Compare also Christ his sake" and in modern Persian * ahud " Muhammad, his book was lost." Muhammad kitab-ash
^
"
gum,
shakjLs-i duzd.
&
by a demon-
strative
pronoun
^.
560
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
general
is
f&z*
term
J^c^
f*!
Examples
"
How miserably
women
a>J&-*
l ;
that do not
eui<.*
know how
chi
to
*J;t^ &\j~ *$
<^3
v^Ljjt
^a*.
qadr sakht
navishtan
or mi-guzaradawqdt-i zandn-i ki savdd na-ddrand o.su &Jtx>.+j cfo' gadr bardy-i zanan-i ki
^oJt^x:
va
cx^'A *MV.J )*** chi nami-ddnand sakht zanhd-i ki khwdndan mi-guzdrand. "It is very qadr unkind to forget the past claims of aged servants that can no longer work
cui*.**
' '
bi-vafd^i-st
ki az
1-
kdr
uftdda and; or
CA-OJ^I^J
J ^!/^ Jk o^/ L$r* j* 'y -^ O* nawkardn-i sdl-khwurdai* ki az kdr uftdda-and huquq-i Ishdn rd who is fardmush kardan khayli lii-vaf&l-st. "Let that one of you precede AXA-A^ UU^ &\* *i^b ^*kf take j\ to &*) <J*y precedence" qualified
1
^ ^'w
li
;'^3 A?
^^
cr*i
aJib az miyan-i
"
Instantly report to
^
me any
&&# & j
3
unusual proceeding
j\ \j*
\tf
J-^
^^
&j*\ 3*
an mard az an amr-i ki khildf-i ma'mul az u bi-bmidjawr *#\*j? jila* c/f har " "What anyone is in want of, shall be given him muttali' garddnid. cxi *XA|^L jj^b a^lj (J^^ ^^ bi-har kas harchi hdjat-ash bdshad ddda khwdhad " " Whatever shud. <>/ J^ a^y*. (*^people thought they thought wrong kte ai^L) mardum* harchi Tchaydl karda bdshand g&alat khaydl oJt j>/ J'jj^ " What kind of a man is he who eats no flesh ? " karda-and (m.c.). ;^* &*.
^^
^
^i^i
o-^^
f>
(^)t^ ,^w
riamt-Mwrad = does not eat; certain); the Present Tense here indicates a the Aorist would indicate a reference to some one that does not eat meat
;
an chi jur insdn I st ki gusht nadoubt, as ^y ^ *^^/ *' OW*OJLJI ;^ &*. c< khurad what sort of man is he (may he be) that eats no meat," (i.e. "is there " " Are such a man? "). your mother and sisters in the same house as yourself?
'
In
this sentence, the position of the relative clause corresponds to its position in
(preceding
&$")
c>U5[j>
nawkaran the
logical subject
(a)(2).
Note the two verbs together at the end, vide (a) (3). Note the collocation, subject first and then the relative *a.^>
harchi.
verbs could either be both in the Preterite, or both in the Perfect, with but slight change
in signification.
5
or
d>_jiu oJ*j *
(s
^^>\ )^ *^ c/f
5w
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
j^to
561
madar
khipahirha-yat dar
hamln khana-i
ki tu hasli hastand*
"I
me from my
father
"
^~J
**"
L^J*';
&*%
fl C5-*
-?
ast dar
able
ki
"
oT ;<* **f *^ ",! plsha-yi rahzanl Jci nasl ba'd an baqi-am (m.c.). " What you tell me of the weight of
<
an
nasl in
bi-man rasida
inconceiv-
air, is
o*~jf
^U*
is
oM:L
tdLcjSU'c
U
,
A^xit^ju*
<*j
tyt
c>3j
shumd rra-farmayid
>#^a
"The women
in the
fields
whom
not maintained
work
like
men
' '
&*
amongst j
mardum-i
faqlr ki dar dnha qanun-i ru giriftan nist zan u khwahirha-yi shdn misUi mardan dar kishtzdr kdr mi-kunand. 3 *' The wages which are due to
will
any one
bar
Teas
be given"
^^ v^f^ ^ dnchi
&
mavajib-i
ast
The
price
yl
^^uxj
e/f
a?i
' J
girl
e)T
in
Fatima"
^A
&+U*
(^-.
ddsht khulasa*
bi-
ajuj A^V'a. OA<if,i JL, fj^ an dukhtar qarib-i shash sal ^jj'y ainih ham-sinn-i Fdtima-yi ma.
and principal verbs (b) In (a) (3) it was stated that the subordinate sometimes come together at the end of the sentence. In a long sentence, however, with more than one relative or subordinate clause, as many as three
verbs are found at the end of a sentence, even in good
modern
:
authors. 5
far simpler
than many,
will suffice
"In order to get rid, for a while, of the importunities and jealousy of his first wife, and also to acquire the good opinion of his father-in-law (who,
although noted for clipping money, and passing it for lawful, affected to be " a saint), he undertook a pilgrimage to the tomb of Husain at Kerbelah
Hafi Bdbd
l
of Isfahan) *>&
jl* Jjf
&)s y*
c^ ***
^^
**
Note that ^Lo madar here remains singular in signification, though according the plural termination added to the last of two nouns makes the
as well.
(a) (3).
noun plural
2
verbs at the end of a sentence, vide locative case dar an is avoided after ki. In
Two
^^
Urdu
'
it
of the
faqlr.
Note that
in
UjA{^ j
mardum-i no verb to ^xaj 'Mr. Pepy's, his diary ^^o z5n u MLwahirha, the plural termination is added to the
;
e>3
l^i)
In India
used, instead of
:
^M/
j)
c^^
qanunri ru giriftan.
would
Xur
^^
*
5
^^ ^ ^yU
l^Jf ;
&* j*&
f*j*
(S^J^b^J <^3
faqlr ki dar
)\)
*^&> )*
giriftan
anha qanun-i ru
L&* ^-*i-> zan u l&wahirha-yi mardum-i (*j\dj* kar mi-kunand. nist, misl-i mardan dar kiahtzar
An
The 'suspense*
36
of course excessive.
first
reading.
562
sar-i zan-i
awal
fdrigh shavad, va dar nazd-i pidar-zan-i tdza-i ki bd inki dar buridan-i kindr-i dirham u dinar va ravd^i-yi naqd-i nd-sara bi-jd-yi sara muzdyaqa nami-kard,
dar sunan-i shar' vadddb-i din da'vq-i payadan ddsht, taqaddus-i bi-farushad, 'dzim-i Karbald shud.
In the above quoted example the principal verb ^A ^jy j*)U dzim-i Karbald shud might be inserted bet ween ^-J pas and JU^ eJt^J bi-ddn khayal;
'
the subordinate verb taqaddus-i bi-farushad *jj&> ^xtt might then be construed with dar nazd-i pidar-zan-i tdza &jlj o>3 )*$ &* j^, while the first relative
ki following these
its
verb
o^b
C5;
^v
l
payaddri ddsht
.
.
^^
^flgUa-*,,....*^!
first
^ bd
mki
its
muzdyaqa
relative
and
verb.
statement can sometimes be more simply translated into a simple "He suffered a retribuin
which was
:
J>
deserts,
expressed by
^*j
JU*f otf^+j
^.^.li/o
;^bj bi-tawr-i
a'mdl-i khud rastd^ than by JU*I &(&+) mundsib bud bi-mukdfdt-i a'mdl-i Tchud rasid.
(d)
^; ^^
i-A^U*
*^J=
tawr-l ki
relative clause
thus,
ast
OA*O!^>'(
holds these opinions is an infidel, " if a person holds ." agar shakhs-i in jur
"a
person
who
"
may
be rendered
is
sometimes
useful.
131.
(a)
Predicative Clauses are those which form part of the predicate and without which it would not be complete. These clauses are generally linked to the principal verb by the connective ki **.
In classical Persian,
completes the predicate,
(6)
is
the statement, or question, or order, etc., that 8 generally in the form of direct narration.
In modern Persian the indirect narration is frequently used where the would be used in the classical language. The use of the indirect narration appears to be increasing in modern Persian.
direct narration
1
Note demonstrative
a
s
Or
(before A?
|j
j~*.
JUp u*'^
In Hindustani, which
it is
is
more
used
in classical
563
either in
He
is
not the
man
he says he
:
is
" can
in
modern Persian be
OA~.JJ
jvAiui &&>
o~c|
(^
Jsjj&x/o
>
j u
&> j\
ki
mi-guyad
ki
man
fuldn shakhs-am
ast, riis.
or (2)
o~jJ
uaA &&
*ij'
In modern Persian owb Lsujt &*> (J& t man injd bash? would at once be taken to
till
him
to wait
my
return
*'
"
but
if
meaning
would be
your return."
Even
the following:
gurba-yi hamsaya rd dil bar nala u zdrl-yi u bi-sukht va muqarrar kard ki in nawbat bl u bar sar-i da* vat hazir na-shavad 1 (Anv. Suh., Chap.
I, Intro., St.
3).
"the heart
of
tions,
and he resolved that he would not attend the feast without him."
2
;
In English, the indirect narration is preferred tion of a clause is avoided either by using the infinitive as
Remark.
or the addito go
home,"
"
thought
of going to
him Yezd."
tell
' '
Native grammarians term the reported speech, whether in the 1st or in the 3rd person, &)jsuo maqula; even in the sentence bi-gu asp biydrad "tell
' '
is
a &)j& maqula.
etc.,
After verbs of
preferred,
tion is
though the
*$
direct,
as
well
cr^
bi-ru-yi
t)
L/
tsjtfj)
*?j*
*&=*
man urd
to
musdra'at kunand
-
(Sa'di) (indirect)
"the king ordered the executioner presence"*: &&? oujjL*^ G t>yjto bi- farmud id them to wrestle "
** &J& cT^l* c^jy v^j* jt (^h &)j# (J>^> )* p*jva ham nik namud ki dar dar-i khdna blrun az sifdrish vaqt-i raftan ruy bi-vdpas birun raw td (Trans. Hdji Bdbd) (direct) she (my mother) further directed me
tf
j)
' '
my face towards the door, by way of propitiating a happy return from a journey undertaken under such inauspicious circumto *leave the house with
1
The
direct narration
f*j-o
would
also be right, in
which casey
tu
would be substituted
for jf u,
*
and
na-shavam for
j^.-iJ
na-shavad.
The employment
necessity, alter the tenses as well as the persons. 8 For negative after verb of prohibition, vide
* If
122
(i).
of
^^o
bi-kush, the
my
564
stances"
direct)
(d)
:
^*U>
_***!
^jyycsj
kunad
(m.c., in-
"
tell
the
groom
"
:
The
(1)
(^ 9=^
b j +)j^
^*
&t
a^j
,'
j^j
|xj*fljl
^jf
amad
ki *Az
Hajj
va
qasida-i
malik burd
'
ki,
twisted his ringlets (saying) I am city with the caravan of Hi jaz (saying), 'I am on the return journey from and carried a qasida to the king (saying) that I comthe Pilgrimage
'
;
'Man
'
'
posed
3
it.'
"
sent word that he would come to-morrow" Id;*' ^Ald^^jl u Khwahad vide (e) (1). payghamddd ki farda khwaham amad s p*]j*> amad ^>T ^AJ^, indirect, would also be right, but might refer to some third
(2)
"
He
**f
'
person.
Remark.
The
direct
occurs in
(c).
subordinate
clauses
"I am
nave
come"
*'
*-!
amada
id (or amadid).
" (4) "I regret that I came f**f t^ chira amadam (or amada am) ? * f\t**1
(5)
f;^^^
<x
cr_r~
?
f
afsus mi-khuram ki
"I
come
to
day
"
jj>yc[ jt
taU* *r
^^^x*
^xj
man
mi-tarsam ki mabada B u imruz bi-yayad. clause vide also 133 (6) (2).
' '
(For example
of a negatively final
(6)
tu kist-i
asked me who / was y ***j$ (^ jl az man pursid ki LS*~ " who are = you ? ") or p*~*t *$ **jjpursid ki klstam (or coll. (also
' ' ;
He
&
ki
am)
' '
(7)
Ask
Tell
if
any one
is
there
' '
tf
hast?
* '
(8)
him
to go
home
'
'
^.
Vide
bi-raw
1
,
Or
Or
less
common
i 3
Hijaz
jlsv.*.
Makkah
is
the capital.
mi-ay am.
(^Ux^j
(a).
or )
^ j^+* ^^-.^ ^
as amadan-i
6
(or
paslnman am).
ki.
133
6
1
.At/a
bf (but not
is
.>f
The
indirect narration
in
correct.
565
(9) xli
My
jy
custom
'adat-i
is
to read the
ast ki
man an
oi;
'
'
(10)
?
"I thought
fjy
a*"
**f
or
e^t^ j
^T
(.5*
advancing from the opposite direction u^> or-b ^LLvj ^j A*' maw didam ki yak nasnds-i taraf-i
gorilla
5
"I saw a
man
mi-dyad.
(12)
" Husain
tells
you
to
"
U>
;
^bjj *$
or
*>** &*
c^
<J;^
bi-zabdn-i
ki bi-zaban-i
ma
harf bi-zan
^>
o^
j\
self in
fikr
A person soliloquizing may, in ^Veci narration, address himthe 1st or 2nd pers. according to the attitude he assumes towards ** himself (vide, 4 & 10). Further examples f*V&ij&(&k bi-in " what wilt "
Remark.
:
^ ^^
I fell into this thought (that) uftadam ki chi khwahi kard\\t>. " or 2 &$ thou (i.e. I) do ? ^^(Jji^j ^l bi*in fikr uftadam ki chi kunam p&*. " He wondered what he would do " &> &i\ J e^b bi-mkhiyal (direct). pJ& These or chi khwahi kard? ki chi kunam, uftdd (direct). &jS ^*>f^ indirect as if treated two sentences might have different interpretations,
;
.
1
narration.
(e)
The following
"
are
modern
tion
(1)
He
sent
"
*jUj
paygham dad
(2)
by
^ ^Ux
"Tell him to go
bi-ravad.
The
"
He
said that
*al%
"
j^*
*'
**f
A b J^
'
li
^~* U
jandb-i
shumd
'st;
[or
w*
^l&j) ^Jali^
''].
The
If
indirect narration
is
in such a sentence,
though
also correct.
]j
ruz-nama,
Mi-Jchwanam
fifjiuxj
substituted.
tically
i-taraf-i
man
ml-ayad
*'
^i
^^
chi
ml-blnam ki
is
nasnas-i,
but that" a
gorilla
advancing towards
566
(4)
"Ask the 'farrash' if his master is awake yet " ^z farrash bi-purs ki dghdyash bl-dar ast* jl*# tA^T " Ask the " witness if he
1
a>
?
<j*;J
f
*
<jk\j
(5)
speaks
English
^J^l
*'
^jj
jA.
(6)
" among themselves to hunt in company A^ *J3/" bdham 'ahd kardand ki biydyand &&jfi*& (5&b &* )^J A j
" The
^^
yak dtgar shikar kunand* " He ordered me not to leave this place" fcj &jj# l^wt (7) farmud ki az in ja birun na-ravam* (class.).
bi-ittifdq-i
(8)
3'
**
*yj
"I came
6
to ask
l
^ fj*
Haydar whether you would go out riding to-day" arc ama^a budam az Haydar *1 jAi^-jf f&ji ^T t^'*
(Vaz!r-i
tell
Lankaran).
the
go and
Khan
&^jd haman
(10)
&&%* j*** a)^- *JJJ^A c^Lo |U* mi-ravad bi-Khan Ichdbar mi-kunad ki iu bi-ndmzad-i u
a) f'-Vj^
&
chashm dukhia-i. 1
" I have told Nisa
to
Khanam
appear,
come and
j^j
^ifjA^ |;U
^jUj
tell
us at once"
csixAw udUa
Khanum
nishmad
(/)
9 agar vazir paydd shud,* bi-ydyad, zud From the above remarks it will be seen that the same sentence can
^y
Aiftf
AJ
frequently be rendered either by the direct or the indirect narration in other words the same sentence may have two different significations. Though the
;
it
will
*$ ki, or
Ijf
aya, or ^T *>
H at/a;
2 8
Or Or
shuma
bldar astt
^j ^j*>
ml-zanl.
^A
e
(^J
65
ham
'ahd
or^^^^r*
ki bi-yayld
lx>
***
tf-*+t>jf
*f
^Alj
p*^ U* y&j&**&
^
o^^
ma
bi-ittifaq-i
Or
direct
j/ ma-raw;
(c).
Note that
It
The
direct narration
j&
ki vazir
1
would
also be correct to
say,
^~l
AJ&jd p&*>
I^-J^
UA
^3 pl*J )}+*>
A^ ki Taymur
bi-namzad-i
8
9
shuma chashm dukhjta ast (direct). Payda shud &* (^ more dramatic than j&?
its
paydd bi-shavad.
it
From
or following
it.
567
Examples
(1)
"He
below.
says
my
father
:
is
dead"
~-
cu*|
*^o
/*j*J
?JJ?Q
is
)\
u mi-guy ad
Vide
pidar-am murda
(2)
(ii)
ast (indirect
if
direct
dead.)
"
(2)
He
is
dead "
:
(i)
opJ
j^J
pidar-ash
pidar-i
(3)
ast
(indirect)
(ii)
*=**!
u-
*&**
U
j<x
ast (direct).
is
"He
dead," cut
ttj<
mi-guyad
ki pidar-i
shuma murda
ast (indirect).
The
indirect narration
in the
above mentioned
examples.
The Persian
narration.
of No.
it
Were
is
my
father
dead
"
to be so interpreted, it
(lit.
would never be interpreted by the direct would signify in English, " He says He says thus 'your father is dead'). The direct
(3)
o^>
I
^/o
pidar-i
Zayd
murda
ast.
(4)
"He
asked
me who
was"
^^
was "
,
*&
***jt
u*
jl
)\
u az man
'
He
asked
me who
(
"
?
i.e.
"he
said to
;
me who am
^.x' *r *xx^
L
^y
(direct)
Remark
More than one grammarian has stated that the oblique It is however often used.
:
A
o.i*jj
!.*
Persian servant delivering a message from his master usually says o,^iu jjj<*>\ o**! ^*"c ^jj^jjx j <>jJLijjj/c *3U> Ipf acfha salam
ml-rasanand va mi-guyand mumkin ast imruz bi-khidmat-i shuma bi-rasand ? In Kerman, the writer has never heard the direct narration used in (m.c.).
such a message.
Remark
ki
II.
Possibly the two constructions account for the difference in tf va'da ml-kunam
:
^J^J
*
py* 8^
promise to
come," while
^^
***?
I will certainly : na-rasid ki u biyayad'2 "I did not (indirect), but *<*$ iiAf^a. 9 &$ dmad * u khwdhad ki na-rasid bi-khaydl-am ^x^y
-
come M
am
may be direct narration I *?(# y &f ^x^J ^k^ bi-khaya" think he would come
"
^jLkwj
jjj*>\
^^
**fj*
;
bi-dldan-i tu
at
^T
?)
(direct).
This might also refer to some third person. The construction with the Present Subjunctive (the Aorist) is preferable in modern Persian. When the Future Indicative is used instead of the Present Subjunctive it is more forcible than the latter.
1
568
(g)
The following examples illustrate other Predicative Clauses: " iy>i*of U a? c^t (1) "I am fortunate in your arrival ^/o o^Uu* jf ^t in az sa'ddat-i man ast ki shumd dmadid. " " It is o-~jj u <+* Wj ^)\ j\ & (2) impossible he escaped by this road
l
jj,^ jfjj
(3)
mumkin
nisi ki
u az in rah
d^
firdr
karda bdshad*
that they
"How
did you
were sixty?"
oa
t
;>b
^^
(4)
What
.?
budand (or hastand, according to idea). did I see on reaching there but that the straw was on
pitf C5
:
fire
AA.
a^^AAO)
girifta ast
(Afghan)
uncommon
in
modern Persian
^f
(5)
better to say *l *" /*^J^ **. *^***j chi ki rasida didam kah atash girifta (m.c.). aw^'a " He a mirror his into hand and said now look at yourself and put
intelligible,
'
me, and
CU-A
see
if
there
bf
is
any difference
aj^
at all
between us
f;
' '
oJ
ibta .u^'f jl
Jfl^.
U ^Ux ^jy
^.^jj
^ *&
o^
u
(:
yc
<J>jJoj (jA* *j
ec^
"
d>;^^c
bi-dast-i
va bi-bin dyd farq-i miydn-i ma '* An idea came into my head to go to Yezd (6) bi-khaydl-am rasid ki bi-Yazd bi-ravam.
(7)
man &
s nigdh kun
4>J
*$
^^ ^^.
"I do
A^.
not
\)
f-j^ij
*->Jja.
Je& AP
p*[j$*
bi-navisam.*
(8)
" I saw
it
month"
l*
^t
&$* )*
kusuf
**
?*?.*
tdrikh-i
(9)
^.ifcb
siyyum-i in
'*
mdh
dftdb
khwahad
girift (or
It
is
&)\A\ ^b
]j*.
him permission " c^l \jy^ ^s^ bi-u ijdzat dddam (direct nar.),
(10) People began to be afraid that the police would hear the noise Uj and burst into the house" j> j^JJi } (cjc &* t^U/c t &&**ajV f<y aili. (_U^b mardum bind mabddd kardand bi-tarsidan ki 4X>^M gazma ghdwahd
i
"
^^
Ki "in that."
Subjunctive to express doubt
nist.
:
karda ast
O"*>t
J5A^
would be incorrect
after
mumkin
S
your own
4
*J mean "look at vamara bi-bm [/*J cj^a^ cij^^5 would and at mine." Or better ki hi javab-i kaghaz-i nazir ra bi-navtsam (^ ^Jo
surat-i kjiud-at
reflection
Navishta
Al&y
for
moon."
569
"I saw
it
stated in the
Adab
;j>
&+^\
^l^*Ji or)
o.w
kt
(ji^j
;
(
ruz-nama-yi
at~i
du
in iqad-i
l
darpishast (or in'iqad-i Anjuman khwahad bud, or khwahad shud). " He boasted that he would checkmate him without his queen" (12) x v&U AJuif^^j f^ c^a. (.*>Jif e? J -*^ jt w ?a/ zad ki man Farzin-i khud ra ^XA/O
Anjuman
"I
s
in this
highway robbery
"
M>J* )\i
<^~&
l+
^j
JM^
e^j^
A^
-^-
*-*JU
ast.
mU^
^~f guman-i
(14)
shuma
dast-yar
buda
"You
"
security
u^
^+* ^
c5^
did a great service to the Government in putting down the rebels at the very first" e\&l ^-*^> ji *$ ^j^^Al> v^xy^a^j cu^^i. c^^
(15)
"
You
^
j\
i>j^J cu^U.
(j
^|o--ix)
shuma
haman
ibtida
mufsiddn ra
told
sakit
namudid.
(16)
"He
my
\&j
my
house to-morrow
gufta
6
"
^jj^i
p~jX
o;>j ^**L.
Aiif
u bi-farzand-am
ki farda khidmat-i
pidar-at mi-rasam.
(17)
"I
entreat
you
A^
to overlook this
my
first
offence"
7
^-* u +&
dar guzarid.
*D*f jt>
(18)
(i)
(Jji ^i-^ftJ
^j!
multamis Jiastam ki az
:
m taqsir-i avval-am
^Vjt
"I
me"
*>*<> U
^[^
JJ>j
J/
8
o^*i
JUJL^t
jl
Anjuman
^4-svJf
lit.
"committee."
The Zardushtls
meeting called the Anjuman at which religious and commercial business and culprits are sentenced to bastinado or fine for small offences. There
in
transacted,
is
an Anjuman
or without izafat. In m.c. generally giman. " Service to the Government " could also be well rendered by dawlat^Afj-io^i khwahl, which corresponds to the Indian expression ^Afja.^L Miayr-Jchwahi.
*
5 6
7
Bombay. 3 With
Farzand For
&*jj9
means
child,
old.
o-t
+\
Or
^jJj) avvalin-am.
naml tavanistam qiyas bi-kunam ki mara gill lch.wahad zad ^t f^c &f shows that he did afterwards deceive.
In Hindustani either deta hoga or devega.
570
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
it
Aorist leaves
signifies that he has cheated. A^IJ ttj (ii) Jj$ |yo &f v^J,x*J JUi^t
jt
&^
his
(as
jt
ki
mam
(iii)
"from
countenance
me
he has done)."
it
J^
ty
*$
^*-v,Jj*i
mard
"from me."
ji <bUjf
132.
Subordinate Clauses
(continued).
will
now be
i.e.
Their construction nearly resembles that of relative clauses, vide 130, " the adverbial clause with <*^ vaqt-i ki 1 " when a&iaj ^A har vaqt-i ki
;
;
"whenever"
(i
A^U.
jd-i ki
"where"
*^fr"3' az taraf-i ki direction that," etc., usually stands first, being followed by the principal clause with or without the correlatives mentioned in (d)*
;
wherever
"
"from the
("adverbial clause") does not in Persian mean a subordinate adverbial clause as in English, but merely a clause that con-
Remark.
*Jj*^
*-^
tains
an adverb
of place.
*' ki
take the place of A^ftJ^j vaqt-l ki " when," or AJjfWjjt az vaqt-l ki "since," usually when the adverbial clause is not
(b)
The
particle
may
initial;
&&* man ki shuma ra didam bi-u guftam= (^ maw vaqt-i ki shuma ra didam bi-u guftam "When ^iif jl> ^AJ^ I)U^ A^AxJj " he went, another came cr^ **? ^; ** $ u ^ raft ba'd digar-i dmad
p&f'j^ f*t*
\j
ba'd az anki raft digar-i amad. (m.c. only) 8 Ta U, with the verb preferably in the affirmative, (c) 123 (e). vide
(d) The correlatives are ^>j ^U* haman haman taur, o^-fe i^ *^ hamdn taraf, etc. " Somehow or other " is rendered (e) by
1
means
'until';
vaqt,
^
(
' '
cjU^
hamdn
ja t
)5
*^
^^.S
tj
,)
"As
before
by (J>, or Jj-?M
Or c^^. chun,
A^vol^IiAj^
dar hangam-l
" when." " Where the bee of the clauses are those of the line
ki,
&Ju:*. Jiln-l ki
In Hindustani, when jdbtak signifies " until or yahant ak ki, it is correctly followed by the verb in the negative, but when it means " whilst " by the affirmative verb vide Hindustani Manual," L. 38 (6).
3
' '
'
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
571
Still
"
by
cJ *^-*-*
'
'
hamchunan.
(/)
Before that
and
' '
after that
ki, A&f}|
(g)
are rendered by A&Tjf (J^j pish az dn*Cfy u*-*tf\\ Mba'd az an ki, pasaz an ki.
I recollect the
' '
Examples
^/o jUii.f
(1)
(
matter"
1
c/f
ACj&j y*
fS\s*.
^or) ^y^y
jft^J^
ly
^f^^
/*^^^*!
liar
vaqt-l*
ki
an amr
/*^
^^
(3)
(or bi-ikhtydr mi-khandam). " "I &*/of lsvx: **&? jt enjoy good health since I came here fi o*>cil^ (j 2 vaqt-1 ki injd dmada-am kh-ud^ rd saldmat mi-binam. " Sit in the verandah till I return /w^j <^> 15 <j^^v o!^>' j^> dar ayvdn
' *
bi-nishm td
bi-ydyam\ or ^^AJ ^^!t j^ ^jl^ ayvdn bi-nishm (rare). Vide 123 (e).
(4)
man
^^
t>
^a
wan na-ydyam
dar
jp
*' is a long time since (that) my father died" st ki marhum shuda. vdlid-am muddat-i fj^j* " " (5) Every one will have leave to go wherever he pleases
"It
ovit uajLj* kas har-jd bi-khwdhad bi-ravad murakhkhas ast. zjj* J.AI^SU har
(6)
"He
went
a^;
he came
from" ^L
o^
*^ cu^j
(7)
o^J=
taraf-l ki
all
dmad bi-hamdn
"Sweep out
\)
5 (^ *^ or) (fCJ( ^i d^A ^i^j CU^JA. (_c^^ y>*5^ az awH gran haraka bi-kunad hama-yiin kdliskahd (or dabbahd rd) jdrub kun. " " The iCi^t Jsu (8) only plan I could think of was to go myself pj Q *i*y ^iiiw ^AA 5.^2 inki khud-am bi-ravam hich bi-'aql-am na-rasid. <: Both of us are all but caught" ^j&>)\tijL tf o^t ^ijfjtj* ^ ma (9) har du, qarib ast ki giriftdr bi-shavim.
^i)^-
^^
(10)
"When
you yourself
see
will
admit that I
am
cu*! .-AacuD
ki chi J^j A? vaqt-i ki khud-i shumd ishdn rd didid (or bi-Hlnid] 1 tawr mi-khurand, qdbul mi-kuriid ki qawl-i man sahih ast.
jaufrar-i
agar dar
Tcfeilab
uftad
chunan l&asis
^Uacv^A
2
5
(Gul., Bk.
8, 55).
hamchunan nafls ast va ghubar gar bi-falak rasad ham bazham, for In mod. Pers.jjis ^jUd) haman t,awr or ^AjU
Aam
As"
chunan.
Misl-i pish
^^
'
(Jtl*
Or
Not
exsj
.*iy*>f
amarfam.
ra/
^ 0.3;
ki raft (m.c.)
' '
i.e.
without hesitating or
^j^
garl any
jfl agar
Note the Persian Pres. Subj., for the English Past Pot. Note dramatic ast. East gufta am .*| <uf o.**|> could " if " could be substituted for ki.
also be used
and also
&*3j
vaqt-l
o^-oJ
j&& fjW
2
sivd-yi
digar nist.
';
(12)
"Sit where
ki
my
may
be heard"
^y^
fJ|^<
*& u-iAv
jd-l bi-nishin
sadd-yam ra bi-shinavi.
just as
it is
(13)
;^ljj
(j.*3
"Wherever you find any curiosity bring it to me (^j a~.j^ & tyT ^it &>&! jAa. ^ Uo jA Jiar kujd ki
bi-jinsih bard-yi
I
"
6
chiz-i antika-i
dial
an ra
<f
man
bi-ydvar.
(14)
in his
mind
before he could
fk'kja
fj
<jwj&**
j.w
v*j^
a<J|j!
jj^J
^5^
as
awH
kunad
ma
ft
zamir-ash* ra daryaftam.
(15)
"His
ol*
vti}jj.t
fj\j*i
eyes were no sooner closed than he was in another world" chashm bastan haman va bi-'avalim-i digar b j vi)U* (Ji~>
J**A.
raj tan
haman.
"
(16)
He
voice close
by
"
^^ ^^ *>& ^
*>j* LS\*<*>
***i
an
^ ty ^y^J^ f^' u^
and
^^v
As
in conditional
[vide
128(d)
133(e)],
the Future Indicative can in classical Persian often take the place of the Aorist or the Present, as
;
Ij 55^ ojf^ ^x^j ^jj fj iy i^ ^;-hA' chun va hukm-i Afandagar HaqqSubhdnuh ta'dlq bi-nafaz khwahadrasamd* bimU-i basirat-i ra va lira khira garddnad td rdh-i khaldsi az ghaflat dida-yi bindydn an hukm bjr ishdn pushida shavad (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, S. 18) " and when the Creator, the Most High God may He be sanctified causes His decree to
?
^-^
e/fj! ^-oSLL
u
issue,
He
the anointing needle of negligence, so that the mandate becomes hidden to them, for ."
clouds and darkens the eye of the vision of the clear-sighted with way of escape from that
2
s
Or Ov*aJ /crj,i 1;^ chara-yi digar-i nist (vulg.). Note that ^'la. ja-i and As" ki are separated.
Antique (Eur.), used in Persian for any good thing or rare thing, however new. carpet would be called &&Jo| antika. Tuh/a is any choice article
common.
Ma
fl
zamir
.***>
^J^,
(is)
in
mind."
If the
singular
JU
(his
world.
6
In
modern Persian
lioU^jjc
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
133.
FINAL,
573
Subordinate Clauses
i.e.,
Final
now be
dealt with.
Final clauses are constructed like Predicative Clauses [vide 131 (a)], being linked to the principal clause by a final conjunction &f ki, & ta, or *$ &
ta ki, or & tf ki ta.
Clauses negatively final and introduced in English by the conjunction 'lest,' are introduced in Persian by the phrases f^U* mabada, or
jj^SofAi.
Khuda na-karda
or else
by
*$ ki
'
that
'
Examples of these conjunctions have been given. Under Huruf-i'lllat and Kalimat-i Illat native grammarians include both the final and the causal conjunctions they are
l
, ;
:
)&*)
fcHt jf
--AAVS ^jtjt
*xjf
y&&)
ji
:
yjtjjUj
-j+
(b)
Examples
of Final Clauses
(1)
"8 * U l journey in their company *>JL^ v^j/ !/* f^j~ ptf yU c> Al! L>+t? J# <j* 8 rufaqa-yam mara targ]nb kardand ta 2 man niz bi-hamrah-i ishan safar kunam.
1 1
"My
might
(2)
" ened
A.J \&l#* )\b& (A^^A, \j cuisw^ dast-at ra hamin ja hi. ^.^yo u^i-^i^j mabada bachcha bidar shuda bi-tarsad. guzar Here ^i f^ Khuda na-karda could be substituted for l^'vo mabada. If however *' ^i were substituted for f^U* mabada the sentence would have
,
to
be reconstructed
tj
13
oJUo
lj
^^ii
<sij
^*i jf^*J
A^XJ
A>"
;fjJo
IUXA
*
f^
oLc^
tX-^Jo
^.^oji^j
atf
a^su
^t
JJo l3n.JA*Ji^a5^a^
hammja
shavad na-tarsad.
[The sentence &*j& jjxijt^j aan.j A> jli^j ^^i-*^ ^ V^A^^ dast-at ra hammja bi-guzdr ki bachcha bidar shuda' na-tarsad would mean "place your hand here
so that the child
(3)
may wake up
"
but
if
may
'*
not be frightened."]
. .
"I
c>^
^ &^'
*^ AiA^' U
Ij
';!
*'
Kardand
Or
for
^^ here
clause
implies that
'
Ml-kardand <xi^x/c
AS'U ta ki, or
G A^
Art
a, or
As"
ki alone.
This
final
13
A^
Uj
ki
U
*
A/ 3J /a and employing the direct narration, as ki hamrah-i ma biya. mara kardand rufaqa-yam taryhlb (^A Ki &? "when."
574
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
man
tdaz in miydn yak
U ix&b chi
'
ta'ajjub narni
'aftd-i
kunam
ki
u shumd rd
or
farifta
bdshad
chiz-i
Ichud-ash bi-shavad; or
;
agar
"
(4)
Writeme word
^b
jsjAi
j\
JI^^AJ az
reception" <Jjf<i.i>^ xx~>jjij \j jj&j^. ^Ul^of jt dnjd tdrikh-i harakat-ash rd bi-navisid td man dar taddruk-i
' '
may
set
on foot
pishvdz-i
1 u bdsham (m.c.). " Grease his (5) palm a little lest he put a spoke in our wheel *i**jji .tjku * <Ji^ U &Ut**j ) G &* td dar mu'dmala~yi \^\ pish az vaqt urd bi-bm
md
(
"
(6)
He shook
)
^~^y j$ ^
'*
the pot to find out what it was filled with" ^ J*>A ^~*5- c^a *t && ^^kxj afa dig rd takdn ddd td ma'lum kunad
3
).
Chastisement ought to be inflicted, to the intent that people & $& see it and take warning" ^o^ ^j ^.^ (*i/ ^ fj$ az In sabab tamblh kardan lazim ast id* mardum dida 'ibrat girand.
may
drt^
^^
o^
V^
final clauses, Causal Clauses generally precede the principal the clause (after manner of temporal, local and modal clauses). They are introduced by the causal conjunctions 'since,' because,' &j*. chun or *>^ chunki. A&jlacoijl az dnjd-i ki, A*J jf az baski, 5 A. chi, &$ o^aaxji jt
(c)
'
Unlike
ki, etc.,
ki, *$ \y*-
chirdki,
afij|
^^bubi-'ittat-i
The
jf
az in jihat, v^*
*>
^3
:
az ^ n sabab, etc.
Causal clauses
(d)
may
verb
Examples
(1)
"As
this
"
^U
intransitive, the sign of the agent is not used ^^***> )* ***** ^jji o^| fj$ J*i ^t *Ci>^.
fi'l
lazim ast az in
(6).
"
(2)
You had
is,
*
lj
6-^w
"
tell
bi-bln.
Also
\j
-*^
Vulgarly pur-i
chist.
*
^
Or
For
s$ ki.
classical
6
7
The &
and
is
and m.c. meanings of &~ojf azbas ki vide' elsewhere. frequently separated from o^sof jf as an jihat.
The term
all
JjJLi>
J^
such particles as
Urdu grammar.
In India
^xsjV
lazimi
is
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
^o
(jjt
575
chunki in rud-kkdna guy a madkhal-i makhfi-yi in mahall ast. " I cross-examined him, because they say he was one of the deceased (3)
jl
^ c*^
(4)
<jaiu
*
*r* c^
*>j& joy
a
mcm
a2
w sabdb
;ar/i
**
^^
bud.
Do
not
take
his
<^Jt jf
part,
for
Ij^f
$y
^^
ast.
was found against me in the informers' ^* <x^ LS^jM (&*&*** *>b^\ j* *&j*statements, I was not summoned" ^JJaJ \j* cuxjCa. a^j chunki dar izharat-i mukhbirin irad-i bar zidd-i man
(5)
"Inasmuch
as nothing
^^
yaft
is
is
^| c.>^
m ^'? muta'addi-st
aldmat-i fd'il
isti'mal mi-shavad.
<c
Vide' No.
' '
f
(1).
(7)
As he learned English
X|U
in his childhood, he
must be more
Inglisi ra
or less pro^Lf ^^
ficient in
the language
x^b
Ax^
(8)
ast lihaza
jTe^x> dar ayyam-i tufuliyyat zabdn-i mahdrat-i kam yd bish-i bay ad ddshta bdshad.
^^jj
lj
oJyik
^A.
cMn
ydd
girifta
feel sure
(help)
*j?
matter"
you
will
not grudge
fj
me
j*>\
^^
^(^io
(9)
AfljUax?
niz
"You
it
without
"
is
e;^ ^3$
^\
i$
\j
y&
j\j*\
^^-^J *$ *&
mumkin
Indicative
:
bdyad ki
nist.
(e)
bi-taqsir-i
khud
As
in conditional
classical
and
Future
sometimes in
t;
j^ cMw
dqibat-i
kdr rakht-i
az
is generally used for the throat, as: ^[y*> tX>b ^f*-*> jt " ad kjiwand makjjjaj bay pronounce the Arabic guttural letters well out of the
In
' '
rn.c.
rj^<* makhraj
throat.
1
az in sabab is separated from ki. jt Generally applied to a Christian or a Jew. Marhum fjjxvo for a Muslim. 4 Note the or fj^J lihaza is omitted: it could of correlative o^sajt Jt az injihat course be inserted.
8
6 6
ki
&j'$ A**J jl
' '
it
would be better
noun
576
zindagi
bi-gkarqdb-i fand
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
ki
har-chand zudtar
khud rd az maziq-i
ta' alluqdt-i
dunyd
" and since in the end the goods of life must (Anv. Suh., Chap. IV, St. 11) fall in the whirlpool of annihilation, I desire with all possible speed to to the expanse transport myself from the narrow strait of worldly things
of the blissful regions of Eternity."
(/)
(East, trans.).
the causal clause precedes the principal, the conjunction may ~ be omitted, as: fj?; t5*^ ^/T -? O^ !** haw* garm ast birun nami-ravam
If
k
'
*&**
(*
*! fj [>*
birun nami ravam chunki havd garm cf*' *A*^ chunki havd garm ast birun nami ravam.
&J&
ast
134
(a)
Co-ordinate Clauses.
"Another form
is
of the
Compound Sentence
is
sentence
subordinate clauses in being accessory, or even antithetic to the leading sentence, rather than explanatory of its parts. They may indeed be connected with
it by conjunctions augmentatively appropriate to the meaning but are constructively independent, and this too though they convey, they
terms.
"Co-ordinate Clauses
Adjunctive,
(3)
may
(1)
Appositive,
appositive or collateral relation is that in which no intermediary Kempson. conjunction unites the clauses ."
(b}
"The
The
jj
b o**}
following are a few m.c. examples of Appositive Clauses Ixi&Uif j| ^ o-*ol ctw? *A. jf jyty &S JU~o|*x* j\t, jb
^AAJ
;tif jf
az dsdr-i pd mi-ddnist ki rdh-raw az chi qabil ast va az kujd bi-kujd mi-ravad ; " from the foot-tracks he was able to bdr-ddr ast yd bl-bdr (Tr. H. B. Chap. V)
discern whatever
had
and whence
[ Va or ya'ni is understood after fyyo rniCopulative makes the sentence more dramatic].
*
"
travelling
and whither;
Sir
'
will
:
be said to you
"
jJ**j
(m.c.)
not?
"
^!i>w \j&*j9 ^t farmdn rd bi-tu dad budam-na ? "I have never heard " of the man, to say nothing of never having seen him tj* e/T p~l ;liT *M;IA^J fj c)*^ j*l s^io p* I; ism-i an mard rd ham na-shumda am didan rd bi~
(*d^
the
name
" well
<yxi
please
God
I shall
"
^-lU
b bdr-i
A complex
^r
Or
^))>
sentence
may
also be so extended.
'
Hindustani Jl kaho
jl kahlffo.
i^
^ri)*
classically
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
577
S. T.):
dUar muyassar shud guftar niz agar Khudd bi-khwdhad khwdham slmnid (Prof. "the earth moves round the sun, I allow. Why 'allow'? rather it
so
-&$>* ^Uif^ k>* tff f^ Giram 'chird? Balki chundn bi-gu ki giram dunyd dawr-i a/tab mi-gar dad an haqiqat mi-gardad (m c.): "I looked for him in all directions not a trace of him could be found" ^'Ui y jt <^'f pj&S ljf Uuuf y ^Sr 'aqab-i u
*
does
move" t^**
lia*^ *$
^('^ *Oj
Say
^A
mjd
dnjd gashtam ; hich asar-l az u na-ydflam (m.c. ) at the service of my friends" (3*~& ^U^l f^U
[ :
* '
why should
t^.
I object
am
man
"it
is
C5"^ baray-i ba z-i darugh " some are mushkil ba'z-l asan devoted to philoso(m.c.) ast, baray-i gu/tan " o*a. for a mathematics others have greater liking phy, ^j^j
others" cU&xj
^^
^fy
OA*|
^Uf
<^.XA?
^.i
c^S
^U
^^
l
f>>
t/^k^ t3-^
j^ <^*J
yuuftak jyk
-^irfc'
ddrand:
became
"
hikmai* mi-mirand, ba z-i "the higher I ascended the lighter the air
fi>^>o ^j*
(
*&*<>
;^UA
ufp^ j^j^'y*
)
(^y*:
4.5
"the morel
^iWf ^ Xj^Jj
{c)
cUxJ y^jjj
jojjjg or
f^^
^-^
!/;**
^?
(<-ftk
grammarians are
Clauses
(1)
^
,
dUa.)
is
s 'and', va
which
may denote
'
Examples
:
right
i\j
/^J<i
Js
jj**l>*-j ow-jt^^Uja
&*o
thing and what one- wishes is another rdh'i salah dUgar ast va khwahish-i dil digar
felt
'
(m.c.)
jjUd.
" nausea
(of cholera)
was no sooner
him"
yi
**){*> halat-i qayy haman budva rasidan-iqazae^^*-*^' what comparison is there between the Raja Bhoj and 5 \t j i^/jjl* shahkujava gada kujd ? : " such a big Ganga, the oilman ?" " amr-l business as this, and you not to know of it! "^xiujy^ <-A-^? e>^ c^r 70
*j& ^l^ai
oj^^Mi)
>>*
mubram* haman:
t(
'
"
*^^ ^ u* &
'j
#
3
Or an taraf va In t&raf nigah Icardam. Or faylastifiyya Gr. or falsafa Ar. form. When a number of clauses are connected by j
,
as:
o
AJJ&P
AJU-x.
;
aan
rait,
the sentence
is
called
Many Muslims hold that Fate is, in some respects, absolute and unchangeable in others that it admits of alteration; and almost all of them act, in many of the affairs of in In the former case, it is called el-kada el-mohkam life, as if this were their belief. the latter, el-kada el-mubram (which term, without the explanation, might be regarded as exactly synonymous with the former)." Lane's Arabian Nights. and ajal-i Compare ajal-i mahtum (beyond which period a man cannot possibly live), the before death that occur previous period). mu'allaq (accidental may 6 Kahan Raja Bhoj aur Jcahan Ganga tell, a common Hindustani proverb.
'
:
"
'
37
578
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
[
va dushnam
of theft
"
!
" my son and capable bi-buzurgan dadan ra (or add ma-dih) " this va duzd/if:" amount of labour man c5>3o (^ r~v pisar-i
:
in qadr zahmatkashidan va nafas zadanl: "it is he property of lodestone to attract iron, and the nearer the iron is placed to it, the greater is the attracting force"
for breath
'
&*j o***^
^<H^^*^3^^
j,jUw l^j' dar sang-i maqndtis in* khassiyyat ast ki ahan ra jazb mi 8 va har kunad qadr ahan nazdiktar bashad haman qadr quvva-yi jaziba bishtar " 5 do you it is not advisable to leave him to live alone, accordingly ast*:
' *
<H*l+? /***? $\
&}j*{**
o*~^
oscJUa/c ^jLwi<>
1^x3 \^\
nist bindbar 6 in
may
'
the adjoined clause implies a logical sequence of thought, then for " **.* ba d '* " be substituted pas " then" baz again again, after; ;
wards
';
\&\j> Uj
Examples
' ' :
ter-
rible dacoity in
*JVj&> ($** bind-barin Aqa-yi zabit khud-i shan bi-nafsih bi-jihat-i tahqiqdt tashrif dvarda and Ai| AiJ^l; *i**^| u;^Ai( **he asked for you, so you must go" oJ> ^^ (m.c.)
:
^t^
i^ty i&ijf** cu^i 8*x ?fj (j*ij*^j*j&) %*&}j& dar dih rahzani-yi gharib-% vaqi* shuda ast in ^?
^J
ishdn ism-atragiriftaand, pasbayad raft : tf His Excellency presented me with a watch well it was of no use to me for four days I kept thinking I would
;
return
it,
it
' '
j px^Wj^f *> *iAiyL }&t> ^f J^3^ p**? o^ *^ Hazrat-i A jail yak marhamat farmudand- kJiub bi-chi dard-i man mi-khwurdl Ta chahdr ruz fikr mi-kardam ki pas bidiham, baz khaydl kardam ki dilgir khwdhand shud; akhir sa'at ra nigdh dashtam : (i first that man came, then this one Jy ty*
IC
sd'at-i
' '
tj^i
e^l ^*J
^/
avval an
it
mard dmad ba d
(
"
^w
^ ^^
' *
damp
y ^A
hizam
ham mi-pur si
him
to
ki chird
nami-suzadi
(m.c.):
"what
need
was
there
for
right to contradict
put
in his oar?
muddkhala-yi
na-ddsht.
chi
o^._VxJ ^Jy> t>) *i^=^ ^ijl ^ &j> pV **-j| AU.|^x5 Idzim bud ? va az an guzashta radd-i qawl-am niz jihat
In m.c. often pronounced dushmun (for dushniim), by educated Persians even. If t rJj+A hamln were used here it would mean " only this."
.
'-
Orc^.1
ast.
*
6
Or
-S>
ml
shavad.
:
In Urdu AsvJlx^. chunanchi would be correct, but not in modern Persian akela ch'iorjana maslahat nahm-zhunanchi turn aur wuh aath raha karo.
8
uako
Not
for
<;
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
Remark.
*
579
clauses
What
are
apparently
adjunctive
introduced
by
:
therefore
'
or a
synonym, are in
*%*. chunki, etc., understood, as not advisable to leave him to live alone, accordingly let you and -j him continue together " may also be rendered by euaeJLa*: lgi> \\ &&f*.
" It
is
by causal
^^
>jJUj
fAb
j\
U^ f^ o*o
are joined
By
the conjunction
yd, or
l>j
vayd
"
or," as:
vasf-i
arzdq (Sa*di)
yd
J&
^>^ u^\jr
3'
^"S
t^y*.
kalid-l khazina-yi
^OJAJ ^li. AXSLJ ^j; 7 J bi-hamdn qdni' bud ki gdh gdh bu-yi mush-i az surakh-i shunidi va yd naqsh-i pd-yi u bar ru-yi takhta-yi khak bi-didi (Anw. Suh. Chap. I, St. Ill) "it (the cat) was content if occasionally it smelt the
its hole,
the surface of a board'"1 (East. Trans.): *J l> " " md-bayn-i tu va u hich khusumat-l ast yd na ? " you two or not ?
0^1
is
In some phrases the "or'* is omitted, as: *->&* *^ " " " two or three books" G^ ^& yaki du td one or two
:
^ du
t>
si
kitdb
^^- A
or
dah
tc.
;
Jt^
but ^J ^UuU hashtdd navad or *i b na to ?/ Interrogation can ba expressed by adding the words hamchumn ast yd na (m.c.) the end of the sentence, as *i ^ o*^f
:
^ ^^
si
chihal; sl^Oj
Jt ^
cA*At/
panjdh,
"
is,
^^^A
"Either.. or,"
is
^ ya
b yd; or ^ yd
..
l^
the sentence
ivj
interrogative the
first
Ji^ e^^-Ji
Fa
2/0
Ij
j common
in classical
and consequently
floor" compared to the board talchta-yi or canvas for painting on which the naqsh or drawing of the foot was made. ' 3 In m.c. The word nine is always generally slurrnd into ha ash dah ta.
2
The reading
"mud
'
omitted.
4
Only
bf aya mean
whether.'
In m.c.
580
at
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
l
bi-kun va
yd
dast az sar-i
man
:
me
"
khwdb mi'bmam
"
^ ^* vt^
m
bi-kash (m.c.)
lj
^ta*j
:
aya* biddr-am yd
p\& ^tl^ j^y ^o
(
khud biravam ya tdbistdn ra dar kuhistdn bi-sar I am perplexed whether 3 to go home or spend the hot weather baraml " l> M\* p&2 in the hills Uf aya tu az khud *j jtyf " did va* kas-i kardi bi-tu ta'tim ddda bud" confess of your own ya iqrdr you " one or did some to so do ? accord, prompt you
"
:
cJ li
"
(Ijf
*$
taraddud-i
khdtir
daram
& ^^
^^
\\
(3)
t^ khwah,
JAI
Examples
-
;j>
&*.
^^ ^
**. IL
o^x
'
Jf *Solia. A>
Ujl
of
the sincere
'
shows
itself in
:
the
face as
(Sa'di.)
J>\j*>
*\j^
maw &am
6
naw'-i insdn ra
aziz
j^
t^
Hindu
or
(va)
Christians"
tof*. cU>!
jt
Jf
*^
jjjb*
j)
y^ar
j^^
*A.
gac^r /W5<
paydd narm-shavad chi az amir " search as you will, no Muslim is to be found in this city prince, pauper, or " &tf tradesman 2J|j^ jxiA xt^aL j^ <X*A hama-yi j*+*)&& ^\*t> /J^** \) j\ shahr Tchipah Hindu, khwah Muslim du'd yi tandurusti-yi urd mi-kunand,
:
(jl*i^x)jyxi (^j> ^j^j j.sJL.^.j^5^A ju bi-shavad dar in shahr Musalman 1 (va) chi az faqir va chi az ahl-i hirfa
>i>^i*^
tt
10
(or <*iix/o
\)
^W
i^*$
*^ j <&&> (&~* **$- j<f* *+ A hama-yi shahr chi Hindu du d-yi shifd-yi urdmi-kunand 8 ) " the whole
(
^^
alike,
are praying
for
his
recovery"
va.
is
usually prefixed to
lj
ya, only
when
*
clause
Note that aya translated "whether" introduces the direct narration and the is therefore merely equivalent to a direct question. It is better to omit aya
possible.
when
*
6
Or better omit
Chi
va.
it matter one way or the other?" There is no distinction between chi and &hwah as there is between the Hindi verbal form chahe chahe and the Hindi interrogatives Tcya kya (' Vide' Hindustani Stumbling Blocks). 6 Ml-daram fy&x/o (and not daram) comp. verb.
.
. . .
"what
does
Here az gives the sense of amongst and means chi az amir just uju bi-shavad omit az and the meaning is na muslim-i amir na muslim-i faqlr payda ml-shavad. 8 From this sentence it is not clear whether the whole city is Muhammadan or the
7
'
'
jb\tt
\\
&s*.
,JLc j
HA. H->
is
mixed.
^^
needs no explanation.
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
t)
581
a'amm
l
"
:
chi
man
va
chi
&*. 9
^x d^
not" is rendered by *n!^ khwah-lchwah 7ia,both verbs being in the Subjunctive, as fjj&o *x&lx at^ *(j o*xJLa>c $|yk khwah maslahat bashad khwah na-bdshad mi-ravam: "whether advisible or not I'm
going": p&) *j* raftam "whether
(4)
"Whether
-^
!y^
it
&
cusOAo
is
^ MwaA
Negative alternation
AJ
na, or
Ai
na. .AJJ
t?a
na.
is rendered by rama or *'>j>j vagarna va are and a^ar na), /( j consequently conditional clauses
'else
^
)
Synonyms
HI
&7Za,
and
A&J| U
yamki.
Examples
jjji^jt o^^^^jt (^x> *- ^ o*- ^fj j^L v-^t^ ji ^f *j na fi a2 mavajib-i khud razi-st, va* no-man az kar kardan-i u Tchushnud " neither is he satisfied
am
"
:
work "
*j
my paper
is
used up, or
iJf
for
j c^^ eA) u^'f /*^^ J* &k' miyan-i du adorn dtash ^/o ^ijJ ^A^l e^^ji rawshan ma-kun va ilia dar miydn-i ishan niza'-i mi-uftad "don't light a fire
will
^jy
*j
t^
^>^ ^ ^ ^^^
ki dar in
a^
U ^Jy
&U|j
ill^
*^J^y
er*^
H^ t^'
avvalm-i
* raqima zikr-ash ra mi-kunid mumkin na*bud ki javab-ash ra na-navisam (mod.) "I did not get your first letter, which you refer to in this, else I should have answered it as a
shuma
matter
of course."
If
Remark.
^~~>V
u^-*-*
mumkin
nist
^ ^^
mumkin
&f
no-bud, the Past Subjunctive p&* ai^y <u na-navishta bdsham would be correct. In the preceding instances the Subjunctive follows ki, but omit
(
o>~jj or)
(or nist) ki
have to run va ilia bild shak javab-ash ra mi-navishtam tj (Jtyj^ <j:^ Hj J/l ) {t My paper is finished, otherwise I would write more for Similarly in,
f^y^.
you
ilia
kdgjiaz-am tamam shudo va the Subjunctive could not be ziyad-tar mi-navishtam, bard-yi the Future could not be used; it would used for mi-navishtam, and obviously
/*J^>>
"
tf^yi^;
UA
(^fy
Vt
l^
fU5
p<ixl<
shuma
^.
4
5
Or omit
va.
;>"
budam
*
Ml-navishtam /*iy ,** could also mean (m.c.) however could refer to the past only. Or Jcarda-id, no difference.
Navishta
582
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
j' o~o ^AJ &&* pl~& J^ia yakhafta pish dast az jdn shustam vali imruz khud bikhud bar khdsta ddkhil-i dd*ira-yi ahbdb shudam (: a week ago I despaired of " but life, whereas to-day I was able to get up and join the j^
Similarly AJ^I^J
^^yLS^j ^su
tf
na-ddshtam ki bishtar
company
-^
am
<u~
j*i
:
vati
J^AA> Ala* yak hafta mi-shavad ki dast az jan shustahere shustam would be incorrect the Present Tense *j&** mi~
u,U,
31
;
c^a
t$
is
is
despaired and
(
despair.
Adversative Clauses
*x\j<&
*W)
tk
When
tive,
a clause restricts the meaning of another, the relation is adversain use are (^6^ likin or lakin " but ", and its
^y
'
synonyms U| amma,
^j
or
balki,
-x^ijf
juz mki,
'
Afijf Jt
^
y
ghayr az mki, jt>*> magar. etc. Balki *^Ij has properly the enhansive sense of
(and in m.c. means
omitted.
*
'perhaps').
Sometimes
balki
more
or
'
ball
Baz ham ^*j4 still, nevertheless,' are also adversative conjunctions. a To in roduce an afterthought IA ^^ vaU ha, or the exclamation ^bU ha " or is bash bash
used,
u*^^
*^
(m.c.)
stay, stay."
x^f ^^ fj*>J f**) f^jl f* ** fi*$ ^**<^> j ^J&c Uif Examples 'azim va suhbat-i ki Ali? bi'izzat-i dam bar. qadlm gw/a ej-^^ nayaram va ^i " he said I ki sukhan shavad na-daram bar gufta magar angah (Sa'dt) qadam s and our ancient friendship that I will not swear by the Great Glory " draw breath nor move from this spot till I hear you speak
: :
c^
sd*ir-i dukhtarha muftis budand vail* nisbat -'l-hdl va yak-i faqlr 'all the mutavassit girls bi-yak digar yak-1 ghani, yaki the with Princess, but, compared with each other were poor in comparison
&
nisbat
bi-shdhzada
b
khanum
ll
off,
y
:
f#
c^.^'er
nami-ravam juz
in-ki
shumd bd man
me "
bi-yayid
\*)j
Shustabudam *zy &LJi> would signify that at the time mentioned, i.e. a week ago, I had previous to that washed my hands of life the Preterite fixes the action at the
:
time mentioned.
*
And
.&13
8 i.e.
God.
Ixf
A common
m.c. expression
is
j*3L
J^sv ^
(^
(J
bi-haqq-i
Khuda
va bi-haqq-i salam.
*
6
Or
amma,
^J
aJa_j(
llkin or
^<Jj
va-llkin.
Or ba'z-i..badand.
Qbayr az Inkl
jt^Atf
6
O.J..J
infer.
Bi-ravld
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSKS.
583
zaman na-nalida budam vi ruy az gardish-i dsmdn vaqt-i ki payam barahana bud va islita'at-i pdynever had I grumbled at my pushi na-dashtam (Gulistan, Book 3, St. 19) ill-luck nor got upset by my ill-fortune, but once, when I had not the means
hargiz az dawr-i
'
my
feet
[
' ' :
(^^ c^-^ \\
Hasan nami-guyand balki ura H. aji Hasan ml-namand 11 no one calls him by the bare name of Hasan but all call him Haj! Hasan U ^ty ^~~))&j &b cu^ v-^vo ^Ji in sag riist balki 1 pidar-i-'st bard-yi shuma
ism-i ura tanhd
'
^ hJ
f**'
'
"
o>^(
o^AA.l^.x3
*r
CA-^I
-as^k'O
(i^^)^
I*M ^^a^|j ii
mhat-i shumd balki hifazat-ijdn-i tan darin munhasirast ki az musahabat-i ishan dast bi-kashid "your comfort, nay more, your safety depends on your JtL iU *^jf *j na dnki 'ilaj |j>j*i 8>=p.*x> withdrawing from their society
Tia
' ' :
|.vy
it's
(
" a miracle
ni darad
(
** *Ui^t ishtibah chi ma ^*jfa t^4^ ^S]^! ^* ^i*^ nn what do you mean by balki fi'l waqi' amd na-farmani karda-l
:
Ly
' '
is
9
^U
khwanam va na
I,
<X3|
"
:
cA?^
!
I;
vJ-^ L&t&j"
chundn bi-gu
& &^ *Q
sar-i pir-i
**
^j
balki
ki
may
:
well call
has an old head upon young shoulders" &**$ Jll^^i ^U <*b U ta> *'* jiuA y na faqat ma balki tamam-i shahr mushtdj-i dmadan-i u hastand "not
we
may
": J^J^;AJJ/
OA^W
(&*& az pidar-i khud u bi-'aynih mdl-i in khud-i sliuma-si is there taking money from your father nothing wrong nay more there is nothing wrong in asking for it his money is really your own: " j*oUi ^Jau Jj'V c7i j|3^ p*^ {*>/ &)j** )^ & )* &*) (.5^ ^ td khayli
JU
<xix*j
y J^
^^W^
*^
;
*^-
ham
parvcfi nist
pul-i
'
ham tadbir-i muvafiq bi-nazar na~ a long consultation on the matter but no suitable remedy
6
(
*^-t
or) -^~f
^JA &
j!
^-~y*-
^- siydh
chist
and
be substituted
for
good.
5
*
either the
words A^
or ra/.
jj
(^JJ^
chunln U-gii
ki, or
Or
llkin, or
amma,
584
'
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
]
guya
as
f(
black do you
call
him
why
he's as black
my
hat
' ' :
J^
<U& jf ^LJf ijU. ^A jb i^S^j AJUM^SI^O <X^A harchi jan-i insdn az hama chiz 'azlz-tar ast "talk as
life is
nami-rasad, ha ball
fihrist-i
kas layiq-i in kdr bi-lchayal-am ashkhas-l ki talib-i nawkari hastand mawjud ast,
dyU.
bi-'l-fi'l filch
shayad dar an yak-i dilkhwah-i man pay da bi-shavad "I can't think of a good man just now but stay, the list of applicants is here perhaps a suitable person may be found in it " ^l*. l^ - <jtj <j$j IA 3a5Uj oJ^ ^.A+A t^* hamm vaqt bi-yayid, ha bash* bash, far da jcfi va'da daram j*;li JJAcj /arcZa " come to-morrow at this time but (m.c.) stay, no, I have an appointment
:
somewhere "
e**! v L>li ^jli^ (^i^ &&.AXj* **\f j** CU*A chumn kitab-i ast vali sabr kunid dar j.=R.i nayab ^JLb^4|^ \j l^jf b\.*jtoj\ dawlati chand kitdb-i u nahv hast, agar bi-jarmayid 6 anna kitab-khana-yi sarf
:
o^> v
^ ^^ ^**
TO,
khwaham
them."
1
talabid
is
obtainable
;
works on grammar
for
Government Library
if
you wish
it,
will
send
Orbalki.
* Or, eA*>|^>
3
sU
Jt
az siyah
ham
'
*
6
*&> jb 602 ham. Note the m.c. singular ^JJU bash; the plural iJ^lj bashid would Or .SjJjXf jf.5 vJ^Uvo agar ray-i mubarak qatar bi-glrad. ^\j
\
Or omit
also be correct.
CHAPTER
135.
XIX.
and Verb.
:
Concord
of Subject
are the rules for concord in Classical Persian Persian or Arabic plural noun expressive of rational beings, is followed by the verb in the plural, as jJ^j jjU^U &j o* " pamba-farushdn shikdyat bi-pddishdh burdand the cotton sellers carried their
(a)
The following
xif
*ij}lT OX^A/O &> O^-AC philosophers have said ^\^ ^U^o^ ^JLci agj^ab-i tuhldastdn ddmdn-i 'ismat bi-ma'siyat dldyand (Sa'di) "most of the poor are
:
"
"the
(ancient)
forced to do
fcm-&
ctod
(Sa'di)
wrong": o^f; ^ tJ^Aj AJ^JJ o^U~> jio ^1^; j| az ravandagdn muttafiq-i siyahat budand va shank-i ranj
^^
is
usually in
concord with
mi-dihand "he
as: ^XA^/O oJtf guft pfLjjJ &(** said the flies are worrying me."
magasdn tashmsh-am
Remark.
Ast
oH
'
'
is
"
and
j>^j
bud
' '
was
' '
Persian used after a plural irrational noun provided tion IA ltd (and not in e/f), as: ( o^J or) o**!
injd khub ast
(i)
it
^^
^j^^*^ asphd-yi
(or bud)
but
*i|
v>^ ***#
c^4*"t
aspdn-i
mjd khub
and.
Vide
(18).
(c)
Two
or
\^> c;^ foty &}[>A,U j 8^lJ uj*j> ^ p rd bar khud va shdhzdda chunhavd shud, labdda-yi pddishaJi AJil^J *^iuwo garm dush-i maskhara-i nihddand "when the day became hot, the king and the
' '
:
e>Aj
fl/if
)*
**
j*;!i
t>\*
pishin
man
y&d ddram ki dar ayydm-i c5**^ ;> c\*^ J" 1* &f<$- {g^J^J va dust-i chun du maghz-i bdddm dar pust'i suhbat ddshtlm (Gul.,
A*A
Book V,
&*
zan va farzand va shutur-i his wife and son and camel were
(d)
^ man
*>jj*
j oj *$ hama sdlim-and
**#
?
o-tr*!
' '
rdbi pursid ki
the
Arab
asked
if
all
well."
asp
more singular nouns expressive of irrational animals of distinct genera are followed by a plural verb, as: ^l~*i <j'^ *-&$ j*>j yf u kharaz nlstand 1 " the horse and the ass are not of the same
or
Two
yak jins
Siyahat ou^lx
586
genus": "a
(e)
horse,
an
ass.
ALSo^lfj LS^JC*^' asp-l va khar-l va gav-l kushta shudand and an ox were killed."
of
Nouns
Multitude,
the
and
rule
Collective
in
Nouns expressive
of things
with
life,
follow
same
Persian as in English,
and
take
;
a singular or plural verb according to the idea in ffl galla-yigusjand paraganda shudand vide 119 (a) to (d) *'>* *^[^J ^SL*
:
(or
shud in m.c.)
A&J(
" J*t y <^)^ *! <&** the flock of sheep scattered ,4* "a Inki ahl-i and bar az 'Urn many of (mod.) mu'taqid bisyar-l
* '
i
^AAXX *^*$* sahibmansab u sarbaz-i ziyad-l budand (Shah's D.) "there were a lot of officers
the scientists are of opinion that"
:
<**&}*
is&j
jb
and
soldiers there.
'
'
Remark.
A
in
generic
noun
in
expressive of
rational
:
be followed by the verb in the singular, as beings, may ^_^U 70 *r**^*> sahib mansab-i ziyad-l bud (m.c.), also ^*AV* sahib mansab-i ziyad-l raft (or better ^*; raftand) but -A^U
Mod.
Pers.
w^aixj sahib-mansab va sarbaz-i ziyad-l budand (Shah's D.) ^*j*" j The plural verb gives an idea of greater plurality (or not so good, bud}.
or of scattered individuals
(/)
Though a noun
:
the singular verb gives a collective idea. preceded by a cardinal number does not take the
;
if it
it
^is^&
^5*-^' j^
al^b^j
^xjk**ab.j
^$)t>
0^.3) &
gillm-l bi-fchuspand va du padishah dar iqllm-l na-gunjand (Sa'di) "ten darvishes can sleep on one carpet, while two kings can't exist together in one
kingdom."
Remark. Occasionally the singular is used, especially with irrational animals and large numbers, as: sad hazar asp (or mard) kushta shud ;D* " a hundred thousand horses were U ) ,u.ir (class, and m.c.) ( *jc
^!
'
killed":
Hazar u sad u shast gurd-i 3 dillr Bi-yak zakhm shud kushta dar jang-i shir avval ; Razm i Iraniyan bz Turkan va shikast-i Turkan}. (Shah Nama, jild-i noun preceded by the cardinal number expresses irra(g) If the
tional beings, the verb is usually in the plural, as
:
>>y>
ji
fI
J>>
Note the English phrases, all is well where all is singular. Also a thousand " Twelve years is as one day,' a thousand years here being taken as a unit of time. In, Nineteen twentieths of his fortune is derived from per cent is extortionate interest.' In Thine is the kingdom and coal,' the fraction being less than the whole is singular. the power and the glory,' the word is, is probably understood after each nominative.
1
' ' ' ' '
'
'
'
'
'
Iqllm
f^l n Mod.
i
Pers.
is
By
is
is
587
&Uf
dam-sdz budand
pigeons
1
vazir
gujt
shunuda
in
am
ki
consorted
together
one nest."
:
The verb may however be & <u-o y*i ;^ chahdr asp kushta shud
(/).
vide
(/)
Plural neuter nouns expressive of material things are generally followed by a singular verb (especially if the verb is in the passive voice)
:
LTt>* &&**j ^~f cA^;* t** ** e/ t^l 3' ***** dast az In harakat kutdh kun ki vdqi'ahd dar pish ast vi dushmandn dar pas (Sa'di) "discontinue this (extravagance), for dangers are before you and enemies behind
(1)
l
(
>'
&f
^^
Ji^i oUviLo jf ^J^ ; tif dsar-i shukhi va diEri az safahdt-i ahvdl-i tu bi-g&ayat rawshan ast (Anvar-i Suh.) " the marks of audacity and hardihood are very manifest on the pages of thy condition
you"
o~l e^v
cujUj
_,
^,
' '
' '
(East Trans.)
AJJ^J
J^-t
^ l^f A*A
tf *\*
iJo
^^
^ va U-har kas
yak
chub dad ki hama-yi dnhd dar tul bardbar bud'2 stick, the length of all of them being the same ".
(2)
"and he gave
to each a
Such neuter nouns may however be followed by the plural, as: &+*> A*"^ vl^ )* ^*** i badishah-i dar khwdb didkiJiama-yi "a 8 u and (Sa'di) uftdda dandanhd-yi king once dreamed that all his teeth had
*M ibU'l^f <^i|<>^
[
fallen
' '
out
'
'
*>*
^^
f$j*
khardb shudand
oJ^Lixx!
the houses of the people were destroyed : Li^ A^ (*> ^Ij-w^^ khushd bi-hdl-i chashmdni shumd ki mi-binand va
^iu> &{ (+& ^U-^^ Jlsu
' ' :
'
'
but blessed are your eyes, for they see gushhd-yi shumd ki mi shinavand Ua> tf and your ears for they hear vide end of Remark to (e) j\ ^*>j
' ;
:
oJ,i^OkX5
^\s ^ &<*i) ki jumla-yi vujud-i u rikhta va khdk shuda magar chashmdn-ash ki dar chashm-khdna " that all his 6 body had rotted hami-gardidand va nazar mi-kardand (Sa*di)
.Jai
^ ^>j,^,> i^f+k
Alafci.*-gj^
j^
A^
^J!*.\+'J+^.
>< jj*^
(gone to pieces) except his eyes which were vide Remark to (b).
still
' '
Remark.
f' *.>/
e;f JS\ J^J AiUL^I^o fo j& jb sa;yf bdz dar dil-am guzasht agar shakhhd-yi an darakht ki daurd-
^ ^^*
^l^U
c^^
am
'
*
3
of
&f
fa after
guft.
In
mod
Xo t e
Shud
narration.
*
the dramatic Perfect for the English Pluperfect, Also u instead of Mxud.
2*
and
also
the indirect
would be used
in
in
classical
Persian,
^
rossibly the
word
is
the word gardid after this neuter plural in an. After rilchta ast (or bud) is understood. Also note the Imperfect haml-gardid or haml gardidand, instead of the more dramatic Present, which would be preferred in modern Persian.
f^x mardum
Another reading
588
{
here the plural verb tXxiCio na-shikanand is required after the neuter 138 (m) (8). plural (slwikha) for the reason stated in such neuter nouns If several representing distinct classes have a (3)
Af.)
common
other.'
If
7
verb,
it is
in the plural, as
l
^f^j^j
fire
u khak bar
zidd-i
"
water,
the verb
&J&
usually in
^o
iiijo *_,ji.
^U
%
:
same quality or class, the singular, as: cUl ; u"^$ J j*^ 5 )*\ l/c dar ~bagh,-i ma angur va anjir va gilds va shalilha-yi khub
^^
paydd mi-shavad
in our
'
'
garden
grapes, figs, cherries and good nectarines are grown (note that the adjective v^" khub may refer to I^IA* shalilha
all
"
only, or
may
qualify
reconstructed to remove this ambiguity). (4) Several abstract nouns are followed
by a
c>LH& zjj%* c$AJjl**- 3'^keA/ojy.L cuk*e}yo^:> &$o^lft3j taqsir-1 **ia>^Ufik va taqa'ud-l ki dar muvdzabat-i khidmat-i bdrgah-i khuddvandi mi-ravad, bina the omission and negligence that I baran ast ki tdyifa-yi hukama-yi Hind
' '
&U.t
*$"
ov*>f
show
in
c5^3 j ^j* ) LS^ j p* mi-rasad "grief, joy, death, and hama is used, the plural verb
.x*jA/c {Jsa^jt
gham va
life
is
Khuda
if
(all)
proceed from
as:
God";
c/^j
j
but
<w*
j p*
used,
!**
jl
A**
^J
gham va marg va
zindagi
hama
az
Khuda
mi-rasand.
Dawran-i baqa chu bdd-i sahra bi-guzasht Talkhi u khushi u zisht u ziba bi-guzasht (Sa'di)
" Time that we thought would last for ever, has passed like the wind Passed too is the bitterness and joy, and the bad and good." +>.=*. ^i w* &(~j ^ 3jL5 (3*C5t Q>y ahmaq ruz u shab dar chashm-i tu 8 " fool day and night are alike to thee yaksdnast <*&% cr*-'.i* )t ^l&ib ^ia. A^ az ou^b ^/o j+* jt JU. munajjim-i pursid ki chand sal az padishah-l <{ umr-i man baqi-st a king asked an astrologer how many years he had to
;
21
-!
' '
live."
(i)
A plural
verb
as
:
express respect,
1 '
sometimes used with a singular subject (rational) to Hazrat-i ajall tashrlf avardand <^^f <J^> cUi
is
^^
2 3
Even in m.c., and and not ast would be used here. The plural would probably be used in classical Persian. The person addressed was blind and carrying a lamp. The plural of majesty a form of hyperbole. Similarly OJ^yf
:
"he
(lit.
title of
for princes not royal, or not nearly related to the reigning Shah.
589
in their concords, but not be should Liberties mistakes in this respect copied even in speaking. " vide to be 136 (a), page 593. are especially taken with the verb (8) and The following examples are taken from modern colloquial
1
'
:
(1)
yd
mjd
barra'2 bisydr
ast,
or ^-"l y*-*:
* '
i^J
**$
mjd
(2)
There are
here
' '
o*^| ^U~o
^Uwf IwjLji
Remark.
adjective,
it
It
" were
qualified
ol <^^
l^ujf
by any other
<^^*1
^^
inja
^^-
^^
^UU^f
ki"
3 d*3 ptf A4A ^-^1^ kdliskahd hama bi-ham vasl bud tawr-i "the D.) (railway) carriages all communicated with one an(Shah's
.
& LS)}^
other so that"
(4)
si
AJ
l
^l^l
in shahr va
kdliskahd-yi
4
kdliskahd ^-yi
place,
asphd-yi kdliskahd bi-ziyddi va khubi-yi asphd-yi dnjd mst (Shah's Diary) ''the carriages of this and the horses in the carriages, are not so numerous nor so beautiful
Rus va
as those in Russia."
6
(5)
^j
l^l^ ; ^
l ^jf c? t*/
fl*~*l
aqsdm-i
mur ghlia-yi
bud
^J A
IA*
ham
a Afriq ki khayti ghanb va muhib budand (Shah's D.) two black leopards from Africa were there, singular and -terrific to look at" *J^ <jg^ JU*"^ *.$ ^ >js u*& ^ du shakhs dida shud ki dar kamdl-i khush-gili budand (m.c.).
dida shud
"also
jjwou
This
is
mardum hama
dar
fikr
much
the
same
"
says we."
Barra
Better
j^j
properly a
"lamb."
aspha-yi kaliska and not
&J!
cs^ti**''
i*J\
kaliskaha.
Birawaspha:
" go and bring the horses for the carriages aspha-yi yi kaliskaha ra biyar (not kaliska ra) kaliska ra would mean for one carriage but ^Uo^s J&J|< aspha-yi kaliska-yi
;
^'^!
Kirman
*
(not plural)
' *
* i.e. of
<X>,^J
budand.
the Passive
singular
In No.
(6),
note dlda
shud
followed by
^^i
budand
the plural, the subject to both being du palang; while in number No. (7), du fll and not be used si zarafa are followed by a singular verb. The plural dlda shudand would
,
590
(7)
d&j* du
:
fil
bud (Shah's D.) " there were two elephants," (or not " there *si zarafa bud (Shah's D.) were three &*\)j
*>*
**f
^ v^
f y(
3^ **
is
a single collection.
;*
>^f
p*
j^ v^t^
*stiijAft.
^3^
-(^
Jyt
u guraz va liayvanat-i 'ajib-i digar ham an qadr dar an ja bud ki " various kinds of swine and other strange bi'liisab nami-amad (Shah's D.) creatures were collected in that place to an extent that couldn't be comanva'-i khuk
puted
"
:
vide Remark to
?
(9).
(9)
I^AJ
tj ,JiJ jU-j
tf Ui>u-l
*^
LSJ^-jJlVv J^i^x>
^b
qarqavul-hd-yi til&i-yi Ustraliya ki bisyar qashang bud, va anva-'i murghjia-yi khush-rang dar qafas-i bisyar buzurg maahyhul-i parvaz va bazi budand (Shah's
D.).
Remark.
verb must
anva'~i
is
singular
and one
;
plural.
The second
number
thus, though
l^^x>
^
l
murghha bud
^i e^ty* J>*^;
^\
anva'-i
is
incorrect
the plural
^J^ budand
yak
necessary.
shud ki
^^ $* jhri
"
.
** ***
'^
iu
&S&*jf
&&
<*&>
galla-yi gusfandi
of)
dlda
which
were very f at 1 ast misl-i kuh (11) / JA* e*t L**.^ cs-M*^ chakushha-yi ghanb-i (t wonderful hammers are like mountains." they (Shah's D.) " he is a workman" *A** u ast
(12) o**l
jt
fa'la*
(m.c.)
(specially
tjfj yU.jjbai^f y&X>t va chaqu va kard va miqraz va tabar va chizha-yi cfinadar angushtarha-yi " there were khurd khurd budand* (m.c.) rings with small mirrors, penknives,
yy^yj^Lstej^jjAjucljfaj
knives, scissors, axes and many small articles." AJ^^or ) * *i^^ ^j* jfJA jjj> ddh hazar fawj kushta shud (or (14) ( *>** kushta shudand) (m.c.) "ten thousand of the army were killed."
(15) **&.
^>A crr
'J
***
gandum va jaw
ki bala-yi jahdz
*^
gusjandi, adj.
passive,
*
S
Note,
first
the sing.
and then the plural budand for the individuals. of unity with the plural noun, " a set Note the
of
hammers."
(Jlclj fa'il) is
Or
bud, but
the
pi.
budand here
better
but
if
as vaghayrah itself gives the idea of miscellany. * This ought to be j>jj bud singular after the generic
I^&JAJ
ftsff20i
also
in
Mod.
Pers.
^3
tii-yi
or
Jl^^
dar
bala-yi jahaz.
(contd.)
left in
"
;
vide
Partridges fly in covies" <yo <jjtf atf ,jy ^abk is better than the plural galla galla mi-parad (in.c.), the singular ^j^ ^*
sentence,
mt-parand.
khdnahd va qandtha-yi bisyar (17) ^/*~? t5^li5j l^iUL ^ t*k bdgjihdva bud " there were many gardens and houses and underground channels." Kirmani khub and ( not ast) (m.c.), or (18) *3| v-A 15* ^.^ ^V* as P an 'i
l
Ow "
>l
VJ*"
L5^y
,
c$*t$*"f
"the Kirman ;b ^UL ^U^ ^l^i aspha-yi Kirmani khayli bar Vide (b) Remark.
fea*
^Ai*
M&
M*,&
l^f iiAiJ
A>^ gfcUU|
faqat
p.
;
yaghihv-i ki
bi-taraf-i
ej^ jj^ Ai^ JU. ^5l^b chdl rafta budand chun ta'ddd-i dnhd
du hazdr budand chanddn istddagi na-kardand (Memoirs 'Abdu~l-Rahman, bud.* 28) here *>ty budand should be
136.
(continued).
(a)
When
the nominative
or clause,
some noun
separated from its verb by a phrase phrase or clause is oftentimes mistaken This error has been termed the " Error of Proximity."
is
in that
An English example is, 'His attempt to preach extempore, and the shame and pain to which his failure expose him, are in a small way really tragic (* Failure exposes ', not shame and pain which expose ').
'
when
by a
repeated in transla-
an
ast
rd karda and
Compare however <3J| *^y (yl &( f\*f "has any one of them done that would rarely be used in modern Persian.
:
^
in
"
A
'
common both
English and in
modern
after
Persian,
ils
to
treat
singular
nominative
and
an
objective
well as'
"Magnus
1
or 'with', as the joint subject of a plural verb. 3 Thus: with 4000 of his supposed accomplices were put to death"
Vide
(h) (3).
qualify
all
three substantives
or
only
the
last.
*
In modern Persian
'
number,'
'
with
'
is
writers.
592
(contd.)
ERRORS
IN
CONCORDS. ETC.
b Empire) &l&*&~&j o^4A AXJ| JLx2Eu^&;|>. bd chahdr hazdr inki u hamdast-i hastand kushta Magnas nafar bi-khaydl-i shudand (mod. Pers.) man bd u raftim (m.c.) " I went with $ U
(Gibbon's
Roman
y^
**
p>)
him":
fo
j\
j <j*
man u u
&>J}
raftam (m.c.).
**u
fot*
&$
)> j ^C; Lj ^Uf ^tjj AX& &j* ki bi-guzdr biydyand bi-Khudd agar hazdrdn hazdr bdshand bi-ittifdq mi-guftlm Imam Eizd yak-i az ishdn sar-i zinda bi-gur na-khwdhand burd bi-ydn-yi
AUMySii
yj'Ajl 31
"we
one and
all
exclaimed
let
them
[the
Turkomans] come. By God should there be thousands upon thousands of them, by the help of the Imam Riza not one of them would go to the grave with a whole head on his shoulders." ^y^ojt^S, b ^t adJU ^l&a. " I have made some changdl and will eat it with my husband." (Prof. S. T.}. The error is traceable to the fact that sentences like Pharoah and all his and Pharoah with all his host were host were drowned in the sea
'
'
'
drowned in the
juncts of
convey the same meaning. Grammatically the adthe nominative should not affect the concord between it and
sea,'
is
the verb.
strict rules of
However,
occasionally preferable
to the correct
form
of expression.
it is
concord
nishasta
j*^
AJUJiJ
^S^
I,
' '
budam* (Book
)& vffjji ^Lfe> k bd tdyifa-yi buzurgdn dar kashtl cc I was seated in a boat in the company of St. 35)
tff
a party of great people ^LLxj AJ ij*&j j* oUU. j| oi^. ^xi I c^l/c jf ^j bd tan-i chand az khdssdn dar shikdrgdh-i bi.iliil ji}^ e>jl^ jt yak-i az muluk zamistdn az imdrat dur uftdd (Sa'di) 'a certain king with his companions
;
'
{
was belated
in winter while
hunting."
A singular verb is correct after yak-i. "A woman with a child in her arms
*,)'* is
(*3^
^ ^
' '
^**
zan-l ba
both
'
good grammar
is
needs only one ticket" (<_!*] &cu b ^J) bachcha-yi baghal-ash faqat. yak billt lazim darad) and good sense; but 'A woman with a man requires two
'
tickets
as faulty in sense as
A woman
in
with a
man
is
faulty 'in
grammar.
Where
plurality
is signified (as
the copulative
*
and
'
^ must be
&ijlb
used both in English and in Persian, and not with ', or as well as.' S Apparent violations of this concord are frequent in the Gulistan, as
****!*$ found however that Sa'di prefers a plural verb after the collective noun
Jt>*
^Uy
*k&*'
u paivastand (Bk.
I,
St. 4).
It will be
(jtfbjt
8AJ^ o*2Eutax
52).
^f
oiliu va guruh-l
^^
No.
(COUtd.}
o^> AX^-, ^U*.! ^ &>l^ khana va ashbab-ash sukhta shud; but "The house with the goods was 1 burnt" b AJU. * Ai^*. ^jlx^t khana ba sbab-ash sukhta shud : no difference in Persian in
the concord.
"The
material and mental world have their points of union blending (Read the material and mental worlds have, etc.) Vide
'
also 123 (d). In, ^b <^K fcij c^j; j ^U-o. p)\* <alam-i jismani va ruhani rabt-i kulli bi-ham darad (mod. Pers.) the verb should be plural AJJ^ atom may at first appear to be one darand, otherwise noun
^Jtc
singular
by the two adjectives ^U-*^ jismani and ^^^ ruhani; it would however be much better to repeat the word Jtc alam before (jJl*^ ruhani. In modern Persian, the correct concord in the case of the verb " to be
qualified
(
is
often violated
(Tr.
^tja &laJ
**(
&<*>
j jb
**~>
)Ue
oljUoj
all
**
my
Vide
(j)
The
Vide
(c).
correct
number
of the relative
pronoun
frequently overlooked.
(b) (I) When the subject consists of several singular nouns or pronouns connected by the disjunctives 'or' or 'nor,' the verb, both in English and in Persian, should be in the Singular as " Either Muhammad or Hasan is come " o^f s^of ^.^^ U ^su* U yd
:
' '
ti>~A>
o*f
jjsvof
j^-soo
(j
ya
woman,
was
to be seen
' '
*&
*>
21
&>
va na hayvan dida shud (m.c.) better eJ^- * & ( ) ) &*y mard dida shud, na zan, na bachcha (va) na hayvan.
<>)
*J
l>j<i
j*> ** no>
the subject is plural (2) If however one of the nouns forming should be placed last the verb agreeing with it *i Neither the man nor the woman nor the horses were there ^/o
, :
it
' '
' '
ai
aspha bud)
" " neither dog, cat, nor mice, are in the house % * o-J| AJl^ j& ^4^/0 AJ j na sag na gurba va na mush dar khana
:
(^'
^'
r)
^^ ^T
the
ejl$!
*^
(or
**
^~*
(3)
When
it is
in English generally
more elegant
its
auxiliary, with
each of them, as
*'
"Neither were their number, nor was their destination known"; either thou art a knave or I am." In Persian it is more elegant to express
The
plural
l^^ mushha
it
38
(COfltd.)
nominative and
will
" either Muhammad ^ pZa&* ^o b ya man muqassir-am yd tu: take the prize or I will" &+s^.*> l> cu^f f*t^ fj j*UJf ^/o l> ya rnan
as
:
in'am ra khivaham
girift
ya
Muhammad
(m.c.).
Vide also
(d).
There are stated, the above-mentioned forms are more elegant. (4) in such however other methods of rendering expressions English and in
As
Persian.
forms
4 *
of
English grammarians are by no means agreed as to the correct such sentences. One writer says that the verb must agree with the
nominative
cerned."
' '
placed nearest to it, and be understood to the rest, as: Neither he nor his brothers were there", "neither you nor I am con-
Another writer
states,
"
If the
'
pronoun you forms one of the or and the first personal pronoun
' *
;
'
'
playing.'
If,
is
one of a
nominatives grammatically conjoined by or \ the pronoun I goes last in the One must not series, and the verb takes the form of the first person singular. I to or is win the but John, (or) James, or I prize,' say John, (or) James,
*
'
am
very nice question arises, when two singular* pronouns of different persons are connected by a disjunctive, as to what person and number the verb should stand in. Should
to
prize.'
win the
"
Hodgson
writes,
"
one say Neither he nor I are wrong ' Neither he nor I is wrong ?
*
'
* ;
Neither he nor I
am wrong
'
or
'
tj&o
" should be in Persian oJj yk Apparently, "Whenever my wife or I die &f liar vaqt Tci man ya zan-am bi-mlrad 6 ; (in modern AJ *j) U jjy*
would often be used). But instead of ) ^/o $ J| amadand baradar-am u va du man az bi-vujud say f^f f;4/
t
amadim because
*> (5) jt
^
AJ
AJ
na man 6 muqassir-am na u
(elegant) "neither
am
&^
na man va na u muqassir-lm
ii
(not elegant).
j f^c
AJ
j|
For further Persian examples vide (5). U U-w L ya shuma ya u bazl mi-kardid: better ^xj ^JU io.^AXj ^c'^^\ 6.1 ya shuma lazl m^kardid ya u.
j>y
^
._>Xxx b
A>.JL^AX>
(^
p'Uif
<xsuo L
^.^o
man ya Muhammad
n 'am
ra ml-glrlm
You
Or
'
is
+)j
/^x*.j ^.j/o
by some English grammarians considered singular as well as plural. zanam. *j^ $j -A har vaqt man bi-tnlram ya na u muqassir hastlm (m.c.) better ^.^o j[ dj ^ 1.^0 u na man va
;
A>
na man muqassiram va na
u.
CONCORD OF ANTECEDENT,
nistim m.c.
Persian).
;
ETC.
AND VERB
(COHtd.)
(the
grammatical o~*i
nist is
lj
AJ^AXJ ^cjb
l*^--
(elegant)
" either
you were playing or he was." b U b yd shuma ya u bdzi mi-kardid b U& shumd ya u yak kuddm ^cjb +\' <-y
(in
(m.c.).
mod.
+^uc b *j**'
\)
fbiit
dm rd mi-giram yd Muhammad Muhammad." man yd Muhammad in dm rdmi-girim (modern). ^sv/o b mew ?/a Muhammad yak kuddm in dm
^y b yd
man
in'
rd mi-girad
,3.jJ^o
(class.)
/*li| ]j
in
mod. Pers.
Cl
p^**
mi-girim.
^j_
^o
L i^sux)
.
Muhammad
ii>i^
ijjt
yd
man
f yak-i in dm rd mi-girad
(in
i^o
f>^
Tchwdh^
man
urd kushta
(elegant).
^l^f ji^ ^yo j(|^^ khwdh man Ichwdh ishan urd kushta bdshim tafdvat na-ddrad (not good, but used). JIL ^.y* j waw kaniz-am va tu Tchdnum, yd tu ^} f**^y J (*)ft^ e^ kaniz-i va man Khanum* (Tr. H. B. Chap, xxiv) "am I the slave and
ejta>
^V
*i!T
|j^{
cH^y
are
am
I the mistress
"
/*^ 8<^j*-
/*^L|
fafiq-i
ddshtam ki sdlhd
TTJ^ ^ar c?% or bd-ham safar karda budim (Sa'di), there is an ellipsis of ^^A jj ^x> maw va u after H, "I had a friend that (conj.) (we two) travelled
lx>
Vide also
(d).
(1)
When
the nominative
determines the
number
"
of the verb:
is a common error ing ," writes Hodgson, ' that has appeared in any language.'
"
'Snellingis one of the most esteemed numismatical writers that this (Right; but, that have appeared in this country ')".
'
'
^^jj
eJu>
<*r
*ju*f
(i
^\^o jfi\
jf
^y u
yak-% az
dar mulk
ast
(wrong; ^| and}.
j\ AJ
na u muqassir-ast va na man
is
In
to.
English the speaker does not always put himself last though grammars u bazl ml-kard ya shuma. Similarly l* U ^} b ya
him
^x* ^jb
is
A^
chi for
>[^
fehwah
jft^x
khwah.
596
ERRORS, ELLIPSIS.
"
I confess that I
am
'
'
am
unable to refuse
'
my
*$
assent to the
who
'
and omit
my
"
')
^ &*
p&*
jfyi a)
** (jcUiu&t ^f &U-*. j| man iqrar mi-kunam lei man (&* JsP /^LA** yak-i az jumla-yi an ashkhas hastam ki nami-tavanam qabul bi-kunam ki (write <*iij Jy3 ^fy^ *^ ki nami-tavanand qabul bi-kunand).
*^
^*
(2)
By
is
am
^i& ki nami tavanam bayan-i chlzha-yi na-dlda bi-kunam (should be*U& namitavanand bi-kunand)
.
<xjj
one of those who cannot describe what I (they) do not see U}A&. ^Lw fJ^ijj+i *$ f~a> ^'Ifif J| f^j. &<* man yak-i az anha-i hastam
' '
^1^3
Clyc
|j
lA^X^A.
^f
OOf^ij
^^JJ^^Jjij <xy
iS ^JU4 ^Gf jf (^o Oiy^ Jj4J ^ ^Jij^ ^4s> va bi-marg-i khudat man az anau kh,udam bi-marg-i bitavanad in jafangha ra ba man qalib bi-zanad td chi
^Ay
tXi^o
rasad bi-tu nar qalandar (Tr. H. B., Chap. 11) ^Li.jf U ba Ishan.
T
;
instead of &*>
lj
ba
man
read
fj^ jjj*** J
ki
*-&?j*
i^li 5
*J
*^ r&~*j ^y ofjt
cj"
u maghrur shavam (Mirkhond) <c I'm not the " sort of man to be deluded by your words (read mi-shavad). Sometimes in a contracted compound sentence, one predicate has two (d) or more subjects, there being then an ellipsis of one or more verbs, as
bi-sukhanan-i
shuma
farifta
heard, not a funeral note (was heard)." According to the subjects in admissible when this contraction is, Hodgson English, only ' are in the same number. are The following examples cited by him as
'
"Not
drum was
errors
" His (Peter the Hermit's) diet was abstemious, his prayers (were*) long and fervent, and the alms which he received with one hand, he distributed
with the other/'
Gibbon.
In Persian, on the contrary, not only are ellipses like those just mentioned, considered grammatically correct, but also a species of ornament.
Examples
SJ^L &\*J)j9y
tarbiyat-ash
^j &f
<^jy eHl
(supply
ra tarbiyat mi-kuni).
with
(lit.
" bosh": make to swallow, ^ij ^)\j qalib zadan (m.c.) " " to put inside one as in a mould) nar-qalandar (m.c.) you jciJJIS y
:
(abusive).
if
true error
it
of the verb
to be.'
8
The omission
of ra
after
khud
is
perhaps a typographical
error.
The ra
is
ERRORS, ETC.
597
Chi budi ar
(Sa'di).
qadd bud va haqir, va digar baradaran-ash buland-bald va khub-ruy (Sa'di, B. 1., St. 13) " I have heard of a certain prince who was diminutive in stature and mean in appearance, while his brothers
l
malik-zada-i rd shunidam
M kutdh
were
tall
and handsome."
J
va mct'lum* ki agar tanha bi-gurizam, mdnand-i bisyar-i az cfogaran, az mr-i naw giriftdr, va azab~am yak bar hazdr shavad (Tr. H. B., Chap. V.) ; though the verb expressed is 3rd pers. (shavad), the 1st pers. (
(
giriftdr.
khivdb dirdz kashtda ast vanukaran-ash dar pay(Intro. Trans. Haji Baba) "there, on a bedspread
an
ellipsis
of
&Sf
"
*^Jb
is-i hayrat-i
all,
not
H. B., Chap. 11) "when, to the " excepting myself and the doctor (H. B.,
(Tr. ba'is-i hayrat-i after balki).
'
(too elliptical
(e)
each
'
and
'
every
should
their
be in the 3rd
and when they are the leading words in and pronouns to agree with them.
*
'
'
In Persian however a plural verb generally follows each and every, {tJ^A har yak and J*!^A har Tcudam) etc., not only in the modern but also in the classical 4 language
:
**>'* <J$"
4t
'
(!**>*
or )
^j*
nar yuk
39
(j) (2).
td har
kudam
(
dast-i
6
Suhayll, Chap.
I, Intro.)
muvdfaqat dar daman-i 'aql* zanand bi-qadam-i karramnd bani Adam a 'taraqqi numdyand (Anvar-i "so that every one should place the hand of compli-
In m.c.
jjG^tiJf
qad kutah.
*
s
Note omission
For examples
of
^j
bud.
'
vide
'
(/).
hama
before a
of unity
'
39()
6
(1).
xvii. 72.
AND VERB
(COntd.)
ERRORS, ETC.
ance on the skirt of reason, and by the step of exaltation should be promoted
to the rank of,
'
'
rd
har yak az ishan sifat-1 az sifdt-1 ham/Ida ta'rif mi-kardand (Anv. Suh.).
j ^f^ta.
murtafi'
jt
c
ii>f
*Aj <^ cXd.lj.io gftyo J^Axi &j> 8-Xilja. ^j| 13 ,^/cy ^jJLiot^ i^l* ddbishUm farmud ki td in khwdnda na-shavad shubha
na-khwdhad
" Dabishllm said that until vuquf na-ddshtand (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, Intro.) this should be read the doubt would not be removed, and that as no one of
those present was acquainted with that character ." It is however more logical to use the singular verb.
<j*O A nar kas, however, even in slovenly modern Persian, is usually followed by the singular verb, but <j*T <u& hama kas by a plural one. The
(2)
Persian translator of Hdji Baba of Isfahan however uses a singular verb after
^ UA
hama
jtyf
kas.
a-xkb
*T {y
^i^
.>UJG| oJ^,s
dram ydftand
(Anw. Suh., Chap. I, Intro.) "the attendants of his auspicious retinue disposed themselves to rest under the shade of trees on the bank of a rivulet
and"
(East. Trans.).
it is
In modern Persian
hama
kas.
(3) Instances of each or every being in English erroneously followed by a plural pronoun are
:
if
not tied down to relate every minute passage or circumstance, be not absolutely necessary to the main story, etc." " Each of they (it) * 1 the girls went up into their separate rooms to rest and calm themselves
is
'
"He
'
MJ
e-A.|j
*ii*)
and Daughters (1867), Ch. 42, p. 419) )\ Jjy* &( ^i. ^IfSU^ har yak az dukhtardn bi-utdqhz-yi khud-i
;
"
v^*
;
Jf
-^A
har yak az
md
guftand
;
U^ jt
nistid
J&\
c;t^t
jt )
kas (az ishdn) inkdr kardand, etc., etc., are used both in speaHng and in writing. The Persians will hardly acknowledge that these concords
are incorrect.
(4)
be his
4
Every strong and every weak point of those who might probably '"Point' should follow rivals were laid down on the charts."
' '
number of strong' as well as weak,' but authorities differ as to the proper the verb. Crombie, in his Etymological Syntax of the English Language
'
Corrected; "
Each
of the girls
rest
and calm
herself."
599
easier
',
and
more
precise
*
than,
Every officer and every soldier claims', (2) Every officer and every soldier
'
J
though the latter is unquestionably more agreeable to analogy.' " Professor Bain too says (English Grammar, p. 175) Plurality is cera is effect there produced by joining disagreeable tainly implied, but 'every* with a plural verb, and we might take shelter under the elliptical
claim
:
"
Every
officer (claims),
'all.'
"
and every
soldier claims
"
'.
The
In Persian, the plural verb would be preferred for No. (1), as 1 ^o *Uat jtyj ^wAvo v^Ua^A har sahib mansab va sarbaz iddi'd*mi:
kunand
&>
ki
(2), as
har sahib mansab va har sarbaz iddi'd* mi kunad ki; in latter case the verb is understood to the first subject.
oi&jA>
(.cat
' *
the
(5)
A difficulty
*
are implied in
each, every, etc., and according to Professor Bain the plural may then be used. Where everybody [all] can ride as soon as they are born.*' In Europe no one marries unless they have the certain means of supportMadame Bonaparte, Life and Letters (1879), Ch. 8, p. ing their children
' '
:
135.
is
% Hodgson. people do not marry'.] As the pronouns in Persian have no distinction for gender, this error Thus the last example might be rendered practically absent. &\L~&j9
[Read,
'
"
&JL&+J
6 t/^jJT
^^
;
*if>j oli
Aa>j
'arusi
dar Farangistdn Inch kas ta vajh-i gr.xd> " Let nami-kunad. 8 every man do their
(j*o
*&
\)
<Ju*j^
ft <xU ijfj*
*
The
and
this
indefinite
one,' is in Persian j*yf ddam, &\~J\ insdn, etc., would naturally be followed by a singular pronoun and a singular
pronoun
verb.
Like each and every * the distributive pronouns either and neither, should in English be followed by a singular verb. In modern Persian, however, not only are these distributive pronouns
(/)
6 followed by a plural verb but, by a confusion of thought, their adjuncts (if the 6 uj U>U $ j| pronoun be the subject) affect the verb, as *~#ft ^XA
:
h'tchyak az
(or none) of
shumdhd
be
nist)
(m.c.)
"neither
jt
*>*
you
are
[is] fit
"
c***/>
&$ ^U
is
y^a j^-J^*
l(
Each
better
hama kas, or else the verb in the singular. 3 Note that in the Persian there are two negatives for one in English. * 4 For each and every vide (e).
'
&
*'
Error of
Proximity
"
vide (a).
universal.
This error
may
in
600
az shumaha Idyiq-imarhamatha-yi man nistid. (Vazlr-i one "not of are of Lankaran) (none) (is) deserving you my many kindnesses": 4^6 tjtj*j*> -~*l i&*\ k *); ** jA cs*LW y u^j owciLi &j* ^[jio J}^ j* grxA ki "Haji agar tu bi-khwahi dar in rah
^^
bd in asp khar-davani bi-kuni hich yak sar-i salamat bi-manzil na-khwahid burd (Pers. Trans. Haji Baba of Isfahan) " Haji, if you mean to play the fool like this with your horse neither of you will finish the day's march in
safety."
i
Some
noticed [vide (c) (2). An English blunder is to make them plural before the singular nouns kind and sort, as: "I always delight in overthrowing those [that] kind of schemes and cheating a person of their [his] premeditated contempt." (Miss Austen, Pride and Prejudice, Ch. X.) In Persian )>*^1 in jur " this kind " etc., is used before either a singular or a plural noun or verb, as o^U^. e^f j^ p&f jj-^-SJf in jur adam dar Iran
:
khayU-st "this sort of character is common in Persian" and jd'ljtaf JijqUji <yL~A cs^ cd*!l in jur adamha dar Iran khayli hastand.
(h)
of Arabic adjectives
2
and
may
With
the exception of the one or two points already referred to in 43 (n) (s) and and footnote to concord of of the (t) (t) (1), questions adjectives are not likely to arise.
(i)
The antecedent,
H.
in Persian, of
(tt*** (Tr.
is
tion
faulty.
*> -*^ c>J e;U*t>l ^j^j! V^ j* but the colloca" is ishan incorrect not B., Chap. XXXIII), only Omit cA^> ishan, and after zan insert *l !j ?* ja dar sar-i
In:
*l
8tj
^W
rah-i Shah.
137.
(a)
Government
of Verbs, Prepositions
Jl*l
o^^o
),
and Errors.
accusative case.
Transitive verbs govern, in English, the objective, and in Persian the The following English errors are taken from Hodgson
:
"He, who had always inspired in her a respect which almost ov#rcame her affection, she now saw the object of open pleasantry (Miss Austen, Pride and Prejudice, Ch. 61) [For he read him } ".
'
'
For one thing, the This error can hardly be repeated in Persian. the Persian not in her could in pronoun she, pronoun prose precede which is the subject of the principal clause. An kas-i ki hamisha Muhammad
'
'
'
'
noun
[vide
43 (m)
need
not be considered.
GOVERNMENT.
bi-u ihtiram mi-kard hdld
601
&& %$*\
hamisha
A&EUAA5
^jcjfuo
Muhammad
mazhaka uftdda did *$ k2L>o dua4& or aw kas-i rd ki j& ^x> j*ty^{ jb ihtiram mi-kard hdld dar ma raz-i mazhaka uftdda did
rd dar ma'raz-i
|^j| Jfla. &j*
?
both incorrect; the subject to did is obscure, nor is it clear to whom urd refers in the first example. In, &f ^/f x..<c ^y^f ^l &ia+A * \j Muhammad an kas-i rd ki hamisha bi-u ihtiram mi-kard the subject to mi- kard
^f
might be either
Muhammad or an
kas-i
but omit
bi-u
and
write,
Muhammad
an
kas-i rd ki
is
hamisha ihtiram mi-kard hdld dar ma'raz-i mazhaka uftdda did clear, Muhammad being clearly the subject to both verbs.
nouns or pronouns
Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case. Also in apposition must in English be in the same case.
:
The following English errors are taken from Hodgson " God will send no such fools as I Westward (1) [me] upon His errands Ho Khudd hich ahmaq-i misl-i man-i rd bi-pay ghambari intikhdb nami:
'
" 'In this state Frank Churchill found her, she [her] trembling, they loud and insolent.' Miss Austen, Emma, Ch. 39." Fuldn urd dar [them] oJU*. ^f ^ |^y &&' in lidlat ydft-urd larzan va ishdn rd gustdkh &\'^ \\$\ oiL> \L~Z !_>ilgjf j. In the Persian sentence if u larzan were substituted, the eMJ^ jt u would to refer Frank. pronoun
(2)
(c) Prepositions in English govern the objective case, and nouns and pronouns in apposition to a noun or pronoun so governed must be in the same
case.
"God
he [him]
my own
hdshd ki
penny to a poor man and *^'^ p^s^j^j (^ 3 (^-*. )^ L$J!& &^* J>v "-^ ^ man az yak pul da dan bi-faqir-i inkar bi-kunam va an ham pisar-i
forbid
son
"
Khudd na-kunad
Jchud-am
ast.
lei
man
pul dddan
bi-faqir-i
inkar
kunam va
hdl
an
ki pisar- 1
" and similar expressions, an affirmative verb is required in Persian, thus " God forbid that I should refuse, etc." is correct; but "God forbid that I should not give, etc.," Hdshd (or Khudd
Remark.
After "
God
forbid
na-kunad) ki
is
bi-faqir-i
|^
tl*., etc.,
unusual.
(e)
One
relative
' '
Muhammad
pronoun may do duty for more than one clause as, Muhammad ki dar Tabriz who was born and buried in Tabriz
' '
mutawallid va madfun shud **> \sfri&* j *)j*j-tj*>jt> *^ +**~'. If however the relative pronoun is in different cases,
it
should be
Note accusative
of
man.
Or ahmaq-i
mixl-i
602
GOVERNMENT.
An example
of
an error in English
upper part of the house of which I know nothing, and [which I] have never seen. A Life for a Life (1859), Vol. II, p. 65." tj aJLk ^\j 5*1,
1*1
" The
*X><>}J^AJ fJpA*J
j> vyf
%b;i
<^x>
H man dar
bdra-yi
(/)
an
Inch
am
government
of
prepositions
(1)
Az u pursldand
<w<>ju^jy
31
(mod.)
*S
"
)
He
was
asked
asked
(2)
(class) 5
him."
"
)
(3)
> beseech mi-kunam ki (&** <j-UJ| U^ Az shumd multimas-am ki t ) U&ji you." p~+&>o Az shumd mamnun- am am (much) obliged to pjf*+sc(+2>y |"I Mamnun-i shumd hastam$*~& U*i njy^c you."
iltimds
Muhtdj-i an (or muhtdj bi-dn) mstam *!**# ( cjl ^Uan.x U " I am not in need of it." = dn rd Idzim na-ddram ^txi lyf
(4)
^f
(5)
Dar
fikr-i
In
^j&)* "I'm
tsj )* (class.)
tjf
(6) Dar vay nazar kard j> *' he looked at him." (mod.) (7) Az u khayli ml-tarsam (8)
j&
^^^> c^-jAy
kunl^
i
jl
Bayad
ijff
bi-taqsir-i
khud
ra
i'tirdf
oty*!
j^L^A-flflL tXjU
<
You
confess
your
Bayad
a
taqsir-at
iqrdr kuni
.
fault."
J
Iwiji j|
(9) x4s 'aqab-iu injd dmada am fl 8yxf " here to look for him (now or previously).
Az
after
'
aqab-i
u dnja raftam
him"
Az 8
^ luf ^ v^j*
(
1
aqab-i u
either
dmadan
or raftan)
I followed
(10) .4?
him."
mihmdnt
enjoyed the
being hosts).
" entertainment
bar hakim
khayli mutamatti
;
t5^^t
x>
3'
" we
mihmdm
may mean
being guests or
/**^ j> o**ia. (in m.c. bi-hdkim) "The governor was presented with a dress of honour"; also hakim rd khil'al pushdmdand or kardand *>&jf or aJ^il^j ojd^ i;
(11) Khil'at*
pushdmdand
AiA*5t^J
^L^
:
(12) ^2;
finished his
Or
cZar 'aqab,
or bi-'aqab.
or bi-'aqab.
Mbit' at is
45*
of unity.
GOVERNMENT.
(13)
603
!;
" the
in
nazar-i shah pishkash ra guzarandand AJ^f;^ gift was presented to the Shah."
Az
^^
Az vay dar guzasht C*A?>> ^j jf (class.) "he passed by him " (but mod. Per. = " he forgave him his fault," or ''he beat him in the race
(14)
etc.)."
Az u
by him."
&j or)
o^<^ jt y
-\
(mod.)
"he
passed
>^*^J
(or
(olaas.)
9
i
o^
L Th
C
hed at him/
Jf
J
shikdyat burd (or kard)
jlj
bi-u
1
pish-i
u)
4^3
jt
>
(Jiaj or)
me
to
him."
ejf ^t
(17)
Az an sukhan
hich
1
na-yafta
am
ft
aiaUS
^lU,}
^ub ^iu*
na-shuda
am X
8^*i
^lla/o
^su*> ^f
"I know
CHAPTER
138.
(a)
XX.
The formal
as:
or conventional order of words in a simple sentence is, same as in Latin, i.e. subject, object or complement,
and verb,
something
"
;
o~>t^
<^^
J*A
jaqir
chiz-i Tchwdst
for
cuj^iuo^t u
bi-safar raft
"he
started on a journey."
It is also a
general principle
that
j^k^&i ol<Hi^
jty^tf
\)
<-***! *->->***
yusuf ra bishtar az
more
" forms part of a compound verb, as: fate^ \j )^ bdz ra bi-u dddam " him the female goshawk f^U l+j jt u bi-md saldm kard?
:
Remark. Even if the accusative is part of a compound verb it does not always immediately precede the actual verb, as f^-^ !*L al CA-^JJJ ^A J *(* |; |^ or) dar an vaqt ydd-i Khuda kardam (or Khuda ra ydd kardam ). (f a/ unless the accusative (6) The dative generally follows the accusative,
:
gave
sentence,
when they apply to the whole )t> ^5^^ ^,5*^ shab-i qazi-i usually placed " dar kitab-l did ki one night a Qazi read in a book that JA LS*J* c?3j; " one nS i^MtJ^ ^5>Asu*^o ruz-l mard-i dar masjid-l nishasta bud ki day a " certain man was sitting (seated) in a mosque when ufaj)t isjv" J* isJj)
(c)
time,
:
as
t$ **&
^^
o**>
darwsh-l dar-i dukdn-i baqqal-i raft " one " day, in a certain city, a darvish went to the shop of a green-grocer.* (d) When the complement to the verb is a complete sentence, it is put
&
^KSj
o^^^
ruz-l dar
shahr~i
last, as
c>t*^
" the
(J+M
y
'
*4*Vv ty
man
enquired saying,
Do you
think
me
a fool
'
"
:
^ ^^&
&f f*ja
^y p&jj& ^(A if ^^ didam hi dar miyan-i daryd chand Jcuhhd-yi** digar ham bud (m.c.) "I saw that there were several other rocks as well, in the middle
of the sea."
is qualified by a relative sentence, the object the verb and the relative clause follow, as immediately precede f;
(e)
:
When
the object
may
ummid
The
tilst,
or
nlst.
sa l<*
Afghans say
Or
gw
^^-^^(i 4^*i^^
" a baqqal
CFJA)
dar shahr-i.
4
Jlftj
*
man who
sells
dried
and
after chand.
The
605
"
have heard
who made
to be put to death."
The
in
is
fully illustrated
by the examples
120
(/)
As the verb
may happen
is
If
in the Imperative,
it
clause, as:
Kunun-at
Bi-gu ay barddar
Tchushi
(Sa'di).
Ki
biraw.
(g)
farda .....................
^ ^twfcf
bi-dhistagi
AjU. raft
In m.c., a few verbs frequently precede their dative, as: oj>> " *J " khdna l " he went home ^.^^ rasidim bi-dih we reached the
:
village": eA^ia
fj
j
tj
J^
"
put
ra dddam-ash
"
I
'
the
money":
:
the beggar"
bi-raw bazar
go to the bazar.'
first
(h)
is
The
position of the
portion of a verb,
compound and
cufsua e>ly^
l
potential,
-Mt
illustrated
by
the
following
examples
a/
Inja
nami-tavan suhbat kard, or uL^*> o^xv/o lojf Jw/5 suJibat nami-tavan kard " we (one) can't talk together in this place."
of the sentence as described above is frequently This departure from the normal order is called ' Inversion.' 3 The object of Inversion is to place important words or phrases in the most prominent place in the sentence and thereby excite attention to
(f)
altered or reversed.
them.
is
also
known
as
Hyperbaton,
and rarely
as Trajection.
A sentence
The
(1)
that
fails to
excite attention
and
Adjective.
pre-
cedes
its
noun
*
3
For
jfjl
&> bi-bazar.
inqilab-i kalam.
is
'
Mf
j^ii!
Inversion
is
branch of Ornament.
'
'
striking
example
in English
in shapeless ruin
all.'
606
displacement of the adjective, either for emphasis or for the sake of avoiding a strain on the attention, are:
"He is
u mardl-st
rest)
"
5
'adil,
aqil
va salih:
"one
of
cls^
Jj^
"
vs*
J^jt
is
this pillar
and
For an instance
in Apposition vide
(2)
end
of
participle
presented before the subject, when it is desired that the latter should at once be conceived in " Blessed are the connection with the special aspect of the former, as
Predicate
before
is
:
The predicate
itjif^JJ/
JLo
<^Uo
is
mubarak-and sulh-kunandagan.
"For
l^j
OH
and
*'
c^X$j
LS&
**
^ e^f
VSA-M.I
5^ 3 )* c>f
:
^*1
j zwa
ki farakh ast
an dar va
vasi' ast
an rah
o^Jf
*$
^/o
i.e.
mard an
<c
ast ki
o-*t &+*.] ^JU 'alim Ahmad ast y this construction is called j^^ hasr
restricting,"
(3)
wise
is
alone."
or, verb
Copula or Auxiliary
and
subject;
and
subject.
The
and the subject, may often in English be advan" "Is " Are in questions your father at you well ?
;
home?"
Inversion
is
" Eyes was I to the blind &\) ^\jt fty kurdn: "feet was I to the lame" (J&J ^f^j
"
langan.
^^
j**>
bara-yi
baray-i
Tariqa-yi kharj-i in naqd ra man mi-danam, *>\&$*> (^ \) && ^\ " the (H. B., Chap. V) proper way to spend this money 7 know."
,
-j=*.
ttyJo
Prominence in English is given to (4) Object and Subject of verb. *' the object by inverting it and placing it first, as Silver and gold have I none." In Persian, the object naturally precedes the verb inver:
it
should follow, as
) +*
p!*i na
ddram sim
zar.
f 1 Ordinarily u mard-i 'adil-i 'aqilri salih-i-st, or mard-i adil va 'aqil va salih-ist; or the ^. of unity could be added to mard. 1 Note that yak-l az shuma is correctly followed by the verb in the 3rd pers. sing. ^ even in modern Persian the usual error would not be made with the verb so close to
:
yak-l. _JL
Jl^J
ljA
khusha
bi-hul-i sulh
kunandagan.
607
In conditional, concessional, and temporal sentences, the object or subject may, for emphasis, precede the conjunction, as: <-** cjt^iuLot j " the xkiu i&f^ >x ccjjUj/l -?/ (H. B., Chap. XI) eye and knucklebones of a wolf, attached to a boy's person, give him courage "
*$
^k
hakim chun
raft
"when
"
iUj| Uj +&A.
chunchasm-i savaran
(5)
When
:
a sentence consists
l
two Propositions, a principal one and a subordinate, greater force is " obtained if the subordinate precedes the principal, as " If you stay I'll go agar tu bi-mdni man mi-ravam* (*i^* (&* (J*+*. y
of
\
Remark.
(as
When
the inversion
it is
is
so violent as to confuse
the sense
sometimes in poetry)
(/)
called Synchysis.
'
When
in
a complex
sentence the qualifications of the subject or the modifications of the predicate are numerous, the most judicious course is to distribute them, placing
part before and part after the subject or predicate." blow was his head severed from his body ' ' <^> !*,
zarb sar-ash az tan juda shud.
'
'
Example:
<Jj>
" At one
-*
jt
v^
'
bi-yak
y
two modifications, at one blow and from his body one is placed before and one after the predicate. (k) "A circumstance ought never to be placed between two capital
Here
of the
members;
since,
it
by such a proposition,
it is
doubtful to which
it
belongs.
By
is
between parts of the member to which it belongs, ambiguity avoided, and the capital members are kept distinct. "'By the articles subsisting between us, on the day of marriage, you
placing
'
agree to pay down the sum of eight thousand pounds.' " Better thus By the articles subsisting between us, you agree to pay
:
down on
sum
'
of eighty
thousand pounds.'
For example vide (n) (1). The following sentence from Hafi Bdbd
4 wSA*f
is
not clear at
first
sight
^> QjAAa. ^J<i> Ovof j*y*AJ W U( J/ " different things have (I)
& jjjj ^^
an
$j&\
CS
When
a corresrespect to the order of time, place, cause and effect, or the like, in the ponding order should be observed in assigning them their position
Better pJU j *.*) zinda va sdlim " alive and well ", than sdlim va zinda " well and alive." Vide also (n) (5).
sentence.
And
More
also
'
Suspense.'
forcible
than "
I'll
go
* '
if
you stay
'
"
^iU?
^ V& V man
clear.
'
rava
'
Style.
semi-colon
is
required after *S
608
(m)
(1)
1
^t
*
'
It
is
I
-3
who am
mulk
(Jtt'Aej
c$*^
dalq-i
va ambdn-i va
'asd-i,
*^ nd-gah darvish-i dar dmad bd entered with his habit, a darvish "suddenly
sdqhd-yi
staff."
Jt
<x>j>
y *ilj
o*ot
jof
&5
j*^ ^IfjU
gandum
did az qadd-i
ddam
buland-tar
(4)
"he saw
man's stature."
^/^
is
city
khud-i shahr tijdratgdh-i buzurg-i ast (mod.) jtojlxJ^i a large commercial place."
!>>
y*~J *^
tj
^*A3BU&
4^
0^|
(X
X^ U;U
6ar^a ^<Za s^wcZa as^ ki shakhs-i rd ki bisydr sud dyad hamdn qadr ham-bi-u
ziydn mi-rasad.
(6)
^liJI
(*
luftj
(J&.
5^
;^ ^>;U^
a^a/'a
IsoT
^^3 c^j
l
**
ty^
^^ ^
li
f^ i^ x3
***** ***
^xi
zamin bi-chundn
an dnjd 'imdrat-i bisydr buzurg-i agar mi-bud yaqin mi-ujtdd "the earth shook three times with such violence that had there been a large building there, it
fallen'
'
.
*^
**$
^f ;* ^
*^^
(*t
^i^
a
j* t^ 1- ^;>^
^j ^
dar
vaqt-i khurdsdli dar jd-i ki khdna-am bud dar dnjd chand khdna-yi zambil-sdzdn bud " there were several houses of basket weavers near the home of my
youth."
*r w^iAf f; cr.^U i^Jl^i Jf jU Jl^ Aita. ^A 6?ar 62: dil-am guzasht ki oJy ^l^ /*;^J -^j^ ^l^LUi o^}i az darakht-i ki shdkhhd-yash rd gird-d gird-i khdna nihdl zada am agar az
(8)
vuUA jl^|
j*|
JJJ.J
^[^
hamdn darakht*
shdkhhd-yi kuchak bi-ydram shdyad bi-vaqt-i bdftan-i zambil my mind that if I were to bring some twigs
from the same tree from which I had gathered the cuttings which I had planted round the house, perhaps, they would not break when weaving the
baskets."
(9)
10
c ^tun bi-dftdb mi bar dmadam (Afghan) (m.c. ^*=T j> if* v^'^ &>5" when I went out in the sun * b ar mi-dmadam) (sunshine)." ^
1 2
Or
<y>jjy
oxo
larzid.
Note repetition
dar anja.
noun
of
Also
jU J^W}
AJl^.
jcti ki
.
and
Note repetition
is
na-shikanand
darakht being mistaken for the subject. * Bar-i a/tab raftan ijj^'f jj, or plsh-i a/tab raftan ^JJ) ujli^fj^J ' out in the sun. go
^j
mod. " to
,
'
OEDER OF WORDS
(10)
EXAMPLES OP ERRORS.
609
^ JjU
<j^4J
X>
^^oyo
dT^ix) 31
^
o*&
yak-i rd
afflicted
jj*
\j
c4
*?
(Sa'di)
"he
said
with
regard to
So-and-so
it's
a long
*r Ufcw jt |^ yak-i rd az* hukama shunidam ki mi-guft " one of the (Sa'di) leading men of the day, I heard him say that ".
^x
(13) isj% ** *?
***^
;> LSJ
pir-i (Sa'di) "for a young girl it is better to be wounded by an arrow than to have an old husband." (14) ^^^ tx>3 e^i-> e~t jQ *i>)r*> ATyk *J na har ki bi-surat niku ast sirat-izibddarusl 5 (Sa,'dl) ee not every one who has a pleasing exterior,
^iUU
\)
(16)
**>^
(3^
A *A
cw^ *^J
(-
**J^~J
el^^^
(^Xftf
jjU
AjjJt
AJ
e^-
^^
tyULi^b gw/^ sukhan bi-andisha bdyad guftan va harakdt-i pasandida bdyad kardan hama khalq rd, khdssa pddishdn 6 rd (Sa'di) "he said, to speak after consideration and to act with propriety is proper for all but especially for
kings."
(17)
*A&
lj
^ aUi*t
^xaJU/o
^a.
(Sa'di)
life
" even
az in safar-i jahdz
p&j p)* j>~ eHjf &*> *&* manki pishtar na karda budam dil-am barham khwurd (m..c.) " I who had never voyaged in a ship before, my stomach felt sick."
f a*
for
him
a^>
3^
(19) *jf
^
31
fA^
khush-am
1
nami-dyad (m.c.)
vJjJU> )\
"I never
like this
kind of travelling."
More common
(^
^&
yak-l az
muluk
ra.
2
3
of na-didl.
^ [+^
3t
^j
2/afc-
az
hukama
ra
more usual
ml-guft.
order.
Also
<J
C 4^
..(iai^
shunldam
ki yak-l az
hukama
yafc-*
as ^wfejma.
tlr-l
More
forcible
than
(XJjJyJ
jJL^J^)3
(c^
\j
e^t^ (V3^l
agrar
Ofl'or
zan- javan ra
dar
^3
c^J^t^J^ t^H^^r'
<?r-J
More
forcible
Aar
slrat-i
niifcw
oar
ra,
this
would be worded
hama khalq
7
padishan
is
'
ra.
no verb
130 (a)
for u^xj
(2).
banda
^^
naml-ayad
is
vide
39
610
(20)
ORDER OF WORDS
**f cj*
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
l
\
agar tambal na-bud u ham u*r^ &i&j? ^i p*> )\ *j*> cUxS " had he not been lazy, he too would have yak gusfand gir-ash mi-amad (m.c.)
got hold of a sheep."
(21)
OM*J(>
|;
^iu*
4.^1
jfo'
&j
p*^>
fA jt^
gufta
^-l^d jb
budam
tf
(*#
ndm-i jahdz sukhan* rd dust-i man bi-ydd dvarda guft ki ham na-khwaham burd " I who had that I would never even mention the word ship 'said formerly
Af oif
tojyf aU?
(^.xj
raaw
Hiz-i
awaZ
ki bdr-i dlgar
'
my
friend recollected
(22)
what
had
said,
J&?
s
*# V*^
eJ^
AT
^Uk ^L^
bi-
Hdtim-i Ta^i
mutajalli na-shavad
l
magar dngdh
3rd
line).
dlim-i 'ddil-i
Muqaddama;
Remark and
(24)
(25)
Vide example in
129
AS"
(6),
footnote.
3JoU U>| ^*w ^Jlk* A; ^Lj j+ \) ^ZZZ+J ammd mdnand-i radd-i mazdlim nima-yi birydn-i pishkashi rd, kamar *' but I determined bastam ki bi-'Usmdn Aghd firistam (Tr. H. B. Chap. IV) to send to 'Usman Agjja as a reparation,, half the roast (sheep's head) that had been bestowed on me ": note position of *$ f~> j*$ kamar bastam ki. or oaiuiJ v-M^3 tabib hamdn khub ast ki (26) A^ is~*\ v^-
f^
l*f
cAxc
*j
^^
^^
*S o~*t tabib
(27)
an shakhs
ast ki
' '
he
is
who
' '
.
*^ ^j 4jJU >^,j JJyjt ^ ajjjf c/f^Ujt a>& Ai^U ^2^ w**. Mu'tamad^d-Dawla ki az qulinj va sudda kam mdnda bud cuaC }l) ki kdr-ash sdkhta shavad az ta*sir-i an habb haydt-i tdza ydft (Tr. H. B., " the Mu'tamad- U who from colic and an obstruction
o^
Chap. XIX)
'd-Dawla,
in the intestines
(n)
(1)
new
lease of life."
The following are instances of faulty collocation *" The Moor seizing a bolster, full of rage and jealousy smothers
Alia.
I;
her.'
v^*
full of
iju)
p2*3>.
^ Jaxi
girifta
pur az
Moor,
^j ai^f ^jKxx> igijM maghribi muttaka*-i zan-ash rd khafa mi-kunad. Corrected, 'The
31
bolster,
smothers her
'
Ja** jt
^J
is
no verb
for u\
'
vide
note
7, p. 609.
off in
by a new
from
ORDER OP WORDS
jl
girifta zan-ash
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
611
J&Lc
rd khafa mi-kunad. 1
eye and a graphic pen see and set down for us the characteristic details of both scenery and manners.' (Corrected by Hodgson a keen eye sees and a graphic pen sets down ').
(2)
'
"
'A keen
The original collocation (apart from the error in the concord of the verb) would not be considered faulty in Persian, 2 as: jy <WA pt**. ])&&+*> j^o]
j^XU/oj *ix>
^*
(j^aij fjufo
rd chashm-i
tiz
va
qalam-i naqsh-band-ash mi-bmad va m/i-nigdrad (better ptt j AJJO ^fe^j +&*. chashm-i tiz-ash mi-binad va-qalam-i naqsh-band-ash miu*^V y /*
u^
nigdrad).
"
(3)
[ &j
Though
all
)t>
albumen"
AJU.LSJ
l^-ij
<x**
&^\
yg*>
|*xj
^M
jb
*ij|*i
paydd mi-shavad]
then
is
seeds contain
albumen"
].
jL? ] d>l*i
L.l**i
do not contain albumen, Corrected " Though not all 3 u+s j* &*. Jl agarchi har tukhm-i
"All who lay claim to these virtues, are not to be depended upon"
AuT
jyo J^ai
^U^t
*^x<el2R^t ^**>
mi-kunand
Corrected,
" Not
all
who 4
lay claim to
"
si^ijUipt
^5$
xxXx
na har
(5)
ki idda'd-yi fazl
ml kunad
"
born in Kerman
l
"
<x
Kirmdn buzurg va
bred
in
vide
'
(I).
<^(3j "-^JJ &\*j? j& >\ u dar Corrected, "He was born and
*Jjj>
j *^tj
ot/
;d
y M
"
rfar
Kirmdn
zd*ida va
buzurg shud.
<c
(7)
vT
or boil the
meat
AiA(<iI
e^^
ijKi
ijt^sj ij&>
^JLjl
j jjuj
^o
is
^^.xj ^.i^.
(^
chashm-i tiz-ash
8
xi;t,i
Ai^l^j
unidiomatic.
612
^j
ORDER OF WORDS
U
ftf
c) 1
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
1
vf
t;
gusht rd
birydn
kunam yd
db-paz
grill
the meat
)
or boil
it).
***
jsiLotj-iu^A!
c5^ ^
fj
I^^ %a***u
+&
ammd,
mushtariydn-i
pdyddr va luqmahd-yi charb u shirin-i darwsh, andaruniydn-i pddshdhi budanp ki hama mahabbat-i pddshdh rd bi-niru-yi sihr bi-khudmunhasir m/i-khwdstand (Tr. H. B., Chap. 11) "but the ladies of the king's seraglio were his
principal customers. Their most urgent demand to insure the attention of the king": (put
after *+* hama).
(9)
bi-niru-yi
sihr
^jf ^+* j*
jf
Jt
(sy*
^' )^
)jr
Jl
&>
ti^
**
J* 3 vagar
na man na agar Bu
(Tr.
'Ati
ham
az u bar nami-dyad
H. B., Chap. 11) " otherwise not alone " do nothing, were he to rise from the dead
:
[to
in the Persian, a
comma
after each
na
i.e.
^Uj|
c;tx+?-^
f^i
/0
i^Jf*^
tj
^ !^ man
tarsdn
larzdn ki
pidarash rd bi-ydmurzad, munajjim niz bi-miydn uftdd (Tr. H. B., Chap. IV) I all the while in terror lest Arslan Sultan should arrive and bear off
the bone of contention.
father, the astrologer too interfered." astrologer following it, and as there are no stops in the
As
his refers
feo
God
;
and does
disappears.
(11)
am
(Tr.
fU ^f.J^i-jj4^d nr* wcm dukhtar-i Ukuz Aghd ndm-i Shaykhft f& H. B. Chap. XXVI, 1st line) note the awkwardness of an izdfat after
,
:
ndm.
Re-constructed
/*-**
pb Uf )^\
*,
S^^
(1
tJTcuz Agjui
ndm
hastam, or jU Uf jyh
puji^t>
no
^o
man
dukhtar-i Shaylch-am
Remark I.
words
The order
of sentences is
less
in a sentence.
biryan
vjj>
lc.
to roast or fry
iSJrtji
birishta k.
k.
"to parch
"
;
(jtjf
yj*
qirmiz
Jc.
to fry in
oil
or butter
;
also to
v>Uf
&&J? kdbab
k. or
"to broil";
Jcabab k.
;
(to
&sj
ft
^Uf
&#*
'pop' Indian corn is either *&?* biriahta bu dadan "to fry coffee berries, gram, melon. j>
in poetry only.
^^
seeds, nuts)."
jf*J\
of unity shaykli-3,
613
is a logical sequence of the sense of its the then are two sentences in a proper order and the sense preceding sentence, of each sentence should be carried a step further by the sentence following.
When
When
a sentence refers
less
it is
Sentences closely related to each other form, in English, a paragraph, and each paragraph should start a new departure.
II.
Remark
In Persian there are no paragraphs, but a chapter (bdb) 1 ^ sometimes, in MSS., divided into sections (fasl), each fasl having this word in red ink at
its
commencement.
Sometimes the
first
word
it.
Some-
times a
full
stop
is
shown
in red ink
aids,
two
of the centres
Such
however, are
is
In
modem
often
made
,
to represent a
comma,
indicated
by the plus +
Proper names
or the multiplication sign x have a red line over them like the
word
in a sentence.
In a comprehensive composition, paragraphs related to each other, together form a chapter, and each chapter has usually an express heading of its own, stating the matter in ife.
III.
Remark
CHAPTER
139.
(a)
XXI.
Apposition.
or in
some
"Apposition is the relation to a noun or pronoun, of another noun, cases of an adjective, or a clause, added by way of explanation
' '
or characterisation.
noun or pronoun, etc., placed in apposition must be in noun or pronoun to which it is apposed. Arab grammarians enumerate % descriptions of what may be called apposition. For practical purposes there is but one apposition. A substantive or adjective in apposition is called $ ( pi. j|y ) "the follower or appositive it follows the noun to which it refers, which is
It is a rule that a
l
as the
' '
called
jj**
"
that which
<j<a*J
is
followed."
Badal-i ba'z,
J^J, a
form
'
,
corrects
a statement respecting the whole of a thing, and states that a portion only was meant, as in 'I eat the loaf, the half of it.' This apposition is rare in
Persian.
Ex
c/f -ft^
fj
<^ C^^
J*J
is
fish
half of it."
Badal-i ishtimal
correct a statement
itself,
JUk|
and
to slate that
the substitution of a word or phrase to it is not the person himself or the thing
but something connected with him or it. The first example above is a better example of JU-x&f J*j badal4 ishtimal than of (je*> J*x* badal-i ba'z.
This Jso badal
is
Badal-i ghalat kU J*> is the substitution of a word or phrase to correct " Savdr-i asp shudama lapsus lingua as " I rode the horse the she-camel
!
na
f*~ ^f jf^-*. This badal is rare in Persian. Possibly the an example <jr^ *& &*+ ^^j) {,& villagers are considered " to die " is dolts, y^ khar, and the term &*& saqat shudan applied to not to human of the Another construction is animals, explanation beings.
;
shutur
<*J
following
is
&
that ^J
bud
is
understood after
^^jy rusta^-i.
last descriptions
It will
of
Jv
badal
J<y>
all
these
(b)
and
also to e;Uj
Jifeu:
atf-i
Remarks
1
and
II.
It
must be
\\
and one
without.
APPOSITION.
615
There
is
1
,
as:
Jo^
^^
luti puti
"lutis
140
(a).
(1)
/i=su ^,0
maw
az nishana-yi
lutf-i
^b>\*r kad-banu
)\j&**\
>^ ^^
11
&Uoj! &*
ummidvar
sawdaha-yi
khdm
mi-pukhtam (Tr. Haji Baba) "the mark of favour which I had just received had set my imagination to work, and ", (lit. "I, hopeful from the mark of
favour of the chief wife,
")
in apposition
u bulandlhd-yi sdhm-amiz,
bi-chasm-i
manand-i man, adam-i nashi, dar niTmyat-i vahshat u dahshat mi-namud (Tr. H. B., Chap. V) "the danger of the precipices and the steep ascents were something quite appalling to a young traveller like
me
(note that there is no izafat after man, though grammatically one might be expected). sar w 8 pa (2) Noun and Adjectives, or Phrase aia^j ^jj~ Lri?;* darmsh, barahna (Sa'di) " a darvish. bare headed and footed, but *uy ^Jj" <JL*J)* dar& msh-i sar u pa barahna "a bare-headed and bare-footed darvish " JU L^ty
;
:
:
"
*^jX
ou<i^j farrashha, shot bi-dast, harakat-i digar karda >^?<^>> *t>j*j&* nazdik-tar mi-rasand (Vazlr-i Lankaran) " the farrashes, shawl in hand, make
o*^
*-^* > JUy^ ^^ j **^ er^**^ y l banu zada bar ruy-i khirsak, 5 na-shikib astm bar* (^x! j^j p**. chashm bi-rah-i man 8 nishasta bud (Tr. Haji Baba) where I found the
another
:
-
al*~j
'
tience."
Banou seated on a carpet on the ground, waiting for me with great impana-shikib and the phrase Here the adjective ^*& tij* (*-* chashm bi-rah-i man are both in apposition to the nominative Banu.
('*
^
:
may
^ l?*/
^^ 3' tA
mard-i bud panjah-sala, barik-qadd, tiz-nigah, surkh-rukhsar, ambuh-nsh, zir-jama-yi qasab dar pa,
common in Urdu. In Arabic umiMdvar here would not be considered apposition it would be Ual. If in the sar u P& barahna may be considered a compound adjective. iiA^j ^vAr"
So
:
accusative,
AXA^J
"I saw
feet
"
ljj>
(*<^5
\)
ts**iJ)*
darvlah-l ra
dervish
"
^joj>
(^
"I saw
b^. cA^5
"
darviah-i sar
u pa barahna-l ra dldam.
'
rough, and badly woven rug or carpet. often applied as an adjective by carpet weavers to express bad work. 6 Buda understood.
Tchirsak, a coarse,
The word
is
616
APPOSITION.
of
"one
thickly-bearded,
and a Kashmir
Two
Indefinite
Nouns
td
in Accusative.
^^y
la^^Jj ^.iji**/
1
13
^ ^s^
dah
firistdd(m.c.)
a person once sent by means of his servant ten head of sheep as a present
(to
some one)."
(4)
*j~j pisara Muhammad* U^ j*\j> *>j Zayd barddar-i mi-guyad ki "the boy Muhammad says" **f " shuma dmad Zaid your brother come," but better */of *jj U& ;,My barddar-i shuma Zayd dmad, [or ^f e;^ *?.j Zayd-i barddar-at dmad (vulg.)
Two Nouns
in Nominative.
&ijS>*
c*+^*>
:
of J-^>
Remark
/.
&(#
Jikc
"Explanatory Apposition"
It
is
defines
more
of
J<x>
parti-
cularly something
also a
is
form
c;Lw
or the
as the
"Apposition of Substitution."
^jtf is
Ex.
j+
^f
&M\**e,
is
uftkc,
is,
a better
U*j*\j**ij,
JV.
There
however,
really
no
difference
II.
nom de plume', should grammatically speaking be in apposition: however, in Persia, but not in India, they are joined by an izdfat. In Persia, but not in India, a person's name and his trade also are joined by an izdfat.
Remark
name and
his
o^
1
'
lakhallus,
eJix/c O^AX &j*.j ^Uu| p~J ^l chun va /JLS^t mi-guft ay pisar-am i^^. mi-raft t5^*^ \J &*j~v ! Kdshki Abshdlum Abshdlum, ay pisar-am pisar-am bi-jd-yi tu mi-murdam ay Abshdlum pisar-iman 8 " and as he went thus he said, Oh, my son Absalom, Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would to God I had died for thee,
(5)
Nouns
in Vocative.
pyo
^^ ^
'
my
son,
(6)
my
son!
or
'
"
*.
Noun
Pronoun understood.
^il^ Al*
firistdda ast (Vazir-i
^t te&j* oU^.
** ^(^j e;U- out*A e>3 Jchwdhid guft zan-i Hiddyat Khan bardy-i
Lankaran) "You'll say
6
**W>^
Shu
'
la
Khdnum
'
sawqdt
of
will
you that
?
,
;
The wife
(c)
it
(or
Corroborative
takes
the
words,
is si/at;
but in pisara
is
Muhammad,
'
Muhammad
'
is 'atj-i
5
*
^
bay an or badal. Also ay Abshalum-i pisar-i man. This izafat An example of badal or atj-i bay an.
'
Sawqat
is
and an ra understood,
"
is
maf'iil
object."
An
ra or
nlm tana
ra understood.
APPOSITION.
tf
617
*U ta f kU-i of
lafzi,
or
in
the
:
sense
c^y**
^^
ta^Jnd-i
ma'nam.
Examples
(1)
11
J& *+?$
<wf
&+SIX)
me" :y<j^jy tu zadi tu " thou struckest, *+=uo Muhammad ra didam Muhammad ra " I saw thou " *+=v (*<* y ^ jf ^> man az 6ar-& ta Muhammad, Muhammad": _yy jt " or " I thee tu bar-i az thee, y y jf y^J jt c^ by passed guzashtam as 6ar-i /% az 6ar-i tu guzashtam : wan y y ^ fw amadt, ^i^j^
Muhammad, Muhammad, came
:
(^j;J
ix*.^A)
MuJiammad
to
pish-i
\)
f;
^^
or bettery
^^^Ty
/w
amadi
tu,
^^
Man
" You have such a store that you must give alms of beauty, and you know not to whom to give. I, / have claim on it, oh, Prince of Beauties."
f*f cr^
(2)
c$JL?
balay balay
amadam
"
all right,
In the species of apposition called <^yx) jj^l3 the " Corroboration or Strengthening in Meaning," the appositive is any word that strengthens the
idea of the self or of the totality of the
ta*kid-i
*j&
Examples
1 ma'naw are: "Zaid, he himself came" */of AJJ Zayd Tchud amad: "the people came all of them" <*i*i*of f^y mardum amadand, " **A olA A*A htfma-shan te I met the army all together fawj p*b f**t> \j ra didam hama ra baham ; "the two parties agreed both of them" ^V^9
:
of
c^y**
**fti
-
\>
Vide also
(/).
In, ;U>
&*
v*> *s
"
bring two
maunds
of
ghi"
man and
by native gram-
marians: du
is called
man
"
is
called JA*^
tamyiz
specificative," or else,
w.
Remark.
ij
j(f*.
is
an example of
>U.
t
1
Corroborative Apposition
o5
),
in the words.
For Corrobo-
and
(/).
^t
Also &jL*
(j-*V
*J.)
Zayd
bi-nafs-i khud, or
iJu
*j)
Zayd
bi-nafaih
" Zaid
Tchud-i
sham
l.
or)
618
APPOSITION.
The following are further examples of f*su o*Tl5 toftid-i lafzi; " or mar ! snake snake o*>l/o cu*jU mar ast ! mar ast /.
(t
' '
!
^lo
^U mar!
A *M
I^J
f w
<U5>
d&j
*
jjkf
jf^kif
^U/o Jl^U
a -definite noun in the accusative has an adjective, participle, or phrase in apposition to it, the noun (The affix tj ra requires the affix ra. can, however, be added at the end of the entire phrase without much
(^)
When
tj
ra
is
noun,
Examples
^
ij
(
*ii^
|j
^(&
zalim-i ra Tchufta
'
didam,
^5.
I
3
didam "
didam, or
'^^
u (raziya- llah
9
anh u )
saw a sleeping tyrant f*** vl*^ ra bikhwab didam I saw 'Ali (may Allah be pleased
' '
^1* 'Ati, though often so placed. "I had a servant, a fool" Jj-^M p&\& <^y> nawkar-i dashtam ahmaq but nawlcar-i ddshtam, or ahmaq ^i^b (jj"*-^ (sj*^ " I had a foolish servant." fc ^ft^^f nawkar-i dashtam ahmaq-l ^x&
t>
;
It
is
incorrect to place
ra after
A
ju
as
5*
\j>\
*&
(J^
minnat Khuday ra
va
jatt
(-
a)
ki
here
:
!j
Arabic phrase
cUj
>c 'oe
^a /^()
js^yojf
^U ^flf
i^
^^iJi
shakhs-l
ra guftam jang-azmuda
"I
said to a certain person, who had seen much jj^j^jf ^x^ ^-^ii^ shakhs-l jang-azmuda ra tj
guftam (or
tj
separated from
'
its
noun
bi-
by a verb, as:
asmar-i bisydr
Vide also
' '
^U~o ;U$lj ^suk* J-AJ^ ^^lapuit ashjar-i didam mashhun ' I saw a lot of trees covered with fruits
.
118
(c)
(9)
and
(d) (4)
and
(5).
Khufta
Sifat.
is
hal.
2
%
Jumla-yi
sifat.
If ra
would be
'Ali 'alayh 1
s-salam.
APPOSITION.
619
(e)
Words connected by
to
'
by Arab
1
:
grammarians
or
be in apposition.
This
is
v^fe* or
Simple Apposition,'
osu
(1)
Jls*
*
Examples
" and."
Cl
jj+ ) *jj
(2)^i^ hattq
even to."
p* \sjfty
J^ <^H>
jtj>3
3 piyadagan ham "the pilgrims arrived even to those on foot" (or jtjj zuvvdr hatta, piyadagan ham 8 rasidand) eXiLu ^*> *&tf tj (*^x>
^^
mardum
t yd
' '
"they
killed
the
?/a
ya'Amr
(4)
U *xf AJ) Za?/d amad ya 'Amr*, or *x>f j^ L AJJ ZeM/d -)j+* " ',4w amac^ Zaid or 'Ainr came" )j>* t; s*~3 b ^J If J^a Zayd ba tust " Is Zaid or Amr with cuiti *^ J(i dar
(3)
or."
you"?:
Lr>j
i^*
^Xr
kalam-ash
man
L,
L ifii U ya ya "either or", as: *s**l *J>/ Ji-asJ os^^ law or philoeither learnt hikmat has tahsil he karda ast religious 2/a " or o^.^ L karda ast tahsil JU^sJ ASJ (^ ya fiqh cu-o| ya hikmat. sophy
ya
* '
t^jf
(9)
na
'
'
not."
jj*
*i
'Amr."
(6)
amad
^ ^
*x=f
Jt>*
*j Zayd
*
ffish-i
;
man
*>
na-khayr
(7)
(8)
^
I;
badal-i ghalat). J-^ *j&* atf-i nasaq, " no." kharra. khayr t;^^>A ptef \> *f*\ asprakushtam,khayr *^ *T j^xG o^L;^ ^H*^* '; t5*^ *i#jj>j o^t Ajyf ^U'j ^f^sL
is
c
me and Amr is
nay, rather,
Amr "
j^
^^
^j|i>S^ *T
ki
ju*j^
tiJu^io ^f)f
|^
^^0 gAA
ow>t
l
<3jJf^
hakim-i ra pursidand
chandin darakht-i ndmvar ki Khuday Ta ala afarida ast va barumand 6 garddnida ast hich yak-i ra azad na khwanand magar sarv ra ki samar na" a certain philosopher was asked, why out of all the noteworthy ddrad (Gul.) trees created and God, none is called 'free' except the
fruit-bearing
apposition to
tj
by Here
;
i;
sarv ra
is
may be
considered in
the ra
i-fthr.
it
This
'
'atf is called
2
3
'Amr
This
spelt
^4^
to distinguish
riiz
from Umar
j+,
galled
here.
*
6
man Or c^lA magswd doA. In j &* t/5t '^^ maqmd-ash va tu budlm (mod. Pers.), the verb should of course be bud however most Persians say budlm in this and like cases.
nasaq.
j^*
^^y
tion
In Arabic, words connected by particles or nouns of exception are not in apposithese come under special rules.
620
is
APPOSITION.
definite
might at
first
be taken for a
^j^C*
"
I sent
all
f^lx^j \) a+& ^yo man hama ra firistadam magar yak-i ra but one ". Compare with No. (4).
|j
J
:
(10) (AJJ.W
^^ &*j)\j**
in
gliayr az
Zayd
kas-i ra %
na-didam "
saw no
Apposition
:
Persian
English, as
(or
fU
supersedes the genitive in " a shakhs-i, Ibrahim nam person of the name of
occasionally
<**su*
^asi^
shakhs-i
person called
(g)
Muhammad."
the other hand, in some cases where the English idiom requires apposition, the Persian idiom requires the izafat, as: l^ &) lafz-i daryd " t( "the word sea" J*i &$ rud-i NU the river Nile ;U^ *^)t> darakht-i
: :
On
chindr
"the petunia": ^^M "the religion Islam" (or of Islam)": \&* mlva-yi kharbuza "the fruit melon": (^ jl filizz-i ahan "the " " " " 3 metal iron Oh Abraham, the thou the slave (*3U ^y tu-yi ghulam
plane
"the
tree":
<-tf
gul-i
atlasi
juA^o
mazhab-i
Islam
Friend of
God"
*l)f
"
(J^i^ ^*l^l
ojj
(m.c.)
"Oh,
:
f^U
man, Zaid"
lt
am
^U
"
f<
am
AJJ
lxl>3
man-am zananda-yi
Zayd-i gfiulam* If the Arabic interjection ya be used, it is better to employ the correct 1 Arabic construction, as alJf JUU> ^\^\ Lj ya Ibrahim" Khatift'llah but such a construction is of course not colloquial.
:
Remark.
ed; thus
It will
is
&* ^j
,
man
" oh
slave of
my son"
by a
or to
n^^-J
his
p&e ^t
:
ay ghulam
o*.^*
pisar-i
slave
son
^*/-J
^\
ay
Muhammad my son"
mean
is
correct, but
f^-J
*4.st/o
^
In
ay
^U
Muhammad-i
in the
foregoing
sense,
to
my
son".
Mukam-
4
3
Jumla-yi ia In speaking,
JS<Xw ^.^o
this ra miprht
is
is
be omitted.
jj&V (^-*
man-i banda
man banda
sounds
man
blchara.
The Afghans
'Atj-ibayan.
'ApJ-i 'bayan and badal. Badal.
APPOSITION,
621
&+x^c
mad-i ghulam
ghulam-i
^4-as.*
''Muhammad
* '
the slave", or in
slave
sifat',
' '
,
i^*>
{&*
Muhammad-i
the
word
<>*>
or
words following
&+^*>
but in
p&*
Muhammad
f&* ghulam-i
man
are 6ada
or 'apposition
*et ft*
Qualifying words used with numerals or signifying quantity [vide 47 (g)] are usually in Persian placed in apposition, as: 1 b one anc* a kalf y ar ds' depth of water *& yak 9az u ->-
and
m
' *
' '
' '
ten musht jaw a handful of barley >=" eJ70 *^ ^a ^ WMW jaw " l/0 maunds of barley ty*xj>. *-&* cr^ j!>* *i jy e^t * w faru-maya hazar man *' this common fellow can lift a thousand maunds sang bar ml-darad (Sa'di)
{ * : :
' '
in
weight":
A^b
five finger's
Remark.
mablagh
"sum"
and
"equal to
as:
(parallel), to the
*z~4)&
:
jk*
mdblacfh-i
amount of," etc., are followed by the izafat, " the sum of duvist tuman two hundred
^x
miqdar-i
(i)
muvazi-yi panj jild kitab "five volumes": " ten camels " dah i ^y^ i* JI.XR.C nafar shutur muvazi-yi ?*& " wheat to the dah man of ten maunds."
cjliT O>!A.
;
l.ij cfi)^
gandum
quantity
in
seem either
omit the
with the singular but not with the plural personal pronouns. According to Platts, man and ma may either be in apposition (without an izafat) to an adjective, or connected to an adjective by an izafat', but the other separate
pronouns cannot be joined by an izafat to a qualifying adjective. From the following examples, however, this does not appear to be correct: man-i banda 8 (m.c.) "I the slave," but man banda (m.c.) "I, that is
to say, the
slave"
man-i Muhammad
and
p>&*> (>*>
man-i hakim
^
^y
man-hakim,
man-i bichara
{$*
tu
ghulam or f&
*)Uuj bichara man, are preferred " thou the slave tu-yi ghulam
toman "
(also
gaz ab (Afghan). & ) *-. yak u For things that can be counted only. S Also, U> e/f tyl^uxj bichara anha, but rarely tylsuJ ^l^f the latter ^(^Uuj ^f an blcharagan is used.
51
mm
anha-yi bichara
for
man
Tci
Muhammad
am, or
^.t
^*- &
eX man
ki
am,
etc.
622
AOJ
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
both correct
;
tu faqir or
^ ^y
iza/aZ
ta
M.
The
Khudd
iza/aZ does not appear to be used after u, thus: t^^>jl u shir-i is correct: j*& ^jf u-yi faqir does not a.ppear to be used, though
grammatically correct.
plural, the adjectives are either coupled to their pronouns by an ordinary adjectives, or else placed in apposition without the izafat but in the plural, thus &\*k ma-yi ndddn, or ^fj>Li U> ma ndddndn or ishdn-i bichdra, o(f;U:uj cjlAj| ishdn bichdragdn (or ijlAt &jlf4J ajbsujj ejlA>t
With the
izafat as
^^
bichdra ishdn)
(< mdbandagdn-i Khudd we the slaves of God," shumd bichdra, (apposition), or or t<^ x^ to ma banda-yi Khudd ; sy^uu l* 1 *"' U 4 U shumd bichdrahd). U ma and bichdra, L?* (also *j^J shumd-yi *> ?^
:
fx^ e>^^
to
U& sTmmaJn modern Persian, colloquially admit of the plural termination when used in an extended sense; but ut;^ ^ isjLjLo mayan* gundhgdran,
vs^lS*
/^a
or
*^ o^to
140.
mdydn-i gundhgdr*
is
*^
to
ma
gundhkdrdn.
Repetition of a
Word
or Phrase
Jingling Sounds
Alliteration.
(a)
The Persians
sometimes
Words
sense;
of the hurry-scurry
;
are extremely fond of alliterative and jingling sounds. type abound. Sometimes the second word is a
it is
synonym
rhyme.
and sometimes
it
a real word used merely for sound and not for is a meaningless sound used for the sake of
" each adjective In fj*>j uw^- khush u khurram* pleased and cheerful is combination than the and more the single itself has a meaning by expressive $ the nouns bi u shakk shubha; j & A# 9 ^j Similarly with adjective.
:
"
c>!3 yfayft
^'
In^jtf ^
^
tar
tar
masdar
which is an adjective this is an instance oi tari the Persian dislike to the repetition of the same sound but ^jfi j u <JjJ> In a for J^H* j Jl* gal JU> ^ qitdl, qil vulgarism tdzagi is also correct. is meaningless. L qdl* "chattering, wrangling", the second word
is
understood after
J(<3^ j
In,
^XA. jang u jaddl the first word is Persian and the second Arabic *^*^ t>j> urd lakht u luch kardand "he was robbed of <*J<>/
gjJj
<
is
vulgar for
luch
"naked".
Better
o^otA^^A
S$ j\ u ki shir- Khuda
'st.
*
8
The
izafat
is
in the plural.
From Arabic
gil*
"
it
was
said
" and
'
qal"
he said."
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR
PHRASE.
623
In *ap^
*3pJ
bachcha mackcha
it
(or *f.x3
aaeo fcac&a
word
is
meaningless, but
It
the form of this meaningless word is in Persia, as in India, fixed by usage: to say Aap3 **u bachcha tachcha, or *<*.j **u bachcha wachcha* would raise a laugh.
Remark
tion, the second word generally begins with mim unless the first word begins with mim in this case the second word usually commences with p or " curds " " 6, as ^-.b j ^^,U mast u past j J** miz u biz table, etc."
:
This
is
called
cL^
139
(a).
As a
rule,
but
<x& ^
^ amad
u shud\ iy*) *)<$ dvard u burd, "transporting," and possibly one or two more are exceptions.
Remark IL
is
The use
of a second meaningless in
common
\>j$
Kirman.
A new
oJj^
^o
lA^fejj
j^Jjy)
lull puti-lid
(b)
mi-guyand.
:
as:
at
v^
**&*
(1)
<J^
Jt*.
(2)
^ ^ J ^b
bdrdn
^tjL)
nam nam
mi-dyad
AJ
rdst rdst ki
keeps on drizzling ; **j** *}5jX ** OM.|; o**o(; mi-rasld *'if bi-bdzdr mi-rawd, (m.c.) you keep straight on
it
'
"
(3)
;!>*y^
' '
:
^ &*
*iit^
\j
j&
;(>k
' '
man bdyad
I
ddshta bdsham
Vazir-i
Lankaran)
o'f^jj
zdr zdr
parandagdn juq juq shuda paridand Ai.xjjj " zud in whole flocks very quickly a^j &j) zud " " to giristan **j weep very bitterly
Stxi
&*.
gj**
(m.c.)
' '
' '
v*~>tj! jlj
Compare
48.
" chick or child." In some districts in India this jingling of words is tarii, rasta masta (or wasta), etc. etc.- vide Hindustani Manual,
'
Lesson
2
Examples of dual phrases in English are wear and tooth and nail sum and substance.' In 'use and wont 1 Norman and Saxon are linked together. edge and confess
'
'
tear
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
'
^laaJ
A^b
ta*kid-ilafzi.
Note ra here
to
after a cardinal
number
is ,
it
does not
make
the
' '
Or omit
shuda.
&>**>{
jc
mardum
Juq
collo-
624
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
sayl-l
andak andak khayli shavad va qatra qatra " make a muckle, many drops a flood
:
gardad (Sa'dl)
"
many
mickles
Andak andak biham shavad bisyar, Dana ddna ast gjtalla dar ambdr (Sa'dl).
^ **> v_>T vf db-i db bi-dih yd shir-i shir x " fused literally) l> *' elA. ^U^ (m.c.) "give either all water, or all milk " bi-dih yd gandum-i gandum (m.c.) khdk-ikhdk give all* earth or all l*Axf j**x? wheat." Remark.
:
(c)
is
followed by
its
broken plural to
:
signify excess, as: \j&j& faqir fuqard** "beggars and such like" L>ijitf " U\p| ^VP ghdni aghniyd "the rich and the vazir vuzard ministers, etc."
well-off"
\6j&
-%^
Sometimes the repetition consists of two different measures from the same root, as: o^UJb ^ ^.fe tibb u tibdbal "the medical art": <3 *c ^ Here either word alone o**f jx* *2+3\**oj bi-sidq u saddqat mashhur ast.
(d)
tis
would be
(e)
a few cases, a Persian plural precedes a Persian singular, as " JL* ^l^JU sdlhd-yi sal long years, many years ": e^> LS^J* qarnhd-yi qarn
In
"long ages."
are not used.
(/)
But
U ^UU
mdhd-yi
mdh and
^iAA
^ ^^V
little
to
"by
^am ham, kam bam,* bihtar fV*" f*V' and little and little he improves": o^
ki (Prof. S. T.)
<*s}& j*
6 oJ; oJ; raft raft raft td bi-shahr-l rasid " travelled on and on till he reached a city where ^*
*ju*j ^jr^-ij
lj
"he
j* * .^.
}
o*^
U x-^j *-^Mo+)
xxr
u**
td
xx^ shakhs *iS ^5* bayad dar har kdr-1 sa'y kunad sa'y bi-matlab bi-rasad (m.c.) " you must try, try, try again."
The
repetition of the
emphasis
Thou struckest
Compare the Hindustani idiom dudh ka dudh ya panl ka panl "all milk or
i.e.
all
water ",
^
8
Vulgarly,
But
4j&A)|jAJ
u faqir 'l-fuqara;
adjectives.
*
6
kam can be
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
625
also be expressed
' '
by <^j
(yy
<^j
l
f>*
y
* <
tu
mara
zadi tu
^^
tj
' '
yes certainly."
bigdna shavad
The
Remark.
Compare
(Jk
J(5
hero relates to his master the HaKim, a fable of the dog and the wolves, as a broad hint that he wants a salary. The dog makes up its mind to become
either a pure
*
of
lj
jf
eAw j *>
<xi
6^
cA^Lb djj
^^lT^.3
^}
lj
^U5 fAAlsuo
AT
^fy aJUi
oJU cMw az
31
&j*.
hdlat-i
taraddud tdqat-ash Idq shud va bish az an tahammul-ash na-mdnd, bar an shud ki, bd mujdhada-yi tamdm, yd sag-i sag shavad yd gurg-i gurg (Trans. Haji " when .... he Baba) (the dog) had no more power of endurance left, he determined to do his best to become either a real dog or a real wolf." So
also
V-/T
wf
-*
monly ^T vT
"
bring
illustrate the
signification
of
repetitions,
etc.
(1)
x>^
accent he said
(2)
^ ^bj "
an
lj
U
p\6
*
f^
*
willing or unwilling."
(3) [>\>
\j&> jabr
y
khwdh ma-khwdh or
|^x>
jjf^L
*-b aJb pilla pitta bald ml-ravand (m.c.) ,,W tejj* W> gradually, step by step."
In Arabic, the repetition of these particles would come under the head of CorroboIn the first example the same word is repeated in the second the sense is repeated by a synonym. The Zardushtis use the phrase aray balay to signify the assent ( = " I do "; by Muslims
I
rative Apposition.
merely, balay} of a Zardushti bride, in reply to the questions of the Dastur. * The in is adjectival. Compare 140 (6) Remark. ^j* and
^f
40
626
(5)
REPETITION OF A
&*A}jb
jjdtjjja
WORD OR
l
PHRASE.
dawr-d
dawr-i
sar bi-sar,orj~
by
lake" 2 sardpd, b ti ^,
the
e~>o
vju*,^
dasj bi-dast
"hand
hand
"
also
mdl-d-mdl % "heaped, to the fullest extent" <*/ \&j gird-d ": " <_# U^ kam-d-blsh more or less." right round, all round gird " brimful" c^ '^ gun-d gun "of various kinds" (7) wJU) lab-d-lab* " '* breast to breast") level, opposite, equal to." jlj> bardbar (lit. har J^ in-hd kuddm yak yak bi-ravand " let cJ^j **jj* (8) ft^ yk lfij|
(6) Jl/
ifU>
: :
them
all
go singly."
(9)
(Shah's D.)
(10)
*-
pf"tj~jt J'>^t
u&>
l^* sufard rd yak yak ahval-pursi kardam I asked the Ambassadors, each singly, the state of his health."
<*&.*.
\j
t/aA^J yaA;-^
"
yak yak or e>& yakdyak, ^^j (^^ yagdn yagdn or ^C) (^ ": " two tij* dutd dutd, or j&> j& du bi-du singly, one by one
and two.
hubara
is
' '
(11) tj
e>
tak tak
(12) j^j
^^
<>L>
badan-ash
Ichatt
kbatt
bud "it
zebra) was
marked
all
(13) &\JJ>Q\
(* )
ra tq u fatq-i umurdt "ordering of affairs" " mending ", and fatq cleaving, rending ").
qdl
(lit.
(15)
(16)
;
A^Lo
" altercation (vide page 619, footnote 1). " loud Jsli shdt u shut Je^ j jabber and chatter." " kestrils and such small ASUJ^
tdr
(useless)
or ^j* lutl muti &*j? ^o j tj^L khwurd u murd u khurd kardan "to into bits." smash j AJ?*khamlr) l& shdkh dar shdkh "entwined; ramified." (17) ;d ^U
:
^^
^^ ^^
luti putl
(18)
jU
jj*
"
j^
3 j
zur
u shur
(of
a waterfall, river or of attacking soldiers entering a " far off. " (19) jtj5 jj^iS dur u dardz
5
city).
(20)
jb jj^
Hr
j,^5 |jj
t3]d3
gird-argird,'P.
This
alif
alike
is
In
j^
cf.
l^i
daw-a-daw
l&Z
Lf^
kusha-kush "killing
lf& ahab-a-ruz (adv.)
the
way."
If
however
lj|^*
'
joins
two
different
words, as:
}j>;
sar-a-pa
"head
(6).
to foot";
tak-a-pu
s
"
*
searching ",
9
it is
vide
also
110
For Ar.
^U^
Mattja
is
In falconers' parlance.
a meaningless appositive.
REPETITION OF A
(21)
WORD OR
"
PHRASE.
627
u-*J|aj
&>*
(Kda
u
:
ddnista
ax*;
"
open";
'
AX>
rafta rafta
"gradually."
" as (23) aj,j </^->J bi-zudi-yi zud (m.c.) quickly as possible." ** khwurda bud ki khwurda bud (24) .sj^ &_tf tejji (m.c.) "he " he went embezzled it clean ": vs*, *> cuJ, raft ki
1
f^j
tyU*' fytiS
(25) (s*jj-
raft (m.c.)
right off."
j fl*
sham u
shab-i
any dinner ?
' '
&{.& kashdn kashdn* urd nazd-i hakim (26) ***jj f*** ty \j$ &\ burdand "they carried him before the Governor dragging him all the way." Jtf Utf kash-a-kash, or Jtf leash, ma-kash (subs.) "pulling and dragging
^^
different
(27)
ways."
j or rdhu raam, or j p~j rasm, u ravdj, "custom." " after xUj xaj t^J (28) ftj+> palida pafida payda namudam (Afghan *) a long continued search, or gradually searching, I found it."
pj j
^j
(29)
"= j^jj;
also
jjj Ujjj
ruz (m.c.).
(30) <i>t^J j juydn u puydn, or l^ ^ b^ /wya u puyd (m.c.) seeking and searching" c^t>^ j e>U*t uftdn u Jchizdn " limping, staggering, tottering, in a broken- down condition": ^j* sarkdn parkan* (Afghan and
:
&^
^^
JJ^Jfy-xx
all
_4>
"
^So ^Ujijf
singing."
t^^i^ ^Jj ^l A^ '*^ **^ t> e^^J *^.fAJf mm nim man, yd man man, bdrud dar ftjfjj " mnduqhd anddkhta zamin rd kanda judd judd gor kardam (Afghan) 5 I put to maund's maund a a of half from weight powder in all the boxes and then digging up the earth buried them." y 'f gdh bt-gdh, or oJ^jj oJ^ vaqt bi-vaqt "in season and out of (33) 6 at all times": ^(f gdh gdh-i "occasionally": gdh na gdh-l season; " some time or other " AJ ^^ yak-i na yak4 (m.c.) "one or the {Afghan)
(Afghan)
I
l*tu J[^_t*^ 6^r ^ar /awa^ dy &* panjdh panjdh* " in each sack were b maunds "
fifty
:
l^
^^ ^ ^
man bud
other."
4
6
The same as the classical bi-zudi-yi harchi tamam-tar. The Persians do not double the past participle in this sense. For <&.* ear kanad par kanad; probably old Persian. <Xx?jj The ftl^UD panjah would not be repeated in Persia.
In modern Persian &>$
*^
\j
n * w man
man ya
j|
man
^jb
^.^o
^^
dafn kardam.
"
^j
vaqt-l az
628
(34) JUx: j
(35)
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
binam "
fXu
I
JU ^w
\jj\
&j
^/o
JL
Tci
man
ura naml
A ^a/^ hafia an interval of years." Similarly **HJ (Vltf 3' L^*^ *^ A " weeks pass without my getting a letter Icaghaz-i az baradar-am nami-rasad, from my brother." " chashm-i chashm "light of my eyes e/^ e; -^ jan-i jan (36) f**a.
I only see
him
after
f^
' '
life
of
my
soul
' '
:
(endearing epithets).
For such substantives as, <jw^ j ty bud ubash (class.) "place of " 115 (j) to (o). abode ", *** 3 ^JS guft u shamd "controversy, etc., vide (j) Under Alliteration, may be classed certain forms of the rhetorical
(37)
or Jinas
(j^^
etc.
comes under
CHAPTER
141.
(a)
XXII.
hoped
that they will explain some points that appear conflicting to the student who is reading both English, and Arabic (or Persian) rhetoric. The question
of
Prosody
is not touched upon. Rhetoric originally meant the art of speaking well
It taught Oratory
(ajlk^. ^ic).
The
(1)
and (3) to persuade. The Ancients divided Style into three kinds, corresponding to three duties of the Orator: (1) the simple, to instruct ; (2) the medium or temperate, to please; and (3) the sublime, to move. As men may be informed, pleased, and persuaded by written as well
as
by spoken words,
'
rhetoric
'
came
to
mean the
art
of
writing well
also.
discusses
Rhetoric therefore means the art of speaking and writing well. It and shows how language can be made effective, and it treats
Eloquence (a*&) is a faculty or natural gift. An uneducated man may be eloquent (&k) ! , though he will make mistakes; but a study of Rhetoric will help to banish those mistakes. The study of rhetoric cannot make
a
man
eloquent
who
is
it
may
give
him a
certain
ease,
and
writer.
exercise
Oratory has
JU)
of public speaking.
Originally
Oratory requires also, a knowledge of the people a addressed, knowledge of what most appeals to them. Rhetoric is variously divided by different writers.
i.e.
The Will
is
moved through
fl*)
O*
AsLogic (&*>
Rhetoric.
connected with
There
Rhetoric.
is
to
V
l
or '/Zm 'l-Adab
*jJb is
applied to a
or speech,
but in Persian
applied to either.
i.e.
word
may
be
^A
(but not a
pi. l.Afli
man, neither
The
can be used of
630
(^\jj\
flc),
Different writers, however, have applied these terms differently, thus while another one writer calls the whole of Rhetoric 'Ilm* 'l-Bayan (c>^i
f*^)
calls it
(6)
Ilm u
'l-BacH* (g*d\
^), and so
on.
Literary composition (*l&t) is putting words together in order to convey our thought to others. Good composition conveys our thoughts
correctly, clearly,
easily remembered.
Style Osyhfljj-fc) is the particular manner in which a writer expresses It is the art of choosing words, setting them in sentences, and arranging the sentences in paragraphs. It has been called "the
(c)
his conceptions.
architecture of thought."
There are
kinds of style.
a large
number of epithets to distinguish the various The number of words determines whether it is diffuse
&
^
(J^kxs),
gj
(JU j (4*),
(e>&&j);
or terse or the
(J^j
JJj[.
It
may
or Ornate
1 It may be opposites of these, Unfigurative (gSt^t fi**) or Plain (j?dl). named after any Figure (o**i*e) that predominates, as: Hyperbolical*
(A*fU* jj)
<
It also
may
all
be Periodic, or Loose.
stj'les,
(d)
There
.two merits
common
to
viz.: Perspicuity
and Ornament.
the reader
stand."
may
To
4 express the precise meaning that good usage has affixed to them.
An excess of elevated language is Bombast a deficiency Tameness. Arabs and Persians have divided Mubalaghah (a*JU*o) or Hyperbole into three kinds. viz (1) Tabllgh ((wJU3) or exaggeration that is possible to reason and experience ;
1
:
f
(2)
**
possible
to
reason
but improbable;
(3)
Ghuluvv
is
impossible.
The The
violation of (1)
is
Solecism, which
is
bad Syntax
or violation of
idiom
Also using such incorrect phrases as "the violation of (2) is Impropriety. " ' " the best of such errors as all"), lays' for lies ', and the use of (for
631
all
(o^),
Solecism,
violations
of
Perspicuity includes,
Intelligibility.
(1)
The
no
first,
Clearness (cu^tj-*),
(fl^O-
(&jlJ), or ambiguity
^-o
possibility of confounding it with anything else. One great obstacle to clearness (&*.)j*) t is the ambiguity of language generally. When a word has a plurality of meanings it should be placed
in such
It
is
a connection as to exclude
all
same word
for
overcoming ambiguity
(fltfl),
is
to
employ
Contrast (^l^>) i.e. to state also the opposite of what is meant. If we write "light as opposed to darkness", there is no fear of this meaning ' being confused with light as opposed to heavy.'
* *
To prevent ambiguity,
it is
means being
and is opposed
Figures (^tV 5U^>) are a part of Ornament. A Figure is a departure from the ordinary form of words (Figures of Etymology); or from their
(e)
(Figures of Rhetoric).
6
Figures have
also
(i^feftJ
e^li*)
an(i Figures of
Thought
(<.$>">
Figures exist in all languages, though they may not be identical in Some Arabic and Persian Figures are confined classification or definition. to Poetry. It is impossible to find any exact English equivalent for many
the Arabic and Persian Figures, for there is overlapping thus, while * it includes a great it is also more the Tashtth (***&>) is the English Simile
of
; ' , ;
part of
tjf
Metaphor
Plafi
the
Euphemism
^**3 er*^) in
^j v ^
Trans.
jU)
lete
means the use U^y,L) <t Jl-Jo ). Barbarity words, technical terms, and unnecessarily-coined words.
In Urdu
(
Unless, of course,
it is
^-xu j2***.
Such as the Tajnis or Jiriaa (^j^x^J b Such as (3Ufc j l>, and A&)U.
The Oxymoron
is
a form of Antithesis.
632
((j^> j
*^)>
or an Isti'ara-yi
|)l*iLf).
vary.'
Variety requires that the length and structure of sentences should In English literature proper, easy short-cut sentences are the
rule; but
writers,
however,
there
is
Macaulay, affect a succession of short sentences. In Gibbon an excess of the balanced period. The best style introduces every
type of effective sentence that suits the subject. There must, too, be a relief from bold figures and brilliancy. Variety is obtained by passing from the Tragic to the Comic, from the Humorous to
the Pathetic.
(g)
Pathos
of
Examples
(y&) awakens the tender emotions, sorrow, pity, sympathy. pathos are
:
"
And when
Saql, you shall pass Amongst the guests, star- scattered on the grass And in your joyous errand reach the spot
like her,
Where
made
one, turn
down an empty
glass."
(Fitzgerald's Trans.).
L^^^/O pf), excites to laughter. It is for the most part based on the degradation of some person or interest that is associated with gravity, dignity, or power but it is necessary
(h)
The Ludicrous
style
In Humour, the laugh assumes a kindly character: the ludicrous degradation is softened or removed by kindly or tender feeling. Thus the great masters of pathos are the greatest humorists. Humour combines the
(i)
effects of wit
(;)
a combination of ideas, (1) unexpected, (2) ingenious, the Epigram is in a (3) consisting play upon words (^^xsj). In English, Innuendo 4 and are wit. of as the Next, regarded purest representation
(eJi^Jo) is
1
Wit
A Euphemism is
often expressed
of),
a form of
Syndoche.
2
When
maudlin or
sentimental.
implying or suggesting, instead of stating plainly head would be classed ^&*a)\ JUiacuo or <*J;.iy . Euphemism is a special applicar-k>Sf -flfJf, or &i)j* -*U&*I, and several other figures. tion of Innuendo.
is
:
Innuendo or Insinuation
Under
this
633
The effect produced by double meanings (<^i*x jd) including puns (^jMxisO), and striking and ingenious metaphors, if they are unexpected, is
Wit,
(k) The Melody or Harmony of language involves both the action of the voice and the sense of hearing. What is hard to pronounce is also disagreeable to hear. However, even difficult and hard combinations of letters
(
eJlflj
)
may be an
same
agreeable variety
Occasionally there
Imitative
Sound
is
and Sense
softness of the following Persian couplet (Onomatopy). intended to imitate the soft notes of entreaty :
The
The harshness
on Rustam's
fight
with Afrasiyab
of hurrying
The cry
"There comes across the waves' tumultuous roar The wolf's long howl from Oonalaska's shore."
Campbell.
In the following Urdu couplet on the birth of a child, dun "shall I give ? ", imitates the sound of the naqqdra &g e^J (Dj*?j*^ <_/ 3^ _tfc j-# <* ^-j L jj I-/
^^ ^ ^
the treble
to
by way
of
shall
why
"
Taste, or
of art.
from works
first susceptibility
to pleasure
Or
in rhetoric, Antiphrasis
humour.
includes
satire.
Hence
j$
in English the
ci>.
of a final
8
into
Homoeophrophgron). on a plan, as in balanced composition and some poetry, it is objectionable. remark applies also to iterations in the middle or the end of words.
common
in proverbs.
Unless based
This
634
the greatest
all feel alike,
amount
of
ages, countries,
As men do not pleasure to cultivated minds. and individuals differ in their sense of what is
is
excellent in
composition. Further, each person attached to one school of writers than to another.
(m) Literary Composition
by education
more
may
The primary object of the first is Q*fc>). Each has many subdivisions. pleasure.
be divided into Prose (yJ), and Poetry to instruct, of the second to give
Poetry will be treated of first. The earliest compositions in all languages were metrical. Poetry differs from prose in that the words in poetry are arranged upon a definite principle of order as to their sound. Amongst
the Greeks and
still is,
Romans
i.e. the time occupied in pronouncing syllables, taking up twice as much time as those that are
short.'
accented
and unaccented
syllables,
the accented ones occurring with perfect and anticipated regularity. The undulation of sound produced by a flow of accents and non-accents, and the symmetry produced by a methodical arrangement of words (according
to Greek, Latin, Arabic,
syllables,
Persian
to
and according
syllables
and Urdu verse, their long and short English and Hindi verse their accented
.
and unaccented
Rhythm.
1
and a recurrence
of
emphasis at intervals),
ia
If the
rhythm
If
is
has measure.
the
not regulated by fixed laws, it is prosaic. Fine prose rhythm is reduced to law, it becomes metre.
English composition that has metre, is Poetry. Composition that has rhythm only, or not even rhythm, is Prose. Rhyme (**&>) and Alliteration are, in English, embellishments of rhythm or of metre, but are not of
its essence.
Some
rhymed
of the
or blank verse.
In Arabic, Persian, and Urdu poetry, there is metre, depending like that Greeks and Romans on quantity, and there is also rhyme (a*tf).. There is no blank verse as in English, though there is in Hindi. A few^of
the recognized Muslim metres
' 9
'o-?
(^.
*
'
a
)
G 'i>9
the metre
In this metre
is
the following
The rhythmical arrangement of inarticulate sounds produces music. For the definition of &u etc. consult a work on Prosody.
635>
.^
tc
Lj
jL_L *}L-3
little
^Jo
f>
U*^
V^
'*
b*.
'<>. *<. ejl** (JU*.
*
Twinkle, twinkle
e>A*
A comparison, however, between the two systems is difficult. Arabic and Persian verse composed on the English principle would not be recognized as verse by Arabs or Persians, though owing to Hindi influence, it is possible that Urdu verse so composed would be recognized as verse.* The " " There is a happy land is missionary translation of
:
Further, the style and diction of poetry differ from that of prose. Diction comprises the choice, arrangement, and connection of words. Poetic diction is archaic and averse from colloquial expressions.
Muslims divide poetry into Bazm (>j), and Razm ff))). The first includes Love Songs (AxaAc), Drinking Songs (*/clJ ^Sl*), Odes (J>*j), Ballads (<Juwi3),
Stories (the masnavi
stories)
Satires (>*u*
),
the pure
Elegy
(jo,;
Aa^jS ),
).
y*f
or Elegy,
(2)
(1)
Lyric
(3)
Dramatic.
8
,
The
all
first,
the Lyric
is
represented by Songs,
Hymns and
Odes,
being the expression of emotion or feeling. Under this head come Hymns or Sacred Songs (JU>i,o e^U/o), the War Song (J^> ), the Love the Political Song, the ), Song ( A*8Ac ), the Drinking Song ( &*l>
^L*
Sentimental song, the Comic song or Dirge (*4r*), and the Sonnet.
AJli^ fi>
),
the
Ode
of
J> ),
the Elegy
The Epic*, in contrast to the Lyric, is a narrative The author appears in his own person, introduces the the events. The Epic has the widest range and is the is an Epic. compositions. The Shdh-Nama (*oUlfc)
In dramatic poetry, there
is
outward events.
actors,
and narrates
longest of poetical
'
the
first
|
the only principle, but in Arabic and Persian is a corollary which that principle and the accent
is
" Come
accented verse
into the
|
equivalent to Fd'ildtun
is
Fd'ildt,
The
2
3
test of true
that
it
quantitative metre.
Such a composition would however be Lyric poetry comes under ^y. The Epic comes under
.
o^ 9^ an<
not
f&-
636
own
person.
Opera
is
sung.
(n) (1)
We now
come
to Prose.
that belong to Poetry. for sublime diction is pleasing and natural, only
usually unpleasing;
A
verb
(
Simple Sentence
(*|*XM>),
^^
(
&U^
is
subject
Iwj ),
" as:
(^
is
it
contains
A Compound
i*O* &*?-
A
*wG
),
Complex Sentence
T^x>
&*^
(
!^ft>
**i*f
l^i
),
as
'"
:
I will go,
whenever
you are ready." In a compound sentence, the component clauses or sentences are independent of each other, as: "The sun rose and the clouds disappeared"
<xfc
(
j tj$ ^Ik ^.4-i ) either assertion can stand alone. In a subordinate clause ( *jl3 i^ai ), the construction and meaning are
v-AJU lAjjj
:
"He
home
first."
(2)
When
are
made
he different parts of a compound or of a complex sentence similar in form, they are Balanced, as:
He
but
he
remits
637
Sentences
may be
them
up them
into a
number
by recasting
(o)
FIRST, Murajjaz
(J^y
),
in
rhymed,
as
This
is
"
of English.
SECOND, Musajja' or Muqaffq (^&x> U j:=v~x>), i.e. Rhymed Prose, of which (i) Mutawazi ^jlJ^ ) or "Parallel", in which the rhymed words have an equal number of letters, as (Jjty ^j ^ )^^^ Ow**^ \\there are four kinds:
(
:
(ii)
Saf-i Mutarraf
o,k*F-
rhymed
U ^yo.
letters,
j(5j
imitation, in su*: seeing that to fail and fall is the fate of English, of J;Jax> all, and to claim exemption from the lot of humanity a proof of pride and vanity, and somewhat of mercy our common need ; therefore let such as read,
following,
The
by Professor
E. G. Brown,
skilful
"Now
and
than
rather
)
and
in
:
reveal
them
' ' ;
(iii)
"Balanced,"
which the
(
final
Mutavazin
oj'j-^
or
unrhymed,
'as
faqir
J*A>
and
jj
jalis
^-^
);
^acJ
<Ljm or "syntactical
;
rhymes
3
(
^^
or
"
poetical
j-
rhymes")
Murassa
"Jewelled "
,
(which
differs
from _>
as
This
is
"
of English, with
rhyme added.
9
<,-
o'
)
From
rajaz the
name
of
a particular metre
it is
mustaf'ilun
(^Uii-**
repeated
six times.
* If
8
rhymed,
it is
either
is
*j
/0
^?;u*,
or *^ e fourth variety o
638
<^U
or "
Naked ",
it
i.e.
and
not
).
'Rhymed
Prose', though
possesses both
is
any
(j*y
has rhythm and occasionally uses the diction of poetry. It canon while trespassing rarely poetic compounds,
Remark.
?*.-* ).
Balance in a sentence assists memory and is pleasing to the ear. It is Antithesis ( <j>UJ= j *(> ). In " Might is Right " * frequently combined with " 8 the sameness of sound is due to a and " Meddle is Muddle
'
ol jjj jg
),
Note the
"And
sinning
caused by using the same words in an altered meaning in not a vanity is given in vain"*; "More sinned against than "* " The art of the science of sciences."
effect
:
arts,
" We do not live to The balance may be inverted 6 as: eat, but eat 6 " "It was dangerous to trust the sincerity of Augustus to seem to live 6 Gibbon: fJUjf JjJU vJ^Ut it was still more dangerous." to distrust " the words of kings are the kings of words " i^^lj<^L^ ** |X) dt*3y ^iiT HAd " the children ought not to lay up for the *&j uri*)tj \!)\&jj* cfty
,
^^
parents,
The Fasana-yi
rhyme
is
(
'Ajafib
51
&**
of balance and
(p)
*^
carried to excess.
:
Persian
it is
the spoken
The word
(S^)
"Persian",
or Arabicized form of Parsi, a word derived from Pars the supposed son of Shem 7 and the founder of the Persian kingdom.
George Eliot
This
is
is full
of beautiful examples.
2
8
e>3*
/*
**^
^lU*,
for which see
This would be classed under the Figure Ly^sJ 9 or on Arabic or Persian Rhetoric. of * This is Osjouc, a form ^/osiso.
Jlfliwl
^
any treatise
Styled in rhetoric, Chiasmus ( ^jAxJ L c..JLfl3 ). In an obverse declaration, the equivalent fact is stated for the opposite side, as *'Heat relaxes the system; cold " Proverbs of braces it." For obverse iteration vide Solomon", Chaps. 12, 13.
:
6 1
is
another
name
for
Pahlu or Shem.
639
faras,
The word
horsemanship.
is also
^ji
"
mare",
of
is
larger
In Persia itself there were dialects Native writers mention seven. The principal of these were Parsi, the dialect of Persepolis or Istakhr ; Pahlavl, the dialect of Ray 1 Isfahan, and Hamadan; and Darl (for Darn) the pure
,
speech unmixed with foreign words, spoken in the mountains and villages. 2 Firdawsi is famous for the amount of his Pahlavl and Dan. He in
claimed,
fact, to
have omitted
all
:
When
confronted
0_j
cAJ OJl~^[ oJf iJJU t 0- ft? u Qaza guft gir Qadar guft
'
;*J j
'
jJ
o^ l_^jf
'
dih,'
Malakguft ahsant
said
it.
'
',
he shufflingly replied that he hadn't saidoi~A.f ahsant, but that the angel had
The poet Nizdmi is noted for his Dan. The two most important countries where Persian is the language of literature but not of everyday life, are Turan s and Hindustan.* Even to-day Persian is taught in most Muslim schools throughout the Indian Empire,
while Indian gentlemen frequently write to each other preference to Urdu,
in
Persian,
in
most interesting prose works we have in Persian have come from the court of Delhi. Akbar, the great contemporary of Elizabeth, has left us his Akbar-Nama while every Indian student knows the intricate lnsha*-i Shaykh Ab&'l-Fazl* 'Allaml. The Persian introduced into India was a inflow and constant of Turanian Muslims kept it fresh. Turanian,
of the
;
Some
Hence the peculiarities of Indian Persian are chiefly the peculiarities of Turanian Persian. Though Indian Persian contains many expressions and certain pronunciations peculiar to itself, it is practically, as Dr. Rosen 8
describes
.
1
it,
"a
Old
Bahman son of Isfandiyar is said to have made this the court language, so as to have one language for general intercourse. 3 Turkistan, Transoxiana. Said to be derived from Tur a son of Faridun. * Indian writers have applied the term Mughul or Mongol to all Persian-speaking immigrants other than Afghans, and not merely to the Emperor Babur and his followers and their descendants. The term Mughul is therefore vague and includes Turanis and Iranis. At the present day in Bombay, a modern Persian is often called a
*
By
itself
640
dents confine themselves to a study of the classics, which they imitate, and to poetic exercises. In the Persian of India, as well as in that of
Afghanistan,
is
the
J^^*
izafat
majhul
or
"unknown" sound
of
the vowels
its
retained,
and the
pro-
made
large portion of
the population of Persia is Turkish, speaking Turkish* as its mother tongue, and Persian with a foreign accent. The reigning family too is Turkish. It
is
French too, and in a degree English, have not been without their influence on the modern
of
vocabulary.
literature in every nation shows a tendency to (q) The history of abbreviation and simplicity in language, but this progress towards simplicity
is
more marked in prose than in poetry. Poetry is an earlier culture than prose, and this is the reason given why the Elizabethan prose with its long sentences is inferior to the Elizabethan poetry. France had the start of
modern Europe in the cultivation of letters, and her prose is in consequence distinguished by an ease and brevity that are said to surpass those of any
other country.
8 it is at the Though modern Persian prose tends towards simplicity same time characterized by laxity of expression and grammatical inaccuracy. Persians deem the study of Persian Syntax beneath them, and there are no
(r)
prose writers of sufficient note to check the increasing corruption of the language. Many of the inaccuracies of the spoken language have found
their
way
* *
says Unfortunately the inclination towards laxity of expression has proved stronger in the development of modern Persian than the tendency towards
"
lucidity.
To
this circumstance
rule
and the
So called by the invading Arabs because their sounds were unknown to them. There are several Turkish dialects in Persia, the most widely known is that These dialects of course differ widely from the western Turkish of Constantiof Tabriz. nople. Most of the Turks in Persia can speak Persian, but few Persians can speak
1
Turkish.
rhetorical forms
Modern Persian letters are usually marked by great simplicity, while the ancient and addresses are still preserved in India. There is also a tendency towards simplicity in court forms and ceremonies. Should it be necessary to write a formal letter, say to a royal personage, a modern Persian has to call in the aid of a
8
is
now known
641
apparent, partially real, arbitrariness and inconsistency of the language, which renders the use of some parts of speech, specially the conAlso junctions and prepositions, a difficulty for the pupil and the teacher.
1
its
clearness
and
simplicity,
by the
various forms being now frequently interchangeable, whereas in the classical language they are distinctly differentiated.
"But vanity and love of effect, which, from the earliest days, have been weak points in the Persian character, have done even more harm to the language than inaccuracy of expression. It is owing to this love of display
that the simplest subjects are mostly expressed in bombastic style, and that quaint turns of speech are constantly drawn from the archaic or classical language, and from Arabic. It is therefore, in dealing with the vocabulary and with grammar, only possible to form a general distinction between the
classical language and that of our own day. But such a distinction will not hold good in each particular case. Modern Persian must therefore to some extent be regarded as a mixture of strictly modern Persian and classical Persian.
adopt whichever style he likes, the classical, the bombastic, or the colloquial modern Persian, but it is always necessary to distinguish the language of Iran from the Persian which
It
is left
is still in
(s)
use in India.
is
'
'
always preferable to quantity, the briefer the style the better, provided always that brevity does not lead to ambiguity .* As regards the length of sentences, the long 8 and the short sentence
-
As quality
advantages and its disadvantages a succession of long sentences Some nations prefer a succession of short sentences distracts. wearies,
has each
its
:
Some
sentences.
not
English literature proper, short sentences are the rule but they are relieved
by
difficult to
long ones. A long sentence,* well expressed and well arranged, construct hence long periods are often feeble and obscure.
:
reader reading aloud will find that the long but well constructed sentences of George Eliot will present much less difficulty than the short frippery sentences of so many inferior modern novels.
In m.c., and even in modern writing, the conjunctions and prepositions are
frequently omitted.
2
literary culture
is,
vital."
an English Act of Parliament consisted of a single sentence. In 1860 a Act was passed to authorize the insertion of full stops. its course * A sentence should, as a rule, keep the reader in suspense throughout and only relieve him at its close. This is called the Rule of Suspence.' This rule is
*
Originally
special
when the
41
642
(t)
must be judged by a standard The j^f j]^\ Anvar-i Suhayli or totally different from that of Europeans. is a work once largely Va'iz of 'l-Kdshift\ Canopus" by Husayn "Lights read and admired in Persia and in India. Eastwick, in the preface of his scholarly translation, quotes some remarks by Sir William Jones "The most excellent book in the language is in my opinion the Anvar-i Suhaill by Husayn Va' iz, collection of tales and fables called surnamed Kashifl, who took the celebrated work of Bidpai or Pilpay for his
The
'
all
book, from an
same preface the student some idea of the view that will probably be taken by
One more
most beginners. Mr. Eastwick says " To them 3 the present translation
:
is
offered
with
far
more confidence
than to the English public, for it is impossible not to perceive that those very characteristics of style, which form its chief est beauties in the eye of
Persian taste, will appear to the European reader as ridiculous blemishes. The undeviating equipoise of bi-propositional sentences, and oftentimes their length and intricacy; the hyperbole and sameness of metaphor, and the rudeness and unskilfulness of the plots of some of the stories, cannot but be
wearisome and repulsive to the better and simpler judgment of the West. Kings always sit on thrones stable as the firmanent, rub the stars with their heads, have all other kings to serve them, and are most just, wise,
and beneficent. Ministers are invariably gifted with intellects which whole world, and are so sagacious that they can unravel all the adorn Mountains constantly race with the sun difficulties with a single thought.
valiant,
in height,
all
Heaven
is
scared
gardens are the envy of Paradise, and every constellation in away in turn by some furious tiger or lion upon Earth.
These absurdities are so prominent that they would probably induce the generality of readers to close the book in disgust. Those, however, who have
patience enough to proceed with the perusal will not
beautiful thoughts,
fail
to discover
many
many
striking
and
original
and though
in translation,
enough
will
but have suffered very considerably remain to justify, in some degree, to all
preferred.
translation.
2
8
of the
various
translations,
vide
Preface to Eastwick' s
i.e.
Baron de Sacy also praises this work. " those who desire to qualify themselves
for
territories."
643
"It may be here desirable to direct attention to those parts of the book which are generally considered the best. The whole work consists of an elaborate Preface and Introduction by Husain Va'iz, and of 14 chapters or books, with a very brief Conclusion. The Preface may be dismissed from
being a turgid specimen of the obscure and repulsive preludes with which Persian writers think fit to commence their compositions. A few helpless infantine ideas struggle in the gigantic coils
consideration at once,
as
of
it
to disentangle.
for a
may
;
who wish
model
in
all.
There
an address to
The arrangement is the same the one God secondly, a lengthy eulogy
on the High Personage to a with dedicated, meagre explanation of the reasons which his undertaking. the to commence The whole is thickly induced author
of his Prophet,
Muhammad;
is
thirdly, a panegyric
whom
the work
larded with quotations from the Kur'an, and with difficult and unusual words; so that it would really seem as if a preface were intended, like a thorny hedge, to repel all intruders, and to preserve the fruit within from
" In the Introduction, Husain Va'iz is at once simple and more agreeable. The description of the Bees and their habits is prettily given. The of the Pigeon, who left his quiet home to travel; and of the old story woman's cat, who was discontented with his meagre fare and safe seclusion,
are amongst the happiest in the whole work."
Perhaps
of
it will
Husayn
remarks
Gt
Uxiu
J>iu o^l'
\)
lib
yk
J.3
With a view to the universal diffusion of what is advantageous to mankind, and the multiplying what is beneficial to high and low, he condescended to favour me with an intimation of his will that this humble
c<
individual devoid of ability, and this insignificant person of small capital, Husain-bin 'All-u-'l-Wa'iz, known by the name of Kashifi (May God Most
High strengthen him with His hidden favours), should be bold enough to clothe the said book in a new dress, and bestow fresh adornment on the concealed by beauty of its tales of esoteric meaning, which were veiled and
644
ETC.
tho curtain of obscure words and the wimple of difficult expressions, by presenting them on the stages of lucid style and the upper chambers of
becoming metaphors, after a fashion that the eye of every examiner, without a glance of penetration or penetration of vision, may enjoy a share of the loveliness of those beauties of the ornamental bridal chamber of narrative,
'
or the
obtain the fruition of union with those delicately imagining reared ones of the closet of the minds." East. Trans.
trouble
may
(u)
The student
2
of
classical Persian is
recommended
to
compare the
rhymed prose
of Sa'di,
Anvar-i Suhayti %
Akhlaq-i Jalati
8
;
the more modern and bombastic style of the of Husayn Va'iz, and the simpler and terser style of the
while for
Mirza Hayrat's excellent translation of Malcolm's History of Persia, or the * simpler colloquial style of the Diaries of Nasir -'d-Dm Shah, and the travels
of
Ibrahim Beg.
142.
Number
of
of Abbreviation, etc.
6 Language should be brief (^I*ue ), i.e. no word should be used that does not add either to the sense or the beauty of the sentence.
(a)
Important
effects are,
Brevity would require that the shorter of two synonymous words ( Jj^kJ ). or expressions should be chosen, but emphasis or dignity might require the
longer.
(6)
J^laii
(1)
Tautology
The
"These
colloquial language
best and truest specimens of the modern * spoken at the Persian court and capital." Also that it is only the uneducated who use the style which Nasir^d-Dln Shah has now raised to the dignity Educated people do not adopt this style. The style of the of a written language.'
*
first
and copied in Persia. The author was a Persian. Dr. Rosen says these diaries "are the
Diary when
*
Opposed to
Brevity
is
a general term.
A statement may be
(
brief because
A concise
g\* j
^)
styl
:
expresses
much
a few words. A speech may be the reverse of brief as regards length it may contain a thousand statements each concisely explained. In a concise style, the thoughts are
JJ
conveyed in the fewest possible words but with the utmost precision. Terse is short but full of force. means eloquent as well as concise. Pithy (3*/o )
J>
ETC.
1
645
(3)
(2)
(
Pleonism
^JU^a.
or
Redundancy (J^ix)^!^
other"
Circum-
locution
v -^
1
"They came
^j&t
iXiu
^
(
<iJ*x>f
^^
).
1
*v,
is
Tautology
is
-*jj^*
"I saw
"
I
it it
with
saw
with
my eyes" f*^ ^su Redundancy ( " my own eyes ^A*^,} (**?=* ^^V is Pleonism
(
The
if
^5^3 jt**.
not kept within limits, they constitute the vice of style called Turgidity.
is the repetition of the same idea in different words ) Tautology ( without the addition of force or clearness. The synonymous words or phrases
^xJj^
generally occur in the same grammatical place. Tautology is generally due to an error of thought (as in the expression universal panacea ', or a single
' '
unique
(c)
').
Tautology,
'
is
justified if
the sense
'
is
not
satisfactorily expressed
and vulgar
i.e.
poor and needy', or when the two words mutually help each other.
single term, as
;
common
Legal documents have to guard against attempted evasion consequently repetition and synonyms (this is yL*. ) are necessary: "Tell the
j*
In a Persian deed of
#
U*>
*J^.
1
I****
^^
*j
1*^)
'
alirn**
amid
bi-'t-taw'*
va 'r-raghbat dun^l-ikrdh 1
.
va
l-ijbar ddnista
(d) (I)
and % *t***J and may be styled A^!ux5 ^2*=^. % (2) In girya u zdn ^j j **f and "what we have seen with our eyes and heard with our ears" pt\ **&& o^^^j ^J| ^i ^*au A^*, the pleonisms are ta*kid *H'^> or emphasis, and constitute ^-xl* j*>. Vide also section " on Errors in Rhetoric."
Emphasis has sometimes the appearance single man of you" U& 31 bs^jjiu^ tonayak
without exception *UlLt ^b A+A hama bi-ld " v o jo that doeth good, no not one p*>
' '
Certain dual and tautological expressions as " null and void, ^LT? are justifiable by use, being almost regarded as one word,
"
^^ ^ g*
redundancy: "Not one nafar-i wahid azshuma: "all there is not one ististsna*' :
of
' '
nisi yalc-l
ham
na.
The
distinction
in
English
is
often not
observed, the former term being used in Rhetoric and the latter as a general term.
/
2 8
Mutaradif o,}(^Lc synonomous." In the Persian translation of the New Testament this
"
is
nlkukar-l
riist
yak-l
ham nay
64ft
ETC.
of connectives (Poly-
syndeton), vide
(3)
140.
The
refrain or
burden
justifiable repetition.
(e)
Emotion
of
any kind
is
often expressed
by
repetition, that is
by
CIRCUMLOCUTION ( v LLbl ) is a roundabout way of speaking. It is usually a defect. But it can be used for rhetorical effect, and then constitutes a Figure 8 As a defect, it is a form of diffuseness ( <J^K> ) that cannot
(/)
.
be remedied by the omission of superfluous words the whole sentence must be recast in terser language. Under Circumlocution (wli^l) may be included
:
>
digressions
Ji^sui
),
of irrelevant matter
The following are English examples a Figure: " Brain preserved in ink"
gentleman sent
ambassador);
(a fisherman).
of
(for
Circumlocution
^\
as
abroad to
lie
for
"A
(
rod with a
worm
is
book'); the good of his country" (i.e. an at one end and a fool at the other'*
'a
"An
honest
Euphemism
as
"
:
often expressed by circumlocution ( ^litf " " fond of romance " (a lie) Terminological inexactitude (a liar).
^AX*J
(?***
Circumlocution
is
).*
(g)
VERBOSITY
<y ~J
is
arises
from
a natural
(k) PROLIXITY (<J3U $ J^fcu) is the tedious accumulation and needless particulars, so as to encumber the meaning.
of circumstances
Remark.
In
many
and Persian
writers, Tautology
of diffuseness are
common.
is
"A
aVn
astonished, I
never, never"
am
"
;
";
"I would
;
never lay
down my arms,
never*
Absalom,
my son, my
son"
and
jj
Commentators ( ^.-Ji* ) often carry the practice to sermon of " Old Mother Hubbard" is in ridicule of this.
excess.
ETC.
647
The
chief sources of brevity are the selection of the aptest words, 1 the
of certain Figures. 2
:
The following are some of the methods of abbreviation ONE PREDICATE FOR SEVERAL SUBJECTS (or one subject
verbs).
for several
compound sentence where there are several statements, each with the same verb, the verb need in English be mentioned only once,
as:
In a
"
Reading maketh a
(a)
full
man."
amples:
j\A* mi-kunad va harf zaian hdzir javdb. (b) cA-t? fj j?yf c an ***s>j~J &j? tijf esVl^ j <*** (^^^ ej 5 &j>9* ^^** 5 j&~ ^&*' ) ruz rd marddn bd baydn-i shajd'at va chigunagi-yi sa/ar va kashidan-i tutun, va zandn bi-navdkhtan~i daf va tardna-hd-yi-gundgun bi-sar burdand (Tr.
v^
man, writing an exact man, speaking a ready Exis very common. <JU khwdndan ^i^i* ) &*j ^j=*\) j*> ejjji^i.
l
-l
mard rd
Icamil
^^ ^^^
H.B. Chap.
esteem of
III).
Compare
all
for
many
years,
and
after
he
'
(1)
PARTICIPLES.
Examples:
c^T
B
lyf^-c^u
l
d^*
JaLt.5
^Uf
^(jji
at
^Lo^a
(
t;
(j>Uf
vji
^3
sar-i-dn Zibd
f^
dad u farydd kunln, ddkhil rrii-shavai VazTr-i Lankaran) *' when his back is 6 turned, Zlba Kliinum, suddenly and with both hands, throws open the other door of the room, and comes in crying and screaming": Axf ->i) ) ^il^ lx>j
(
V^
(^
1
)
guyad
^** jt) ***) o^' Zibd Khdnum (lund lund kundn rafta zir-ilab " Zlba IQilnum ." (going off muttering, says under her breath)
rni-
This construction, especially in modern Persian, is often carried to excess. 8 In a sentence of eight or nine lines there may be but one principal
verb at the end, separated from
sion of participial clauses.
1
its
Example
ia
recollected that
For the selection of words, precise rules cannot be laid down. It should be words have both a denotation ( <^f*) ^j**' ) an<* a connotation
Metaphor,
the
2 In English, especially the following Figures: Comparison and Transferred Epithet, Antithesis, Epigram, and Ellipsis.
3
For
if
inserted
*
*
An " the
OMUJ "behind"; ^T an
'
for
^|
u.
1
3
suspence
so
dear to schoolboys
when
A;
translating
The g
becomes
in
Turanian
Bu dadan " to
648
l
ETC.
an au sd*ida az alak yd pdrcha birun karda va ba'd hama-yi fard ajzd ra fard ' namak makhlut namuda dar sd*ida namuda vazn paund mutdbiq-i
mm
ra
'
shisha
('
karda
sar-i
an
muhkam
&
bi-glrand ki hard
\) \\=^\
tasarruf
na-kunad
Paund '-i
\*j
&*& a*j
_>
j^ia^j AJLUi^
^#
' '
*^-;^
w*Jl 31
and fenugreek
:
pound
all
ly
and pass them through a hair-seive or through cloth make them up to the weights (given above) mix in half a pound of pounded salt and in bottles. tightly stoppered (An English pound equals a hundred keep
'
'
"
misqal)
(2)
Cookery Receipt.
participial adjectives may be used as equivalents for phrases containing the relative, as: "The never-ceasing wind" for the " wind that never ceases." This construction is specially suitable to Persian,
Participles
and
In
would
in English
"a
Q*. ^Z, ^G
^Jiyi.jf gawhar-i
carbuncle," or
"a
by a substantive in apposition. The following is an example of Arabic past participles: Maktub-i marqum-i muvarrakha-yi ghurra-yi Rajab^l-Murajjab-i sarkar* mashub-i "pust" mutazammin bi-mazdmin-i mahabbatdna va mundarij bi-mardtib-i
muvaddatdna ziydrat gardid r>* s'-*a'*
<
^^0**
pi*j*
v>^
43J^f
letter written
fc-Jfj+3 your &*** J *ilixx> (^oUa^j ^^^x) o*^j and dated the first of Rajab, and sent by post and expressing your friendship (etc., etc.) reached me." Modern letter.
te
ci^bj AJt^^xj
(3) Participles
The participial construction is in English often ambiguous, as the writer does not always make it clear by the context whether the participle is used for a causal, a temporal, a concessive, or a relative clause. The same
U^ ^\ ^-JU ^* obscurity can occur in Persian. Thus in JlJyL oJj *>" is** mwd-i tdlib-i in dunyd hlch vaqt khush-hdl nami-shavad " man
seeking this life is never happy", it is not clear whether the sense " the man while he seeks, or because he seeks, or the man that seeks."
"is
Va should be
Note
this
omitted.
faulty collocation.
common but
Read
"The 3 And in English, adjectives also, as: "Drive it into his stupid head"; astonished mother finds a vacant nest" ; " War was preferred by the hardy mountaineers
[the Swiss because they were mountaineers
and hardy}"
Vide p. 651
(p).
ETC.
649
misrelated participle,'
vide
125
(n).
Sometimes the participle "being" is omitted, as: "France at our " or " " France doors, he sees no danger nigh ", for being though France
is
".
hand he
(k)
Compare *<s* Ow^Aj^A^-i shamshir bi-dast nil-tar sad "sword " 2 etc. " = " while the sword or fears though the sword
;
in
The verb
expressed, as
giriftdr (Gul.,
&J
**
p*>\j^j& ^
f&t
j
^^
&$ ki
U ma
*'-
Chap. VII.,
St. 19,
fj+V
j*
&<*
3'
)j+> _)*>
o4^j
ij~
jf**
f$j$
{$jl.t> la
sdya-yi
divdr-i
kardam mularaqqib
,
magar
man bi-barad
zi'man
^JJ^AX)
(Gul.
Book V,
' '
;
St. 8)
^31 <_#.
&^ *)^
2 tu ishara
"
j\
\y\^&& jUj
you have merely to indicate an order and I obey" u bi-kinar, digaran ra chi mi-guyld (m.c.) leaving
' '
him out
In the
Persian translation of Haji Babd, the verb is frequently omitted. ExAjl^i \j ^x5 ample: >-&* vajUU j j* ^jje oUjt ^\ *$ &\X <Jj)i )*$ U *^ t5**! <s~jj* oU^c ^f dU^A pidar puzish kunan ki In awqat arusi ra no-
'
shdyad
chi ? (Chap.
^^
bd in
jtfeiib
^IJJU
^^
W^A?' If&jS j va
bi-mariz
bal'driidam.
Hamgindn
(Chap.
II)
"
my
charm
"
tion)
J'^ J*
:
^J*> ^j*
(V^3^- e/
&J&~ ^*W ^^ fSAfa'^ j\ A*Jjiu A; ^a. U* ammd chun na bi-khima-yi u rdh-% ^^- 3' )'& ^ v^-3'
*J>u e^3
ddshtam va na bi-khima yi sd*ir-i zandn, payvand-i dusti munhasir bud az jdnib-i u bi-ndz, va az jdnib-i man bi-niydz; an ham az dur (Chap. 14)
:
jt
az altdf-i
yazddm
inki
_^cLS.
^^
agar
guffi,
all
rish-at
(Chap. VI)
"
they
if
(the
robbers)
exclaimed,
if
'Oh
you do,
you'll be spared;
134
(6).
Abbreviations of construction consist in omitting certain should be of such a nature as can be supplied but these omissions words,
(J)
ELLIPSIS.
Present and Past Obscurity can also occur from a careless use of the Persian
Participles.
* 8
For other kinds of participial obscurity, vide 125 (n), (p. 531). The Persians feel the heat much more than do the Indians.
*
5
The
Man refers
to the father
who
is
speaking.
650
ETC.
chashm-i
l a. I&JA )* (Sa'di) i^&jf e>Uj ; t p&*. * something into his eyes of the stuff he was
Axiyy
of
"the
animals": ^lii
tj
^te^
^ ^^
oA ;
fit
^ ^J
VERB.
^jUif
gu/tdr-i bi-
for
OF THE
&>
:
"Who
Wrote
this
o^y
\>
*&
[*fJ \Jtf ] .x^* Muhammad[dn rd navisht] >^4J j <>s^*^J\ agar sbd'ir-t va " bi-chdra (Trans. Haji Baba) "if you are a poet and poor u)lj) uA&jt jl ^.
:
ffl
c>./ o^oU j ^/ 3.^ L^,*5 yak i az ishdn zabdn-i maldmat kardan dg&dz(Gu\., Chap. II, St. 20).
N
jfiT*
u mush u virdna-yi pir-zan (Anv. Suh., Chap. "From the bone flowed the sanguine tide,
In terror of
its life it fled
Man
I).
and cried
'Could
I escape this archer's hand, I'd dwell " Content with mice and the old wowan's cell.'
(East. Trans.)
(m)
comparison (such as like,' 'as,' not disturb the structure of the sentence
:
phrases of
etc.),
Metaphor
is brief,
"All
able
flesh is grass
"
as
grass": dar
jang
shir
bud &* j*
^^
vide
combat."
For examples
of ellipses, correct
is
and otherwise,
136
(d).
The
object (chiz-l)
understood.
Note jt^^ kirdar,i: om kardan, when y&'f kardar might be expected. For of a the verb in a contracted compound sentence and the difference (1) ellipsis between English and Persian in such a construction, vide 136 (d). 121 (;'). (2) For the non-repetition of a noun, vide For the repetition of a noun, necessary for clearness, vide 120 (h) Remark. 121 (k). (3) For the non-repetition of an adjective or participle, vide 122 (e). (4) For the non-repetition of an adverb, vide 123 (d). (5) For the non-repetition of a conjunction, vide
8
^^
(6)
Prepositions
124
(&).
ETC.
651
GENERAL TERMS ARE BRIEFER THAN PARTICULAR TERMS. " He " is fond of J>;IH* ^^^ ;^ ^t u shikar dust mi-ddrad, is shorter than sport "he hawks, shoots, and courses " <^v jt ^$* 3 *^ J ^*& ) & 4 $ u bd bdz
(ri)
shikar mi-kunad.
"The
style of this
' '
book
X*.^AJ
is
of such
cannot be understood
tsijUc
^Jiyuj+i
mucfhiaq
/0 ibdrat-i in kitdb an tawr ^vo j (Jk jj-t o>T ki hich kas naml-tavdnad bi-fahmad is expressed better
f
y
v^
and more
cu-jf
is unintelligible
"
w^ ^l d;lA
JJ
^t
aj
yujham
ast.
"
mere
stripling,
pisar-i no-
balicfh, is
" One who has not briefer and more forcible than yet attained the
' *
age of
manhood
ast.
o**t
*-H*y *-*&
^^
A^A-y
kas-i
ki bi-hadd-i
taklif
na-rasida
(p)
The conqueror of Auslerlitz might be expected expressed at length, thus: to hold different language from the prisoner of St. Helena," i.e. "Napoleon
instead of being
when
by
tjS
depressed
his
^j^\ ^U.
nomad
therefore
preferred war,"
brave.'
(q)
Example:
"You
assert
deny it."
:
In-
134
(6).
8
The omission
jAjUi oJAr^ b
of connectives
is
called
1
Asyndeton,
t;
as in
&& tj
0!>Ui
sick,
^*
H^'
***j
t;
(D^ty
^3 ^ j^^>
I
ufl*>j*\
*&*
x.
Mat.
*yy** ijj* J*
v# j*
*&j*
**
*j* \-r\+d\
A^J ^^j
V* 1
^ *^t^~(^&UH
Tr
-
^fuo^S
.
B.,
THE IMPERATIVE MAY BE USED FOR "IF." Thus, biya td khidmat kunam 4 O^XJ^L |jj U LJ " Come (for If you come) and I will ptf
(r)
turd-
serve
you."
simple to conceive than particular or concrete terms. " the 2 greyTula is 'a pointer' and perhaps any " small dog" as opposed to tazl hound (Arab) ", and sag " the pariah dog" (and also dog' generally).
'
the opposite of Polysyndeton, the multiplication of connectives. " Example of _/o| javab-l amr Apodosis of a command."
It
is
v-jf^.
652
(s)
brief
A/ A*j
fclsxb
ji **;
(Iqbal-Ndma-yi Jahangiri,p. 241, Ed. Bib. Ind. Bengal As. Soc.). The above is briefer than && &e mushrif bar db va ij^l* fj&* 3 _)** j v_>f sabz u Jchurram bud
vabud.
'
2 c ^ Parenthetical clauses are commoner in (t) PARENTHESIS ( o*Lr modern than in classical Persian. In classical Persian, the parenthesis is
(/*A*
*j{JLc
*JJ(
(Ju
the meaning.
In along sentence, English or Persian, parentheses are liable to obscure Though conducive to brevity, they must be sparingly used.
Examples
^UfTy^ ^A>
j$tj
j* ^cj^
^i^x
*> j\
&&j&
^^
8 )
c4?^
&?.\
"he 8
trtt Jt ^ <^ J$^y t; ^ i/ (Pers. Trans. Haji Baba, on the road between Tehran and was a character well known
Meshed, and enjoyed a great reputation for courage, which he had acquired Turcoman's head whom he had once found dead on the " road "But in vain I endeavoured to cheer up his (Haji Baba, Chap II).
spirits
by
saying"
if f
^fy*
^t^
^
first
)->
LSJ *
1
J>
cs'trf
u*
(Pers.
Trans.,
Some
of
the
143.
'
" Other (a) things being equal' ', says a writer on English composition, a better-known word is to be preferred to a less known, a native or
thoroughly naturalized and appropriated word to a word of outlandish origin and habit, a concrete to an abstract word, a specific to a general, a homely to a technical." * ,
Persians are fond of obsolete Persian, and out-of-the-way Arabic words and expressions. Arabic phrases and quotations from the Quran are dragged
in wholesale,
too,
literally
translated into
Gu*i,
" as
*
8
vide
91 (6) (10).
proposition."
lit.
"a sergeant." A
leader
and guide
of a pilgrim-caravan,
whose
duty
*
to
make arrangements
653
Anjuman when composing the New- Year greeting to the Anjuman of another
Zardushti
l
search the dictionary for obsolete words with which to adorn the 8 As an example of ambiguity, the following quotation from the composition.
suffice
jU
AcU
u manfa'at-i tasavvur mltavdn kard va bi-i'zdz-i harchi tamdmtar urd bi-dast mi-drand va bar sd'id-i
bdz
vdhshi
gharib ast chun az
-)}+
jj
^^AftU
^XD
j| 31
|
;f
o~^J
ndz az ruy-% i'zdz bi-ihtizdz mi-par vardnand (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, St. VI) " while the hawk,* which is wild and strange they allure with every sort of kindness and bring him 4 up on the wrist of favour, indulgently
In a footnote Eastwick remarks, "The and proudly." (East. Trans.). MSS. I have consulted, omit the sentence after *i;f ^* mi~drand, which is found in the printed and lithographed editions. Keene translates
baihtizdz
tation.'
which
is
bear that sense, or mean, with exulThe word is no doubt chosen on account of its ambiguity, such a source of delight to the Persian author, and of despair
'to
exercise.' It
may
'
to the translator."
& bi-ihtizdz according to one or two learned means Persians I have consulted, "exercise", but the word would be understood by the few only. Most Persians would be contented by merely reading and enjoying the rhyme of the word.] The following sentence from the Persian translation of Hdjl Bdbd
[This
jf ji*t
many
Persians
J
o &*,> c^Uisf
,-aUJl
not
till
t5 er* f* ./& Jy> -^ >s**\) *(Jk J> the discovery was made that J^ was not the Arabic word qawl, but
k*'
^*
^^
* *&
etf'
&*
Jt
j^
was
A Parsee committee (in Kerman, twelve members) that meets every Friday and on other necessary occasions to discuss matters concerning the Parsees and to settle small disputes and religious matters. The Persian Anjumans are under the Bombay
Anjuman.
4
3
preacher too will first mouth a sentence in Arabic (though perhaps only two or three of the congregation are acquainted with Arabic), and then repeat it in Persian. If asked the reason, the reply is To display
This
his*
knowledge.* esteem.
*
*
preacher
who
didn't
little
the Sunnis, to which sect the Rafizi, i.e. Shi'ah, a term applied to the Shi'ahs by robber Turkomans belonged. The author 1 It is doubtful whether the word qul is used by any but the Turks.
common word
banda.
654
in the following passage from the same translation, to the imperfection of the Arabic character than to the rather is attributable The Malik" Sh-shu'ara* when relating his obsoleteness of the language.
adventures to Hajl Baba (Chap. VII), takes the opportunity in the translation of reciting a ridiculous couplet of his
own
Now
is
ku in
classical
a " dove" and also 1 poet has played on these different meanings.
" and ku-kft and modern Persian means " where? the murmuring of the dove. More than one Persian
Several Persians
who were
consulted, exhausted their ingenuity in trying to apply these meanings to the lines in question, but it was only when a Zardushti suggested that the reading " which was veiled and obscured should be gav and not ku that the meaning, by the curtain of obscure words and the wimple of difficult expressions
appeared on the stage of lucid style and the upper chambers of becoming
metaphors."
(6)
(1)
" Yet
* Obscure and unintelligible expressions are in English improper when that flood in its own depths was drown' d,
It left
behind
it false
Dry den.
The author's meaning, in plain is nonsensical. the waters of the deluge had than 'when no more language, apparently it is idea is nt too extravagant for a as this subsided.'" Extravagant Persian, rather in its extravagance would lie its excellence.
first of
" The
these lines
is
(2) It
is
different interpretations,
same word or
He aimed
j&
^-*
o^JbA
y .y^^*^ -c* A htch chiz kamtar az may denote either 'nothing was less
aimed at by him than the crown', or, 'nothing inferior to the crown could satisfy him.' In chapter 54 of Hajl Baba, the Persian translator describing the faded charms of the candidates for temporary wifehood,
employs the expression lala-yi shan rd az dam-i
( *r*-| ) ;j 3 j ^* p& sard-i ruzgar afat-ha (ast).
^f
j|
t^iU*
&)$
A*^
chirayfe-i
It requires considerable
is it
thought on the part of a European to solve this passage. Ldla in Persian "a tulip, or a poppy ", and hence "the cheek of a mistress ", but in m.c.
is
with a small globe." On account of the latter meanhere A cold ing, !_.$. chiragh incorrectly used in the sense of "light." breath (dam-i sard) might extinguish a candle: lastly l^'f dfatha must be
also
is
"a candle-stick
considered equal to
!>?*>&*
sadmahd.
Examples
of tajnis.
Vide also
(4).
655
the skilful use, however, of the same word in two senses, force and point is obtained, as "If the loss of temporal gain be the gain of eternal good, then the reverse of fortune is the reverse of misfortune." 1 Here 'gain' is
By
used in two somewhat different senses, while means revolution in the second opposite.'
'
'
The Persians
fj\*i
delight in plays
V 13_X,>
' '
^y
v^-? cri?)
v^3 v* man
tab
The
first
signifies
"
curling
and the
i marg mazdr Ma-shaw bi-ghussa-yi min zdr u bar ma-zdr. Mazdr ;t> is " tomb' zdr ;lj is " weeping ' and ma-zdr y_y is " don't weep.' This is a good example of the Figure o-^ tajms or <j^ jinds.
' '
,
1
man
'
(3)
must be avoided.
life'
Spectator.
'
*
that I ever spoke three sentences together in my Instead of together, the writer should have said
successively
or,
in succession.'
"
is common in Persian. Rich ydd-am mat Jci bi-'umrjumla bd-ham gufta bdsham fl *ii /**lj *1>^ *^ (/*? *^ ^'^ c^ J f* (m.c.), is a sentence that would pass unchallenged by most modern Persians.
am
si
sar-i
ham.
*
One source
:
of obscurity
fine
writing
acquire a very peculiar and strong habit of turning their eyes inwards in order to explore the interior regions and recesses of the mind, the hollow caverns of deep thought, the private seats of fancy, and the
"'Men must
as. well
as the
more
fruitful
and cultivated
tracts of
Characteristics.
of telling us
that
it is difficult
mind "
!
The following
" This
is
not an event
humanity."
II of Hdjl Bdbd, the author says:
In chapter " The caravan was ready to depart a week after the festival of the New Year's day." A simple statement
Neither of these quotations
is
like
this
who
writes j
The
Vide also
145
(*).
656
at
-!
/*
-jj--^
]
kamabish du hafta az Nawruz-i firuz rafta (Rahm u 'llah !) Mirza Mahdi Kh,an-i nasim-i 'ambar-shamim-i Bahar az farr-i Farwardln muzhda-yi rangmdvard.
Baqiyyat" 's-sayf-i Bahman va Shitd gurisna va ndshitd ruy bi-hazimat nihdd. Turdn-zamin-i chaman bi-Turk-tdzi-yi junud-i quvd-yi ndmiya bi-tasarruf-i QizLBdsh-i gul dar dmad. Ghdrat-gardn-i sahn-i chaman va yaghma*iydn-i
11
ddr u l~mulk-i gulshan sar bi-pustin kashidand. Turkdn-i tang-chashm-i shigufa fawj fawj va sahrd-nishmdn-i riydhin dasta dasta farmdn-bari-yi Sultdn-i Bahdr
*
rd ikhtiydr kardand.
dasht-i
Turkamdndn-i kuldg^-i pisa 8 mdnind i bddrlsa bi-firdz-i Qibchdq hdzir-yardq gashtand. Bard" l-'ajuz-i Day radd^l-'ajz-* 'ala
*
y
aZ'Zahrkarda bid-dnjd tdkht ki 'Arab nayza rdanddkht. Chd^ushdn-i chakdvak* 1 6 vahazdr, dar rdsta- bdzdr-i bdgJi u gulzdr bd dvdz-i buland sald-yi khusJibash dar anddkht ki
.
"
The reader
'
is
(c)
(1)
when
physician Mirza,
" The firmament possesses but one sun, and the land of 'Iraq but one
king.
Life, light, joy
piebald.'
It
pisa.
5
Chakavak c^^a. a species of desert lark that sings both on the ground and
in the air.
For e/Wj>
T
)\'y*>
hazar dastan.
&I*o|^
is is
It
657
equal to a
What
spikenard
what mumiyd*i 11
'
!
This
is
Yak-i *st mihr-i munavvar sipihr-i gar dun rd Bi-din dalll ki yak Shah hast Iran rd *
;
Haydt u parvarish-i kd*indt u partav-i 'aysh Buvad mutt' u mutdbi' ham in u ham an rd
Ahmaq
rd. 5
is
t5
-)U
6ar khdrd zadl az khashm dumbdl
shir-i
OAw
Fikandi
Bar an
rdh-1 ki
u yakdam
nishasti
I, St. 5.)
The mumiyaH of Eastern bazars is described as being the product of a mine, but it was formerly believed to be extracted from the skulls of living victims suspended head downwards over a fire. It is probably connected with and confused with bits
1
of
The
to
be an antidote to poison.
8
These
a book of poems by Fath 'All Kh5n-i aba-yi Whether the poet considered
them
thore
6
is
line is to be translated first: as there is only one Shah, so by analogy only one sun and life, and all these depend both on the former and on the latter i.e. God made blood to flow in the arteries, solely that the physician Mirza Ahmaq
!
The second
might
The
'
42
658
his
tail
dropped his talons at the shock. And where he but for one short instant paused A long year's stoppage to that road he caused."
lion
(East Trans.).
" One form of (2) impropriety is the lack of sufficient precision. By 'precision,' it is understood that the words and phrases employed express
the writer's meaning, and nothing more." Lack of precision to be one of the characteristics of Persians and Persian writings.
may
be said
Haji Baba, replying to the questions of the Sardar as to the numbers and dispositions of the Russians 2 says: O~~JO l^V't Jt (J^AJ A^f - jl'tA^i AJ
,
haft sad
yd hasht sad;
Dah
blst 3
ast; pansad, shash-sad, shdyad hazar; na du hazdr: aibatta blsh az inha mst. muntaha chihil yd panjdh, tup ddrand. khayti
Rus
kam
(d)
extended
beyond
'
what seems
their
natural close."
To do so without some
special reason
is
to violate the
Rule of Suspence.'
The principle of suspence is so to write a sentence that the reader, until he comes to the full stop, feels the sentence to be incomplete. The violation of this rule is shewn in the following example: ^ p*> (&*>
"I putting (H. B. Chap. XI). on the saintly appearance of one whose prayers are ever answered, with the air of authority and a clergyman's voice demanded pen and paper although in my whole life I had never held pen in my hand."
. '
'
of
this
->^ d &f )* *^ 0*0^^ *^^#.j l^f )' an dar az dshna u Angah, diyar-i ghurbat, 3 y' p*>1 Higana u dust mahrum, va az dast-i ajrdz bi-bahra, amadam bar-sar-i mayamlik-i khud.R&ji Baba, Chap. IX. In Persian, the absence of punctuation makes such sentences particularly difficult.
0^9^31 ^ p^^\/o
Syt?
aA
c^U.j
^^7*
Though the
rule
is
:
conduce to weakness
perhaps violated in the following, the violation does not c/i*^ <^fj +Xj*~J &j <y^j -*./ ^-b *^ jt
[
.
lye
^AJ
e>f
(e)
tive language
The strength and beauty of a sentence may be promoted by and the use of figures.
An
A*JU;S o^i,*
known
Chapter XL.
659
Examples of Errors
in Rhetoric.
In the sections on the Relative, on the Participle, and on Collocation, some instances of obscurity have been given. Those errors could, however,
The following
:
are instances
of incoherence,
" The riches of the temple gradually disappeared but by whom or when is not known.' ( Read 'how or when' )." This error can hardly be repeated in Persian still in the following translation it would be better to
;
) A^la^yo
^ o^
who
k-y^
jf
bi-tavassat-i
p>
lei
8^ oo
eJ
**
kam
az
miydn
u va kay ma'lum
davlat
is
sarvat-i
^^
nist?
"The
who
ki
philosophers
(Read
ast,
The
Faylasufdn-i ki rdy-i
budaz
hama-yi in
ibarat ast
J^ j v ^ ^ t^
1
(This
%+*
^^
fan-iki ray-i shan bar in qarar girijta khayal ast ibarat bud az ).
'
&
o
'
one cause of obscurity, while brevity is another. In the following English passages, the ambiguity is due to the ellipsis of four words at most
(b)
is
:
Great length
'Antony was not less desirous of destroying the conspirators than his .' officers, but he [Read than were his officers,' otherwise the meaning might " Fuldn khwahan-i 'than he was desirous of destroying his officers.'] be,
*
"
islisal-i
y j^
i
e^ti
ss>.
mufsidin na-bud
&}*>*&* Jl^axLot
^(A>^ ^U^Utf
+*
&&>).
despise the purse-proud man not one whit less than do ' ' the well-born and well-educated do is indispensable to avoid ambiguity." Faq\r hich kamtar az an ki najib u tarbiyat-ydfta mag&rur-i davlat rd haqir
'
"'The poor
)>;**>
A^'^
^iiP^ THi^
ff^j^
^U^ ^^
on
in
it
;
xjU-i ^/o jxaa. \j is clear and can have but the one construction put but the following exhibits the same obscurity that would be found
\j
indirectly.
660
kick
kamtar az najib u tarbiyat yafta haqir nami-shumdrad. Insert the affix ra after tarbiyat yafta *k\ ^+&j*, and ambiguity is removed, but the mean\) ing is not the meaning of the English.
"'The Persians rate him not less than Sa'di and Firdausi.' (Read than did Sa'di and Firdausi,' or else than they rate Sa'di and Firdausi ')." Irdnihd ura kamtar az Sa'di va Firdawsi dust nami-ddrand
' *
-J
t5>>**
Jt
is
ambiguous.
:
Firdawsi ra
fj
^j^
^z**
sS jJy****
(
o**^
*$
\^\ l^ityt
mi-darand
tl
^JjfAx/o
ow^
is
\)j\
^^i
'
The
'
lecture
an able
'
*&lia. sJ;t<3J^
^^^^l^ \^\
(^\^.\.
who
[Insert
of
'
it
before
deserves
who
1*-
'
may seem
3
f
to be subject
"
deserves.']
)*
jlf***!
In
j
v^L^
**
s
^
^^^>
;UJo|
(Jsti-^o
i
kulliya-i
'st
az tarikh-i hal
in mard-i qabil
bi-maratib-i
'aliya
taraqqi
karda bud va mustahiqq-i intishar va ishtihar dar dunya 'st, the English error is of un nutq after j va, and the ambiguity repeated; but insert
J^
disappears.
spoke fifty languages.' [This reads as though the cardinal died babbling in fifty languages. Substitute, 'before his death was master of at least', etc., or something of the sort." 8 Mi-guyand Kardinal Fulan ki murd panjah zaban mi-danist c>& ek ^i^^
"'It
is
said,
when he
o*-J|tX>;/o cjb)
l.s^ij
^yo &f
is
clear enough
2$lsoj ^1U'
J^ &fe
tr
panjah zaban mi-ddnist ki murd and the sense be that he died because he knew fifty languages. Better *>^j **ij^X might
**
Kardinal Fulan
',
9
(S*t>$6
v^A-JfAyo
ml-guyand
vaqt-i ki
Read
<ijL
jl^iAf
;lAxif l^i^ ;^ A^
o^| j|^l>*o
is
^Uai
c^
^ va an nutq sazavar
ast ki
It
(3^
>
as the
refer to
Cardinal Mezzofanti.
Or mi-danista
ast
cu^t
&L~itJo.x>.
is
called
by the French
construction louche or
squinting construction.'
661
in
of
from the context, is comon in modern Persian.* " Our climate is mild and somewhat moist, and except when covered once in a year by snow, always presents a green surface.' [ The country
' '
'
is
ast va
Ab u havd-yi ma muldyim vd bdrutubat the implied subject to presents'].' sdl-l az a ki zir-i barf ast dar sd*ir-i awqat sabz va yak dap g&ayr
'
'
j <*>] o^Jr) b j
J^U
^fyk)
v.4
The tobacco monopoly was broken down in such and such a year and may be included among the benefits owed to the Mujtahids." Inhisdr-i tutun-jarushi dar sana-yi fuldn mawquf shud va mi-tavdn fahmid ki in yak-i az
' '
'
favafid-i' st ki az
*<&
^ o-o^tyjt ^j ^|
oyy
A*'
'
o^'
&
;a <j~jj* It
^yy
jl/axof
*xx+^ ^t^Js^j.
'
monopoly
^Lacsut v-ftA^j
but the breaking down thereof that was a tawqif-i inhisdr between in and yak-i.
benefit.'
"The weight of its skeleton [a whale's] was thirty-one tons and was afterwards exhibited in London and Paris." Vazn-i ustukhwdnhd~yi badan si va yak 'tan'-i Inglisi bud va dar Landan va Paris bardy-i tamdshd bi-mardum
nishdn ddda
^**^
js^fi cJ 1
mi-shud o<i^ )* j
1
(*^-*J
^^ csi^ u^; ^ J
Har
tj~A&\
(
"(^''
-^ j
**>
c^J
c>f
tA*0**l
ojj
an ustukhwan
ha before dar Landan ^^;^ ). " They both speak a little Persian though
left
6
it
(Persia)."
ten years since they du-yi ishdn* qadr-i Fdrsi mi-tavdnand harf bi-zanand
it is
<*ii(jixxj
^*>U
^^ u^t ^^^
Uof)|
crtj}! 3*
'
v\
y (J^ J^
*^!^w^
ik
M>? vJja..
write
az /raw.
" In Great Britain and Ireland there are more females than males, and
in
women
'
is still
greater
sSmainomenon with reference to the meaning or the kata sunSsIn according to the sense. They were, in Greek and Latin, recognised as rhetorical devices to be used sparingly. They are incorrect in English. 2 " The guilelessness of his own heart led him to suspect none in others.' (' Guile,' ^ Read 'no guile')." Vide not guilelessness is the intended antecedent of 'none'.
1
Pros
'
to
'
'
'
Note
is
5.
Tt
^.jx/cj
zamin before
Jt^Jjtf
<jhayr az.
If
an actual mistake.
hoarding up grain
'
Or
rasld.
Ihtikar
:
^^\
is
till
it
at a high price)
5
it
does not
mean monopoly.'
this construction correct as it is admissible in * u i'dilu huva
Arabic on
'
the
authority
the
Quran:
aqrdb
li't-taqvy
it (i.e. justice) is
J'
ls
662
[ i.e.
the excess
is
nearly equal.'
should
etc.]."
be,
'the numbers are nearly equal, and in the U.S. there Dar Landan zan bish az mard ast va dar Frdnsa kasrat-i zan
1
az in
ham
kasrat-i
mard
ast
j* &
Corrected:
Landan zan
ttkin
mard ast va dar Frdnsa zan az dnjd ham bishtar ast va dar Ispdniyd zan u mard taqrib an musdvi st vadar Itdzuni kasrat-i mard
bish az
9
"
It [the
?
sense could
is
Edinburgh Review] could agree with nobody. Whatman of [He speaks of parties in the Church strife agree with anybody
*
'
"
An
dmad-kuddm
4<
'dqil mi-tavdnist
vT
town" Jp*jf ty
t&
*Z er^-
-'
*i*U 6Jp
^i
Kirmdnl bud
1, 2,
zirdlci
Muhammad Hasan kiyak-% az rufaqd-yi man bud dar an shahr lavallud ydfta bud. Vide p. 661, foot-notes
fti j\
and
5.
A somewhat
khud-at
(*^*^ ^
(**/
;^
cJ^*^
kardam
'
va pursidam ki az
'
ndm u
nasab-i
mard dgdh kun: pursidan is to ask and not 'to say,' and should be followed by a question. " His name is among the most distinguished of painters" ism-i u dar
'st
ow^Uia
)^- &)yA*
^U*
o^i
>\
9
f*!
^^
and ^yoUf
'asdm/i-yi' after
'miydn-i.
"
Agarchi
man
firistdd,
l^f
muqdvamat na-tavdnistam
c-xjlfix)
ammd o^y j
*$ c*iy ^
^AU^b^sHI* *^/f
^fyi my sacred
of the
.ilLoy
tl
yo
y^j
Here the subject of firistdd is pddshdh, understood from the adjective pddshdhl\ read firistdda shud or firistddand, or else mention
Shah, yet
.'
arms
'
the subject of firistdd in the relative clause. "The name of our present cook is
when he
*
likes."
Muhammad and a very good one & md Muhammad ast, va khayti hdliyya-yi
Geography
French
is
2
*
ttats Unis.
fern.,
Haliyya,
663
I*
ham
..k
^~l **^-
dJU^ja^T
***[
y# v
^ijiu^f o^uA ^A
v^.
modern
This might not be considered incorrect in it is, since 'he' is understood in Persian
*st.
" 'Amen!
'
said Yeo,
it
honest
too like
'
men?
'
'
(Ed. 1879,
" Guft dmin va bisydr saddhd-yi digar niz bd u ma' Chap. XXV, p. 401)." shudand va 'ahd-i Ichud rd bi-pdydn rasdnidand j&.& ^AI^ ; U~j
^JixoU|
,jljlj
AJ
\)
zjsL
j ^xi*^
j|
Ojjj
insert after
'
va
sdhibdn-i sadd.
(d)
jsjjsA>iJo-
Bi
vdsita-yi
A^.2:
uldghhd va chd^-pdydn va asphd ki shayha mi-kashidand " on account of the asses and other -5 ^*JIT ^^i>?
all of
"
;
here JJAX&CA/O
all
d^A
the
shayha mi-kashtdand does not refer to l^f asphd alone, but to animals this is not considered incorrect in Persian.
:
Zeugma
a
is
a figure in
grammar
in
which two
verb or to an adjective suitable to one only, the missing verb or In English, Zeugma is usually a blunder. adjective being suggested. " Instances of in Persian seem rare. are:
scenes or incidents
other travellers.'
vi*#
jtj
fj
'
Zeugma Many Examples which are graphically narrated, are told as well, or better, by [One cannot narrate a scene]." Compare >*>i ) ^>j^
tjL.
accounted, handsomely enough, for the delay by saying that my long absence, and the recent loss in my family, prevented him from applying to me immediately on my return.' [This holds good of the second
reason but hardly of the first],"
fawt-i
"
He
U ma
*U
shumd va
'
pidar-am mdni
-i
in
at-i
jandb-i
dti
bi-khidmat
bi-rasam *f
*&
However
in,
'
(for
the bees
hummed
and the birds sang sweetly'), the Zeugma is hardly a blunder; it is a metaphor. 'Sang in gladness,' however, would be better than 'sang sweetly.' This may be called ^Jlapux jlxui
are a source of error. Amongst negatives (?) Too many negatives must be included such words as scarcely,' seldom,' 'few,' etc.
' '
He thought the wealth and honours of this world poor compensation for a quiet conscience and a healty frame.' [It should be, compensation for the
'
'
want
of
'
etc.]."
In,
Compare
last
example
in (c).
664
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
l
IN RHETORIC.
chunki
kam-i bardy^i drdmi-yi zamir va *jJu !y read quvva-yi bunya pinddsht, ^Ijf f*> ^t/* bardy-i adam-i pte zamir va 'adam-i or else after tj Ui,> dunya ra, write drdmi-yi quvva-yi bunya;
izzat
davlat-i
dunya ra
jazd-yi
u^
]
'
*t*^ c?^
csite-
**V
M
'
.J
j* 4
"*
L^Ljf
(o^ or)
knew
A?
cux-J nisbat
bi-
(or
iwaz-i)
pinddsht.
"
[This
'
'
myself,
is like
' ;
saying,
'
have
little
For
'
" and Ghayraz y j& means except 'aldva bary jUc means "besides," and the English error is reproduced in:
none
or for except,'
besides ']."
'
afo-Jfdjj/o J^\AMJ y (s^$ or) JCfik (^ycjt^ ghayr azman mushltil (or kamtar) or *f aiwifa** iJ^&j y kas-iazdustan-ash mi-danist % ki (&yj*?gh<**yr az man kam-l az rufaqd-yash mi-ddnistand ki however owing to the slovenly
(^
^^
ghayr and JJ^^c 'aldva, few Persians would conexamples faulty. Corrected: e>* j! (J^U*^ Jt f\*f ^XA none of htch kuddm az dustan-ash ghayr az man nami-ddnist* ki ^o^J(^jj4J
use in
of
modern Persian
'
except myself knew ." The foregoing examples are partly right and partly wrong. The fol" The ^owing are wholly wrong unwary traveller stumbles to rise no more.' falls' must after be inserted ['And 'stumbles,' stumbling, neither being
his friends
(/)
' :
possible to one
on the ground, nor necessarily implying a fall.] Agar musdfir az ruy-i gJyaflat dardn part-gah sikandari bi-khurad hargiz na khwahad bar khtist ^j*> j>j^*J ^}*& tfe^J ^1;^ oifi^ ^^ )\ yUxs^i
lies
who
"
o^lA.^j
*'
f
jjAi^iu.
Insert
**# ^ va
is
afloat.'
phrase
unmeaning, as the
Queen
is
said to be not
the best,
^^*l &\jti
billd istisnd
& j\
8>
"The
surat-hd-yi
sad
faces
bud
ki
bdham
^.AU
o~f*J gij
*f
^j ^l^U*.
In m.c. c>^/
v^ L^*^
5
-5
&*** didan
are frequently used in the sense of hearing, as: fuldn kas dvdz mi-khwdnad, biydyld biravim tamdshd kunim, bi-bimm chi tawr mi-khwdnad 3bf \j^ o^
^J^iujXj^ AA. ^jJijj <Ju +*JS (\+> ffl)}* ^Lxj aJl^iuj/o (m.C.). " 'The occurrence, it was said at the banquet, was a thing
'
unprece-
Or better ^J^j
,*<*.
chiz-i pasl-1.
2
3
In modern Persian the plural 0>xLJ|^jj/o ml-danistand is often (incorrectly) used. This is not exactly Zeugma, vide* (d), as the error lies in a noun, and not in an
'
adjective or verb.
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
IN RHETORIC.
665
;
dented in the history of Scotland.' We have no doubt of it and we trust it will always remain so.' Times, 23rd October 1866." In vdqi'a dar tavdrikh-i Askdtland bi-sdbiqa ast va ummid ddrlm lei hamisha chunln bdshad (orkhwdhad
mdnd)
"
<i^lj
(j-via.
).
&.>-**
&
*j)\& *4*t
^^
*ajU
(*wU ^k[^ or
season more favourable for roses can scarcely be imagined, certainly 9 never has been surpassed. [For has been surpassed read 'has occurred.' It
*
is
nonsense to say
'
hich vaqtbihtar
o**t
*
ham na-buda
ast
&f &\&\)y&
cLo* ^jf
&Jix>
1^1?
^f^j
^^JLoJ
i>A>
^ lixaj
j (correct).
to applause but I do not think not likely that a Kirmani audience would be
it
would do so
to
applause in England. people do not listen to a dance.'] an ddsht ki shdbdsh bi-guyand vali
roused
substitute spectators Raqs-i u tamdshdchiydn-i Kirmani rd bar guman namlkunam dar Landan in tawr
:
For
'
audience
'
bdshad.
bi-kunand).
metaphor is an implied simile and unless an intelligible simile can be evolved from the metaphor, the metaphor is false. In the writings of even good Persian authors, metaphors abound that
(g)
(1)
Surat-i
tardz
Ma'ni-yi u khdtim-i
Turra-yi mushkin-i alfdz-ash sar-d-sar tab u chin Az kaldm-i kdmil-ash anvdr-i dZnisli shu'la-zan
"
Its
[ fringe-like to the robe of joy and happiness, Its sense the gem that decks the ring of fortune and success
form
is
While from
its
and witchcrafts
seem."
beam,
Its diction's labyrinthine curls' like
musky
ringlets
(East. Trans.)
The form
of the
book
is
666
y cJ
it
(Trans. Hajl Baba; Intro. Epis.) would build it upon thy locks.'
" were
'
my
" 'The passions may be humoured till they become our master, as a horse may be pampered till he gets the better of his rider; but early discipline will prevent mutiny, and keep the helm in the hands of reason.' [The metaphor, if not actually mixed, is here too abruptly changed.]" Tan dddan bi-nafs-i ammcira bd'is-i <jh,alaba-yi an khw^had shud- chundnki
asp rd agar bisydr tavajjuh va navdzish kunand digar savdri na-khwdhad dad va sar-kashi khwdhad kard ammd ajar az avval nafs va asp ra jalaw-girl va
;
lafdib
tarbiyat
numdyand az zahmat-i
'aql
sar-kashi-yi
mi-mdnad
'^'
*
^or
c>
^*
1
' '
,
read
rein].
"'One
of usefulness
of
which he has
through the length and breadth broad cast, which applies to [ I, Source; 2, harvest; 3, In asl yak-l az sar-chashma-hd^-i ki az an-hd hdsil-i vdfir-i
scattered broad-cast
mufi&i
ki
u dar
'arz
tul-i
zdd u bum-i
^j>j
ast
jt
^
1
J^fc
j]
&f (^^A/o
y^ J^U
^o
L>t
l^jf Jl
;
aSxSlf+ia.
[For Ifit) az awM, read l^f ilw^- bi-vdsita-yi dnha 8 pdshida, read Ai^l^ ^as^iaj.
j>}.
and
for
H-*b
"
We
see
how
difficult it is
"
mother
cU>o
manqush-i ki madar
+HM ^c
Jl^JUi
^31
^^U *xj5i/o.
[Instead of
istisdl,
read
c<^^j-3ixx)
mahv
kardan].
The following, an instance of confusion of metaphors, is not considered U^ o-a^x5 ^.^ij, * j*3 ^*i* ^j >^ J *^^l inelegant in modern Persian: ddman-i marhamat-i shumd chun abr sdya afkand va musmir-i samar shud. '
f
o^
'This glare of
word
*
8
ff)
is not generally known to Persians as few of them have " (Sukkan is also the Ar. pi. of sakin dweller.") The Anglo-Indian sea-cunny is a corruption of sukkam. zad-bum. j Mj zad u bum, m.c. for
fj
*\j
Bi-vasitfi-yi in
is
sar-chashma
fyasil
ra kashta
am
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
anger was evident in
his postures
IN RHETORIC.
667
dsdr-i
ashpaidd dmad." The English and Persian are equally objectionable. " Akin to confusion of metaphors, are incongruities of speech and (2) A medical student, when asked what progress he had made 'Irish Bulls.'
in medicine, replied,
for I think
I'
'
hope
I shall
child.
duktur-i
kdmil-i
kunam
In Mirza Hairat's excellent translation of Malcolm's History of Persia occurs an intricate passage to the following effect Just when the key of
' :
victory was in his hand, one of those extraordinary events ..... snatched the tempting morsel from his lips.' This confusion of metaphors is not considered inelegant by Persians.
This
is
scarcely so ludicrous, as
dium
of
an
"We shall never rest until we see the hand in hand with the floodgates of democracy. (Exor2 English Politician)."' Compare the following: *ty^ Jl
:
XXIV).
is
(h)
another source of
error.
'"Much
'
many
temptations from which you are preserved.' of your preservation from many temptations.'
'*
Az a'mal-i qabiha-yi shahr ki shuma mahjuzml-manid bayad Khuda ra bi-jd dvand xL? *xiU ^x> ^i./o U^ A^i ^AXJ JU^t Jt
oj^f (su
[Read Jt oXlfi^ ^a.^^ bi-mahz-i hifdzat az\ t; t*i.y^> ^^. " 'The skirt of her .' dress, which was on fire, was put out by Mrs. [Read the fire which had caught the shirt of her dress, etc.' ']. Daman-i qabd,
yiura, ki atashgiti/ta bud, khdmush kardand(J*j*te>- ^y A^j^^jiJt **\)$ o^* c^ ^ In Persian this is said to be no mistake, as daman is considered >sj$ z 'the use of the tp be a Jla. ^-t Jlacvxi jUi^o majaz-i mahall bi-ism-i hdl
'.
is
in
it.'
This Persian sentence has been submitted to the judgment of many Persians, whom prided themselves on their proficiency in Arabic. All of them failed to see the incongruity, even when it was
several of
carefully explained.
"All along the untrodden path of the future we can see the hidden footprints of an unseen hand." A Eurasian father was heard to say to his son " You have buttered your bread and now you must lie on it." 8 Example ^ ^f^U navdan jarl shud "the gutter in the roof began to
bull is:
:
Another
^^
flow,"
i.e.
668
143 (6), force and point are derived from (1) (I) As already stated in the skilful use of the same word in different senses. 1 Persians are fond of
this figure.
(Tr.
Example:
<^^
ai&x? clap 31
'
**Jj>
\)
in
is
H. B., Chap. XXXVII), " (when she came to her senses) and saw herself the arms of a stranger she became greatly upset this use of bigdna 3 Rakht-i khwdb na-ddshtan zahmat-i na-ddsht 3 Tajnis-i tarn |*U ^^oiso.
:
^^
<>>*-
^M^J+^j 8^,^ v ,^
Remark.
(i)
'
^^
(Trans. H. B. p. ra).
The
same word
in the
same sentence
with different meanings, or (ii) as different parts of speech, is an awkwardness to be carefully avoided in English.' Examples: (i) 'The terrible War of Succession had now arrived at such a point that the royal authority
seemed on the point of being destroyed.' better filled than the half-guinea, and not a
adverb and adjective in the same sentence.)
(2)
is
(ii)
jot, better.
('Better' used as
But the
repetition of the
same meaning
in slightly different
words
a fault even worse than the repetition of the same word. To say the same thing twice over in different ways in the same context, or to repeat unnecessarily the same word several times (that is the useless repetition
of the
same
thing), is Tautology*
if
-xwf^^).
In Persian,
Persian ear,
(
it is
tautology adds to the jingling sound or is pleasing to the considered a branch of Ornament. Examples of tautology
&* J** *)
1
are
"By
j.xU *j
ruy-i
the
is
Compare
&*&
erf^jf
vg?JlJ )&
hukm-ndma
bl*> dar qdnun-i Iran hama-yi ra'dyd bdyad az 31 muti'-i shar* bdshand.
<5jb
*at ^j)
"In
*&
'
was superadded a still more fatal and u>*J ^y <J*>y^ ^t^aj j> j&c Compare &*> aldva bar nuqsdn-i tijdrat-ash fawt-i pidar-ash ham mazld bar an shud.
addition to these, there
and
in the
most
J+*J| jy**,} &*A ; ^Lola.b ^ l^uilj f; ' u Tchud rd vdzih an ra amal-i 'ldastur &J&* hama-yi y*l*3 Aa.yfc ^\ bi-ikhtisdr-i harchi tamdmtar bi-dun-i 6 ibhdm baydn mi-kard.
^^
^x*
^lo
(j)
It
dancy.
not always easy to distinguish between Tautology and Redun" the reason In, why Socrates was condemned to death was on account
is
*
3
*
&
of
Hashv
or
'
'
stuffing
in Persian, vide
142 Rhetoric.
^-joJi
669
due to thoughtlessness, and would be Redun* ' than rather dancy Tautology. [Delete either on account of or the reason why and the second was']." Compare p&c ^b jt _j| J1S ^ty^' JLef C*S **+*) dar asl jihat-i fatvd-yi qatl-i u az bdb -i adam-i rizdyat-i
< '
*
&
o^
'
mardum
bud.
'
English redundancies sanctioned by good usage are, from hence ', from ' thence In modern Persian a preposition is as a rule prefixed from whence.
* * ' ,
dom
^j
A+A
jf,
bi-cfcayr,
sel-
bi-juzjxu.
This redun-
dancy
of
;
&
hama
bi-ld istisnd
single
man
of
you" U&jt
no-yak nafar-i vdhid az shumd\ "there is none " hich kas nlkukdr mst that doeth good, no not one yak-l ham na #& i Pleonasm is -xlx^-i^. This o*~^ }X)# p& ^j not be introduced without cause. Write (k) A new construction should " " or "on or on horseback ", but not "on foot or or foot walking riding
*.\jjSi>
.JL>
AJ
riding."
Compare:
darvish
khud
riiz
dar taqaddus-jarushi
va
zdhir-sdzi az qabil-i bi-zamin nigaristan, dh-i sard kashidan, va blhuda labjumbdm, va sukut-i sdkhta, va tursh-ru*i, va kaj-khulqi, va bi-mazagi, va pdrsd*i
bi-gard-am nami-rasid.
(Trans. "HajiBaba," Chap. 45) "No face wore a more mortified appearance than mine: even the dervish, who was the best mimic possible, could not beat me in the downcast eye, the hypocritical man of ejaculations, the affected taciturnity of the sour, proud, and bigoted
the law."
Compare
cJJL***
C^-" 'vide'
'/Zm
*-*&*)& $3 j
^U <^^ )& ^
e>ljf
***.
Substitute
is
modern Persian, but is The detectives were baffled by the many complicaIn the following would not have tions, and had it not been for outside help, the murders been solved to this day", though there is no actual fault, the change
in
' '
:
common
of subject is unnecessary
and the
(^ax>c).
Detectives
'
should be the subject throughout also the co-ordination is slovenly. Reconstructed: "The Detectives were so baffled by the many complications that
had
would not
have".
(Tr.
Compare: H. B.
670
Chap.
XXXII,
*j+>
p. 259)
the subject to
oj
1
girift
is
^j>
subject to
(1)
bi-murd
is
^A^ nasaqchi.
may
life
(1)
An
"
'
Antithesis
2
be faulty or
it
may
be incomplete.
An
antithesis
is
faulty
Example
c
Roman
rd. B
'
writers.'
Least
'
'
requires
t
most
',
as
best
'
']."
rji
jAlt
requires
(j^lj
;
bdtin
jl|
Compare f^ j*Uo U*j (**/&** [' Darun ^^ requires birun cv- J ano eS/f JS* y ^ ]. ^ilJ Jix> ^xj maw misl-i insdn'
'
U m d darun ; ^,^
9 >
am
va u misl-i ulagh
for
ii?a^ read
v^l^p- hayvdri].
An
antithesis is incomplete*
"when much
is
lost
through non-preservation of consonance of the terminations," i.e. when it "'The idea which under.' is unbalanced ( &$*> #* ghayr-i mutavdzin).
lies
most
of his plays is
temptations.'
[This should be
internal.']"
6 (m) (1) Climax (a ladder) "is
an ascending scale",
is
i.e.
a rhetorical
patience experience
and
knowing that tribulation worketh patience and ' experience hope and hope maketh not ashamed
'
;
(Rom.
v. 3,
A>^-
^AixA)ysx* ^A lfU^A<op
*L
l^ij
^&
^^l ^ 1;^*' ^laslxi^ |j ^jlaaJxj) ^f^ j AX^A>O t^jj va na tanhd balki dar musibathd ham fakhr mi-kumm chunki mi-ddnim ki musibat sabr rd paydd mi-kunad vd sabr imtihdn rd va imtihdn ummld rd va ummid
*>"* C5*^
^c)^-*/"* ^**^
bd*is-i
sharmsdri naml-shavad?
Halnb-i
man qamar
lust
ast balki
^J ^o
(
>-*&*.
(Example
in Arabic Gram.).
it is
hath conceived, it bringeth forth sin: and sin, when " finished, bringeth forth death (James i. 15) U? *x& ^-jf &^ ^j^j &S ^x> ^Jy i; d>j./o JJAA^; flsutj U? j ^^^ L> pas shahvat dbistan shuda gundh rd mi-zdyad va gundh bi-anjdm rasida mawt rd taulid mi-kunad. 6
opposed to Climax and is, unless used for a special purpose, a fault in style; it consists in an abrupt descent from stronger b to weaker expressions. Examples: J-o b
(2)
"Then when
Anti 7 -climax
is
l^f^
bl-chara-yi nasaqchi.
^uu
*
6 6
7
No
Incomplete Antithesis might be called regular name in Persian but taraqql or Trans, revised by Rev. R. Bruce, D.D. TanazzwZ or inhifM coined term.
;
iadri;
might be coined
for this.
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
IN RHETORIC.
671
shumd shakhs-i buzurg-i hastid, ba 'Urn, ba fazl, p* o*f) art** ^ ba tadayyun rags ham khub mi-kunid j&> ^Jo (J>\ ^ ^lix^lli 9 ^)\? ;> jt u dar savarl va shikar va munshi-gari va dsh-pazi nazir na-ddrad:
;
:
)* *'
/VH*
&^
i^l
j^
AJ"
i*J
**"'
V>^
js^
c$*"^ c$k
^ o.x5jj^t^L
|j
^c***
V U' U
id
?
j^
^iii^ij
cu~.xi
;
jyo
shumd
kitdb-i Sa'di rd
khwdnda
khayll khub ast bi-nazir ast gumdn mi-baram ki dar Kirmdn dah mard mst ki bi-tavdnand %n jur kitdb bi-nawsand (m.c.).
He was eminently truthful in all things. I do not believe he would have told a falsehood, even on his oath '" /*j>j^ ??-*-* Ouw0 * A >* ^^ ) &*** j\ *J.j- ^vsj^ *y^ c$)~> )* ^y^ &f ^*+> u hamisha rdst-gu buda ast va hich
*'
'
'
'
M<<
riiz
darugh-l bi-guyad.
"'Where
'
is
the
is
man
if
or minister either
who has
not read
Guy Man'
as
It should
be
man, even
Kuja
ast
an ddam yd mullah
bdshad) ? (<vb or) cu^l >>t^io ^ V U' ^Jt &&&A Ij^^f ^f o*i l.f. This should be kujd ast an ddam ki in kitdb rd na-khwdnda ast agarchi mulld ham
bdshad
" to introduce a violation of the " Rule of Suspence unexpectedof a short and some end clause the at sentence, long unemphatic (unless ly, such a clause is purposely so introduced for the sake of effect). In, ji
(n) It is
(Tr.
logically
ends at
(o)
tf kunam.
It
is
an
lj
loose sentence.'
Coherence
A^t
(
^)
is
).
j-*u
and
(jj^v
Avoid
illogical
compound
sentences.
one main part, and that part must be expressed as the main clause. The folio wing therefore are both illogical: (i) "Avoid danger. Keep your seats
till
and
"
^ C5^ ^ ^'^
till
*~**
vt
"
"This reform has already been highly beneficial to all classes of our countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us industry, self-dependence, and frugality, and not, as some say, wastefulness." Corrected: " and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us, not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence and frugality." * The same illogicalness exists in the Urdu
^
An
English
example of
this
error is:
(i)
(ii)
^ ez&^ji *t^
Sr^
*&
^^
f*^
j
b,
**
^ "^ ^
672
"To
Al~J
till
" CJK tf
^^
15
<Jb\*
^ ^(+ j ^ y
Connecting, by the co-ordinating conjunction and, two statements that not Other are co-ordinate, is one common instance of incoherence (Jalujt^&e )
.
reasons of
reference
phrases
of unity and lack of coherence are, undue ellipsis, the faulty pronouns, and the faulty placing of qualifying words and &&*> ). Note the ambiguity in: <j:>i*
want
of
is
no ambiguity
In Urdu
>&*
^^
Study
*/
^^^
and Urdu sentences:
(a) Illogical:
"
I turned to reply,
\y
when
& ^^
will
vt?"^
&*
*.
^A^
Lg-3.
This sentence
is
logically upside
down, both
versa.
in English
and Urdu:
vice,
means
^.jJ.
would be
in Persian)
Logical:
"
When
way
^/o ^j
^^
jy^to.
f^j
&^S>
jJ
J^ vt^ L
&**>
(c)
If
you
write,
"When
9
way with
*^
midst of
/&<i
IgJ \ytf>
fi
^3uJ
^ &&
C^*
X3
&
tj0
(j*"
A ^9^-
the idea
is
unmoved
in the
the crash.
2
f*^'
or
*H^*-*.
THE END.
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX
A.
ARABIC GRAMMAR.
PART
I.
I.
ACCIDENCE.
. .
.
II.
III.
Arabic Forms and Measures On the Stems of the Verb, etc. . The Fourteen 'Conjugations' (Stems, Participles, and
.
.
Infinitives)
IV. V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
Quadriliteral Verbs
Irregular and Weak Verbs Indeclinable Verbs
.
&**J\ jjiUJf
* *
.
700
.
IX. X.
XI.
701
703 704
705
S^/o
The Noun
(o!iJt
XII. XIII.
706 706
708
XIV.
etc.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
Abstract
.
714 718
The
XIX.
XX.
XXI. XXII. XXIII.
.. .. .. Gender .. Formation of the Feminine from the Masculine Note on final * Declension of Nouns, and Regular Plurals
.
.
..720
.
.
Diptotes
..
..
..
..732
of
Paucity
. .
734
'
<,*
9o
" <*'<
and Class Nouns {&*)) a*i) 745
746
XXIV.
Collective
Nouns (&*J\
-l),
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
Conjugation of the Simple Regular Triliteral Verb, Active and Passive (Tenses and Moods)
.
.
Pronouns
..
..
..
..
..750
.
Numerals
^\
of
p\
Cardinals
..
759
The Ordinals..
Other Classes
of the
..
.
..
.
-.763
.
.
XXIX.
Numerals
..
766
XXX. Days
Week
..
..
-.768
676
APPENDIX
A.
ARABIC GRAMMAR.
Page 768
769
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIII.
The Year
S5 W
Prepositions (j*J\
o^
),
Exceptive Particles,
.. ..
etc.
..
Conjunctions
..
..774
. .
XXXIV.
779
XXXV.
..
..785
PART
II.
SYNTAX.
.. .. Nouns Definite and Indefinite .. .. The Copula "Is," etc. .. The Adjective and the Demonstrative Pronouns
..788 ..789
.
790
797 798
XXXIX.
XL.
XLI.
XLII.
XLIII.
Order of Sentence
..
..
..
.
.
..796
.
Interrogative and Relative Pronouns Cases of Nouns, and Kan a and its Sisters.'
*
Government
of
U
a
and
i),
like
. .
Verbs (or Inn and its Sisters) The Negatives and Interrogative Negatives, and
Incitement and Reproof Tenses .. ..
Indicative, Subjunctive, etc.,
. .
805
Particles of
.
809
XLIV.
..
..
..810
&'
'
\'
<S
XLV.
Moods
..
(after
&i\
u i*-J -j -jl
..
-J*3)
..
..
..815
..818
819
822
823 826 826
XL VI.
XLVII. XLVIII.
Optative
Mood
..
. .
..
.
.
.
.
XLIX.
L. LI. LII. LIII.
..
.
.
..
. .
..
..820
. .
(and
Aorist)
.
.
and
the
. .
Infinitive,
. .
.
and
their
. .
Concord
Government of Verb
Prepositions
To Have..
..
..
..
..832
LIV.
LV.
LVI. LVII.
LVIII.
Exceptive, Adversative, Restrictive, and Sentences .. .. Relative Clauses Conditional and Concessional Sentences Temporal Clauses Copulative Sentences, and State or Condition
.
Interrogative
,.
.
..832
.
. . .
836 841
844
,847
LIX.
LX.
..
. .
..849
.
849
LXI
f^Jf )
^
.
.
Ji Jl**
) ,
Approximate
. .
851
LXII.
LXIII.
Apposition
J.xx/f
etc..
853
857
Emphasis or Corroboration
Paradigms
xx*UJ? or
^^\
LXIV.
..
859
ERRATA, ETC.
Page 694, Active
Participle.
read,
2.
Por J*i^,
rearZ J*fix3.
For
>"
(a) (5),
To
XXXVI
A
odW :indefinite
*
REMARK.
is
noun governing an
'
noun
in the genitive,
indefinite in Arabic.
Thus
in
-&
t '
^w
"
bint*
is indefinite,
though by a peculiarity
of English
idiom
it
may
be made
definite in English.
Page 820.
<y
To
XLVII
(e), ocfcZ
1^
^ ^*j
if
" to dislike."
Page 843,
line 14.
For "
if
you do."
APPENDIX
I.
A.
(a)
Arabic words abound in even the daily vocabulary of the Persians, and quotations are not uncommon in their writings.
1
Not only is a knowledge of Arabic roots indispensable for the advanced student of Persian, but also some acquaintance, at least, with the elements of Arabic grammar.
(6)
*
U<
**
Nearly every
o ' to'\j*
be
o S ^S^s
traced
3
to
triliteral
root
^ J^^*
W
Quadriliteral roots
f
g^^c
(<f
U^Ju.
<4*t
are rare.
few nouns 4
:
is
"horse";
two
,**)*
"quince."
some
of the
pronouns and
,</
;
The verb
tion
JUi
virtually a preposi-
"before";
Jbl*
is
able
8
;
to
*
receive; capable,
* >
is
fit": Jj*&o
the passive
'&<*
is
participle
"accepted
of
aJb&c
"going out
the
city
some
distance,
meet a friend
or
It will
from aw, the three radical letters occur somewhere in the word, and that the idea "accept or receive"
be seen that, in
these derivatives
is
more or
less
concealed in each.
er,
Supposing laugh to be an English root, the agent is formed by adding the participle or the gerund by adding ing, and the past participle by
ed.
adding
letters,
suffixing
by inserting
by a
Some knowledge
jj
of Arabic roots
is
knowledge of Urdu.
In Persian,
In Persian,
tions,
*
,
Interjections.
Nouns
j,xU>
or derived
f
There are only a few quinqueliteral primitive nouns. Hence " acceptable to the heart ", and in Modern Persian, " pretty."
678
* /
9 ox
*5>
The
**$]>'
cJ^sJt, or aSl^i
used to expand a
[yi*
...'*'..;
tained in the
this phrase,
According to Arab grammarians there are ten *5tjij, zawa*id conArabic words Ifxi^L. "you asked me about her." In
}
hamzah and
alif are
both given
as it is
added to some
;
infinitives,
to
prefixed to the
of unity, etc., and to form the feminine and J,as it is and third persons of the Aorist Active (and in the Passive to the second persons also) to form the Imperative, "Let me, let them, etc."
first
G"
(d)
The
radical letters
(^JUf
JjJ'
),
are twenty-one.
(e)
At
first
sight
it
may
all
is
;
that
is
necessary is to strip it of all servile letters. This, however, the case, for the servile letters are not used for augmentation only
roots themselves contain one
not
some
serviles eliminated
and even three servile letters: so, were all from the derivatives of such roots, the whole root as well
It is therefore necessary
i.e.
as the letters of
to
of
know
what order
action is considered as the (/) The noun that expresses the simple masdar or "source" from which all derivatives are derived. It supplies
is
wanting in Arabic.
it
This noun
is,
how-
therefore found
all
words
though derived from the third person singular masculine Tense, Indicative Mood, Active Voice so, in Arabic dictionaries,
;
of the Preterite
all
deriva-
tives (except
),
and
must be looked
(g)
word CM*
/!
and have expanded the root cU* in every possible way to form paradigms of every part of speech that could possibly be derived from a root, and the formulae so obtained are called "forms, or measures, of words." Just as all the tenses of the Greek verb tupto do not exist in
signifying acto'cw,
forms and
roots, for
From some
for
i.e.
infinitive.
679
is
exist.
(h)
The term
'
Form
'
while
'
Measure
Form
fully pointed.
The
distinction is
often ignored.
() In grammatical language, the three root-letters of any word are not Each derived form styled the first, second, or third but the fa, 'ayn, lam.
;
"
The symbols X, Y, Z could be substituted as a root-paradigm, and expanded for each form by the serviles suitable for that form.
of cUiis in fact a formula.
(j) As an English beginner usually experiences much difficulty in " or wazn of an Arabic word means, grasping what the "measure cyj ) ( for him the following unscientific explanation is given $ *o ' The measure of the passive participle is Jyui* maf ul un and of this
:
measure are
(jl*'
it
measure Jyui*,
written above the (Vt^- If, for instance, fjA** be will be seen that the words have certain letters in common
-
J>*a*>
that occur in corresponding positions, and that these letters are also from ' the 'servile list. Each of the two words commences with the same servile
letter
:
(^ m),
todw) both words have the same number of letters (and the same short vowels) In other words, every Arabic derivative of five letters that has m for the first
letter
will
be of the
'
measure
'
passive
participle.
Conversely,
M
+
qatil
"killer"
its
is
an active
It
participle
or
agent.
Now, what
by the same
is
its
root and
measure?
letter,
the
triliteral
root therefore
(alif),
must be Jtf (=
Expand
:
cW
the
of
servile
letter
J*\*
'.
point the
form with the same short vowels, and you get the Measure
principle to be adopted with all derivatives
J*l*.
This
is
and
all roots.
A knowledge
word
is
guard
against
mispronunciation
Persians and Indians, for example, usually say munhasar and muttaham, but the Arabic measures are munhasir and muttahim.
Some
' '
wy&
"written, also,
a letter
tftJLc
**' "
680
(k)
when the
9
)
t
weak
& G~ /
(xl*J|
o^a.
or
when a
dental and
palatal come together; or when two identical or similar letters come together without the intervention of a long vowel. The three weak consonants are homogeneous to the three short vowels
weak consonant would in pronunciation follow a short vowel that is not homogeneous to it, euphony requires that the weak consonant should change into the letter of
(
o(<^
When,
in a measure, a
prolongation for that short vowel; or, in other words, the short vowel changes the weak consonant into that weak consonant that is analogous to itself. These changes are called the Permutations of Weak Consonants
J
').
Example:
^l**
*
of
time,"*
is
from **j
'*f
is
the
Jl*A*
mifal
and
this
would give
*\*y*
miw'ad un
which
is
uneuphonic
(5
f
)
, o
conquers the
is
waw
and changes
^).
of
it
into ya
So, too,
"
/ ,0
depositing"
for
t^} (v. n. 4 of
(1)
if
the soft
follows
dental
IB, it
follows
^
,
v^
or
Jr, it
if it
changes into
become J;
if it
i, x
it
changes into
^
;
a;
and
it
if i, it
*
;
come
if it
follows},
becomes
Examples
*>
from JL*
" he became
fit,"
f ' ^
'
on the measure
pronouncing
f'
et>
Jl*i*f
we would
get
^JG,
%Lc[
immediately after
becomes
-^iu^t
"idiom "
' '
,
"&
;
"
fcLbl
to overlook, look
' '
down upon,
x
' '
' '
(and hence)
' '
,
from ^Us
^JLfe
to oppress
p&\
x
^tj
"he married," we
get
on
cases.
of
Though formed on the measure of the Noun of Instrument, a Noun of Time and Place vide VIII (6). 8 And from a few verbs, of the Noun of Time and Place also.
*
it
681
X X *O
^"O
the measure JUSJJ (infinitive of J***l, VIII Stem) jtyjt, which in an Arab's
mouth changes
(w)
to
letters are a real difficulty,
The weak
of a word.
+ *
For instance,
"
said to be from
<
oK "it was":
^<
t
i*
root,
as:
"
:
*"*'<".
the broken plural of
J<*
is
*i4, *
(n)
is
ASSIMILATION
fU$J
X
).
When two
is
identical
or
two
letters
is
of a similar kind,
come
together, one
taahfiid]
thus,
f
as
:
'j*t
* S ' f
JjUu]
from
&)
f '*> ;UJJ
S *S
f
;
>J
from^
cliof
from AL|.
X^^
Remark.
(
ci>
one t In extracting the root of a word with a doubled t ( e should be considered servile and eliminated, while the other should be
) ,
converted into either a hamzah, or else a radical waw, as: <3&J "accident,
S S,
f
-P
+>
happened";
cMJ
"junction",
root
uU>
<4
he
"
;
^W}
as, to
t,
A
root
servile
coming afterj
is
changed into a
as:
"crowd," j^^;l x
x
*j^3
way
after
A
mind,
servile c#
coming
us is
changed into
Js,
as
' ' :
viA^i
agitation (of
necessity, compul-
^"
1
he harmed.'
is
There
a root
ti>Cc,
signification.
682
(p)
will reveal
(1)
The
and
-
o may
-
end
of a
word, as
Jlut
ft/]
lfv
and
xO O
(2)
is
The
servile letter
or
and followed by a
servile
o, as:
(3)
The The
..
servile
^ occurs only as a
first letter,
as
^Uax
)&*
(4)
serviles
^ and
.Pxo
stem, as:
1
^ occur$ either in
-
JU&t
(5)
The
oc'
known"
placing
^=F.~>
"prostrating
oneself,
one's
On the Stems
(a) The simple triliteral root or ground-form of the verb is by some grammarians called the 'First Stem.' Its meaning may be extended or modified by the addition of one or more letters, and the fresh stems thus
obtained
by
their
"Tenth Stem,"
figure
(V
X.,
which in dictionaries are indicated by a simple Roman By some writers, these derived stems are termed
Conjugations.
(6)
There are
in all
Adding one
Prefixing a
transitive, or a transitive
(2) (3)
action.
Adding two
or
more
meaning.
:
Distorting the original form as well as adding letters to it implies distortion of meaning and indicates colour, defect, or intensity.
(4)
this
Stem XI is rare even in Arabic, while stems XII to XV are rarer still and may be ignored. The stems up to XI only, are given below. For Persian, the verbal nouns
l
But
and
first letters in
the Aorist,
and
pi. fern.
683
and
' '
of
study
(c)
Conjugations
l ' '
',
(or
infinitives
nouns
expressing the action or state of that Stem from which they are derived. -0V/ t , f^yy Some have always a neuter sense, as o>^j "existence " [trans. ey*^j] pj+
: ;
in sense,
thus
or
"
being helped.'*
on measures.
measure
The
in
Stem
of its
verbal nouns
use.
are numerous,
though
common
(d)
The following
are
the Stems.
The
force of the derived forms and the measure of their infinitives or verbal
L
Ja'al*.
IV.
cUtf
af'cd*.
* &*'
VII.
dUiit
infa'al".
s*'(j
X.
istaf'al".
3>*<,
,*
II.
tV
fa"l*.
V.
J*&
tafa"al*.
VIII.
JSft
+
ifta'al*.
XI.
Jkfl
'
if'all".
III.
J^U
fa'al*.
VI.
JUi3
tafa'al".
[IX.
J^(3
+
[XII to XV.
].
t'/a'aW*].
Remark
killed
/.Stem
^ ^
I is usually of the
measure JU>, as
is
- >f
J^
S X
qatal*
4
"he
"
;
also found, as
ci>^
"he was
'*
'
sad'Mintr.);
J**" he did"
&~^ *
s" " to
j+*
";^c s
to
grow old";
^
"
"to be
'
flourishing,
according to the
Masdar u* ^^^o
Because
in
"source.
is
,,
European
in Persian.
number only
quoted.
The Arabs
Not found
it,
while Kasrah under the second radical often indicates temporary condition,
zammah over
continuous condition.
684
Remark
II.
making
its
Aorist
,
^,
or
a.
The Arabic
6
,
participles
'
of
time
hence Jtf^
.ox
may mean
'one
as
well as
'
one who
is
killing';
Jjiflx>
who ought
The Passive
Participles (with the exception of the simple triliteral) are formed regularly by changing the kasrah ("") of the last syllable of r / / the Active Participle into fathah ( _?_), as cU** mursil"* "sender,"
:
mursal
f '
sent
"
(JUA
and cU^>
of
Stem
IV).
(/) The Infinitive of Stem I is of varying form, and is therefore specially noted in the dictionaries, under each verb. The same verb has often more
f o<XA5
* '
intention"
(*<,'
' '
' '
and
**oft/o
object
*->j
*c :
is
'
'.
J*',
is
' '
and
f Af^J
'
'
'
'
relationship.'
One of the
killing."
f ' '
'
f
:
'
\
The
infinitive of
J**
generally J**, as
Other
measures, from usually intransitive verbs, are: Jyu, and JU*, as:
/-
/ / 9
"sitting,"
(*1U
"being
Jj^o "entering."
<*
Note that
Infinitive
all
with hamzah
or
form the
by inserting an dlif before their last radical. In the longer forms, too, the second consonant after the hamzah takes a kasrah.
Remark I.
unchanged; the
able letters
There
is
a passive voice of all transitive verbs, which is formed of the active. The last short vowel remains
and
J**'
all
other move-
must have
*
zammah
(_L_),
"f
Pass.;
~"
;
,9
Act.,
cUU
tUy '
Pass.
are
also
Remark
II.
The
active
and
passive
participles
used as
/XO'
maktab (place of writing) " a primary or preparatory school." * The same verb may have different meanings, and then has a different noun of
l
as the
noun
of place, as:
wJ&o
ttn
685
STEM (i.e.
the
triliteral)
Ex.:
^^ " he swore";
experienced, tested":
^ "he knew";
3
&y>.
^* " to be bright
*
un
.
,?'
(of
Active. Part.
fa'il
Ex.
x>U.
'
^U
"
adviser ";
JU
"
knowing, learned
Passive Part.
/
>
fi
"
;
tftiPif*
*<"
(for
layiq)
fnf
having capacity
fit."
(,,
Jytix maf'ul*".
Ex.
(i.e.
dead, of
O'
//*
Muslims)"; )yoU "ordered, appointed "; {*&* "understood"; &j*** mad" (lit. possessed by a Jinn). 5 ** $ <,' / *** * *'. * " * " f -o , c> 7 - U*3 s . JUi 6 Infinitives J** J^*j and JUj and <&UJ 7 cJlA s or
t
t
^i
A*JU
(and
many
"
other forms).
j5
Ex.:
vre
;
*"
"
being kind
'<-"-. " be
^
>
A
' ' ;
to
forbearing
JU:
"to know,
*
knowledge";^ "to
accept,
accepting";
;^^
"being
Transitive or intransitive.
x
.
Always intransitive.
"*'
/o"
verbs
"/**/*
.
^y
wc?e
*
XV (4).
X
'
But ^A.
' * +
'*
tr-
Also
For Passive,
**'
vide
Remark
I to
II
(/),
and
XXV (a)
*
and
(6),
and Table
II, foot-
ndte 2 of Paradigms.
* ** +
s
fs*
* *
JU
abstract
$,,
noun from
transitives
JU*
aiid JUi.
JUJ
when
intransitive.
*'
is
from
*,
$,f?
<xJyi>
f*^
'*
intransitive.
Ox
mo/'aZ"",
(J*flwo
x
uncommon
as an Infin.,
is
/x
*'
' '
686
present, presence";
ff
perfec' -
"G
'
tion"; rj*^
die,
"going out,
e>U,
(also
place
of
oU* "to
becomes
death,"
); Ajju^c
(from
<
we
get oj+*,
which by permutation
oUx>
preaching";
&uU*>
"
to be benefited, benefit."
"
:
' '
&(*j*>
*
being deprived
*
cyliJu
to
also
*.e.
"to
regret,
c^
is
"
STEM
of
(i.e. first
This
primary
the original
4
;
meaning
which
it (1) intensifies
it is
8
;
or (2)
makes a neuter
it is
transitive, or a
declarative; or (4)
;
denominative
;
or (5)
or
(6)
it indicates a phrase
or (7)
it
indicates
(
movement towards.
Ex.
(1)
<Jx5
" he
killed ")
(fcL*
c&
^>^>
"he
struck")
*.;'*
' '
"he
beat violently";
"-he cut")^k5
'
"he
cut in
' '
i
"
pieces
:
(2)
(J>
' '
he descended
"
)
J>i
'
he taught
(wJ^ , &
' '
he wrote
tl
' '
^f
v^
him
' '
' '
,,
he caused to enter, introduced"
f ' ;
(jtf "it
' '
was
&
)
tr.
(3)
he told a lie
"
)
v^
;
he believed
to be lying, took
him
or declared
to be a liar
"
(
($*
(4)
truthful"
Jo*
"
;
J^
an army"
<xL.
"a
skin"
),
"
:
"3*^
(5)^-i
^C"
;
^r^
maf'al**,
uncommon
as an Infin.,
is
also the
of place,
Nadamatun
etc.
687
fire-
worshipping ";
v_y*
"to make
>
'
Arabicize
'
:
(6)
^"
to
say^f
"he
&
to say
(Infin.
j&&) JJ^
said
^'
\
)
:
a^l
"
i(
'3ix^^
(Infin. cUl^> );
fJU
a^JU
greeted
him"
(i.e.
xjJ^
(7)
^^
" to go East."
Active Part.
jL*a*
'
mufa
ll
il
un .
J^x.
*k**>
'
' '
teacher
' '
;
'
'
jf***<A*
correcter,
"
proof-reader
;
"
J*A**>
Passive Part.
$z>,y
v^/
"
compounded; a mixture;
ink"
"
g*j*>
Infinitive
Ju*#, to/^
p*M
"
teaching"
' ox
"affecting,
f
effect
of":
*j*&
trial,
*'
port"
"
*>j*3
experience;
are
JU& and
.,
^ ^O JUi>,as
-^
:
'O'
^IjXifrom
'
'x rf "to
repeat
to do a thing again
' '
:
oLj*>
Remark
plurals in e|
also the
II.
of all the
(= sound
though those
o'x
/c^
as:
^x-ji>
,'
broken plural
f
^ &'
cLctitf,
pi.
"
*(;f
-
(= oUjf )
"false news.
"
X ' X
III
i.e.
STEM
JUli /a'oZa ,
first
is
formed by inserting an
alif after
the
first
radical
by lengthening the
This stem adds to the primary, the sense of striving, thus: (JX "to
kill") but Jili
"to
try to
kill,
to fight
with";
of
(^
the
"to
write),
^
";
"to
correspond
with"
(with
the
accusative
person);
v^* "to
is
Hence a sense
of reciprocity
688
X
XXX
often
implied,
as: (^j**
"he
struck")
^(^ "he
with";
struck
and
he
fought
the
with";
(^
"he
sat
') (jJU*
"he
sat
(C^
was
"he went
partners
with."
This stem
or thing, as
:
may
XX
also
mean
to exercise
'
e$ " to be
:
XX
soft, gentle
')
" he journeyed alone ")^ * " or the he either (with journeyed alone, preposition *) with some one else.*
someone kindly"
(yL
'
xX x
--Jib
to
demand
' '
repeatedly
/C"
;
^U
-ftjL
' *
to return
"
;
',
>*l
" to
^o *
hire
" to hire
lip
for the
(\
" summer " (from *-&>*) **L " to speak with fff '* " to embrace " neck "). (from
;
** *
")
f *9
Active,
Part.
cJUUu> mufa'il**.
Ex.
'
'
^UJ|
"contradictory
"
;
fM>*
5
.
hindering."
/X'/
Passive Part.
/XX/
mufa'al**
JpUU
Ex.
ujUx>
"
blesssed, auspicious."
jj,,^
Jf^'>
Infinitive.
/x
*.
Ex.
*b(z*>
,
"
opposition
<
' '
^
discussing wi th, argument
"dialogue
/,xx/
(
^.U*
quarrel."
"
:
^-
JUi
slaughter
';
Jf,
also
Al3lax>);
IV
STEM
cUJf af'al*,
is
signification to
X ' XX
1
But Stem VI
JUlflj
(formed by prefixing
cates reciprocity.
/xxx
2
't
So too
A/
^.iT becomes
is
*}(,
and
A*>c
,JjUx becomes
rare in Persian.
Some
"book"; ^\
* "stirrup-iron"; v-jl~^
"
account,"
etc., etc.
689
the primary, as
xx Ox
f
J>?
^j-Jkf
;
" he bid to
sit
down "
fit
"he caused
"to bring
to write";
" ( JLo
xxx
to be
' ' ;
for"
into good
" condition
^&>\
x-
x C*
cU.*f
" to
x - O x
cause to enter
"
;
"<J
"
g^f
bf
j-*^
"to expose
r
for sale
"
;
" he
"
worthy.
praise-
It of ten
^cf "to do
^-
in the
morning";
as
' " to receive Islam, become a Muslism.' Frequently it has the sense of beginning a gradual movement
(intr.),
'
X^O'
f
he went to
Sham
' '
xx O"
t(
(Syria)
V^T
to go westwards
on,
' '
;
o^f'
((*U>
to reach
downwards
with
;
overlook":
"to stand,
to rise
up ")
pW
xf
" to
halt, dwell
also to
make
to stand."
Remark.
x^i *
:
;From some roots, the Stems II and IV are both used as causals,
i,
mean
9 {,^c,'
'
'
to inform."
x*" x
Sometimes there
is
a difference
jjU;f
"to inform."
^xc,'x^Ox
;
" >U| " Other examples are: u*)^' *a*^f the land became desolate ^i ?*>-<> xxo, " *&\ "the crop became fit for harvest"the water became putrid ^;^(
;
o*
**
*<i
ing"
JftUt fb*\
Active Part.
S>
o f
'
Ex.:
o^U
Jf
;
"overlooking"
-(^o
poly-
O /
theist,
implying partriership
O^
1
(to
God)"
Ex.
^.^^/o
benefactor."
muf
al un .
^U
"
"
"
inspired
;
f***
if'al
un
.
(intr.)
yielding obedience,
otaSf
Islam";
;^JB!
(tr.)
When
the
IV Stem
is
intransitive,
as
is
no
44
690
The broken
^&
xx
plural (vide
Remark
II,
Stem
is
II)
is
rarely
JP
"
i,
^ "
i A ^f.
plural
commoner.
xx x
V STEM J*>
may
reflect
tafa"al
is
formed by prefixing a
xxx
:
o to No. II,
"
beget
of
which it
x"
the consequence, as
aJj
to, to
" to
he was born." extract a child (doctor); also fig. being the cause of ) It also converts it into a reflexive, or gives the idea of doing a thing by degrees,
"
x55xx
"
and hence
&
+*
is
also passive, as
x-
^^
" to drink"
y^
jJ
"to sip"
xSi
(<*+^
*<**-
"to cause to
freeze*
')
X"
(^
;
"
xx
it
was cold
' '
"to
x3'
^ "he
'&"
^y-^3
still
;
xx<-
(j~~$
j~$
he shattered ")
x^Jx
^JU
" he
knew"
^Xc xxx
(
"he
taught, he caused to
know")
fi*3
uiifj
" to stand
to be acquainted
"
vjL5j
still,
to
Sometimes,
pretending,
1
it signifies
x/'x
as:
(j
JJSxx
"he became
great ")
jj
j&
)
became proud;"
common Uo
ill,
"to give
phet"
to feign sickness";
"to pretend
become,"
as:
J*AU
(Christian)";
or fierce as a
lion
"
xtfxx
;
**!)
<J-y
$ak*j.
Present Part.
J^ mutafa
X
il
utt
.
Ex.ijZ&o X
to be
"
f*,,?
ing anxious";
1st person in
f*,s
a prophet"; fl&*
j^U^ "pretending
** :'
;
"
speaker, the
grammar"*
li
a student."
But
VI Stem
is
more common.
691
&' 9
Passive Part. (JUaLc mutafa"al un
9
ji>*
.
Ex.
f& ',?
versed in
"
;
"expected."
S$~
Infinitive J*ft3 tafa"ul*.
:
Ex. jft3
&S
<
<
"
thinking
;
>,
Mi3
<
taking warning
"
;
''reflecting."
VI STEM, J*&
taja'al*, is
formed by prefixing
o to No.
to
Ill, to
which
it
gives a reflexive, or a reciprocal meaning, and the subject in the latter case
must be
l
:
/^ty
"
at full length
"
;
/J
*l/l
^Jb
exalted above
"
:
v;LaJ
"
fight
;
respond with."
This form has sometimes a sense of feigning * and the subject
may
then be singular, as
(j~*>
" to be bold
"
j(*>
^~UJ
s s
<e
to
show
or
pretend to be
bold"; u^
sr
*3
"feigning sickness";
to be a Christian."
"
; t
"
"to pretend
'* *. Ex. o^fy^o
:
**>li3
,f
9
il
un .
<c
' '
being synonymous
x>
"
;
Ex.: Passive Participle J*(fa*mutafa al* n panion." This form is not used in Persian.
c
.
w^U^i*
taken as a com-
Infinitive
tl
JUi3
tafa' ul
un
.Ex.
'
o^
"being contradictory";
' '
;
"
feigning sickness
j*^
' '
feigning bravery
VIISTEM,
to No. I, of which it
10
in
is
necesary.
692
VA&J
x
this
The original sense was a reflexive of No. I, and other derivative forms have become
"
it
broke itself"
but
x x xO
so habitually
used in a
passive sense, that the true passives of those verbs in which the form cUfi.il 1 One of the meanings of this form is is in use, have fallen into disuse.
^
'
^Oj-Xb* l&j-f
"
broke
it
and so
' fO
? O '
'
c-U){
it
became
It
S3 x
"^
Jt
"to
let oneself
be dragged"
&\
" to
let oneself
be put to
flight, to
Remark. I.
This Stem
is
pronoun contained in it is never the indirect, but always the direct, object, and also in that this Stem never has a reciprocal signification.
Remark
this
II.
When
the
first
radical
' 'S
<J
is
{*
ei-
^-J
; or
hamzah,
form
is
its place.
(Active
&
)
"
munfa'U.
Ex.
<J&&*>
,>yiJ
being lonely
*+su>*>
being congealed.
.o
$
un .
Infinitive Jl*&[infi'al
Ex
G.
ft^i]
"turning
x-
xx
shame."
Supposing from
xxxo
.
**
the stem
jj,
^ij]
were in use, the root might be ^> "to backbite", on the form cUv>
2 Fa-nkasarat.
S
The
of the Infinitive in
The form
meaning.
of the Passive Participle is not found in stems with a neuter or passive Vide notes to Stems IV and VIII.
693
STEM, J**i
*
ifta'al*, is
formed by prefixing
to the
*
first
radical
and by inserting ta ( A ) before the This form resembles No. VII in expressing the result of second radical. the action of the primary, and it also expresses the idea of such result after
No.
I,
which then
effort.
It has generally
:
a reflexive,
less
signification, as
*-*-&]
*
" to acquire
living"; *&*>[
*
,,' o
himself,
was busy
*r* O
"
f's &
*-ALLf
s
he borrowed
(a
thing")
cUiit
s
" * '
+ + , o
)
V-r* * +b
v^9**! s
(<j~*>
")
^N^Jt
for";
(^
;
he helped)
*it was
^^x>t ^
full
^"o
JILcJ
+
"
;
(3^
+++ O
(3^*t
if
" he beat in a
9,,*
race,
< xx o
'
etc."
\j+ete*\
*
"they contended
' s*&
;
or litigated
i^J
to be collected"
j*l
/ xo
>>
"
to be or get
mixed with."
f '<,? xiawo
-^xO
9
Active,
Participle*
JUj&c
mufta'il.
Ex.
"striving";
*'
V-AUSLX?
"shunning."
Passive
S>"<j
Participle
JUiAx>
mufta'al*".
Ex.: C^;x
'
^'/o /
"elevated, high";
*-jik "shared, in
common "
un
$,'<,?
;
j*&*s>
:
"
abridged.'
^xO
Infinitive JU^'f ifti'al
.PxG
^X .
*'
XX
.Ex. u*^J X
jly^J
'
"
avoiding
Jf'<*
' ' ;
"
fly^t
honouring, honour.'
'
Verbs with
I
(o).
have
this form.
Vide Assimila-
tion,
2
When
this
VIII Stem
is
intransitive,
as: A$J|
"to be accused,"
the
' '
Active
Participle form only is used, with a passive sense, as : muttahim (not multaham) Vide also note 1 to IV Stem and note 3 to VII Stem.
accused.
694
tfxo
IX STEM
suppressing the
JUit if all".
'
This
is
triliteral
by prefixing];
+
first
It expresses the
s *
:
(^Lo
" he
&'
adj.,
t,
had a
bilious
complexion" j&*t
;
"
to be or
become
'
yellow, to yellow
"
;
')
&' O
V*=4
&><,
adj.)
}^[
Of
this form,
$is<*f
Ex.^+*
/
*'
Passive Participle.
*
Infinitive
*
None.
Ex.
J**jJ if'ilal.
<
^^
<,
'
f^
"becoming crooked";
J^t
-
'
"becoming
squint-eyed.'
X STEM cU&wt
*
istaf'al".
JU*t " he
*
' '
;
'^O'-O
j*&>\
*
" he asked
xxO'C
for
' '
pardon
^r-suUo]
x
he
beautiful"; j&iiit
Sometimes it
is
'$*
teranoath" = Ul^.
xxO *
XX&..0
of No. IV, as
(^JUf
^JULof "<he
X
taught himself
"
:
x x c,x </
J^^yL-J
"
"
This form
This word
is
colour or defect*
vide
XIV
(6).
is
This word
is
Originally also
to ask or
command
to be sworn."
is
And sometimes,
therefore, the
meaning
apparently neuter.
695
frequently denominative
and
may
<xOx
o
signify
summoning
for
as: fd^io^t
"to
call
one to act as
^UL
(tr.
and
intr.)
"to produce
<*(,/
(intr.)
;
and "to
* x
testify to, to
become a Muslim"
j^sS^>\
" to
e*G^
hurry",
i.e.)
"hastening";
;
JUfti-^o
"wishing to resign"
rents, a lessee."
Passive Participle
<J*fti~
muslaf'al"*.
Ex: JU**~*
used
' ' ;
^~:sJ~x>
"
^UL^c
hired,
rented."
Infinitive
J(*s&l
^
<
isti/'al
un .
Ex.
JU*x-of
X
'
''asking for
'
pardon
x<>
IX by
inserting
an
alif after
&'^<,
It intensifies
;&J
According to some Grammarians No. IX indicates permanent colours or those that are transitory or mutable. qualities, No.
This form
is
all,
and
is
St '<*
&'
muf'all
un
.
<b
o f
Active Participle
J *^
1
Ex.
;U^
"
Passive Participle.
None.
0-0
1
i.e.
resigned."
The
of the dots
under
^c)
signifies
* It is
in Arabic
"pardoned";
in Persian it
is
not used.
a rule in ofji, that when a hamzah follows a weak letter that is sakin, the has a maddah (written or understood) ; or in other words the long vowel is * ' ' ' ** fun (measure prolonged in sound thus ij^ ghant} "he sang," but S\A& ghinaa
weak
letter
"singing"
696
"
QUADRILITERAL VERBS.
p
Infinitive
J^lif'ilal.
"
Ex
"
:
jj**>l
't^b
e
[XII
STEM,
d*j*9[ if'aw'al".
This form
is
is
It does
[XIII
STEM
is
Jytit ii
r
awwala
This form
is
It does
not
[XIV STEM,
iu
if'anlal" is practically
not used.]
[XV STEM,
^U*jf if'anlq
is
*,,>
IV.
Quadriliteral Verbs
( <jsl>j ). **
formed as follows
(1)
A biliteral
root expressing
sound or movement
cause to shake, to
may
make
(2)
Jj to slip); <j*-rJ
" to
whisper ";
triliteral,
pa+*>
to neigh"
letter,
To
a fourth
may be
added, as:^I*j
"to
raise
*
up
(dust,
^+
"to be proud
of
(from
"to be high"):
letters,
more
than three
some
form
of
them
vA*^
"
P u ^ socks on a person
(from vj^j
Ar.
of Pers.
vJ^)
>
^*fo"to become a
^^
(4)
They
JLsf^
to say JU-o
to
s*,* ,
^j
*y
Jy^
"
;
" to say
l-o
*Ut /*-J
"
;
"*,-
J-^^
God."
There
*
,
Remark.
are
A few derivatives
numerous onomatopoetic
' '
of quadriliterals are found in Persian. ** <,' ' ' " to <Xc ; gargle quadriliterals as
:
s-
whisper.
QUADRILITERAL VERBS.
697
STEM JU?
;
fa'lal*:
in formation
it is both transitive and intransitive. of the Triliteral " to cause to swing to and fro."
Example
v^i
t,
f
Active,
<.'^9
e
Participle
JUiU mufa
lil
un
.
'9
v <io*<.
Ex.:
v <**/o
Ex.
:
dangled, dangling,
hesitating.'
Infinitive *U*J
un
fa'lalat
.0
or J1U* fi'lal.
* G
"
#>.!)
quivering,
an
earthquake
II
"
;
xO
:
$ * ** b*
also J]>Jj
Lyj
or
^-^j
"
STEM
Jl*>
tafa'lal": in
Vof
the Triliteral.
Example
^*j&
to hesitate
' '
;
J>!>3
^A^
JU*ALo mutafa
X
lil
un .
Ex.:
J^^ X
"shaking, fanciful,
"
;
JlA> tafa'M**.
J**jf if'a'all".
x
Ex.:
J>J>3
"quivering; an earthquake.
is
"
III
STEM
This form
intransitive,
as:
^*
"to
creep with terror (of a person, the skin, or the heart)." to VII of the triliteral.
l
It corresponds
xo^
&
Ex.
:
<0
o^
'
4cft*ve Participle,
JUi>c mufa'iU?*.
^.^Uia/o
[from
*
e>Ul>
" he
leant
back
(in
a chair or on a pillow)]
J=*+<^ "withering."
J^*o]
if'i'lal.
Ex.:
e>
i*kj
"being
at
rest
in
mind";
"withering, vanishing."
[IV
STEM
iyanlal". JiUfj *
This form
is
is
not
found in Persian.]
This
is
IRREGULAR VERBS.
VI.
Irregular Verbs.
Verbs vide Paradigms at the end
xxx
(
of all Irregular
They
are classed as
* x 9
&*
as
:
&
)
1.
Doubled
(UcUw>),
xc
f or
^^
"to extend,
to
help";
"to
flee."
2.
"to order";
JU
" to
ask"
(Im-
C^O
or
<xx
;
perative
cU and JUj
I.
JW)
fy
" to read."
xRemark
the III and
familiar,
If
,*
-
the
first
radical
is
hamzah, as in o^f
*
o^
J
" to be social,"
IV Stems
become at
will
be identical in form, as
^f
(III)
" to become
familiar ,
to
one's
(IV)
"to make
','
Remark
'
II.
xx
hamzah
f
(or
orj) as in
)
fjftj-
fy
" to
read
,
;
^^..^
"to become
blind
";
f'
"togobe-
yond," the
3.
Infinitive of its II
Stem
is
&*&.
Fa*
Jlx> b
JU*x>
Assimilated or
Weak
of the
*liJf
),
promise
"
;
^j^
" to be dry."
Remark
f
/.A
e
alif.
is
mahmuz,
vide
2.
Remark
tive, as
:
II.
first
radical
** " promise
"
:
is
Jk
Such verbs
Infinitive of
Stem
&,
as:
<*JLo
"to join,
" <&^
or
-A*OJ, f
rom
-ft-^,
"to
(
praise, describe."
In the Infinitive
<.$,
as: ^l-j|
from
^j
);
also
this
case of
:
^,
(
is
characteristics of
Stem, as
JUft5}
from JLej
and
;LJt
from^
The
Infinitive of III
is
Uo
and of IV
INDECLINABLE VERBS.
699
4.
o^f
<s
L>
(irjjJ|
<JU*x>), i.e.
which have
weak
Jyi
letters ^ or
W*
as the second
xx
? ,
-
radical,
as:
"saying");
etj
^-
jo*
" to
sell"
(*" selling").
.
The measure
sell";
of the
Imperative
is
cU>
"say";
of
Stems IV and
add
fs s O
]
and
AxloLot
from
fl* ).
JT
x
LJ
xo*
^iUf
wxO^
x-'
-^Ox -
5.
Defective, or
weak of
the
Lam
oajU
JXnx), as:
J>P
^JJ
^^
^t;
).
"to call";
t'tJ"
to throw;
tl
yarzq
to be pleased."
These have,? or
^ for their
3rd radical.
,as:
4
for^fi
and
for
For the
Remark
into
II
to (2)
above.
^ ^
is
is
changed
alif,
as:
(Inf.
In the
Infinitives of
alif,
and X,
the
as
*laJj
from ^SJf
*U*H
from
j^AAJ-ol
etc.
(&)
Combinations of these
may
occur.
letters follow
Remark
I.
3rd radical
^- 15^
"x
tr.
(3 q*. x
1
Remark
jfo
)
:
is
a
(3)
"Strong
to (5)
or
(6)
Sound"
are "
verb
and
Weak "
VI.
Indeclinable Verbs.
These are:
only.
(a)
" he is
(From
700
J>^
fty
*a*-Jf
"am
I not
J(
j^
The
+ *
singular,
dual,
"give"; JUS
"come."
(c)
To
s
singular
* *
these may be added '(S& "bring" (Imperative); found in the and plural masculine, and the singular feminine. The expression
' '
tj^.
fU =
prolong
it
"=
99</'
1
*j*j, etc.
is
In the same numbers and genders haste." This occurs in the Azan.
VII.
(a)
found
$*
(^*W>"^Jf
*).
Infinitives
'
some
verbal nouns beginning with p, which have exactly the same meaning.
They
are of the
of time
and place 4
Ex.
*
;
:
s'UftA>.
^j**
* '
' '
striking
' '
sitting
A+ayo*
doing kindness
*
'^'
"
* '
o*
<*>&x.*
9
'
The broken
?
'
plural of
, ,
' ,
these
is
regular,
<>
on the measure
S&,9
Ex.:
Jtcla*, as: ^
<^U*; s
,
*a>[s<>; s
v-^Lflx. *
"$>'
f&,9
j
(
II.
Jx). JUfixj.
(
v^y
:
= v^P)
s
"mixing."
III.
f.*9
Ex.
(JLllfixj
*"' *
(ordinary Infinitive &13&c
c ' '
).
f ,<,*
Ex.
:
IV.
V.
( *
cUJ!
<v
cUiu>.
r^&
$&, ,
9
honouring.
(
^i"x f
(cW). J*AJ^.
, -
Ex.: ^AlLo
= i3^J)
(
f&, ,
"being tight."
f, ,*
long-suffering"
t
^^
-
,*,?
)
VI.
( cisUii
elcU&c.
Ex.
*,9 cUlaeox
*
= LUUu) "being
a-li u .
In Arabic,
M, and the noun of time and place, are always identical in form
is
triliteral.
But
&j*oxi
"a
-"
~3~ as
its
second
vowel.
C."
c:
' .6-
In Persian
"**a^x and
701
(J*&l)-J*aLc.
Ex.:
wJU( = v
:
iftJ!)
"change.''
VIII.
J*2l
J-ii*.
'
.
Ex.
J&Lc = aOf)
(
"complaining
"
;
= v yj
' O
{
|)
drawing near
'
IX.
J*) ^
-xoxo
JA>=
.6
for
i*ax
).
Ex:
^RX
' b'<j*
*<**<* 9
X.
XI.
J*Ai/ 'c
(
J*fti~e.
Ex
< <
:
yiu~A>
the deducing.
used.
' '
JUit)
^
(6)
If
the
' '
triliteral
waw
the measure
is
$ * lU&x, as
<>
Also from a few roots that do not inheriting.' &jr* begin. "promising ^ O' f tff ++* ' " with ww^, the noun is formed on this measure, as fca^* returning ';
;
:
"
"
to be easy
"
)
' '
' '
being easy
' '
being an orphan.
also,
' '
(c)
f
is
:
+<*9
etc., etc.
of time
and place
of all
derived forms from verbs of three or of four radicals, as also of the simple root, have no plural; but when these forms are past participles
quadriliteral
Noun
of
e)U)
je
the
%' ?
'
:
*U-f
).
triliteral is
same as
**>*
for
the
f
*
<j*
*,
i.e.
J*a* or J**
and
%,"*!' Ai*Ax>
or &***, as
Jlfc*
"a
place
of slaughter,
alighting,
~
stage,
place"*;
*"' "
4* *
l&o
'
maqam
un
"place
of standing,
place", from
ftf
"to stand";
maqburah.
these forms
not constant, thus mahlakah or mahlikah maqbarah or In a few cases only are two such measures found for one word. The pi. of
is
:
,'
is
jUUx
as
and
&&,
vide
IX
(d).
' '
*ii^
Ar. Pers.,
,
and Urdu,
702
<?Q'
"graveyard"
ti
(also ^xa/o,
/x OX
on
"
or
c '
place of execution
";
&^>>>/o
xla
Pst, *
*"
or
<x*Ja/o
"printing-office."
The
Sx.U
a place
* .'
abounding in lions."
For verbs commencing with j or ^ ox /XO " sometimes JUax, 1 as *sjx* place or time
(6)
(1)
^
of
the measure
' '
is
J*jU and
3
'
promise
/
;
and
^fxG
,51*4x5
x*
" time
or place of fulfilment
of promise,
rendezvous
<*s
' ' ;
"
^iU>o X
for &}*>
X
"place or f
(/
^^
"
s
<
watering-place," etc.
^~i>o
betting
(2)
game
at archery
"
x'
(from^j
^ o*
;
"
commence with
^o~
5,
as
<*=F-~/O
mosque
"
*JT*
"
west, sunset
"
;
$ O"
*-*^*
"
place of striking
"
;
ix)
4W ^e
(3)
radieal
"I,
is S
)
is
with fathah, as
^^
t,'
for
i^j*
from
^
'
l*S
'*
to graze
"
;
^U
From
of
al-masdar'l-mimiyy
also), as:
II.
"prayer carpet";
is
fop the
noun
of instrument, as
cjl/fc*
(for
f xO
?rt
"scales";
Uftx
"key."
Plural
c[yo.
>*
From Stem
I,
xx
Plural
^f^xj.
From Stem
I,
NOUN OF INSTRUMENT.
V.
703
for
y*
"
)
pillow."
110 passive /.Though (only the active) u u participle form, yet for the al-masdar l-mimiyy , and the noun of time and place, the theoretical measure of their past participles is observed.
j
Remark
Remark
II.
It will thus
'?.
like
have four meanings, (1) " treated kindly " (pastpartic.) (2) " kindly", or being treated kindly" (al-masdar l-mimiyy); or (3) "place of- "; or (4) time of kind treatment (i.e. noun of place or of time) while
;
'
j*y^o
' '
&o being from a neuter verb will have but " time of infin.); (2) change "; and (3) "place
there
three, (1)
of
change."
can be
:
four
active
measure)
i.e.
meanings (the passive participle having a different and passive infinitive and time or place of killing.
;
IX.
Noun
of Instrument.
(a) (1)
There
is
&***
" a knife
' '
rjd/
XI
(a).
JUlc ; aJLo;
JUix>.
*
"file";feax>
"butcher's
chopper"; jJsx><a
*~J&o
"broom";
)
<*I^o
1
"fan"
(from
"blowing pleasantly");
*(&**>
Sfj* *
(f or
(for
&fjx>
*
a mirror
';
AftkLo {t girdle,
&Juu>
strainer
"( = the
commoner form
(3)
C5iax).
When
weak
this
or
^ as the medial
(from
radi-
cal,
the
letter
f,t,
^5*
*
*)&*
b&*
* ^
").
These nouns are readily distinguishable from the Nouns of Time and Place by the Jcasrah with which the prefixed mim is pointed.
1
704
(6)
JWu
x
of the
noun
of
of instrument are
like
doing a thing
"
coughing habitually";
"
Vide also
XV
(5)
Remark
III.
Remark.
-0"xo
of this last
measure and
meaning
is
;U*x
x
(c)
The noun
is
of
'' O
'
something
pail."
/ 'O
(d)
jxxo
The measure
of the
Jkft/o
and
Al*fix> is
*
:
'
/x
files
, ,
/xo
",<>i^
"girdles": of JUA*
JUlLo, as:
U^^> "arch",
pi.
X.
/o
3- ^
^x o x
).
(a)
or (*/J| f-J x x
S^Jt ;<^^^
done.
I.
It is formed
It is a
by
of
form
the
Noun
The
of Unity, vide
XII.
/*(/ x
/xo
/x o x
;
measure, for I
Stem
is &**',
as:
&>*>
*>5
"one
"one
promise"; "
standing.
Xf^
"one
draught"; xJU.
sitting";
Examples
A^-C
^Hr*
c<
I struck
him once
' '
(but
^^c
AL^ =
x'x ,
?
I struck
,0x
/
'
xxox
/xx
!>-J^
"they
sat
^o
oUjjl t^lS
is
The
plural of this
measure
times."
the
and
= " several
Make no change
for gender.
CONCRETE NOUN.
705
and the simple Quadri literal, 8 have two forms of each one of Infinitive, ending in *; consequently for forming this noun,
-and III,
is selected.
When
is
noun ends
tsss
>/C.>^
in
8,
a word to limit
its
meaning
Vide
placed after
as
*^j x
&>tfl **+*(
"
1 raised
(b)
a j.i'f
^t
or
* yJi ;*-A>C
).
This
indi'**
cates the
%'<,
doing an act.
From
the
triliteral, it is of
x 9 f
xxc,
as:
u^"mode
^
of
writing,
handwriting":
is
(<-*->!
&&
x
ooiT
"I
wrote like
^ x&
/'O
Yusuf)."
If
the
verbal
noun
),
From
number
does."
is
X
'
of times
vide' a), as
vi^^
&
%j*
vO
" ne mixed
it
as a doctor
~^o
XI.
The Noun
(^t*H
^i
Concrete Noun).
(a)
PRIMITIVE NOUNS
be
referred
not properly
any verbal
/*
They may be
triliteral,
' ' ;
quadrihteral. or quinqueliteral
as
JbJ
" camel
quince." They exist in varying measures of all three forms. They have no fixed forms or measures. They are always concrete and are not derived from verbs. Still, in dictionaries, they must be looked for under the form that might be that of their root.
xx
"
From
may
be formed, as:
<
*.'
'"
Infinitives (JU*Jl>.
and
<XJUAj.
* Infinitives
JUj and
o
.
d'JLcllta.
Infinitives
JiU* and
45
706
/
-
NOUN OF UNITY.
"
>*xx
x x
<j*;t*
>V
*~f
S^*
(
'
'
a place
full of lions.'
(b)
DERIVATIVE NOUNS
<3J&/c ^*i
ma y
be derived
from nouns or
from verbs.
XII.
<
Noun
9 o
of Unity.
c x *
NOUNS OP UNITY
ii&^yf
/*-*] )
indicate
" a a species, as: "doves," x'xU^ pigeon or fUa* "pigeon-kind" or *' r ' j*, " a cock dove," (but fU*> used as singular is the masculine of A'-*UA> and=
pigeon"): **A^
The
"a piece of gold," from gold coin" or is a plural of paucity. the feminine plural, plural, regular
$*,*
e *'
"a
v*^ "gold,"
XIII.
Some Forms
of Verbal Nouns.
f'
fi'alat**,
The
1.
principal are
J^X^
(abstract)
#U>
X
as:
;l^ *
"
trading,"
*illk
"
tailoring
I.
;
&f
"clerkship."
is
Remark Remark
under
The
plural
II.
on a trade
measure
is,
,'
as stated
Intensive
XV),
f Jto,
f &
as:
vLo*
"bufrcher."
PAINS AND DISEASES are JUw fu'al u * (which is also one of the measures e ,* f -./ fxf $ ,? for sound), as: |A* "headache"; f(# "catarrh"; JU-* "cough"; jU^
2.
*'
quinsy."
3.
(i)
* f
/u'oZ** (also
used
for
some pains
etc.), as
of the body), or
'
motion,
t^*
"a cry
f
' '
,
'*
' '
j&*
whistling
'
feminine plural in
l
ei>
is
used.
Vide end of
VIII
(a), p. 652.
tt*
5
But
L
or .k (from the
jj}&*
same
root) generally
means
*'
707
*
(ii)
BROKEN SOUNDS
sound
f*'*
AlaJLf
are Ml**,
and sometimes
/xx
f,f
' '
All**,
as:
*^
'
" cachinna
f'
-
O '
of loud laughter
"
;
*
;
'ij*j*
gurgling
<*<A*AA>
" rin-
sing the
mouth
' '
;
' '
For these
'
,.
>
' '
used, as
>&\*A+A* or
4.
c>^** fa'alan**
and
less
commonly
/a'i/
(which
is
also
/xx
fast: 0^50
flowing": d**L
of
heart":
;
J^
"marching,
departure
"
:
f<, X
J*aJ
a torrent
fast-galloper (horse)
traveller."
*'
5.
rii
fi'al**
(which
is
trilateral
^x
' '
Infinitive),
as
)\j*
flight
;Ub
"
drawing back
aversion
"
:
^
t(
iLA
bolt-
ing,
running
away ":
*Uj
for
^t
"refusal":
v^~-
"veiling," and
Zo a "
:
veil or screen
"
:
wlii
'
encountering unexpected-
veil
"
Mi
" a sheath.
Remark.
f
1
f
pi.
99
v ^, X
v^
(i)
6.
'*.
un
fi'lat
,
^ xo
as
:
>^
piece of anything
**W
^
a fragment
' J
AJ^
^ra<
XX
;
also a
broken
|^a>
>x
^
:
^XX
^
/X
Fide
X
e>l*lM or ^1J.
Nouns
(e).
/,x
(ii)
f ,,9
fu'alat"*,
f,*
as:
i^
"filings";
;lAi
"saw-dust"; A^y "clippings, potsherds'*; A^U^ take the regular feminine plural.
"sweepings."
These
708
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
*'<**
(iii)
(also the
' '
;
A-iwJ
" a handful
' '
"
(this
may
of
unity).
pi.
>x f
else cUj, as
&w
'
0/
" a copy,"
or
>>.
/***
i'JUj
7.
fu'lat
un
(also the
quantity)
as
ty*.
;
" redness
S^*JT>^
iS[^*
brunetteness
8.
"
o^^
. l
whiteness ";
as:
" blackness."
fi
al un ,
wJU>
"milk-pail";
"
throng."
9.
AN
OFFICE
fi
alat
un
>
as
" ^ &iU
"
office of
Khalifah."
10.
fs-Z'
is
OBTAINED
Hi
(i
fa
alat un y
as: 93\j^
11.
"
;
For
Participles used as
XIV
(a) (2).
XIV.
Verbal Adjectives.
(a) SIMPLE ADJECTIVES denoting an inherent quality are derived from the simple triliteral (generally of neuter verbs), but are irregular in form and
measure, as
i(
' '
' '
(&>**>
*
' {
'
happy
(from
~js ^^
j*a*
X
cautious
' '
(from ;AX
<c
" to be
cautious ")
&&&
"thirsty
"
(Jwti
f
^1^
naked
"
(from
"empty" (from^>);
v^
{<
8
good"
(from
if
maqaurah
^,
for
or
is
But^JUa
" to whistle."
Also -A^
*'
zero."
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
709
(2)
The
participles
are also
"temperate"
also to
j~Lo "humble";
r
1
cU* "to
excel;
/
(from
' ' ;
/*JU
'
"to know");
"
' '
"
of
writing, a scribe
<->)&o
-
written, a letter
^^y
existing
(a
/G'o
*+j
'
to find");
&y>*^
" mad."
.
Remark.
is
cl**
and the
transitive u**,
not only a real participle indicating temporary state, but also a substantive
t
/
f^
'
/s
and from tU* (always
as:
;lj r Vx
fJU
etc.
intransitive <J*,
intransitive),
"rejoicing";
(from
tJ^J
:
.
"being
narrow"
/d-x
,
/<
,
//x
e;^-
^-x-
t^. X
of the
9
)
;
9 + b*
measure cUif, as
^^\
;
^x
"to be yellow ")
+ f
(
/>
j+=*>
'
<j'
J*+\
"
{,
yellow'
</x
to be green ")
:
;>^f "black-
J^J
stomach"
" deaf "
;
to be lean. in
^f
^c,'
ma
(for
"
Remark
is
/.The
when
it signifies
cofow or defect,
y *
<"
&'
AAU
*U*
deaf";
JL*
2
to whistle."
of
Also^>JU> "zero."
(q.v.)
is
Stem
IX
the Verb
final
radica
mushaddad.
8
The
servile
hamzah changes
to
in the dual
XXI
(").
710
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
'
*
"blind."
"desert.'
1
is
also
found
in
substantives
as
3.
defect (not
elative),
of the broken plural for the adjective of colour *G/ /O ' f ' masculine or feminine, is cU*, as _^+^ J^> and
:
and
(c)
THE ELATIVB
(i.e.
Jx-aftUi
^-.j
).
gives
the
*,
masculine elative
\U
<j-*^f
"better or
or
' <"
best"
J*f
<{
positive);
J*f "more
most
high"; jJJ^t
"more
is
or
naked."
When
tive
the positive
i --
Uajj
<*f
<c
more intense
as to white-
<^e
(d)
When
the elative
is
"than "
it is
t+
*ix)
"she
is
is
greater than
(of
he";
all)
otherwise
it
is
superlative, as:
-?xo'
"this
Ae grandest
(of all
1
";
^ ^^
'
^JL-
ill
"the greatest";^!
of
Al^f
"God
is
most Great
**
)";
J^ -f
"the noblest
men";
the largest
(fern.) of
I.
the cities."
is
Remark
If
not
simple
an appropriate pronoun
2 s c-^ f
s-s-bs
is
suffixed to
a's
'&
s '
&
U>o
stosbs
or)
M&
^f
uiklf >f^Jf
"the weather
is
it
f**^
O-"
1
i.e,
gj*
^<
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
more concerned about the wounds own wounds. "
of the Apostle of
711
God than
was about
my
Remark
9
as:
II.
The
)
article Ji
is
^O*l )
(J
^\
*M\jS't.
When, however,
defined by
it is
always
The masculine
elative can
be
it
no plural.
Remark.
Elatives are naturally not used from roots which express ideas
**
to die."
measure
<J*Jf.
is
<x|
^ ^f,
it
(g)
The feminine
is
jk
when
when
of
it
a qualifying epithet or
when
governs
it
is
a predicate), as:
cP*J|
^UadT
larg est
*)?
of
tlie
God"
is
1
;
o;^
" the
,V^
"
is
" she
the handsomest of
my
"
daughters
;
(and
WU &~*j
9'
(jf
v^3
<*'
Zaynab
9, o-
9 *
-
triliteral
thus
^f
f/f
j$\
d+*
etc.
have
no
is
The
and
of
the feminine
dU, or
(rarely) oUA*>, as
jtf\
pi.
jfc\
tej*
pi.
J&\
or
(r) (15).
God
ifrtiU>UUf
"
).
.
The
^"*
?
<*
essential
'
is
name
*
of
God
is
"
'
9
).
of
God
^Vt
knowrl
*-u
^-ill
magic power.
712
Remark.
^t.9
^Jl**
may be
'->
as: ^JL^
"pregnant,"
br. pi.
o-^;^^
"f
"hermaphrodite,"
br. pi.
and &U&..
i.
"evil," are substantives or adjectives: they form the elative in the usual manner. However, their positives are often used
(h)
jZ*
^
x
9,<.*
(
j*M
or
^
ff
f&*
"this
is
man."
XV.
9 o
These are adjectives or substantives, and are derived from, The commoner forms are
:
i.e.
take
(1)
of J^tf.
Ex.: JU*
"
killer
of
many";
" a great
liar
"
;
f &,
^^
Remark.
tor,
( 5" <Jl&
"a
great imita-
a professional story-teller
traveller (especially
"
;
"&
fl?^
;
"a
f
" barber
"
/
;
JKf
* '
glutton
"
;
jf
35
x-
^^
"a great
z>s
by sea)"
)\**
very treacherous."
(2)
cU3.
X '
Ex.:
&** '
x
"very
truthful"
&l* X
"
"
truthful";
"
friend")
"
:
CH^
very silent
"
:
jj^
"
very holy
(of
men
but
/g-
of God):
9*
&,
(3)
J^.
*.
Ex.
"
);**( =;U^>)
"
very patient
"
;
f ff
^^
"
very forgiving
(of
God)";
God with
This form
J^w
is
very rare;
"very great";
aUa..
"great
collector
+>
=rUA., W?6
(5).
713
/ J^Tf = J!<|
f
u-J^
'
'
&'
"a
"
glutton
;
9,
VJ *r = v !tf
$ &'
" a great
"
;
"
J^
,
'
'
very ignorant."
= J>**X3 (but J^y " accepRarely, this form has a passive sense, as: f f * $,^9 tance"): J^-; ( McU^e "sent" i e.) "Prophet": here it has lost its intensive force.
J^
(4) LU**.
Ex.:
fx^'very
merciful"
*
".
(of
God);
(of
God
or
man; but
^
"
'
of
man
only)
<**&
''very intelligent
"
pJl
very
painful."
This form
*.
'
'
is
"a
;
philo-
"
sopher
a
*
;
vJj^fi
&+&
deep."
In
J^j
"
contained in the
root.
This form,
$ 9v
,
when not
f
'
participle
/
^
JywU,
-
as
cUi
"
"slain
"
(
f'9^,*
/
;
J^
x)
f * *
' '
wounded
"
f 9 o
^
;
(=
^j^}
^
:
-xji
/ 9o
'
>JA>C.
It
,
****
' '
witness
' ' ;
*^
quarrelsome
if
:9
also
' '
enemy."
To a few
$&
still
greater
intensity, as:
(*3U
learned
(of
man
"the very very learned (of God or man)"; ? * 3>' b ~(j f ^* n cc very intelligent"; but j*Al\ **lf "the only)": fW*
'
rt
tj$' *-=^
most
intelligent
f'
'
of
the age
"
:
'
jfj
e
c*!jJf
'
happened"
*,+>+
^j
f
"a
professional story-teller
# &
;
= M\j$
t+
f
'
*M = **>J ^^
ferring favours
(
&
"
:
e^ ix
" con-
<iix
On
"
;
-^'W X
Ai>x intensive.
XIX
(/).
No
epithet ending in a
(which resem-
714
ITS
In Persian, of this intensive form, perhaps the only words used are x^x ^&, **JU and &*\&.
f
There are other rare forms of the intensive not found in ' f&,> " an immoderate &a*e as: but Persian, laugher"; Jj^U "a great disI.
'
Remark
criminator
"
'Umar) and
t
{*^5
ssS
"Everlasting" are
xx-*
+>f
/OX
'*
if)** 4
JkJ Jjj
xx
woe to
xxxJo
<j
Remark
regularly in
s
&JUJ| f*t
',
/
;
^
f
3>
which has no
plural.
f&s
pi. of
s
;
eyoAc,
ffc
but
Remark II L
f
-C
As stated in
$
'
IX
(b),
in-
these admit
for
mentioned
in (5),
but they
9
;
make no change
.?
gender;
x ,
LXII
(d).
XVI.
its
Abstract
ABSTRACT NOUN
is
formed by
and
connected with,
it is
derived, as:
K,
*^
;
"
LS**b
"XX
to
Mekkah," from
4*^
"
belonging to Hasan,
(the
or to
the
Haaanan* ";
;
^^
&
^relating to the
Haramaw"
sacred
or according to
some
Mekkah and
I
Jerusalem).
'
*"f
face.
ITS
715
(a) If
the
noun
itself
ends in a
,>
C;
letters,
there
is
no change, as
If the
t$*>*
a Sufiyy."
(b)
of the
noun
is
letter,
the
first
^ is
of
marked with
fathah,
as: t5^
t,
Hayy
(name
^
1
-
L$S**>
If
^
:
or
or
(as
adj
^
*
ta*)
changed
l^*,
' *
t
rel.
x
& "
I
^ name
&
of a hill in
Mekkah, <_*&*;
t
;
^^
.
"John,"
rel.
^
If
'
1.9
adj.
u#~* "
the
^^c^
rel. adj.
(d)
is
fifth letter,
it is
dropped, as
Mustafa"
adj.
ifc^oS.
^^
-*
<'
I .9
the hubara bustard/'
Ua.
^^
),
rel.
adj.
But
radical
in
nouns ending
in
^ with
^5-
has a vowel,
the
is
only three letters besides it, if the 2nd rejected; but if the 2nd radical is sakin,
preferably rejected, as
rel.
:
the
may
rel.
is
(^g)-**.
"a
swift
.*
g
ass,"
adj.
c>^
rel.
<jr->y;
adj.
"
2
relationship,"
adj.
^y.
or
x
*
U
-
Such forms
as
<j^U^
^J^AJ and
tjb^t
^^
Modern Persians,
for
^U^.
^^
era,
silk.**
2
In
India
is
and
Persia
^y~*c
for
the
and
~**
Baghdad, there
*
known
as
Incorrectly,
4
^
In Persia 8^yk.
Incorrectly in
in Persian
te& and
716
(e)
ITS
in alif
mamdiidah
change the
final
hamzah
but
$ MS*
into j,
,,
as
*U~>
"sky,"
s:
rel.
*
'
adj.
<_$jU~
''belonging to
the sky,"
*U&
'
winter
" becomes
\M
From
(/)
l~i>*
*~*j*->
an(i
vJJ^j* e ^ c
Aj
)
v?
J?f
"father," ^Tl
(>Lf
"brother," <^lf
"blood,"
; </?*> X f^
la
(^b X
"
)
(<7)
Occasionally there are certain changes in the short vowels, as: &**/?
rel.
"Medinah,"
tribe)
adj.
^a*
madaniyy**',
J^J$ "Quraysh**"
(the Prophet's
^jS
Qurashiyy"*.
in the measures JU*
-^
The kasrah
*
is
changed to fathah, as
JUtx>
X*
"a king,"
(h)
rel.
adj.
</
is
usually dropped, as
^^ from
(
*-**!*>
(t)
The following
are irregular:
^U-j ^
**
from c^M^
of
^5*^ w x
" a follower
of
follower
Hanif""
"
^
(an epithet of
Abraham)
(j)
Another form
"
of the suffix is
as:
]yde>
corporeal"
i^^jj
spiritual
";
^Uao "lower"
;
(of letters
dotted underneath
<yUy.
,9
^g^jf. x
**
Xx
is
now
called
^^
~
it therefore
ITS
717
The feminine
J.
formed
in the usual
way by
adding
Persians however distinguish the and the abstract noun [vide (1)] by a long t ( e> y
Remark.
fern. adj.
1
by a
silent h
),
Remark.
masc.
pi.
[vide
XXI
.
(p)],
broken
t-~
plurals are found, as
:
^j**
"a Moor,"
pi.
&; Ux>
*./.
i
;
^oj^
a Damascene,"
/pi.
>
;
.o.
<x&iU^
^^taw
" a Bagdad!,"
pi.
x^fo.
(I)
The feminine
"
as an abstract
as:
^f ^
pertaining to
God ";
dx^ft
"divinity":
^^
"foolish
"
;
"
:
vixT
"how?
",
rel.
adj.
^^,
;
*^^
- Pers.
^^-
" the
c^ *,
Ar.,
"what
is
UAU
in-
Remark.
instead, as
:
c^V
;
ut un
oj
9 ,,
is
found
'
tence of
God "
divinity / ^ '
o>^U
kingdom
of
God "
"
CI^A*.
omnipo-
oj*.U
"
humanity."
So, too, a collective plural is formed from the relative adjective (and also to
(^)
COLLECTIVE PLURAL.
fern. 5. to
some some
of
"the
sect
&s
singular noun.
* '
dahriyy
(Jl**>,
camel-leader, or a
out camels
on hire,"
pi.
As
stated elsewhere, Persians have imitated this form and added the termination to
:
(in
a bad sense)."
*
being a native."
718
THE DIMINUTIVE.
XVII.
The Diminutive
(a)
is very rarely used in Persian, is a by inserting quiescent ya after the second letter
first
with
zammah (_
);
"a
man",
(used in contempt
= Pers. ^Xy
ft,'
)
:
*>>*
slave,
dim. HAC
"a humble
of a
slave."
tf> ^jV),
f^ 9
(s&*
,b -
From
(c)
quadriliterals the
form
is
JJU*, as:
*->*
(2).
For more
letters, the
form
is
f ^? J*L^, *
f Stst
as
:
"
f f b'*
j>fca*
(c) (3).
be formed from substantives, adjectives, participles, , , $, s &, f demonstrative pronouns (e.g. bi from t^, and <*&&*& from *-^t^; note that
Diminutives
may
is
here
&
),
&'
and not -
relative
pronouns
xCx^
(
(taWi
xfrx
from
and
<^A)f
),
AJ^ from
O' 9
x
*>*? ),
^x
'
surprise
and wonder
AAHS*-'
I*
"),
Diminutives cannot be formed from nouns that are already f**9 " of the measure, such as o**? a bay horse."
Remark.
(6) There are rules for the euphonic changes in short vowels they are not given here, but are illustrated in the following examples. (It must be recollected that the characteristic or dominant vowels of the diminutive
:
measure, are
1
zammah
-) at the beginning,
and kasrah
of
--
at the end
"a
f
1
date," dimin.
*,*+>',
dimin.
J^U
little
masc.^f)
' '
'
'
*fj*. (fern.)
of
red,
/'C,'
(pi.
paucity)
'loads," dimin.
If the
it is
THE DIMINUTIVE.
9
un
719
uhaymal
"little
diraiu.
Sulayman"
9 'b ' 9
"(dear)
9^J*
%'
expresses endearment
of a mistress that
has S;^ivJt
triliterals)
^^jJf)
)\&
5/J^
f<<s9
'*'*'*
(from
certain
fern,
;
Jj
"hill" = JLJ5
(c)
(f or
With weak
fi
letters:
(1)
dimin.
v^y buiwyb**:
/^o
;
'.
)
f o*^
v^
V-AXO
nuyayb**
cyt>^>
(for
jj,*
X
'
"
opulence
/
^
(
/xox >
from
^j
dimin.
SXAUX
^ 0< 9
(2)
/
1^ "striker," dimin. v; ^
^j*
x
"
zuwayrib*"
' *<**
;
f,^ +
^^ '
Yuwaysuf
"dear
>
little
Joseph
dimin.
"
;
j*^ "boy, also slave," dimin. ^jJU gbulayyim** (for ^A*); u^ 1*,
-^
^^^
wx/
(
/^/
for
(>;
^
^ o
Ac
).
/ox/
"key,"
dimin.
9 o ^
(3)
UAXS
#&&*
f
%
mujaytih"*;
J^AC
"sparrow"
(often
b s 9
applied to any
little bird),
(4)
f''
(for ^jf
%>9
;
^f ubayy.
;
^f (forj^f f tj9
" brother"
($>, 9
^lf ukhayy.
Lf "'sister";
.
%U ukhayyat"*.
;
,*
ijjj
(for^
"son"
^v bunayy.
"
;
*'<
9 f ?*: *jii
bunayyat"*.
"
a thing"
or
AJ^, shuwayy
or shuwayyat
720
' '
.f
GENDER.
"
;
*A/O|
umayyat
do.
un
.
ff
(5)
" mother"
in the
do.
As
J^yu
"
quince",
dimin.
(6)
j**
sufaynj
Compound nouns
as:
first
compound,
"fifteen",
X ^/
tM\*ip
"humble
God"
(as
a name)
j&*
*'
yu
"a
fifteen";
v>^
<-&
"before
sunset":
Jjg*
little
before sunset."
be formed from regular plurals, masculine or * 9 * 9 o ,9 s f x " feminine, and also from plurals of paucity," as: e^-^^ dim. ijj+l>> J cl> ^,
(7)
Diminutives
may
*&>*
pi.
dimin. olMJ.
(8)
"sunset," dim.
(;UJ(
ttjU-*^!
XVIII.
(a)
Gender.
The place
of the
neuter
by
Some nouns
A.
common
gender, as
^y
" a wing."
(b)
The following
are Feminine
by form
as
A J;
'
1.
Nouns ending
'
in servile
$,
U
'*
"striker
"
is
"
>
(pi. *tAU.)].
o *
2.
* f
Nouns ending
in servile
&
',
as:
^Jl^
"
Salma "
'O
;
(a
woman's name)
-A.
[vide Elative,
XIV
(g)]
^f*
"remembrance "
-^*
for case.
GENDER.
<j?
721
^, for^y^, from
and
^
^
*'
/ox
-
yy "to
however the
x
^
t
is
radical,
)
it
may be
x
)
masculine, as
J^\
(<^& for
^&)
);
/
(
"youth"; ^^^f
'
c**^
"morning"
(from sunrise
*
till
about 9 o'clock
/xx>
^O*
but
tsjftlf
"towns
' '
^y
for ^sjS
).
3.
as
o'
"a
plain
/^,
(wde
Adjective);
sama**"
**sky";
*V^
"grandeur,
magnificence,
haughtiness";
"desert."
(c)
The
by
signification
1.
1 Proper names of women, towns, and countries, and nouns that denote
JUU
only, as
o^f
)
;
" a sister
{
"
;
*'
j*o*
Egypt
"
;
J/oU.
"
"
pregnant
(vide also
XIX
2.
'(/)
yu
*barren
"
;
" menstruous.
The name
' '
:
+>j
"a
n
also flatulence
j
/x
North Wind
"fire":
(but Shimal
jr
hand
f*
side
-
"):
^
and
/c x
x 9
"wine": ^f^
or
"wine": p**
and>->etc.,
3.
etc.,
"Hell."
" hand
The
"
;
J&
"eye
"
;
-&
" shoulder"
cj; X
foot"
also
^X
Remark.
//Cx
"feet
make
their plural
cM
/x>o"
>f x<>x
or Jl^l, as
"
;
/x
^if
<
>*G>>
ears"
(sing.
&&\
).
Because
(j^jf
- iijj^o ^fj^J
x^
In Persian, and in colloquial Arabic, the feminines are used. f b' The principal direction is the East or j&*.
46
722
GENDER.
4. Collective Nouns that denote living objects destitute of reason and that do not admit of the $ of unity to indicate an individual, are generally
feminine, as:
J*^ "
horse- kind,"
cU " camels."
sr
'*
*,
"
as: fU^.
"
;
4/cU^
"a
single
^:
masc. and
fern.
Vide
broken plurals are collective nouns (while regular plurals are not), and are therefore grammatically feminine (though in some cases they may be
5.
All
qualified
(d)
by a masculine
considerable
adjective).
I
number
are Feminine
"a
staff,
/o
fs
>\*
*'
"a house"
;li
"fire"
Some grammarians state, that things that the Arabs dislike, made feminine; while things they love they
f
<j
&*
Hence
^^\
is
f"
is
"a
moon "is
masculine.
f '
"Heaven"
masculine
'
Heaven," and*U-
**
"
(e)
Of
Common Gender
are:
chiefly denoting animals
1.
S~
which a 'noun of unity' can be formed, as:
/x-
jfc "cattle
hoppers or locusts
' '
;
j*~
"
trees
"
;
^OX
j
,,<?
* '
dates."
'
^
form but feminine by Nouns.
2.
signification (AcUsJI
"
totality
The names
of
alphabet.
feminine).
3.
is
as such:
JaftJ
is
masculine, while
' "
feminine.
4.
/Ox
fJLo
considerable / f
number
of
nouns incapable
*<jt
of
classification,
as:
f
"peace";
^
4<
**
a ladder ";
Qr
;
"bazaar, market,
"
path, road."
street
"
;
"
barley ";
^;f
a hare
"
(gen. fern.)
J^A*.
723
XIX,
(a)
Formation
of the
is
by
9 c *
' <
striker ,'
&;U
fern.
A/ojAswc
fern.
< '
served
' '
**Lc
+
muttahimat**
"accused."
#
Remark.
girl."
(6)
s
$"
a youth," ilu " a young
before I becomes
t,
as: Jti
(1)
1j
<^l*j,
as
s
(f
1 1
:
&\j~>
drunk,"
fern.
'
(f
f
;
fern.
i$j~\
&\*j^
"an
^*^
vyL^L "timid,"
(2)
But
$
*
&{*><
ci>il*
<t*
(with
toiiM^Ti)
f'*ii'
way, as:
(c)
"
e) 1
^*
"
naked,"
*ikj* fern.
^xcx
(1) t-Uif
by the
article or
a following
fern.
'
(^j^
"
9't,'
small-")
J^
fern.
(2)
But
iA**f
its
feminine *JU',
fern.
as
<,'
"white,"
fern.
"chestnut,
red-haired,"
/.
ex
Aj&
^
"lame,"
^
(d)
O'
;
^'
ustft
fern.
^
x
.
*M^*
it
" a white
^
'.
leper," fern.
or intr.),
*^.
is
J^> when
equals JLcU
(tr.
and
a predicate to or
" a contented
girl."
It
is
v"
though even
in the
Quran such
orthography occurs.
f*f
'
.
Broken plural
3
JUfiJf
F^e
also
XIV
(d)
and
(^).
/of
The feminine
of the
dual
j, vide
XXI (i)
Remark.
724
f
/x
it
NOTE ON FINAL
*<*
$.
'
equals Jj*&*>, or
f **
if
no substantive
(or
pronoun)
is
as
"
;
AJ^J fern.
Remark.
(e)
The
and masculine
is
plurals.
'
.'
when
it
lions as
^."^
*!r*J
" a wounded
woman";
6
"a
it
murdered daughter."
is
$ s equals <JcU, or
XX
a,
as
&
"
o^y*
x
"
Eemark.
(/)
plurals.
only,
make no change
XVIII
(but
(c) 1],
when
as: <3JU>
"divorcee"
fern.,
*&&*
J^lt
elc^ "pregnant";
"giving suck
"
*'
etc.
But
|&*j
^A
*'
Remark.
XX.
(a)
Note on
it
final
g.
boy,"fem. a&"girl."
When
Noun
f *'
the
the
of
Instrument
'
*t
is
an intensive adjective
IX
(6)] it is
governed by
same
a
rules as Jyfc
and JUiu.
as:
In verbs,
is
it is ei>,
ooe
O'
' x
"she struck."
;
In Persian, the
are
final servile s of
ci>
Arabic nouns
some words
written with
only, and
some
is
either with e* or
indiscriminately.
Ji^ic 'aqida
;
"
ally)"
eb
'aqldat
"
belief in
*JJJU ta'ziya
the representa-
O*J_)MJ ta'ziyat
condolence."
NOTE ON FINAL
/"ox
*.
726
(6)
It
^"
(c)
It
a she-cat,"
S>
;>fc x
pl.
*A~*
"a
x>
copy, recipe,"
pi.
x
*~i;
&y
x-
"village,"
(specially a f '<t,
'
f* c 9
pi.
;
***
"a
"
"
5'"
beast of burden), v'j^ pl
;
f,
***-
" a volume,"
"
u^jj)
and eU^>;
pis.
(rf)
F^ce versa,
/
it
X
>
or JUj,
or else
a feminine
collective,
as:
<*V~
"travellers";
*?
' '
same stream
;
' ' ;
"a
dealer,"
*x
;
pi.
xJU^
*
X
<{
camel-leaders"
&(***.
"horsepi.
&l&+> ''horse-dealers";
/xx
<c
fl*!
&
JA
"a
tom-cat,"
4<
pi. j>k
tom-cats
"
;
&^
^Jv o 9
(e)
It forms substantives
from
participles, as:
fLi "water-channel"
"a
(/)
claim;
It corroborates a plural,
/-o
-
"
metal-polishers," pi.
tS
of Jla^
x c
'* pi.
&*ty.
***, AJ^ etc.
(g)
Vide
XV
(5).
(h) It is
as: &j
cjjj
"a weight";
' '
AJU
A3U (for
*
>l>t
+
giving help."
726
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
XXI.
(a)
Declension of Nouns.
Accusative.
Plural
tjitJI
Dual
^ujf
),
and
tanwn marks
).i
Definite
s,
(
Definite.
<
,
)
(>*)
*j**
with Pronouns.
kitdbuh".
t
'
^
kitdb in
.
-;
al-kitdb 1
' ' <"
.
kitdbih*.
s' '
kitdb-i.
*
(j
'
kitdb an
al-kitdb".
kitdbah".
kitdb-i.
A word
(jej&xvo
(b)
:
in
the Nominative
is
called
and
as
above
is
called a Triptote, or
*
by Arab
nomina-
grammarians, o^^Lc
tive
tive
is
declinable."
in the
/ in the nominaEvery noun (undefined) that has ^ <*p 9^ vide (/). is a Diptote (o^i^^-j^ # * f' , " words "father"; -f (c) The brother"; ji "possessor", f
a triptote.
S>
"mouth " [y ];
with long
father-in-law
"; and
^"
9
'"*
1
2 i.e.
when
9 s
defined
by the
**
Article,
o
by Suffixed Pronouns,
or
by a following Genitive,
flS-o
9$
-
as
Jl^.J\ v-jU^
(J^/^l <*J*
(z>* t
e ^c. etc.
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
99 x
727
^
x
"
my,"
as
jjf
^3 <^f '
#
Zayd."
(d)
This
is
drops
its
it loses its
tanwn, as
if
*JJ
Zayd
*
'bn
of
'Amr."
But
the word
*J
happens to begin a
ft,
the hamzah
,
:
is
c,
not dropped.
9
jf
It is also
is
not dropped
when
<jJt is
used predicatively as
the hamzah of f*t
)j+*
^j
jjj
Zayd
In'Alfl
f~o,
is
always dropped.
#
A weak
radical,
with or without
(k).
tanwn
at the
end
) ^' ul5 *
-
of
Remark.
The word
is
"one
(/)
(<Jj*a\*
j*
).
Some nouns
are im-
perfectly declined,
*
(
they do not admit of the tanmn. These take zammah in both the genitive and the in the nominative, and fathah ( '
.
.)
Such are
called Diptotes. 1
All Diptotes when rendered definite by the Article, or a Possessive Suffix , or a following Genitive, are treated as Triptotes, i.e. they take kasrah instead of
fathah, as
^^
xx
(def.
with
al)
yfcil indef.)
*
x
tjJt
^jV
(^)
(def.
without
al)
"
are triptotes, as
.
A+st/o
'
^
others, diptotes, as
fc^wf,
x
]
(h)
Nouns ending
9
(fern,
case, as
Musq; bjtf
of^f
).
,
l
case like
^I
Or
&)*, or
"
;
an y noun
ined to
"
my,"
nor are the regular masculine and feminine plurals considered diptotes, nor the plural of ^J>,nor words like^U, though
i
or " indeclinable
728
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
*<
(t)
The Dual
jJuJ
).
Masculine (y<*
).
X
Feminine
X
^Jy
).
Nom.
Gen.)
-P.
\
c/jltf
x x
kitaban 1
Nom.
Gen.
1 i*)U&U malikatan
xx
kitabayn
1
.
(&#*& * * -L)at*
malikatayn
Dat.
o>
is
Zayd"
*#&
^9
fl
kitabay-h
two books."
If
Remark.
(
a noun ends in
alif
mamdudah followed by a
servile
hamzah
*f
),
"two deserts"
Ox
(from *f/R-);
xXOx
x^t,
^l.^
u^f^]
X
'
(^')
Nom.
Gen.^x
Ace. 3
re>
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
729
for
both
cases,
1
qaz**,
and without
is
it
(^laJf al-qazi.
As fathah
over a yd that
preceded by a kasrah
#
is
and
x
^^l
X
aLqaziy*.
With the
**
^
affixed
*J^Ui qazi-h*;
x
and the
Ace.
<8U*0U
**
a u qaziy -h
Only the
definite
form
of such
article) is X *
The
Nom.
oj-tftf,
(1)
Similarly,
*'
fata*
a youth
"
(from
un
^i&i^iJ
.
,
"
to be
young"),
.*
is
on the measure
u
.
<JU*,
standing for
J*
all
fatay
and
^^J&f
al-fatay
euphony, there
<
no change
for case
^
The
and
&
Their declension
^" o
't>
.
%
not expressed
(
c/
(^J&l'.
is
virtual
<^J*&>
(J&).
xx
>*c,-
^-^
" to increase,"
^
intr.),
x
xx ^^
;
XCx-
they, too,
make no change
rule.
for case.
(w)
Words
like
(o)
,
present participle of all derived forms whose final radical is have the terminations of (ji>\* - c^^, while the passive participle will be
/x x
The
ike^^^u
XX
^jj^.
The broken
sS
S'
SS
UJ in the
Sing.,
and
<^>f>^
But
if
(or
a j
(or
would become
.x
)
aZ*/.
2
is
<JUfi^
of the dots
under
In the Quran
alif
maqsurah
becomes
'":
:
Uj.
730
Nouns
like
o^LJ and
*
&j*>
are called
final
vowels understood."
is
used for:
making
their feminine in I
(ii)
Proper names of men, provided they consist of one word (and are
JU*f
not compound as &Uf **c x
),
*:
of such
names.
(iii)
(iv)
Diminutives of masculines that denote rational beings. i Relative adjectives in (qualifying a masculine plural).
(v)
The
9 ,9,S* '<{ dative J**f with comp. or sup. meaning, as: ojySIU for v
Remark
I.
It
when these
feminine
are of
common
gender
(i.e.
of the
i; [vide
Intensive Adjectives
(3)
and
of the
sound masc.
pi.
s&*
(vi)
s&
it
'
JUj when
pi.
(vii)
rule,
viz.:
&&
"
sons";
cJUf
jJjf
;
")
ji
;
"
possessed of,"
pi.
^ and
"
cj^;f
el->f (more
others.
commonly
u^ljf
AJU
"a year,"
pi. u^Ju
"
The
ijy^,
etc., are
,&3
(which
is
)Ukcf
2
and
peculiar form.
In Persian
x
is
The oblique
case ^jJJm
used in Persian
(of
731
vide
(), the
c*
appears in construction.
(q)
(i)
is
used for
(ii)
S.
(iii)
ending in
$,
'
as: olfcUi.
o * t
(
'
tailoresses"
f
*<**
).
x-kt^ sing.
fern,
).
(iv)
The feminine
p
plural is cUiJi
(v)
superlative
^*
of
masc.
<JU*f
(The
broken
).
/o-;
(of
JU*f
when
it
*X
(Plural,
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
Names
of the
months.
"
and Stem IV
<*
"
and
nouns.
pi. JUctiv,
ckck'f).
(ix)
(x)
UfT.);
>A (P.)
(xi)
(xii)
"
nightingales
"
;
ol*!>* * *
of
plural.
as
(xiii)
Feminine nouns in (^
<*
and
9
"'<*
9
;
eUUa.
etc.).
^yi
"
f ,<,
as: u&*> "pregnant," pi. ' ' " / , *o' br. <^r>*^ pi. (also *fj-o, pi. c^fjauo
*f
,
* b
(xiv) It is often
f $
ead in
' '
as:
fU*>
/
used for neuter nouns 8 even when the singular does not + f~ t masc. a "Turkish bath," pi. *aUUa>; *U (com.)
,
(xiii).
In Persian
In Persian
(jlf.
2 3
J|^Xt>.
as:
c*U^
oj^JjT'A***'^
ci>lX.
(for
^t^
),
and
"
>ljx0?,
*
ruins.'
'
Vide
XXII
(a) (x).
732
(xv)
DIPTOTES.
few masculine nouns that have no broken plural take the regular
f^ *
f
*
'
' '$>
feminine plural, as
c>t>^,
pi.
Remark.
sometimes accompanied by
charge, attack",
pi.
" a
9
..
" a room,"
f , , 9
pi.
j ,? t
CD^SU^ and
XXII.
(a)
(i)
Diptotes.
:
The following
Proper names
,
end in
masc. or
fern., as:
w-*fj_3
woman's name)
&jl*x> (a
man's name)
**
(a
man's name).
moveable, as
Ju^
?r#" *4/j
triliteral
may
or
may
*** or
*U
*.
(a
**
Egypt," and^-A*
:
"
acity."
*'
But such
as
have
^ft*
Hell."
*
Remark.
is
frj*
is
the same in
all
cases
vide
XXI
*'.'
'.
(/)
to (n).
^y
Any
un .
^Afe Zufar",
corruption of
^
*
Zdfir
^(v)
Proper names that are on the form of any part of a verb, as:
f
*
(
<f
,
c
^35^
AJJJ
**>>
he increases");
" Jerusalem."
as
e>Ui*;
>**
names
of
one word, as
u^jJUj.
9 '*'
(vii)
cWf
f<*
;
).
[The feminine
9 G'
*' f
of
cUif as a superlative
.0^ Ox
i
but the
pi.
^\ is an exception].
But JU;
widower,"
fern
DIPTOTES.
733
(viii)
Those adjectives
of the
G '
x C x
as:
f
'
olAk* "thirsty/'
fern,
^ke
(but cAf>>,
"naked"
fern.
AiL
and
"table companion,"
(ix)
fern, <xjtcjj).
1
to 4, as
*\t*\
or
"
by ones,"
(x)
etc. (but
aW
*T in
units").
All
nouns in
which the
final
hamzah
>
:
is
zan'd
[i.e.
*f
not changed
^
from
4.5
'
Ox
of
or j as in
*U*kj (name
is
district)].
But
*U "water"
the
*
is
hamzah
fern,
not za*id
it
and
in
it
is
when
;
figuratively
when
*
it
means "rain"
etc. it
ismasc.
it
^
so too *L*i
X
was jUo.
X
'
'
'
^U=^l
"friends," and
*!*
"martyrs," the
hamzah
is za^'d,
is
not 3a*id.
Remark.
(xi)
9
,
^jUs*
"pregnant
a servile
alif,
as
(pi. Of
u>&*"
(pi.
of I^UH^
).
If ,x
however a
/;J5
X
& is
/x
noun
is
declined, as:
jl*
(pi. of
o|^)
"
money-changers."
(xii)
'
in 5
x35
as
ii-. wA^ai
3^ "
three
is
f&'
(xiii)
The broken
plurals J^
(from Jjf
"first") and
9,9
(from
"other").
(6)
All Diptotes
that have
Jf,
become Triptotes.
The regular masculine and feminine plural, and the dual, have two cases, but are not diptotes; they never become tripotes; also the only
(c)
734
feminine plural takes tanmn.
BROKEN PLURALS.
The
plural
of^is not
words as u&* or
(d)
in
&
or
in all cases
xr '
"
:
<^j&*
good news
"
;
Lit**
"
presents
sick
men";
"
jl*e
virgins."
Remark:
alif
maqsurah
is
radical
(as
in
"guidance"
XXIII.
(a)
Broken, Inner,
or Irregular Plurals.
that no rules can greatly some measures are more common
These
are so irregular
and
various
than others.
after
for
Though some
irregular,
when omitted,
to be
Some nouns have more than one broken plural in this case regular plural. the plurals have usually different meanings i.e. when a noun has several
;
meanings
each, as:
form
of
"
pis.
t*Aj
"
boys," and
atyf
^O'
dants"
^^
pis.
"
"
^f
&&
"springs";
The
feminine, even
when they
are
they
are
The sound
plurals indicate
So called by German scholars as the change for the plural takes place within the
of the word.
body
2
is
BROKEN PLURALS.
(d) Arabs <<?(*'
735
sb't+9<j'
(
in
<jf
$ *<j
Sb"
& ?b*
it"
AJUif
j J*jf ) JaJf
a'jjuf
o^l jl^
PLURALS OF PAUCITY
(i)
are
*
JaJf,
1
^)
+
"a letter";
J
o^f
x
-^
letters
"; (but
^
'
J^ " many
^
"
4<
*'
letters ").
f*
fc
.
(ii)
*W,
/' O'
as: *-J*
fs
"some boys,"
<*'
oUU
many boys
f
fj
").
'
(iii)
*JUJf,
"medicine":
*^f "a
few
" " a drinkable" (but *->j~ many drinks"). This form the letter a long vowel. in occurs words that have penultimate only
drinks" from
^j
(iv)
JW,
^.
This form
may
be
either
plural of paucity or
a plural
of multitude.
Remark.
'
literals
(i.e.
JUif
'f
and J
*
**!
'
can have, on the ordinary measure of quadria second plural formed, which
is
Jrl^f
^
and
clj^Uf),
x
then a plural
of multitude.
a any number from three to ten incluThe plural of multitude sive; it cannot, for instance, express 2 nor 11. 8 denotes any number from ten to infinity. (e)
The Plural
of Paucity expresses
DOUBLE PLURAL
'
+-Jt
**. )
less
than 9
(or 10).
Vide' (m).
is
(1)
a PLURAL OF MULTITUDE
:
when it denotes
whether Jf
is
prefixed or not, as
c^^f
s c/ cA.-
* s <S
Jbf
^ ^
This form
(JjtJf is
Or according Or according
to
to
736
BROKEN PLURALS.
happy who humbled
is
,9
(jf
S(j
&j*(
pjL*
^ p* ^Jf
^'
certainly the Believers are
"
:
here
x 9 9^ c^^Jf,
being definite,
a plural of multi-
Jf agrees with
is
(2)
is
of plural, as
'
'
1
j^
"
tree-kind,
a tree," &\j?J
9
;
"some few
XX
trees," jl-&l
f' +
^^U
"
many
signs."
plurals
The
regular feminine
of
paucity denote
class.
has no restriction as to
paucity or multitude.
(t)
Broken
treated as singular feminine (collective) adjectives in the singular feminine. They may, however, be qualified by a
x/oxjr^
(or \3y*l
J^
men,"
as well as
by
the noun denotes rational beings, as f s or nj^JlUl u>7$0f: ^U?Jf e*UJt^jf "the good horses";
if
x
tf-x/xcx/x
^
/xCx
{<
fat
cows "
"
)j* j)b
shining pearls."
An
noun, as
(j)
adjective in the broken plural cannot, however, qualify an abstract f' *',$,<*, s f '(,' ,S**>?,^
:
*+**>'&
JU>|
),
p$l*&.
broken plural
c^U.)
(i)
letter
or letters
as:
"man,"
"men";
as:
property,"
a book,"
pi.
Jf>*l:
,
(ii)
x
^
*
'
99
pi.
v^r
^ft-
(iii)
Many, or few, as this measure is common to paucity and multitude, vide There is no special feminine form for broken plurals of adjectives.
(d) (iv).
737
/
;
*f
).
" a lion/'
f 99
pi.
99
**1 (also
^f) "lions"
^^
"
great,"
$9
* (also lJb r
(k)
(not
J^
primitive).
^^ " jewels/'
f$i
'
9s*
pi. j*>\f
(pi.
$ of pi.
x x
)
:
xo *
out^t^ "
"
any conveyance,
v^
^.
letter," pi.
pi.
j^C;
<
ru
"
'
key,"
pi.
**>&; '
e)^
(Per-
sian
^garden,"
pi.
e^^;
^,9
$,<,,
9,,
<*
(>*vo
magazine,"
pi.
c>3'-
i^*.
(1)
ETC. (exclusive of
[vide
Diminutive
as
:
XVII
(c)
cut
off,
u,*JjIr
"
nightingale,"
9
pl.
x
XX
/xox
,x
:
Jil^c; cs^ACi*
last.
"spider,"
the
rejected
radical
is
generally
the
quadriliteral
/^x
or quinqueliteral
/x xx
:
xx
*Us'f, X
otherwise AiJW, as
f,
XX
/X xx
pl. *^l*l
;
"<>
/"/
<*
;
XXX
,
if
they begin
^"x
/ C^O
x x
e^y,
pl.
^M;
</
^lJuf , pl.
**M
^AJJ, pl.
/x xx
X^
pl. of
*l)f
Remark.
(7/1)
PLURALS OF PLURALS
j+*d\
x
u*&*
).
(1)
liteTals,
& x *0* ' x "the dogs and indicate a large number, as: K^J\ ^^f x X
,.
of the
xxO-*
'
"x
of
^O'
quarter,"
but
f
xt/x
v-y^>
Arabia."
>>
Examples: Jy "sayxx
ing";
/0>
pl.
Jlyf
pl.
xx
of pl. /x
tfe*
X"
"
many
dual
sayings
":
^"x
;
^o
pl.
"
'*
pl.
^f;
of
pl.
urfA*
two
47
738
<,x
* )
"
l
Xxxl
hands";
pi.
*>J
^*itf
pi.
of pi.
a*if
(o&Jtf)
f 9 9
f
"many
hands,
9
also
, ,
assistance,
benefits":
/x
x
*******
pi.
CA*L**
/ x/
"books";
<^|lc'.
pi.
uoJl*-*
"
&**"a
city"; pl.ej**;
pi. of pi.
'Vide'
(e).
(2)
is
j*j*
-j*>\j*>
*>\j*\j+
^J=
8
;
pi. (^fc
,99
(n)
IRREGULAR PLURALS.
:
The
following are
quite
irregular,
or are
"mother,"
*'
pi.
^<"
mouth,"
water,"
pi.
|yf
" mouths
rumour."
$,
x>
"
pi.
^ or
/
x
/x &
C^
woman,"
"
aj
pi. *l~i
or S>-S or &\j~*
" women.
man,"
pi.
pi. of pi.
&W
).
(0)
(1)
un "a,
mountain,"
pi.
Jk*jibal
^
un
.
cU^
f
*
rajul
un
* *
man "
' '
^
\ pi.
Ja.!;
m^7
r^
MW
ttw
' *
a footman
J^ rijal un
r ty riyah
-j;
"a
strong wind,"
pi.
un
.
In Persian always
<^-ojf
and
pi.
^J
cU;
ilU.;
JUx,
JU.;
e)^>
739
; rifl**
a foot
"
,
pi.
jl;f arjul.
(2)
^
v^
f
o-
malik
un
a king,"
d^Lc
f
,,
muluk.
.
^O-M
qalb
" a heart,"
*9
^JS qulub un
dars un
"a
<4
lesson,"
,,
^^ durus.
jr
//
z+# bayt
un
a house,"
""
O " i
v^ju
buyut.
river,"
,,
jlit
anhar.
afzal.
^ O-
fad
un
a "kindness,"
un<i
J^l
, ,
shajarat
" a tree,"
^Uuf ashjar. 8
>" *-c^
^^
e>y lawn
"
<f
colour,"
,,
^f alwan.
f
xc,'
>
ri*A MM
^j;
soul,"
,,
^f anwih. ^
X <,'
4<
property,"
state, condition,"
,,
*'
JU.M
W<<
,,
"
door,"
(4)
-ixr>
&*/f argbifat.
Ua.
"a wing,"
<(
,,
Aaxi^f ajnihat.
^^
usan un
f *
a horse,"
^
,,
o*
A'JL^^f ahsinat"*.
&*
x
sildh
''weapons,"
,,
'(1)
V UT
kitab
"a book,'
ff*
'
pi.
v^ kutub.
Plural of paucity.
In Persian shajara.
tree-kind.'
Shajarat
u*
^l^au*,
pi., is
a plural of paucity.
*
6
These
740
/X
X
"a
city,"
pi.
eJ**
mu4un un
un .
'
' '
*
-f
juJU safinat un
a ship,"
J^A^ sufun
*V
,<,
qaryat
un
"a
"
village,"
etc.,
,,
<^y> qura". f ,9
#M
birkat un
pool,"
,,
<J> burak.
&lcmillat un
*
"nation,"
etc.,
,,
Jl* milal un
*
(q)
"
kind,"
pi.
ft/ kiram.
^&x
fcj*
whip
for
.^x % un kk** siyat .
flogging,"
,,
<**f
,,
x*f
*)j
usudun . wuld un .*
,,
ii
khashab
!<
"
wood,"
,,
vJU. khushub.
f 99
-Xb*
sky,"
,,
fuluk
un . s
(r)
ff'?
(1)
singular &A5*
^"
<?
pi.
JbJ;
**f
"followers of
a particular prophet,"
^r
pi. ^*f.
x
^ 99
:
'
1**'
(2)
The
pl. -**^;
j>^ "a
wall,"
pi. ;<v^
;Ua.
"a donkey,"
is
pi.
7+^.
t
But the
99
plural of
v l.vo
sahab
"cloud,"
also of the
(/).
x
<
The
"
;
/^ox
but
"
.iiljf
offspring, descendants."
Also
tj''
plural of paucity.
741
(3)
The
f
5
<J*b',
X
as
x
&X*
x
"a
trader,"
W
pl.
jUJ
^Ux
Governor,"
pi.
^
1
&9
r
;
$tf
$
1 ;
JU*,
pi.
JUc
JUu
may have
(4)]:
other
forms
plural, as:
cUU,
pl.
,41^ [a s well
asjl^
vide
^Jb
e^^.
When
<Jcl%
without a weak
letter,
is
an
irrational
or
a neuter
substantive, one of
its
plurals
may always be
but cUl*
<e
a governing
word
(in
grammar),"
pl.
JLci^*,
"a
Viceroy,"
pl.
JU*
v^ u
pl.
"eye-brow,"
*t^H* (and
pl.
v^>^5
x
)
x
<{
and ^^Af
but AAU
X
a proof, sign,"
pl. <xMy&.
^
(5)
The measure
x/>
*JUL> *
Ji
meaning
x
1
etc.,
J^'
always one
fx
x
plural
CxUf^',
as: 5^U>
pl.
'
xx
xx
marginal note,"
pl.
^[^ "x
^
*
"
Jj^
8
).
or
J^A.
gut,"
pl.
t^jf^ or bfj^
AJ^J
angle,"
pl. csjljt)
(and
lj|>3
zawaya
(6)
The
plural &*>
must have
^r
/^^
"seektwgr," but
*^U>
"school- boys,"
{<
sing.
wJ^
X
v^
tuttab
and
rarely
V*
j[*o6-
seekers
"
;
x
1
x
:
Also
^JLeU x
all participles
may
be used.
x>>>
*
this
in
Arabic from
742
But
<xJU>
may
be a singular, as
is
Xj*>&
of
*;&.
(7)
The measure
&^
always a plural
rational
nouns derived
from verbs with the third radical weak, as: c>^ qdz in ,
&*&
);
fa
"missionary
(of
any religion),"
pi.
*k>
"shepherd,"
pi.
*Uj; jij
"narrator,"
pi.
S^
jU
*
"raiding, a
warrior,"
]>*
(for
fy*
Jtj
*
"
Governor,"
AJ^
).
(8)
Prom
&***'
^
&>*
"
fern.,
great,"
pi. f$Lfe*.
'
x"
XX
"
*?
city,"
'
pi.
',$,<,' ^J|^; *^
f
^
^
'
'
*
*
wife,"
^t^';
But
<i'JU*3'
rom a
J^3i
x
^
xx/o^
Uw -^*J
), pi.
xxx
^^** *;
jfSix'
fa'ala,
^
,x
"calamity,"
(9)
pi.
UM
letter
and are
of the
^
their
OX
g^
\J^
measure
Jx* have
waliyy
un
"
patron, friend,
^jc($
are
incorrectly written
and
pronounced with
with crt<t
*
as: SLcAJt
^U
*
'Z-gMzo*.
so too
e)
and-^,|
^^xl^
etc., etc.
In India, Persia, and Turkey also a "religious warrior," being a contraction of the
phrase &Uf
J^
/x,/
Remark.
/*/
In
final
ii
AAJUjj
*13
is
an
addition
to
the
measure
8
JU^',
it.
not
'*
many
same.
743
^jf;
^&A
"miserable,
hard-hearted,
black-guard,"
'
pL
*l*W.
-*"
Also rational muza'af nouns of the measure J**>, or adjectives congenerally have one plural of this form, as
:
v-M^
"physician,"
Auif
xx
' '
).
Remark
/.
^^ " wicked
x
(pis.
;t
is
an exception.
O ^
The pi.
so too
JUljl is
not
with &&*>.
Remark
*
II,
-
common measures
//
as
:
/ x<^
.
X'.XX/
/X
(sing. j*tf)
i
;
X OX
;
>
~{
$!&**,
^Us"
J(^f
*t^ft.
Other
measures
exist, as
Jj^ "
x-
*u!
^-
"
prisoner of war,"
pi. c^r*f
also *f^ol).
(fern, ^i*^)
4,5!**',
as
"
wrathful,"
pi.
^^AC and
(11)
quiescent
vowel,
servile,
have
plural
J5Ui,
as: ijlsuo
"cloud,"
pi.
^Gsuo
dJLsj
a pamphlet, etc.,"
pi.
<J5l*j,
JUA "the
north
wind" and
JUA
,
pi.
cUU
X
j^*u:
Remark.
This
pi. is also
j*** X
"
pronoun,"
pi.
pi.
J\f*\
*j*>
"afree woman,"
/ox
J
xx
>
x ,
cV "
night/'
pi.
).
it is
a contraction of
'
AjJf
^j.
is
o'<,~
11
to
come
hence A^iJf /J
But
744
all radicals,
have
JJUu, as:
v&"fox,"
pi.
*-M;
pl.
*%;
pi.
*)]*;
*>
pl.j-fcU*;
"gems," pl.^lA"
The same measure
counted
i(
)
vV " a star,"
is
v !/.
?
pi. of
those quadriliterals
I
not
cs
or f, as
?
^^
:
fe*\
*' f*
;
<s
, ,
li
;
finger," pi.
&Ul *^^,
pi.
vj
^ J^. pi- J3
ft,'
"
li/0
;
' o
,
,,*&,,
v^*
pi.
(13) Quinqueliterals (i
"an
f
o
emperor
"
f 9 Qs
{<
*+
*
pl.
c5;xLc
9
a large box
f
'<,
or chest,"
9
*
pi.
+
;
Jj^li^;
<>^3 ' +
"infidel,
"
hypocrite,"
9
, ,
pl.
(J-^j;
^Uftx"akey," *
pl. ^Jlfix> ^ *
^^
*
<,
**poor quiet,"
pl.
.,
(14)
The broken
plural of di*.a} is
*
(J**lAii,
vi^e I
Stem
f feminine plural in et
Remark.
The
vide I Stem.
9,^
(15)
9
,
When
J**f
is
superlative,
it
has,
when used
XIV
(g).
f ,9
optionally
cU*'
f
or
,,<.9
Its
feminine
9
,<,'
^** has
signifies
is
eUU*.
(fern.
Vide
XIV
(g).
When
J**'!
colour or defect
AM
red,
9~b'
),
/ C^
^^
"
"
or
"
!
blind,"
pl.
^** and
of
J^.
Jxcli/o, i;t^e *
(16)
The'noun
IX
(d).
(17)
The noun
of
Vide also
VII
(a) I.
745
XXIV.
Collective
Nouns
^1*1
),
(<u*J| **&).
?c
Simple collectives
fr*J\
~[
*~
of
unity to
^s
well as individuals
^~*
" an
.
masc., which denotes a whole people, as " and also " the soldiers " ^ Ox " a ; army w*0
less
band
for
are formed.
Vide
(e)
and
&
XVII.
Collective
nouns
+Jf p\
),
formed by adding
*
to the singular,
XX (d).
G " 0*
(c)
(t
?b *,<*'
Inhabitants of a country
is
gfr^'l
^1), as:
^Wf
Such
or
a noun
the
name
of the country, as
"Rum,
is
Rum."
single individual
(the plural of
^^A
*
) is
is
Hindus"
the Indians").
&
$,<,'
The
plural of
f\\ or
is
c,*c
(d)
Class nouns
+?Jf AX&
from which a
by the feminine
There are
(e)
\ of
unity, as:
U^ "dove-kind"; f*&
tree-kind.
"
abstract collectives.
differ
Arabs
f f'*<' In the Quran, is always masculine plural, while cteu is found both masculine and feminine. The general practice seems to be to
<J
'
Hijaz generally
make them
masculine.
make
class
* ):
L^
"horse-kind"
f
* s
'
is
'
In practice
last is feminine.
Quran the
Vide also
under Gender.
l
In India,
call
Bum
means Turkey.
The
Arabs
Greece Rum.
746
XXV.
o^*Jf
).
9,^$^ f
the Preterite
,<S
(JWt <Lj| ),
*
,
the Aorist
(^\
).
,,,
is
,
f
The
9f
Preterite Active
i.e.
JU*
cW, ^
or eU*
they
all
'
these are
and denote a
state or
'''
quality: the former denotes permanent condition, as
:
^-^
" to be beauti-
cJ>^
s
"
to be sad."
t
is
The Passive
is
way
'O'
Preterite
**tf
).
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
fa'aln"
fa'alu
fa'alatd
fa'ala
"They
did."
'
O"
fa'altunn"
fa'altum
did.
"
Ye
"
Ye two
fa'altumd did
Thou
9
didst."
t*,,
fa'alna
"We
(b)
did."
Jft&>, or JUij.
*
did
is
J* take
Note that
this final
oM/
is
JeftU^I
P or otiose.
In a word like
t&f "they
appreciated," were this oK/ not introduced, the final j might be mistaken for the conjunction "and." Consequently, before the affixed pronouns the alif is dropped, as it
fulfils
no useful purpose.
747
Aorist
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
yaf'uln"
yaf'ulun"
or will do.
"
taf'ulan*
yaf'ulaw
taf'ul*
They do
"
yaf'ul"
"He
does or
or will do."
will
do."
taf'uln
taf'ulun"
will
taf'ulan*
'
a taf utin
<
u taf ul
l
"Ye
do or
do."
Ye two do
or will
JU*
"
We
do or
will
do."
,
"I do
is
or will
do."
JUi
yuf'al*
first
The Aorist
viz.
:
is
susceptible
of
certain
inflexions
to
express
five
Moods,
(i)
INDICATIVE MOOD.
(ii)
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
the Aorist changes to fathah ( certain particles ), i.e. when it is preceded by in such a case the final n, when preceded by a long vowel, is dropped. In the 2nd and 3rd pi., an otiose is added, except when a suffix is attached,
!
but
(
To
as:
\j*&>
"they
or.
write,"
C x
J^#.
C/x &\ $
)
The
"it
particles
are:
^f
"that"
(with Pret.
Aor.)
'
ilf
(
^
X
=
'
)
will certainly
not"
<;
(for future
time only),
or
^
=
xV
in
order that
not"; oif
O'oxc, =
(
uf
(for
any
<M )
time);
^
of
in
order that"; 0*
e)V
x
&1
"then
course";
li*an
^/ =
^
is
SsJ Italia
e#
4|b
jf in
the
(not in the
"or"); J when
j
it
There
J -^^
-j
o and y
748
"
x
l
;
x x
*> l
;
when
it is
equivalent to &\
J ^
(called
much
so that."
(iii)
&'
UJ
"not
C^O^o^x
J"let" &~*
*SJ
(jtfftfl
tt
"the /am
or
Imperative ");
51
Za*'
'n-nahy)
when
it is
tive, or follows
its final
of
vowel, as in
U^
tl
' '
'<S $.
<*'
U* 8
^j x
'
visit
me
less often
and you
will in-
crease
my
affection for
you
(said
XX
visitor) /x
loses its j
when the
In
^j yak*.
Remark.
The following
particles
:
"
e>J
if
"
;
O x
' *
er*
he who "etc.;
U " that
;
which, what
' '
U#**
( '
whatever "
;
^f
* *
whoever
' '
etc.
(declined)
'
t^J
^
xx-x
when, if
"
(only
Uijf
*Ml
x^Ox
" where
"
;
^
is
Xfc
x
c<
where
"
;
isW
Vide
XLV.
j^^
followed
by the
Preterite.
Vide
XLV<
1^0
at intervals, occasionally."
Ujx
and
may be
joined or not.
fe
it
x
Lo^
U ^jLc
x"
^ ^
t(
749
ENERGETIC MOOD.
Ox
by adding
Ox^c*'
<,t
and
vi>
o,n
Cx*&x
as
ii>A*i
and
^P^
is
:
when
the
tense
tions or oaths
they
may
be strengthened by prefixing J.
shortened to
(
^ are
and
Before the
),
suffix,
as
(^Ui
ter-
"
la-yaf'alunn
mination,
(v)
all
With the single n (for (&1*&J ) they will certainly do the dual and the feminine plural terminations are wanting.
"
persons of the
cutting off the prefix e> from the second u and Aorist substituting 8,hamzat 'l-wasl, and, if the Apocopated
(
pointing
it
with
-9
) ,
pointing
:
it
also with
and
if
or
Imperative.
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Fern.
Masc.
99^,9
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
uf'uln"
uf'ulu
"Do
ye."
"Do ye
are formed
ufula two."
uf'uU
uf'ul*
"Do
I1
thou."
by prefixing J
to the
Apocopated
;
or ^, as
J*^
If
"
It-yaf'al
let
him do "
e>i*^
"
li-yaf'alann
let
him
certainly do."
^ or
is
formed by prefixing
il
to the Apo-
copated Aorist.
The Imperative
&
1
9
)
This
J
(j
I*
"
'
certainly
O'G
(called
Or JUI or JUJI.
O
G
'</
Or .JUit
or
as in the singular.
750
PRONOUNS (SEPARATE).
XXVI.
(a)
Pronouns.
ctaiLo
Some pronouns
are
"
separate"
),
others" affixed
"
(
case
M.
F.
PRONOUNS (AFFIXED).
(6)
751
(1)
are Possessive
Pronoun:
Sing.
752
PRONOUNS (AFFIXED).
(2) If
a hamzat"' l-wasl
(j
follows
hum
or
c,'
o>
"
you," or antum
"
p&\
you," or
9
'
'
^.$U.c
alayhim 's-saldm
;
If
is
preceded
hy a long vowel,
long.
(e)
its
zammah
is
pronounced short
if
by a short vowel,
As the
affixed
of course
pronounced
t,
as
it is
definite, its tanwm disappears. written e> before the affixed pronouns it before all vowels, even when written
:
(/)
(1)
The preposition J
lak a
I*
becomes J
, ,
first,
as:
i&
(6).
^
s
9'
laic 1 , *'
^
^
II
" to or
for
me."
Vide also
XXXII
(2)
But
***
before the
first
person,
when
it
becomes
c$-***,
* +
'ind-i
(g)
(1)
The
9, * Uli^ kitabah"
lt
his
two books
(2)
"
;
99
+
<
X>^
zaribu-h u
(i.e.
those
Similarly the
mute
masc.
the Preterite,
it
dropped, as
'
iy&
";
"
they did
not write
it.'
'<,'
,*.+
*'
(h)
of the
of
i.e.
all
fi
tt
f * f
ijf^e} -
verb
fern.
except
,
Stem IV (JU>f
hamzah
a af'al ),
of
^] *
^^ *
fyct,
<
and
^
(>ljj!
masc. arid
and
also the
The
letter
is
hamzah when
guttural sound
marked with a
-o-'^o^
(
t>'
)
^UdJf <xl^
+ *
as in
^U
"
despair."
With the
Aorist,
PRONOUNS (AFFIXED).
?"
that
'
7f>3
night";
all
iJLJ
^ "he
'-V
'
"
9, *
of
*1>J
^ "he
joined
,,
wept
those nights."
(I)
(i)
Two
Accusative Pronouns.
Two
affixed
pronouns
may be
"I
iyya
$
L
thus
If the
first case,
persons
is
2nd, 3rd
say
(2)
When
is
for emphasis, a
*
of
which
it is
the
object, it
also suffixed to
b, as
i^*~J
&
'
f^'
"
&
serve and
When
^Cij
a'tayV-kum
^6
tt*
??</
'
'
(,
a taytum
(
j+xxfe*f
a'tay-tumu-h"
a'tayP-humU'h"
Remark.
The following
',
C5 <i
0,
my
lord,"
(and
tijj^
W
*j*
"my
u
master";
" that
a
qurrat
'ayn-i*
which refreshes
wife or child)
my
"
eyes
+
**
99
s
(a son); t5^'jiir s
"gladness of
my
heart
"
(to
cHrf^ ^
" oh my
friend."
'
first
direct object.
The pronoun
is,
Nurchashmi
in
Originally this
it
may have
"my"
"'
mutakallim), or
may" be
father.
*i>J,
Such expressions as
|
o
common
in
where
is
"
modern
is
48
754
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
"
(k)
is
expressed by
^^
or)
self
"
(agreeing in
number with
"
i
V or)
"I went
"
myself
;
(~Ail
they
went themselves
themselves."
"
;
killed himself
"
;
f$~ii? fjUl
"they
killed
"
<t&* (pi. eHi*f)
' '
and e|i
(pi. e^fji)^
'
self,'
in the
same way
as
j&.
(1)
(1)
I
are
iS
" this
"
(or
more emphati-
cally !iA),
and
^i
" that."
Plural.
Singular.
i.
755
(2)
The words
J^ (in
some cases
with interpolated J
gr.
fern. c5l> or
x J) x
;
c^> or usually
x Cx
<*&
XX
x
or t^li
Gx
gen.
x *>&-
and
ace.
&i* or u&#.
x
;
XX
x-
Fern.
nom.
U or -JO
gen.
and
ace.
JW
^
or
>"
cjUx). X
x x
xx'
)
for
,
all
cases.
^
'
I
of
J^<i
*
and cXU
*
person of the affixed pronoun, singular, dual, and plural, with correct gender,
x'
,
!
as
/)i
U& etc.
masc. and
is,
e*fi fern.,
"
possessor,"
izdfat.
The Dual
N.
tj<i
Ufa) fern.
G. and A. ^ji zaway masc., and ^tji zawatay (or <y|i zdtay)
final
vowels of ji -<^<i
y^f
and j^ are
^i
is
followed by the
genitive
case,
as:
e^'
^'^ "concord";
ef,i
"
"
pleurisy
(lit.
"having
"
;
JU^. o!^,
pi.
ci>^
a.
''beautiful (of a
woman)
JLaftlf
*
"
;
JU^
f,
" handsome
'
(of
man ");
f
Oxo/o.?
' '
' '
l ( ;
pardoning
(of
God)
There appears to be
9 9
it is
>,
f
* 9
article, as
* '
"
great warriors
"
&J>
9 9
Sy ^)\
powerful."
Remark.
^
"
to a
j^A.
''wise."
flf
(n)
^-^f
allazt
" who
is
an
756
Adjective and
3x
is
is
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
used for
cases).
definite
antecedents
x is
allati ^\ X
(all
The Plural
(all
&i*W
x.six
alUati*
or
^^\
feminine
-
cases): used
XX
l
only
its
feminine singular
,+.
&s
allazin* masculine,
and
<y4IJ(
The
&'
1
Dual
is,
Nominative ejt^f X
alllazan*
XX
JJ
masc.,
and
ejUJJf
X
alllatan*
X 53
'
fern.'-
alllazayn* masculine,
and
<jjJUf attlatayn*
feminine.
^Wf
is
(o)
^
(j
(as
a Con-
without inflexion)
**
"who?"
and (2) (without inflexion) "that which, what, a thing that, whatever (of neuter things; also Interr. " what ? "). These ar e used substantively and are either definite or indefinite.
Remark.
I.
U is
also
an
X
;
indefinite
/ /X
JU,
c,
as:
*
man
6
whatever
UL>
"
;
x x
ji x
Q.
jJ^ ^cf
'
a?/2/
qalam
in
you want)
"
A.
U
is
"
If the
antecedent
Colloquially
however (not
**
classically) the
*
antecedent to ^iJf may be indefinite. Only two of the J can be pronounced. The sukun over the
JL
first
lam
is
never
written.
Compare
aJDf.
The
i
f
*;
pron.
^iJf x
is
compounded
Particle
^i
When
the feminine
is
definitely stated,
man
Also the
plural verb
*
may
Vide also
XL
:
(6).
mim
is
is
pronounced mlm, as
X f ?x Lo
(J^j
//
rajul
u -mma
;
(Ja.
vn u rajul -m-maqtul ,
which
(Jlakj.
Similarly before
r,
l~
a sakin nun becomes in pronunciation
Before
6
/+>
r,
as
Al/f
^
6,
Jj*;
tX*aa./o
^x
^xC6
4#a&
JLtf understood.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
3*
757
Remark
that
//.
<^&f
is
an Adjective
as:
when
^*)\
I
it
follows
and
"
I
qualifies a
noun
noun must be
definite,
*U
0^1
saw
:
o$fj
",
*U>
l
Zitf.
" the
a
Aim."
Substantives, as
cujf;
LV.
of
and &f ayyat un iQm. " the one who " (also which ?, what kind, what?, what!.) whatever," is definite and is declined like
^f
ayy"*, masc.,
relative
nouns
&*>
and
U>, this
substantive forms
I*jf
8
ayyuman "whosoever"
(a?so
a^o "which
these?"), the
of
these?";
(or
"
U* ^f
whatever,"
"what
The
of
first
portion of the
compound
^.y*
X"
being declinable.
first
of
these
rnin
and a
definite
XL
(b).
Followed by the Genitive, ^1 also expresses admiration and is then it in the If follows an indefinite noun it agrees with it masc. always sing.
9
/
3>
/Ox
X|j
it is
J^) ^f
(V*^
Zayd came
(4)
to
UK
&
me
what a man
all
(he
"
is)
!
"all that,
/
which."
o x
(5) (.y*
all
who."
refer to
(p)
an antecedent, are
(6).
intro-
^ and
o f
'
U.
Vide
XL
Man ^x may
is
lx
is
indeclinable.
After some
prepositions Co becomes 1, as
2 8
"for what
why
"
Ra*dyt
note transliteration.
of
The addition
mo
is
emphatic.
' ^f
A sakin nun
/x
before
m*m
is
pronounced mlm, as
is
Lo
(Jl^-j
/.
^ "
rajul
u-mma
J^>
u un rajul -m-maqtul
which
Similarly
before r,
i
.
as
&jj\
J**J &+&LA
Muhammadu -r-rasiil'llah
Before
6,
sakin
758
(g)
(1)
^
is
"
who
that
?
"
;
e.g.
&* >-&
be
;
"
;
[i
^
it
who
"
; :
^ may
iM
stands absolutely
as
:
xxx
S>
(2)
Co
" what
"
;
indeclinable
x
|<i,
fi^o
what then
"
:
(3)
^1,
o
fern.
f.x
<fy'
/;
,
'
* w
,
together with
its
\*)j
^ "how
is
for
of
them
o xx
in the
x9
<*&, 9 o
)
x ^
$x
)
house"
first
(1) jt*Jf
iW
(yk
^\
^^ and
(2) ;lxl|
3*
^f
o^
In the
X
is
case,
^1
Vide,
XL"(b).
Remark.
sertory
The
interrogative
1?
must be distinguished
from
the as-
^ "many a,"
which
x x
xO
Ox
oJU> d+
this
**many a
is
(or
how many
its
a) slave
have
owned."
is
If
however
xx
:
f
* fx
separated
xx &x
/xX*
from
tc
noun (j*+*
),
the latter
I
in the ace., as
{*
*
xx
,/&
many
(r)
received from them at the time of want." tb' f ,, 9 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. jj*f " any one, some one, u**^ (^- a P
a bounty have
r-
-" -.xc,**'^
tion "one,
some"
(sing,
or
pi.),
as: *yJ*Jt
u^? "a
certain poet or
some
to
(5).
poets
"
(according to the
number
,
of the verb).
Vide also
X.LIX.
' '
(3)
(s)
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
x
*
is
expressed
t>y
xx
;
/ 9 cx
the
Stem
JcliJ
also
by L^*J
^ Ox La*u
^^^ etc.
^
-^
^o x
55
//
* x* c,x
Ox
U*AJ
GA- "we
~
i^
OTHER PRONOUNS
**>\j t '
Jf
:
t(
each
A*J
"
;
^
>"ox
'
,'
before a geni-
*?<,' >"xOX
x
1
xx-
x^
x
<:
tive
as
8^*
^jJU*
uOJf
eU
Preposition
but
s X ox AJ
adverb.
CARDINALS.
x^ x another then reigned in his stead''; UT^*
thee
?
'
759
^^\
"I
"
;
^^ masc.,
and aWf,
fern.
noun
LXIII).
NUMERALS
XXVII.
x*
xo"<?
Cardinals
Masc.
/
Fern.
f
"
*
(a)
<**f
jectives.
is
*
f
is
used.
When
used noun,
or
or
The numerals
3 to 10 are Sub-
stantives
govern
the
and
geni-
^G,
masculine
vice
and
/O
versa: rarely they follow the noun in Apposition but vide also (m).
CL
noun
in apposition,
it
It loses its
'"
in compounds, as: jiLe
'* Ujt
"twelve."
As
^& JU, or JU
760
CARDINALS.
and ^Ap
fern.;
^jjoji
declinable
fr
<jS
*S<J*
AM
The nu1
merals 1 1 to 99 go-
Indeclinable
(1
x
ve
an
V
I
a c cusative
singular.
If
is
IV
an adj.
IA
it
append-
ed,
may
ei-
agree,
ther gram-
n
x /
c,
masc. and
ri
fern.
or
o g i c a lly
rr
masc. and
fern.
The numerals
20, 30 etc. to 90 are declined as
sound
plurals.
the unit
s
pre-
declined.
'
"
L
t--
or
From 100 on (i.e. up to 1000) the numerals are substantives, and govern a genitive singular.
CARDINALS.
761
...
oilf
it
X
*
/
'
JiJt ^5UilS (
#
<
/o
Remark.
portion," as:
An
is
expressed by u^*?
o^*? XX
"a
Jl*>j
f
I^A*J
ert^*"
XX
{j* -X
" in a few
years."
(6)
In later Arabic
also used.
'
Vide
'
(j)
and
(fc).
The numerals compounded with ten both take fathah in all cases, but the ten of the compound agrees in gender with the object numbered
*
'
it).
(c)
Twenty,
^&
&%&*
are of
common
gender, and
762
are declined like regular plurals.
are both declined, as
'
CARDINALS.
The compounds
***;!
of units
etc.,
^U>)
(^j^ j
^t>
gender.
is
xx
hundred
'
A?^,
x
mSfaff**, is
common
(<?)
From
in
number
is
expressed thus
Jlyt xx
(or
cU>
181*
).
(&)
"A
thousand"
Jtff,
is
common
gender.
Its
pis. are
o*f and
9?
,
The
thousands
compounded with
as
a thing
:
numbered.
from
Thus
for
accusative singular
o
li^f is
tJ^f.
r,
The
last
numbered.
*.'
*
(/)
biz'** (also
number,"
plural, as
:
indicates a
x/
9 o
*aj
'
<t
9f<j9 x
fbf
f
x
^
+
x
JxiJt
4
&*
*.<*>.
' '
;
c)i^ x
r**
is>K
i^i-
^
f,
>
c<
his age
(a)
Remark.
or
v-*ui *
/Ox
(^)
An
Indefinite
number over 10
is
expressed
by
*-ki
/^
X
it
may
/x x/xx
govern the genitive singular, as ubo j
:
x^O
SyS*c
upwards of ten
' '
;
u)jj&
This word must not be confused with (JOM ba'z** " some (of any number),
Oi^o
X ox
(^^0*0
Xs xx>"
t
' OX*
x xU
culTf
rf 9
<,,
"I
, *
^ARJ JU
"
?<*'
(.;
";
*f^S*
A^AJU j
*ljji*T
^4^^'
"some
of
them are
rich,
and some
THE ORDINALS.
/JJX X
763
9 X /x
"
/ >VX /X
' '
;
u*J > cU> &x>, or Jl*) Jj^ &x> " upwards of 100 (and ' ' 4 6
(gr).
10)
men.'
Vide also
XXIX
(I)
for
"
the three
men."
, 9 x
jj
(t)
juy
*&,
(M)
juyt
Uallf,
(ni)JUj Ulil?,(ivj
etiltjl
Noun
(apposi-
tion).
(w)
When
indicating
birds
the genus,
is
introduced, as:
^\
X
^
X
6 x^ox
^*
&u;l
(four of the
x-x
genus bird)."
'
ssft* <*?
as
^fii
&jjf ^A ^
number)."
(n)
The numerals 3
ff^*f
noun
numbered, as:
/xx
iio*,
(.&**
&*
(sing, flc
masc.,
and ^(o)
fern.).
o
When
the numeral
is
followed by
(.?*>,
vide
(m)
it
agrees in gender
with
its
j_^^
the substantive be qualified by an epithet /' ' x -<W the word "four males," (^x sheep, CJ)^ fV*Jf p>*
if
xxfc~
being
fern.
If
its
substantive,
x
>*/
xxc,
^\
ay tf* **(/
^"C"
Remark.
as
abstract
x
>Xx
&+>
9 o
?A-&
gender, as
" three
XXVIII.
/tx
(a) its
The Ordinals,
-?x
ox
"First"
3 xcx
J^f,
is
on the measure
JUj'f,
for
From "second"
/x
x
to
x
#
x
/x x
<*V^x
"the
xlc^' fern.,
x
is
(j^U, but
al"j
also found.
764
First
diptotes.
From Third
fully declined.
rnasc.,
and \j&*
J
.
&J>*\A. x
fem.
From
Eleventh to
From "Twelfth"
> o^
to "Nineteenth", they
Twentieth" and upwards, the Cardinals are used, as tl? 9 xox , /c, C ~ " twenty chapters", but &jjd\ ^d\ "the twentieth chapter."
:
From
"
* x
/i.
The
Ordinals of the units, however, are used before the cardinals, for the inter-
mediate
eJtiJf
/
"the twenty-third."
The
article
From
regular plural.
From
part of the
compound
JjtjVl
x
"
(c)
jFirstf
"
broken plural
'*
meaning
9
" the
^xx
first
parts,
fc^fjjlf
These terms are also used for the three decades of the month.
,.'
&
The Ordinals
*i)U)t
are used,
as:
/x
C?
a'*LJf
that
oUU
^
"
"it
is
is
three)."
Note
'-;
^.-Ib
.....
A^Uy^
"
What
time
is it
"
>>x
35^:
t,,
/x
<kLJf
^T,
x
or
**U|.
at
midday
"
etc., are
J?
C^
' '
"
by the preposition
<c
:
^ as
f^frle
or^^f^,
"
?
U.!>AO
or
U
" I
(e)
Age
is
-
expressed thus
o
^C.
How
old are
you
**.*
^j+e
am
twenty
"
#x x
O^
#
>
- x
Ai^
^ J*
c&>+c
or
****
All make a change for gender. The hours are counted from sunset.
THE ORDINALS.
(/)
765
of the Cardinals after
(1)
life
(2)
The day
' *
of the
c,'
month
9&*
is
expressed as follows
first of
*,
o
e>x>
*
,,<
(i)
()(**&
f>j
?
Jy "the
month
Sha'ban" "
;
_^
# '
(j
&* j**
' * '
35
(tse
'
"the fourteenth
of the
of
Rajab
of
Muharram
' '
;
/^J| (^ ) X
o-
(^)
cJC),
"the 3rd
of
(ii)
v^; ^x
&1J jjy, or
v^; Jx
cA ;1JL)
;
t{
the
first of
Rajab"
SJft.
w^
#
^
"
IxU.
Rajab
"
;
-*^j
e^
c^
Jl*J
^J
,&)
'
on the 3rd
of
Rajab," and so on
oLai>l ^*
in the or
up
^
:
efiAiJf ^y,
or v**;
vA-aii^
^ or
is
<* x>
middle of Rajab."
nights remained,
"
as
v^>
ux
^
~
'
)
'
'
xx^o
#xc/x
^xj,' 'XG^
C-*^J
^/o
="on
the
16th Rajab,
lit.
when 14 (days
or nights) were
left
of
Rajab," and so on
(6).
u*~ v^J f
*W^= XXX
Vide also
LII
Remark
L The
'*?
subs.
;*,
lit.
moon," may
Remark
ace.
,
first
day
month and
On
may
also be expressed
by the
or
by ^j.
" One of two "
t f S(t'<1
'
' iti;
(g)
is
"one
of
f our
"
' '**' ^ X
*~;l ^1;.
(h)
"<,'
"He makes
'
a fifth"
**;(
#
^^
x
j*>
(he
is
fifth
of four), or
S*
(he
is fifth
as to four).
766
XXIX.
(a)
ADVERBIAL NUMERALS
t*
(1)
'iyo
or
&y (or
4
similar words)
f
" once
"
;
&f
'
f&s
V*
Jfii or ***^
"
*&,
twice," or ej*y
(dual);
UJt>
"secondly or a second
time
"
;
l*aL, or A*<iU
(2)
The
ii/e
^.J (vide
X) may be used
*ir* *ir^
to express
"once or twice"
of
an action, as
If that
eH&r* A
used, as
t^lj
illi
'
(6)
DISTRIBUTIVE
J^ or
, , Q,
t
,
ft*,
or are
^\
or ^j*>,
#U> or
(^i^o,
(or
(&>\
eH^J]
"two
by two";
'
&&
by
or
fi*K/o
by threes,"
'*'
(or
^ &" '
<f
ftj>
&Jb)
^tiX^ or
u-x~
(or
sixes
"
:
Aib ^
"S
.^xx*
|*^&j
ei/o
in groups of
(c)
MULTIPLICATIVE
"
single, singular
' '
f#*>
The measure
Stem, as:
of II
^^
**i\*
"threefold,
triple
*&,'
having three, triangular"
'*
;
^jA~>*
Once
*'
is
tojj
or
/ f
,
/
*
3>,f
The opposite
^
to
"
-*$^o
compound,"
is
^^
as opposed to
767
(d)
ADJECTIVAL
(^U*)
_^Uji^ sunatyy
9$"'
"
'&
x
dual, consisting of
9 x&x
<<
two";
',-./
,3*3
"
'
u/
^^\ ^W\ v Uf
(e)
FRACTIONS:
(1)
v^i
a half,"
&tr<2
pi.
o^f
"
f
(but
*JU?J
-dividing
is
From "a
"
to
"a
fenfc
JU*'
and
tXjutJ.
The
PI.
is
JU*f.
Examples
e)UU,
g>,
or gu;
=J
u***,
or
^^^^ = J
etc.
Two-thirds (f )
and three-fourths
(f )
=^f
1
aSJ6.
(2)
* fs*v
&*>)\
byj, as
^{x-.f
+- j
"
(44 = ^5).
Recurring numerals:
^J^\
^
Ub "every third": ^
^f *
"
Uj; *
'
every
fourth
(gr)
"
etc.
Approximate numbers
:
^6'
" about
xx/o'x
AJJJ
The words
<j^>i>! j!
in imitation
e^JJ jf '
J^
^
AStx>
'
*
^j
*UJU>f ^
9 '
XXXVII.
also
> 1
147)
(;)
" and
we
sent
or more.
Vide
XXVII
A maddah
and
(&).
is
when a hamzah
This
aZi/,
(
follows alif, or
in the middle,
as in
1
g\&>.
and
A maddah is also placed over j is lengthened 5-5. and pronounced, when they are aakin and are preceded by their sisterj^f vowels and are followed by "hamzah, as: t-y* 8u-u*u* ^^^ *-* "it was made bad."
But
so
in
have no maddah.
their sister-vowels,
and
768
XXX. Days
1
of the
Week.
(the
first
(a)
o*Lj| (;Ui
;
) rt>J
day
of the
week
of
Muslims
but the
9
)
last of
,*~
tf.
Sunday
(lit.
"day
of the
one"
the
first
day
of
Christians
and Jews).
~o
OX o
9 ff
)
(j*
* Monday
"
(ft*.
day
of the
two
'
').
Tuesday.
fj
Ox
Wednesday.
,M
Thursday.
*) fjj
The word
(6)
^ or ^
6
is
often omitted, as
9
*&$ti
$'
(/
"
x
*
Tuesday."
'
o-^c
In addition to
^ff 3
" a week
' '
there
is
\r*
XXXI.
(a)
The Year,
9$
,(,*> *,5*
'
The
Christian
Year
is
called
the Messiah
j,i%Jf
xx
' '
and
**
^*-*Jf
,
dy
(*
and
also
'
by Christians
^^-*Jf
XX
JUi
modern ab-
brevia*tion of latter,
^O
<3 ).
x
O'*
x C*x
^O**
A.D.
is.
^y^\
A*J
(modern abbrevia-
Muslims write
abbreviation of <j>~*).
O*A*
" to
rest."
Muhammad
'*>
3
is
said to
xo'
2
Also AA+A.
Also
THE YEAR.
9&
o
-o
769
?&5> -
A.H.
isa^Wi
x
"
/i xxo^tfSix
viation A (butterfly A)]
x G
:
and
also
by Christians
AjjJUl &~Jf
x
G^
"O'
B.H.
is
Sj*Ji
<-U*
(written in
full).
9
(b)
$~
<,,
Muslim Feasts.
(1) j***)\
***)\
at
the beginning of
Fast.
O
<f
/j
after
and
its
In India this
*<J
known
as
*&, an abreviation
*
of its classical
(,
name
' ^*e 9
,
(,'
xcJO-c^G
AJ.C
")
(2)
^^f
of
*
*>*S\,
or
"the
festival of sacrifice"
this falls
on the 10th
,MXG~
XXXII.
Prepositions (^Wf
o^
999
),
Particles, etc.
(a)
The noun
XG 9
),
so governed
is
styled
69 o
x
'c.
Prepositions
are 'Separate'
J^il*
or
'Inseparable'
*->
f cUtLo
&
).
' ' ;
(b)
INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS
999
* -
These are
UA,
it
five
(1)
bi
"
in, by,
with
^A
consists of 12 lunar
The H. year
9Q
x
1,
o'
The months
Egypt
.5Uj
<*9'
lili
$ ,9
-
6''
-
/3i'
/xox
/^x
>
^9<S
9&*>
e;^
(Jan.)
feUi -tif
In India, this
is
'Jrf
usually sacrificed
in
Poor people
sacrifice
is
called
49
770
into kasrah
(
-*
),
as
** *'
**)1
xx
(2)
/'
"
to, for,
is
belonging to,"
[before
'
vide
<"'
'
XXVI,
(/)
(1); it
as:
^b
*
..
"come
to the help of
Zayd
"
! ;
but
^.
^
''
li
" to
'
me"]:
(3)
dl*
ka
\
"like"
j
wa
"
by
God!" =
ALIb: (5)
X
&
',,
except that
can be prefixed to
if
AlJl
x-
only,
a verb
is
used in the
(a) (ii),
must be employed.
ace.
vide
XXXIII
Remark.
(c)
SEPARATE PREPOSITIONS:
C
'
(1)
L^
'*:
^ "from,
until'
'
:
off (indicates
t^
'
"from me"): ^J
^-
"to,
towards,
X
up
to,
er*
" from
J
After
"
fj
see
behold ",
!
w way be used, as
if
"<,'*,,
:
r'
'
?'
(L^U
or)
'he
also
is
not a rider":
^j+)b or
^J\fu
*d>
U =
"they
are
not learned."
Vide
XLII
LII (a) (2). (a) (2) and As a Conjunction with the Subjunctive,
(c), etc.
it
vide
XXV
8
it
Jx*
yfc
or
U5" or
UlLo before
+
a verb,
UT means
in the
same
t>
state."
is
really a
noun
;
signifying "similarity."
= "a
certain
merchant"
t^^k
I
^.^
^^y
;
oi
wood"
JUJt &*>
{&* x**xx
^
c
X
c>^ ^
have"
(i.e.
in the
<>
way
of kindness
"
c^ x "
'
^X
^!JUf ^.^o
*jf\)\
Before the affixed pronouns, ,J\ and the final ^JLc change
'
(,'
alif
maqsurah into
a
as
O"
;
ttey-A*
*wj
&' *
'alayy
" on me
etc.
771
off"; &&*
e>*
>
from on"; ,v *
5*)
*<jf
*
/*
"in";
(but
^J ^
"in me,"
'"
***
"in him"
etc.):
* (rarely
G >
"with, besides";
(
^.
"
;
up
*/
or
AU
f or
^^
<*9
<,
"since
?S
-
'*'<,"&"
-
*
'
1.^- f*)
(j?*)
near,'
wde
LIII
"To Have."
Remark.
a,
many
but few," as
9,
&
+>
'
J^ 9
"many
a noble
(2)
man have
met."
Q
'
When
article,
^
is
rw'wa
35 ^o
and
*J>ft
^^ min^l-walad^ and
that"
jyo'UJf
^^rk
"it
told
'
u^i ^o "
in spite of
&1 g* "in
X XX jj*
XXX ^fj X
$
4>5
/ ^
oJtf'f
ia.
*5^Jf
"I
to
its
head";
^-^
Sx
is
or else raV-fea an
Ji' ^^A
accusative as the object of the verb, in which latter case <^La. * x - <* ' x //o * " [even etc."] is not used with suffixes: Uuo oif k^JLxJf "I will
indicates
a Conjunction.
kill
even you."
at,
latter meaning.
3
without a noun
"I
since."
It
is
the gen. or the nom. , the gen. being more particularly used
x
t
O X O
>"
of time
is
spoken
of, as:
job
G^w
A* AX+K
U>
"I have
^ &/
on the
interjection
The
ace.
(dependent
of
w)
"multitude."
3 9 .w^ must
begin a sentence;
adjective, or a
the noun it governs must be indefinite and qualified by nominal or verbal clause in Pret. tense in place of such adjective
/ 9 , 95,9
x
an
:
an
it
,3>9
alternative construction
is
H^\
*'many a man."
With
l/o
affixed
l+jj
adv.
)^
An signifies "perhaps, probably, sometimes, frequently," and introduces a sentence. Zt as: indefinite gen. often occurs after the conjunction ^ the particle yj being elided,
9<*
,
o^/w
In
"
(jw^J
&9
many a cup have
I quaffed."
also
"many
a."
vide
' '
Supp. VIII,
772
alifs, <j
becomes i^ min
c*
1
,
as
AJU!
<>*.
x
When
.
prefixed to
c
^
x
or
t/o,
the final
& becomes
by assimilation
#
,
f)
as
(j^o
Ux>,
and Uc.
(or
Other separate prepositions are simply nouns in the accusative adverbial) case, but without the tanmn. They, too, govern the genitive,
(d)
and some
''G''
of
them
(originally nouns)
may
after a preposition.
x c
)
;
x
l
^J
(dimin.
"after" (time
<JUI
)
;
Jbji
"before"
(of
time),
&
"
);
X &X/
ber)," (dimin.
K
*'
<3*>*'
o,J
& "
"
(of
a number)
"
;
under, underneath
' ' ;
"
;
"
p\&3
"
;
"
*f>^
*
;
j--J
"
;
' O
^ " with,
;
"
;
xic
^
*
;
from
8
"
u^*
(or
^ U^)
"
<{
instead
place
of
"
;
j& (or
j**>
declinable
);
"except, besides"
&*
"
x o'
"without"
~>j
&
X
bi-la
"without"; ^j*
X
"except
XX X/
(indeclinable): e$>~>
<c
besides"
^W
"opposite"; *T>^
"opposite"
But
>0'
as adverbs,
i.e.
<>jj
and
JLiJ
^J
"
(
used as a substantive in
all its
Cx-^&'^^x
:
AJJ^SBU JU.;
^
" a
man
like
Zayd
Alx^aRJL
X X
GX/O, C;^ X
either
?C.x
an
x
J/
indefinite or
x' c/x
a definite substantive, ib
with
x cx
one that
is
indefinite, only.
Af ter j*
]
-J.P
and^i
xt
uJUjs is
x'x'o-'C/x/x&OO
understood, as:
Fide also
(e)
^)i
"
else."
and
XXXIV
(6) (2).
773
"placed
t(
opposite");
lu
*(*
or
*tfll)
- tf^
"opposite";
;
fUf
'<,
"
before, opposite
S(jS
x
l*
(of place)
a
,
v-aU.
'
after,
x
l
&#
(sometimes
<^
.
and
^
X Ov
**
I***)
"
"between
or
amongst";
8
,
^ ^ "from
x x
amongst";
u^ "on
this
without
less
than or worse"
(dimin. e^^i).
(e)
The following
772
f
'
are
all
the cases:
*'
(vide p.
and
adj.
(=
adj.
" resem-
bling, like")
*#&
as:
match
for
"
;
<X>j
Ji*
'
Zayd"
a
*&* "
X
him "
**&*>
X
^
^C<
XO
AJ)
^
(^Jj^ x
or
cll
'
or)
"I
saw
man
like
Zayd."
non-Arab
Also
j&
t,^
xx^o/j,,.
^A^A* "a
"
:
"
:
x^x
"
impossible
:
^A^
^5^'
'*
^^>
(rarely <^j*
and
If
(<ijj
j.^)
^ one
or both) of the
words
is
and LJ& sometimes mean, "both 'Oxx " ,*.*xc/ both rich and poor came to us. j j*pt ,^3 Lo
a
^ && X
and,"
or
"partly "
partly": li^U
OxXxO'
ajij ^^w =
^
O
^^
m his presence."
x
tJj<>
j^
9
;
y be used
for
^^
but
and
>
/*^iji
"beware!"
etc. is
f
*
Mil" n J&c
all
^o
*<*'
.
f'*
-
*
is
through
6
the cases.
Vide
of
&V&
)3
xv
^
jt^a* and
j*Jb>
similar.
Aj^
but
X
" " ^o
-^o"
^JbJ X
f
terms.
< o'
j,|
l
After ^j^
J|
and^jj
O i*
is
understood, as:
"
Vide also
(d).
774
CONJUNCTIONS.
"
Remark.
all
-*.
'
Jf and
&'(<
tlie
whole,
"
;
part, one,
some "
O
;
;** or
jt
JU
measure,
size,
quantity,
Vide
"*
'
worth"; *U)
&S
"both."
XXXVIII
(/)
(h)
and
LXI
(k).
uL,
especially,
above all"
(lit.
there
is
of)
seems to
,
nom.
or the gen.
u
x
i <J*^f cf***^
is
" a^ tne
of
Zayd,"
The word
i.
compounded
the ace. of
^
**
$:
the negative
(^)
To imply
ill
(particle)
*!*
-
^ (U
***
*
UU
AC
(U
(par-
(declinable)
ace.,
*
and
if
LIV.
|i*
and ^L
govern the
*
but
the
is
UU.
or
^U-*
ox^o 9 t*
XXXIII.
(a)
'
Inseparable
:
and Separate.'
'
(i)
+
;
(as
a
is
*
The
latter
indicates
and
is
o =
q.v.,
" so that."
and
Ixj
It also introduces
a Nominal
clause
after
Uof
"as for"
is
is
3Lk Ue "
Lit.
what
free
from "
|Ac
"beexcepted."
JUeJt
^fj
)
as:
,
' &
'
"
* *
"
(or
if
the
second clause
is
Verbal,
the j
may
vide also
II
and
LVIII.
This
waw
or Aor. ,as:
\_ft^-r
> + *
8xJj
*3jJ
"Zayd came
coupled by
for
XXXIV (6)
(7).
CONJUNCTIONS.
55
775
"
tional sentences
q. v.
eii* +
with a following
Nominal clause or a
(ii)
Suffix
means "for."
' '
so that,'
* '
' *
let
t>
9<f<J
vide
XXV
(c)
With the
particle
it loses
its
fa-l-yaktub.
Remark.
Accusative, as
In the meaning of
f *
:
"with",
Wj
^ f<>'
"
AJ)
Zayd with
his brother."
XXXII
:
(6).
SEPARABLE CONJUNCTIONS
next, after a
:
The
common
*
e>J
)
*
,
little
connects
ing order,
follows
o,
indicates a shorter interval of time; also in indicat4 6 / &f * here or as j> could be 3JJ >;+*
^^
o
p*
^ could not
.
precede
8
.
j?
C*55 -
unless, unless
jrf
that":
^
^
35
CM
^
ij
"
ex ^ fe/
jf
Uj "either
^
it
or," or Uj ^
+
U|
+
Lot
for
s"
"give
either to
Zayd
or
Amr."
,
<
// ''
j*t
*'or"
(in
Jl
ff *A**I
"
shall I
do
it
or not?").
Sf^oJ x
V^ tU;
U (^^ *
(<
man
did not
come
to
me,
woman
").
are
&$
XX
.
^Cf;
and negatively
X
and Jlxf
"so that
not."
w'rfe
XXXU
(6).
tf/
is
The Adverb
If all
^3
connected with
<*i.
came
in quick succession,
776
CONJUNCTIONS.
in
x
and
&&
x
lakinn
'
' '
but
* '
the former
is
used before
verb; and sometimes, without governing power, before a noun; the latter is used before pronominal suffixes and nouns, the noun being put
^
in the accusative
:
'
^'
s/.j^
b
if
a
where,"
is
= "
wherever."
since, because,'
is
Nominal
as
it
U can
x
tit
.x
I*
&J*
"
when,
"
if,
(originally of time,
always followed by Pret., but generally in sense of Fut., in which case it introin indirect questions = duces a Verbal clause, vide Temporal Clauses
:
"whether" = cU)
'
'
(for
it
and
tit
"
fit
f
*
if
*
;
ever,
when, as soon as
"
(temporal
o o
l
'&.'<*
Lakinn"
is
one of JLniJU
So too after
fljk?"
or
^(
'*
if
anyone," Uo
"Ox
f
'
if
anything," U$x>
**
"
<
if
even anything,"
"
"how,"
/^O" l+fUT
^ 6
e
"however,"
"where,"
"when,"
**AJX
"where,"
lx>
" wherever,"
^Ijf
" when " and other words implying a condition, the Pret. has a future
The sense, the condition being represented as fulfilled. * ' o' 9 * 4' ' <*' \ " it is all the and after jf or," as J**A&. jf t^J^* Vfj-**
'.
same
'
present."
C
&
If
^|, ^!,
C"
etc.
is
to retain
its
of
its
" sisters"
is
inserted, as:
c^*^' CM!
^x> oJ JUOA+?
Vide
"
e^]
if
ms
(5)
XLIV
(a),
and
LVI
Condi-
^t
is
XXXIV
t
(6) (3)
Adverbs,
p. 783.
/ //
3
o 9
'
c
j] X
ex "
ft
$''&,'&'
"
ci^>c
For example
it.
^jj ^A
A^J
'
e>)*; but
UJ
Lj must have a
XJ
vorb after
*
But
f^t
CONJUNCTIONS.
d
o> x
777
"if"
(for
probable
conditions;
followed
by
Pret.
with present
or future sense;
in direct questions
= ji
whether ")
>jj
x
"even
+
i;
if,
although"; sometimes
35
<
= "and
Si
(^f
"
if
not";
i/J^ x
"and
if
not, otherwise."
ill
of
exception
LIV).
jJK'if"
before a verb
of
(for
= " would
purely hypothetical or impossible conditions) (also used that," but before nouns and pronominal suffixes
;
y is
X C ^
used).
With Negative,
O
^
)
:
Uy
C**
fy)
<
if
no t.
"
if
(= ^fj
j sometimes
" and
"
(in
impossible
of "that"; with Verbal (and sometimes with Nominal) sentences, the verb being generally in the Subjunctive^ or rarely in the Aor. Indie.
c^
or the
G*
introduces
G
X
direct
quotations:
I
(Jf
"as though";
except that"
;
'
il
"because";
for
^f +
)" that
not
*5J
"so
that not
"
o'
" that
sen-
is in
person
^i +
or
^f
s
s
Of
or UJ| etc.
o^ and
Ui
"
just as
if, it is
as
though
"
;
Of
these,
^) may
;
1/oyJ
is
used
and *J
J
is
If
t
is
used throughout
<.'
but o^
not repeated.
may
be used indifferently.
778
CON JU NOTIONS
&V "because
"
;
if
or of
Vide
XLII
(c)
and
XLV.
Uf
has J).
amma "as
for," with
Uf', or
Ui#
rarely luj
"
)
while, whilst."
" when " (conditional) followed by Pret. vide p. 776 note 2 "whenever, at the time when" (temporal only, does not apocopate).
;
U
Also
adv.
= "when ?"
\u'
<*'
*
)
;
&*<&*
with a Nominal sentence often
^ie*
vide
"until"
(c).
[
c)f <j)j
XLV
t/
or
Vide
XXV
"
(c)
and
XXXII
(c)
and note
and
2, p. 771].
"
in order that
takes Subjunctive
&xCJ
"
in order
that not."
$' UJ
"when,
;
after
"
(
feet meaning
requires a complement, as
").
^3
v^ ^ ^~+*
.
tl
I slept
when,
after,
<xU or
?'
since
IAJ
xx
fta
tc
(wia
#'xx
Vide
l*fyl*f^U>
= "as
(e)
long as he rode";
(13).
U5ti "
ouo>
"as long
as I slept").
x
x<,x
XLI
U **
"after that":
used
to
U Jw
x Ox
"before that"
.*
It is often
generalize,
as
UK "as
;
often
as":
Sx
^JUo
"whenever"
x<
(tem-
J^
q.v.
tional)
also
"
j
whenever," and
xx
tit
"if ever
"
Ux>
,?,f
Jx,, vide
XLV
(6).
ADVERBS.
779
* +
(if
Remark
I.
In generalisations,
j|
whenever,"
U>
"if ever,"
"whenever,"
UK "as
by the
Preterite or the
Remark
II.
In Persian and
life,"
Urdu
f(,i
is
"as long
Persian
Conjunction
ma-dam-ki
aC-ofa
as he was U, or ma-dam-i-ki
Vide also
XXV
(c),
Subjunctive Mood.
XXXIV. Adverbs.
(a)
to
the
first
word
of
the
sentence,
"did he beat you?"; but * ^J+*\ * asm u-k* un Zayd "is thy name Zayd ? ": only used when there is no interrogative pronoun,
as:
J^f
ox
xi
e.gr.
xo"x
(
'p
t&A
oJU*
?
.T
x
!<
^ xx
'
", but
(<XA
JU*
c x
'<
who
Ftrfe also
XLIII and
8
LIV.
saw/ (separate), are particles prefixed to the 99,^' APxo^ xox Aorist limiting its action to future time, as (*Uf o^- or ) aJUs'U I shall do it.
(j
(
' ' :
inseparable) and
Jy
/*
"certainly, truly."
a
This
in a
may
be prefixed
to an
l*-'umr ~k
' *
"by
thy
life
"
;
(ii)
complement
' '
;
d*3
^>^
by God he has
(iii)
V;
v)
do
it
^n negative interrogative clauses, >f X xx >>XGX " " hast thou not done it ?." ? AJJU* Lof
;
Jf
Uf
x ,
^f,
as:
AWf
is
Jffj
"shall I nofc
But
Vf,
an interjection.
x
*
>>
~
(with the hamzat 'l-wasl).
is
uJUl
x
doubled.
"/
occur together, except in pause.
indicates a
is
For
j*f
a contraction,
780
(6)
o ,
>
ADVERBS.
(1)
Nouns used
in the
accusative
4'
:
case,
as
or) 5jU j
5)8
.*i
"
fc
one time
at another time
M
"
I**
"
"
together
;
'
*<**'
i^*tf
''often
'
"
;
^1
O'O**
al-yawm
to-day"
;
fj
il,
or
^
x
|3j
il
<
undoubtedly
;
^f
aZ-ow
x*
c*
' '
this
^
^
(in
X
x o*O^
^^i',
(or^^f, or
^j*^
# O
^)
"
> ^x
vuij
x
"in that
case, then," as
til
x
^.i
'let us go,
then."
To the same
perhaps"
futurity
[
class belong
c-^
^9
,
when,"
Uj;
"sometimes,
[particle
;
XXXll
(a)],
(c)]
(I) Rern.,
J
[
lit.
of
vide
U*
"il
"especially"
'&
^
wde
XXXII
(/) ]
*i^ "how
alone,"
(interr. orcondit.*), as
"
;
/x osuffixes, as:
<x&.j
,
"he
" p&*j they alone "); and a*J; and Ux^ Remark to (h), XXXVIII.
(2)
"whilst, during."
Several nouns that are used as prepositions in the accusative without tanwn, ['vide' XXXII (c?)], are used as adverbs also, but in this case
*w^
* <**
O
'
*AJ,
or 3 A*J
?
^c x
'
after-
Cx
O'
O
^.^o.)
;
"
'
wards
J '
;
(not
interrogative);
AJJA.
"whence";
"
;
(>?
taasu
X
that,
so that
"
;
U^
if
"wherever
there
xO
is
j&
(or^
* Ox
;
i/*^J
it,
nothing else
' '
(inflected
an affixed pronoun to
*
'
c^f)
xc*"
^ or
fjj
J^
is
also
a conjunction
"when,
if
since, etc,"
from
an obsolete word
c
for
" time"
occurs ir
alu^
or
at that time,"
*xo
2
8
Vide p. 776.
>*
xox
will I
do."
in Persian,
The
final
zammah
is
2.
of course
dropped
Vide
p. 776, note
ADVERBS.
781
(3)
Certain particles,
ftf
as:
state-
ment), as: ^3
not."
1
I*
"Zayd
= "that is so,
he did
better].
ill
-I-
interrogative
\,
vide
X
(a).
f *
Uf 1
= U "not" +
interrogative
f,
wde
(a).
"
ft
j*f
*l**f
" shall I do
it
or not
?"
fol-
$
e>|
"
the Predicate
often strengthened
by
J, as
or JL5U
x
|<x>3
^ "verily,
^
;
Zayd
*'
is
intelligent."
With pronominal
lit
suffixes,
<*ij
"verily he"
^\ "xx
' '
or
(^xit "x.,
verily
1"
ti|
xx
Or
"
verily we.
"
UJl (for
c;l
--
^
ait
"
)
only
word
or clause
;
the end,
as:
USj
poor only"
^?.
^1*
^ 33 '
"
how, where,
x
(interr. or Conditional).
a
c;lj(
and
i.e.,
^bl
is
"
when, whenever
(
"
(interr. or Conditional),
^f
O
"
that
"
^j**
**
"x
?
**
"yea, by
God!"
i
CXOX
' ' ' '
O//* x
*jj|
yes
vulgar form
of
*.Ut
*
^t
x
x
' '
ox O
^f
where, whither
' '
(interr. or condit.^)
&>j
&*
" whence
"
;
"whither? "
Uij|
"wherever."
do
it
2
In negative interrogative clauses /XG'' x' " 4< hast thou not done ? aii*5 U|
;
Jff
*J?
UJ
^
"
^f,
M *W
:
"
i/l
shall I not
it
"
?
;
but
J|?
is
an
interjection.
2.
782
o*
JL*
1
ADVERBS.
"but
rather,
^"yes,
terrogative, as:
certainly,
why
G^WkX
-
not, of course,"
X*
XX
x*
OXX
>f
f>Jtf
/&>? X
X
"
Am
They
said,
" 'Yes.
5
Utxj
"
while, whilst
"
;
Jl (or in
pause
**>)
"yonder, there"
wde
p. 775,
note
2.
<ij,
often untranslatable
it signifies
the completion or
certainty of
really,"
^ C'
as:
4^^
A*
"we
have mentioned
(just
now)."
?9
It
o
was hoping he would come, and now he has " sometimes." Vide XLIV (a) the Aorist, it means and Ill, (7).
OX* ko*
'
(
really
(6),
<*'
f or
+ IM
is all),"
lit.
"and enough";
3b3
"never"
(of
kj
^
*xif;
U =
K5
'*
jjt^l
jJ
him"
</^
Ox
5
or
(of
future
negative Aorist,
as:
o^
-&>b'f
"
if
will
f^f
"never
time
is
Sx
all,
vide also
XXXV
'
(6).
'*'<G A!A*I
'
)(
"
do not do
/ox&x ^ aJUiu V
it,
or I shall not
do
it
"
"
:
meaning, as:
1
"do
not do
it
"
:
51,
In Persian either
;
db
or
^j
Vide also
ADVERBS.
" there
783
yu
il
is
wo escape at all."
Also
f
as
:
"
not,"
it
jiftj
JJ
U
t/
&'
>6
x
il)
^(contraction
of
e>l
vj^
"not";
xVx Ox
:
followed
by the Subjunctive,
*!**!
<,x
"not "
Present.
&l a particle of Denial, as
* *
:
&*+c]
"
f^/of
l$L* o*>f; ol
x x
"
LIV
(e)
Exception.
Conjunctive, vide
XXXIII
what time
"
(ft)].
"when
G'X
at
' '
f*>
able "]
*
" [derived from p*i (what you say) x^ affirms any statement or question. Vide cM.
rarely ^**
)
o x
yes
"
,,xx
is
agree-
el*
vide
(a);
introduces more lively questions than the Inseparable particle introduces direct or indirect questions; in indirect questions
as:
t^ir&xit
I,
"whether,"*
JA u^* 4 *? "
tel1
me
me "
Vide
LIV.
3X
O x
(
x
)l )
iU
i
= Jk +
q.v.
Ftde also
The
interrogative
particles
and
uU
are
no * used before
&XX
(JLkf.
the
interrogative
pronouns.
xx
cx
Xx xC'
" wouldst thou
like
^ uJ cU
:
^>f
J^ cU
^
or
&-
in these,
some substantive as
&)
iL* must be
784
f UA " here "
'
ADVERBS.
*
;
'
9\
IUU
(or
U*)
iA
(4)
*-*jj
(^
shortlv
"
;
or
U U*!
b)
" one
day,
>^
f
'
o*
"
]
' '
^JU,
"any way,
}f
'
..(
erf
or
) e>f
^c
per
haps" Ux*
wide
^
"especially"
= U
>
"there
' '
is
nothing
like
whatever,"
' '
XXXII
^ -
(/)
U J/or UU * (from
+ *
-
J/,
it
seldom
' '
,
**
? *
and
U JLL
or
Vide also
ULt^ (from Jib J^ki 8 "it was long") " not XLII (c) Particles that govern like Verbs."
< (
for a long
time."
(5)
"
^
is
tfc
point of,"
as
:
signifies
etc.,
and
''*
(
/0
'
xc>x
e^/of
erf )
^^!
(pronounced H/P)
lj&>
&&
A*#cJl
)
"
it is
"he
very likely that poverty may result in infidelity Vide also LXI. nearly did it."
+ & *
*&***
&
& and
&"
or
(6)
c.J
J*)*
"perhaps,"
X(,'
govern
(rarely
the
OX
accusative
as
^^
Jk>
By Arab Grammarians
^^
is
considered an
33
"Approximate Verb"
,/
'
<jt
or ^f.
In
iJ|
ef fi*\U'
(said Moses)
will destroy
your enemy
",
+&)
is
(if
~*.
first in
the clause.
The
Pers. <X$IA,
"
perhaps,"
is
also a
verb.
2
to be verbs.
They stand
first
in the
clause.
S
As
lilia.
JU
UJjLw
Jl-fe
honoured us
*
INTERJECTIONS.
785
"would
O
'
(*
that
I- ";
<*'
J^
(rarely
^0)
U
"
perhaps
I"
etc.;
'(.** 'Ci?
>*>
'
me
the distance
of the
But
if
is
in
if it is
(c).
added
*
* S?'
feo
cU or
x
their governing
power
ceases.
Vide also
X.LII
* s +
-^
g^
/*o
x X
**
Note the construction Jlfcb' ASU. ( = i>j.suJ| Jlfef ) "he prostrated himself and made long (his prostration)/' for " he prostrated himself a
(7)
long time."
Compare
LXII
(a) (5)
Remark.
XXXV.
Interjections
e^T.
Lj,
(a) The Vocative is expressed by the particles Vocative, wde Syntax of the cases.
s
G-*
and
U'f or
l$fc|
For
s
,
s
;
sU s
-*
,x
(6)
Some Interjections
far
are
or
&(**> e^l^A
or
"
alas,
or
*
,
"fie^ on thee";
more emphatic
(with prep.
^.^o
(fern.
XXXIV
"
!
(6) (3)
&, UA
lij
UA "come
/X C X
us go
p &>
or
or
of
Elative
o *' *
v^f
"
)
hail!
"
(as
*
xx o*
^b>,
<*f
^^
*
&& -xx/
bravo "
!
x^/
"hail to thee! ");
L^J
(with
&
or
&
or
fO^
"beware," =
cJLf
U;
IA
"lo!";
t>
<,
"woe!"
suffixes,
as:
^ "woe
l>
to thee!", vi^e(c)];
I
"oh!"
or for
_^_; or
in
pause,
an
alif
maqsurah
t,
as:
!<x3
or
ifo^j fj
"Oh
.
Ij
Zayd!
"
;
C/^^'
t*>x>
xxxx
^
/x
i*>*
Oh Moses ";
!
li*!
Ij
"Oh mi/
" sorrow
!
i>>.
(and
pi. fj+A*)
" come
<j
<j
But
in
pause ol^J^
In Persian,
^
of
'
cJDi
also a Preposition.
M*.
|^
^lA.
forth,
et
cetera"
50
786
INTERJECTIONS.
"give,
IV
of
^M^'to
* of
come)";
^
CAJ
o'o
"come!"
^^JU,
^1
"haste," or
jtpf
"keep
to
to,"
or
jat
as in
*&d\ ^.U
"come
prayers!");
Uj, or
jjt>
or
*\)
(for
also
"stop!
let alone!
"
(c)
The substantives
to thee"
;
^ and
<*
JLfj
(formed from
^5^)
/x
O -
"owe
(^)
AJJ) Jbj
|tjj
/x &
bj
"woe
to
him."
care!";
give
it
up
"
;
J|>|
Jlkj (m.c.)
"
stop work."
(e)
tij x
or
"behold "
may have v,
as
<yf
it
((^A, tit
or)
^?u d
f
/PI ix, or
e>j ''
f
lif
(it
"when
me":
vide Con-
junctions, for
tit.
#- ox
(/)
"
welcome,
are at
"willingly";
\"* j **f
"welcome,
you
U>
"slowly, gently!"
XLI
(d).
(g)
Many
this
it
<O
X O f
2
from!,
cannot
be!";
*D|
cjUu-
"praise be to
God"
(used for
transitive.
4 aixs e;lsux*o
wonder greatly at
it.'*
INTERJECTIONS.
I
787
" as God
*U/
pleases
"
(to
remove the
' '
!
evil
eye
>).
*D
X X
'
thanks be to God
"
!
*U ^t
i
"if
God will
"I
or
*
All
Jl*x>
"God
forbid"
(^.
"I
take
"
refuge in
God");
*U) ^AiJUf
<I
;
/
ask pardon of
i
God!"
if
(used to decline a
V
* '
cases)
-j*J(
*Utj
ill
>>
J^
there
is
no
"
!
(expression of astonishment
or alarm): Jte (IV of J^) " He is exalted!"; and Jk ^ j.* AjJf "God, exalted and magnified (be His name)!" (constantly appended to the name
of
God)
(h)
etc., etc.
calls to
cries
driving horses
o
^ or ^A
$<.
t
o '
'
' '
away
A.
<j*j3
*
for calling
a dog
kneel;
A!*
or #5* for ^
making camels
Ox
<3-b
(jLb
-*'
the sound
of a falling stone
(jj-fc
sound of splash.
Also
*
"many", as:
'
aJJ|
*U>U
^^^/|
sJ
c)K
children": here
the word
many
is
PART
XXXVI. Nouns
(a)
II.
SYNTAX.
and
Indefinite,
f+is
Definite,
Tanunn
*'
;
is
'
<->(&
*
"
a good
book "
(2)
'
*.'
a'JUl^
*
A'U
*
a glorious queen."
The
loss of
definite (except in
v^' s
yU#f *
"the,
good book."
shows that the
The
loss of
article, usually
noun
(if
and governs,
noun
the
that follows
as: c^JUJf
o '
t,?
;
father of
Zayd
"
9 ,,
(t
p**^1
one of them."
(4)
"A
"
*.C-
Jf
<j
is
expressed
by
the king
'
')
cU> f^U
#
" the
(or a) slave of
a man "
9?
(,
=
,
*9
:
*&
(,,
S&~
Ja^AJ ooj
C^AJ
' '
cU^I
^
"
of the
man."
king"
;
(5)
x /O *-iJ oJu
"one
of the daughters of a
daughter of a king
>JiJ| cjUu*'
'
(according to context)
but
vy ~ j* *"
1
"a garment
of silk
"
:
S>9^~ G
*9
^4>l ^
^* U+j *
(6)
The
"he
is like
a (the
class)
ass"
^Vt
+<x
_^f
"
of the (the
I
whole class
of)
sin."
i.e.
THE COPULA
(c)
* '
IS
"
ETC.
789
(I)
V UI|
\*&
"this
a noun
may
1
be either
|d*
definite or
indefinite, as
V U^
is
fa*
" this
is
a book
"
;
v UJiyk
" this
is
the book
"
;
fittf x
ia*
"this
XXVI
(a).
In *UT ^aJf x
'*
*jjJ|
la*
is?^*y "this
after
is
>fc
might be inserted
(e).
&
(2)
for emphasis.
FWe
also
XXXVII
(6)
and
XXXVIII
cUJf (adv.)
Note the
"
this
very
XXXVII.
(a)
etc.
The words
for
"
is
"
are omitted, as
" <Jx*^ ,j
' *L'
Bakr
(is)
handsome "
c^JU-*^ or)
^t4^- J ^'
" tne
men
(are)
handsome.
(6) (1) For clearness (to prevent the predicate from being mistaken for an apposition), the third personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, singulai dual, or plural is often used instead but the subject and predicate must be fs x ^ ,/ /JL , 9, & ,
;
fc
definite,
'
*
as:
j
^\
*Ul
4<
God
he
is
the
j
eternal"; '&^+^\
isf/o
ilf
^Ix^sJf p* JU^Jf
singular, vide
*'
example, after
XXXVIII
In
all
(a)]
til
;
,9
99&+
JL^Jf
JJi
'
that
man am
its
"
;
-/ ,
Ul j*>
&
who am I? "
predicate must
be in the nominative.
(2)
iyl
J^a*J|
as the predicate
easily distinguished
by being
etc.
same person
may
^)
"I
(am) thy
(3)
Lord"; v u^t
<1&1
x
"Thou
(art)
When
1
is
of separation
"
(
G'C,'**
790
"pronoun
>*
is
1^
o
x
'
*^'o
>*
x x
gift is
(c)
as
v^
99
XxC*'>>X lxX
j
l
pronoun"
X
>*
I**
oK "
t,
/O^
this
was (not
is)
the reason
' '
:
ist^tWl
^^
" the
<
the
slaves or mercenaries)
formed the
army
Jflilf
*
^^)(Ja)\
^
" x
I
^3
" but
they
were
the
doers
of
wrong"
?
I*A
*x
^/o Uf
x
^^j
x
^/U
*
where then
this
is
my
";
&
,^so
Ill .
whose
is
book
Ours "
compare
LXII.
\X
J is
prefixed, as
i^sJUJi
^^
"
e>J
if
be the righteous."
(c?)
ail
x
and
Ifif,
etc.,
mean
'
there
is
"
etc.
Ai
i
XXXVIII.
(a) Adjectives follow their nouns and agree with them in every respect, but sometimes according to the thought in the mind of the writer. Collective nouns (and broken plurals) may be treated as singulars or plurals, according
to the idea,
as:
e^Jt^
f>5
<*
" a united
people"; *3Uu
"a
miserly people."
broken
plural
takes an epithet in the regular feminine plural, as: oDij^axj fin "
numbered
days."
(b)
j$*
generally
makes no change
for gender, as
^*
or)
or
(c)
For the
Infinitive used as
For the
III,
Noun
and
of
XV (5)
x^xx
Remark
LXII
(d)
The
adjective
may
refer either to
it qualifies,
iS/x/cxx
or to a following
noun that
is
connected therewith, as
"
791
of
understanding
9 fx
*{,
/^GX *
/x
<
:
jJ
# *
alic &JU!
iU;
i*j'j
Uj^
iU.; cujfj
f"
saw
>*
/fc -x
man";
^f
U^ x
^U; 04 1;
"I saw
man whose
father
was
generous." It agrees in case, with the noun preceding it (to which it is, as it were in apposition) but its concord with the noun following is the concord
, ,
of
the
verb
and
its
agent.
Thus
in
' *
*fy
# *
passed by a
man whose
dual noun
may either
x>"
9'
x5 O 'x
Similarly in
UA^JJ
^^JLijUu
d;yo
"I
passed by two
girls
whose father
was generous," the adjective can only be singular masculine, as the verb
<'.*
it
would be
pj*.
also be rendered
by a verb
or a verbal clause, as
>?
u .,
/ /x
cU
ILtj o^jfj,
and
^J|
,9,
t 9,
? Ox'
^U.; c*jf).
() The adjective follows its noun, the demonstrative pronouns precede their noun but if the noun governs a genitive or has the affixed possessive
;
/x
^1
\**>
.o,
^l
mine
is
noble
"
;
\**
^3
#
v?l
X
x
l
v^
'
C~
J
i
this
is
book" and
l^ I**
this
your book":
JU^I
'
1^*
"this
man man
(1)
this is the
man
' '
and
^' ^
(c)
|AA
"
this is the
who came
and
(c).
to
me
yesterday."
F^e
XXXVI
and
XXXVII
(6)
is
verb Before a collective noun, the demonstrative will be plural */ the ' *" rl Note that the word u-Wf is always treated as a plural plural.
(2)
it.
Before broken plurals, or lifeless feminine nouns, the singular either feminine of the demonstratives is used; but before regular feminines,
the singular or plural feminine
(/)
is
used.
its
The
genitive
governing word.
In
792
/
xc<*
?^l jt
"the
zammah
in
^.Jf
If
clearly
shows that
it
is
the phrase were unpointed, the word might stand for d*?uJf the genitive, * X
<^C
in
which case
9
it
u^L*
xcx
x*
of the
Wazir" =
(g)
Ml
is
"Ox*
9 ox
-^
c'G x
-!!
^# =
->*3
Generally
x
when
ft*
%tt
and" 0)
if
^) ;*
^***" #& ^
*>jS
.**
*"
*&
*>\.
But
as
the
(1)
rf (*
Some Arabic nouns, such as "all," " every one"; "one, some, a
Rem.p. 774"
8 <{
part";
vide
JaU,tjfefc (e),
like
";
"
another than," vide XXXII (d) and (e) lj many A a Arabic in but for stand genitive. govern a," English adjectives,
LXIII (d)
S^
"
peculiar
use of
J^
in
apposition
is:
j'U);
J^
p&*)\
j*
"he
is
a thorough,
real, scholar."
^,
fcjl
'
J* "the whole
of the
day,"
xo~'
x
cif
"all mankind,"
o'
laAit^gaJl' tl
'all
the animals":
<>J^
W> J^ "every
i-^
stratagem,"
fj>
i9
**-\j
i^
o ^
Sale
Urdu
2
translation of the
and Rodwell both translate this " the possessor of the glorious throne." In the Quran this is Vfj UWT^ ^) J^ which is ambiguous, as u*Jj may
qualify either
^|(j owj*In modern Arabic, the final vowels are omitted in speaking hence, to avoid ambiguity, a word signifying property is inserted in Egypt, to indicate possession, or
; ' '
(jw,
or
in
Baghdad J x
3
K
is
je
before an adjective
privative, as
793
b
one who."
as:
Note, too, that J* may follow in apposition to a definite noun, ,& * s **& f &" the Utf <>J V earth, the whole of it"; mankind, all of ^IJJl
them."
%9
Remark.
of
kull un
Jf (followed by a genitive)
xi,-o u,
,9
JT
u*Jl^jA
" he
is
"
;
^^\
<J
CHS*~
'
"
I tried
my
utmost
"
;
V^2J|
and
ate
Jf ^jj
J'
<<
he beat him as
much
as he could.'
But without
Jt,
v^ ^
<**'&?
i^***
*
= "in
all
cU" v^l>
all sorts of
dishes."
c<
(2)
u^, ^-
%fr
a part, portion,'
'
is
followed by a gen. of a
pi. or
a collective,
G'
G
3x o ^o
one," as:
fljjli
u^*^
'
c$*
" one
day";
xxx:3lxJ| s
(JOAJ
"one
of the
pupils";
(j&*>.
4
u^*
'
c^l
'
/kJ| <JA*J
'
some
* G&^ ^CX ' S <" ' t(j be borne than others"; I^H* uf**V f**^ &*'jr9 "even
of
them should
etc. is
vtde
XXXII
(e)
jj;.
I;
is
(4)
XXXII
(d)
note
2.
9
(i)
An
Adjective
may
JM
s
J*
little of
understanding."
may
/
;
xx//3ix
have
Jf,
which
is
^^1
J^aJf
J^l
Ja*J|
*
JUUjA^Alf
*
J^f
(6).
**
the
man (who
is) little
of understanding."
Ide
Relative Clauses
LV
794
(/)
(i)
l*+>j
er~-^ <*j
Zayd
,
(is)
handsome as
to face
' '
(i.e.
Zayd
is
hand-
99
&
, ,
/<,,
some)
*-s^j
eJ-^ *0 "Zayd,
his
face
(is)
handsome "
"
)
Zayd
(is)
handsome
o/ J^e face."
(ii)
to the
face'*
(here Jf
^iiJf)
(for
Relative Clauses
"x
(iii)
LV).
is
/O ' /Ox
X
"^
"Zayd
long o/
to
"
sight
(i.e.
Zayd
is
long-
sighted).
<
(iv) ulxJ(
yT|
"
;
j*
^1
e^.
tc
"
(i.e.
very quickly).
Sometimes an adjective
*' '
is
&
>
3>f
sjjU '
,
"a
x^
girl
/
[who
is],
a virgin
" $**
x
f5t
,*
o
f
^' x
a number of mosques
"
;
,<S
Ua.
(2)
which an
made may
(
also be so treated, or
else
v^l
= v^^t
<{
but not
vA ^f
^'
).'
the
golden image
(3)
"
:
y^ vy
= ^a. vy
a garment of
silk,
a silken garment.
is
The
Infinitive,
used
in apposition, as
J^
si^oj,
vide
LXII
(^)
adjective
~?
[j*> ]
may
9 C' x
o*
O "
.^f
(m)
(1)
tj^l
transitive verbs
x/
COMPARATIVES from
:
of loving,
'
hating, etc.
are followed by J, as
after
*&*
1
*JJ l^-t
^ x
*U
x x x
wJlJrf ^A
he seeks more
795
Comparatives from intransitive verbs take the same preposition as ?' c x '* 3 f(j cx'ox
^Jb
^xl]
vy>f
J-A
"he
is
(i.e.
When
*
:
the
"
comparison
f,
is
between
i
sentences,
9
f
&*> with
*
'
G'
or
<>>
is
9 G ^i,
/^.^^
^O'C,**
used, as
better
' '
^^^f
**U/f J?*A
^x iJ^j^
"
is
tffow
^t^
*-
x
1 '
this
c
/-
book
^ X 3i
is
saw yesterday.
^O
X XO^
xX
*<,.
x'O x
'
fe
xcx
-^
^x o x
or
M
indefinite
(w)
(1)
noun
;
in the genitive,
x
x C x
x*
,0-
in
which case
makes no change
for gender or
number, as
&>U- <.>~^f
^ x
v^O
"
Zaynab
its
is
If it is followed
by a dependent
C'
X
definite
noun,
it
may
or
may
not agree
with
noun
- x
<
in gender
x
x
and number,
V
GX *
(^alif JLsji
x
U*or) (*yf
JL2*| U&,
"
T-LJJ?
their tribe"
oUL~*
or
a -^f
*5Uj
4<
Remark.
same construction.
Either
^ Jy
or JjVl j-^f
is
first
day."
(2)
The
+
l/o
highest degree
9
is
U or ^ U
J^f
x
f 9
as:
c>
^wxf
is
j^
x
o*J
l/o
^^
of
"she
Hayy
of
"
;
to txWj. -4(3
,11;
^x:
"Zaynab
is
the most
beautiful
the daughters
of the verb,
rule.
796
ORDER OF SENTENCE,
Remark.
ETC.
X
of expression:
Aj*#\ jv*\
" the
Amir
Amirs "
"the precious
gems,"
is
"the most precious gems"; (in this latter practically a substantive and need not vary with the
i.e.
XXXIX. Order
(a)
of Sentence, etc.
is,
of
a sentence
(1)
verb;
(2)
subject;
(3)
object;
^C
+ s
(4)
referring to the object, the object immediately follows the verb, as:
9
t*ij
v^
9' 9 *^=iU
*v> 99
!*j)
^^ vj^ would
' *
9 ,, ,
mean
' '
"his (some
prospective.
person's)
slave
is
struck
Zayd":
&
ill,
pronoun cannot be
&
ill
t (,*
observed with
as:
Of
IAJJ
u^*
"no one
me."
The Predicate
is
placed
first
(i)
emphasis
(ii)
when the
,/
:
subject
s~
j\*)\
lA^l*
is
in the
>
house"
(iii)
when the
is
subject
in the
i,'
restricted
$[ jf^Jl S *
^
,
I*
house "
t '
x?)
^\
*
^
'
"
Uij
*
only Zayd
is
in the
hous
^*
**J
^1 =
Zayd
(b)
is
"
).
The subject
either a definite
noun
or else one qualified by an adjective, except in certain cases of which the are the most following important: * ' t' (i) When the Predicate is a noun with a preposition, as: u*ltf
+
'
^^
s s
"I have
a book
"
;
f 9f
&
*>
J*j ^ ; f^| ^j s
is
in the house is a
man."
f
,
f>
',
(ii)
When
the subject
introduced by J, as:
*5tf
'
J^f
"certainly,
a man
is
standing."
i.e.
797
:
When
/
x x
x
j\)\
x
^9
**>*]
" there
is
no one
*
t
in the
"
house"
;t^(
^x
o ,
"
;
/x^c,**
f 9' r
Si^t ff
x
jf*Jl <J>
-
house or
woman
(iv)
' '
? <.*
,,
/x x
'*
When
' '
!
be upon you
^Jui* fJL
peace
^^
s
* '
' '
(v)
When
the subject
is
adjective), or
a diminutive (and therefore really contains an ^- u /o^^ an adjective qualifying a noun understood, as ^** J^>
is
:
"
/ox
/o-^/^"
(
<**
''there
4 '
is
a
(
mean
fellow at our
house"
'K e/
x
y^^
er*^* ^*>;
er*^
a believer
(vi)
believing
man
is
is
better than
an unbeliever."
&
When
&~
the subject
i^ =) c^
>x
If
/Ox
(j
* G~
A^
<c
^iJ|
AAP^
'
is
good.'
XL.
(a)
iU;
^
:
*,,<*** *<**
Ijf ^il
^e^i-
V* de also
XXVI
(o)
and
(g).
Remark.
ix
JlA
and
f
f
(6)
Jf masc. (and
relative, as:
<*,!
'
fern.)
and
as a
J->
u?! *
^^ v
x
lir x
C5
t^
x ^
c|
"gi
^t
lif,
or <&*
cjjj
798
like
"
;
&?
O"
"
O^W /'
J
J^*>
.*/
f&
standing pleases
9,
me" &*
:
or
c^f
person, but
d*j
^
XXVI
(o)
and
(g).
XLI.
Cases of Nouns
'
its
Sisters
'
^
(a)
)t
etc. /
,t
*ss
(,
ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE.
Nominal, sentence)
>>
%^J\
"Zayd
maybe introduced as an absolute nominative, as: eU <y>j 9 , , 9? 9 $ G- ' ? o" his brother died" = ^j y^f ,U; JUol^dJJ v Zayd's slave
-.
^
*
9'
, ft,'
<(
was beaten
V*
**&
Uf^j
)
the slave of
Bakr
is
standing."
(d).
is
(b)
(^
e^"
3
or
o^O=
)
The
genitive implies
(i)
possession;
(ii)
material, as
(v*^
te
*^^
v*^
6
<*A~U
"a golden
chain
"
;
(iii)
a part,
[vide
'
of
meat"
XXXVI
earth
o|3
&^ "the
creator of the
"
;
^j^^l
j*>
(2)
U^
of wildness),"
of
words
like
ji
JUf
t-^Utf
X
^\
^jj
^*
with a
adjective would
be used, as:
^LJ^jf "dissembling" * +
(3)
(lit.
two nouns,
l
:
it
follows the
first,
^^
The j
the
here,
is
is
to indicate the
zammdh
of the nominative.
This j
'o-e ^ ^{,
is
only inserted
when
word
a muzaf and
is
nominative.
The accusative
is
*JD| *lu|
etc., etc.
Kdn a AND
ITS 'SISTERS.'
799
and beloved
of
God"
(said
by the Jews):
*l*;ij JU^f,
c? yij'
''the
man's
For
JM d*M "
'
li ttle
'
"=lUb
JUj},
'
JL
x-
"
vide
XXXVIII
/
o'
and
LV
(6).
(1)
^'
)
object (JlfcJf
Jk*Ji
* O
(
may
'
)
be an ****<'
|cx>)
noun
(tXjj
of
manner, or
of unity,
*<.,*(*'-
or other noun:
t^oJi
by*
o^jy*, or l*j*
^,
"
gave Zayd a
:
is of
A&y*
(one)
blow": ^i*^! Uy
t5***^
"he
struck
me
blows that
me";
a#f
J^t
" ne
is
his
^U
<he
died
the death
(those
of)
the
time of ignorance
best of riding
'*
a non-believer)";
t^ -'* v^ v^ >
8
"he
rides the
"
(i.e.
"he
is
a good rider")
li~^
^ v^
way":
into
many
ox
parcels."
is
for
?f<j*
^ c-^
J*f
''wait
God"
f or
*w
o ?
^^
he was struck
(2)
The
INSTRUMENT
f
(/
is
performed
is
in the
^ ^x
l*xj
^C/XX
#X/XXX
I struck
accusative,
as:
IAX*
oo^
Zayd
with a
sword"
l<*Jj
cu^*
But
2
^JjJ^tf c^i?**
different occasions.
is
object
in the genitive.
800
(3)
(,'
Kan a AND
ITS
SISTERS.'
TIME OF AN ACTION.
ft>'
It expresses details of
* <j"
#c-
* <" '
(ojle),
as:
\j4
cuJ>f
"I
stayed a
month";
\j%&
ciy'U
month"; U.U*
right
J>\
"he came
left,
(4).
early in the
^&
'
"he looked
and
1U*>
$* "he
journeyed a mile."
Vide
this
x G x
Remark.
To
:
class
belong
as Prepositions, as
(4)
i-ftl<k
"
x O'
behind," (Jy
o ^
/0
definite,
and immediately
(j
'
*}} c
/^
cu-J^
I sat in
"
;
(but
AJJ
^^^
^5'
^^^^ "
I sat in Zayd's
assembly ").
. '*
When
ti&o o<**
I sat in
a place.'
'
X/O-"
;
concrete, a O'
;
preposition
must
I sat
be used, as,
in the chair
<s
.
I sat in a
G'.^Cx'
land."
^
x
mosque"
**)
^~j
^ &&*$ "
as:
of
Zayd
(5)
L>J!
#
^ c^U
x
.?
I travelled in a
To
;
express
STATE
or
CONDITION
(JU),
^*U
Jfox x^ x
"he came
riding"
*.e.
his face
towards Mecca,"
"he
Mecca":
Jj
*U "Zayd came
Remark
I.
The Accusative
may
be ambiguous: UjU> x
' '
ASuf;
may
II.
*
*'
is
*W> P&**
(for l+4*'0
he was condemned on a
was
falsely
charged."
is
generally
x
indefinite,
9
, <..
but where
f
35 .
it
involves a
may
(
be definite, as:
><M
)
~9 ^AUJ} Ai
/ ox
^^^^.f
he
is
' '
riding
^
i^| ).
v^j
^/o
^x/o/xo'^x
U *i^
Kdna AMD
ITS 'SISTEBS.
(6)
The ACCUSATIVE
OF SPECIFICATION
*
v^
" he
is
U>&
&~ *l =
The accusative
olive oil."
&j
&\j**>
of
(7)
The
if
indefinite, as
stood up to show
him";
l*ji,
But
if
oj-iJi
^
&
'
^>>j*
O '
^9^.
"*
s he fled
from fear
of
oji.
^ cwy*
S
(s
'
'
C.xG" C'G'
o "
"'
or J&Ji
" she
fled
from ^e fear
of being killed."
Fide
(&).
(8)
The
ACCOMPANIMENT OF AN ACTION,
its
as:
^U?
is
overcoats
"
:
J*yi j
A**l
^j**l
equal
.
(i.e.
is
very sandy)."
is
In such cases j
used for the
as: 3U> L
* ma' a
The ACCUSATIVE
(i)
WITH TANWIN
is
VOCATIVE,
man," the
'*'
]
when
imagined,
"O
99,'
'
^.
lj|
(nominative)];
(ii)
^
^
(iii)
When
it is
&+*>
^^
"
Oh thou
carrying
*
"
;
or
J*J( &>^
^ s
L yd hdmilani 'l-himl a
(10)
CAUTIONING: dlj^
lion
3
*JbJ
"take care
!"
(lit.
^thee^
and the
"
!)
;
*~>y\
^Slt
= *>$
;A^j
x
;t^V x
**^ ^
eAj]
*-
For a
woman
(,
Lgi>f
>
ayyat*-ha.
X
c-X
But
3
JUJ|
51
" J^ta^ U
Oh
Vide also
LXIT
(c).
802
'
SISTERS.'
^/O(11)
*G'
/ w xx
The
(&>
s*
o^
t9v
&
c<
"I
beat Zayd
H^ ^!
ee
we
serve."
'*
Remark
the ace.
I.
to
come," are
transitive
and govern
Remark
II.
(to
Many
be
)
thought Zayd
hakim"
and Active Participles may as nouns govern
'
Remark
III.
The
Infinitive
The Predicate
of
Kdna and
its
Sisters
',
vide
(e)
XLII.
preceded by one
Either the Ac(c)
VOCATIVE.
(1)
The person
called, is generally
is
of
the commonest.
cusative
Nominative
may
,9$..
(9).
,The
particles ljf
&,
fern.), or ljf
U,
may
be prefixed to the
NOMINATIVE,
Before a compound
some
particle
is
"
"
boys!
(The tanwin
c**f L
s
is
dropped in
collective nouns).
"
lj
O my
is
father!"
Uf
"
mother!
"
;
v ; s
"
as
:
my
''
Lord "
!
The
alif of
alif,
*
,
<'*
^j
" welcome
J '
!
After
"
when
After
\)
noun has
or
8t
added.
|
(2)
The word
Jjf
Alldh u ), without
a seldom used in the vocative, ^XJ! Alldhumm ( = 7 a voc. particle, being used instead: this is said to be
is
For a noun
in apposition to
a vocative vide
LXII.
Kana AND
x
x
ITS
x x
'
SISTERS.'
,'
803
/ x
(e)
ITS SISTERS
ia>>if j
eJ <) etc.
(
The following
fifteen verbs,
called
&K
^^
*
.
(It
or
'
retain their proper meaning, but frequently became,' irrespective of the time of day, etc. With
may
^J,
d* "was"
also
still
<,,<,-*
is," as:
U^
*
UU*
X
aJJi
Jf "God
'
9 9
is
all-knowing and
all- wise
Ulp
^^^i
man."
^^
For
' ,
"
my
^U
' '
vide
XLTI
(a) (2).
2.
^
*
is
* *
t>*
may
or
)
also take a
xO x
jj^jJ
/G'
xox
<
'
predicate with v as
Zayd
is
not a thief."
(^ *
t
J?^xJ^x \^ AA*>
*
" Sa'ld
3.
not a boy."
/o x
1
-&<
x x
jL(Aor. ^^j)
;
"became"
LU
^xa^t
;l/a
rich
"
^xJUftj^flJ
X
4.
x
<
4-f*f
(or l^c
"he passed
the morning,"
as:
"I became*
thirsty."
<^-x>?
or
^f>
U^
yjj
^^1
Zayd
^sJil
7.
J^ "to
as:
his anger.
his face
And
also
^/ ^f
-
>
x
Jjf
^L
!!5
and A*5
"
to become."
For
AS.f ;
and
(J/u*.
in the sense of
LXI.
x X^OxO'
Uj^
x/ XX
1
x C x x x{, x^
CUMf
4<
I passed the
morning happi
ly,
804
Kdn a AND
ITS 'SISTERS.'
8.
ctb
"he passed
>
cD^ai;
^3
otU
"
Zayd
Jfj
U\
also
<-
or Jj>j
II,
c x
' J
(Aor.
/&"
*.{j
* x
Jl>> H;
may
fj^e
x' O'
J'3
"
Zayd
me "
(
x
:
C/*
'
s 9
f9 *>
;^*>Slt
(Jr^J
or)
in this condition:
U^ri or
VA ^
H)
(^ /^
xxx
U.
J'j
"Zayd
still
goes."
10.
Vide
uw -fr^o
XLIV
x
(6) (5),
LXI.
J&!
x -
U
x
m'anfakk"
Jij
xxx
" he ceased not 91 = J
departed wo$"
long as it lasted" (requires a second clause), as: x / ^ ^-** f< I stood as long as the Amir remained (*fi
'
11.
IjU.
12.
^ Uhe
x>!,ilxj*
13.
as
0x
w.j
*
f * $,<
4,
or
I
)
H*.^4S s *
sitting."
14.
' '
^x//^
^x/'/xx^x/^o^x
as:
IJJ^P
^
a^j^ j U^
x
(*ALif(
fv
' '
;
Islam was a stranger in the beginning, and it will become a stranger again
x
;
'
&
^.^o
-":
j>jA*
jjj ^ix
when thou
it
-Ox
^o^
i
With a negative
x
i
signifies
"not again",
as-:
l^b e*xc
<j
U
f
'
" I never
xC-o ^x
>"
o^' "
wept again";
.JJiXf
*
J*fc **
"do
not do so again
"
;
IJ^^o
XXX
j*d\
sitting."
Ox
**>
>'
15.
c
"
s
'
-"
/4i
^aj
"to remain,"
as: LJUoAjAj
.*
"I remained
Ma U
adv.
'
not
x
negative particles to
" that which." The Preterite is used with the JtJ *xx 4,xoxxc/x and the Aorist J^j with V and and with
"; also
pronoun
(Jj*^)
XLIII.
M5 U
3
adv.
as long as."
Vide also
X
'
XXXIII
X X
(6) p. 778.
'*
Sisters of
GOVERNMENT OF
(/)
AND
J|,
The "
Sisters of
/x" X
Accusative,
as:
l&j
31
;t
<.'**<,'*"
";
t^Jj
jJfeij
^AJ "he
(g)
f la
to
and
^^fcJ
The
others
may be
,'J9+
Remark.
fti
- fj*>
without
to
may
also
XLII.
Government of
* and V, etc.,
like Verbs.
(a)
(1)
cases
the
*
when they = ^J, have in certain The particles U and same government as the previous verbs [ XLI (e)], as
II
:
'
'<'(<,'
'
6 i*'
U=
U5U
-J
^.^* U5U 31
(t*
-^cx
U'Ui
A
:
U.i
(2)
'
also be expressed
by
' ffj'
il
V
is
/5lo <H)
x
'
ijuj.
this
/ ^9
redundant v, which ^
'
also
l^, as:
JUj
','
^c>" x oJ,r
U = UG oir
X
U.
the former
is
better.
Vide,
<*
LIV
'
0t *
(e)
and
p. 783.
(6)
When
^j^^l
^
'
'
), it
governs, before
?l~ *
)/]
^[^ "there
*^^J(
^^
A'Jlsv/o
$ ex)
*>
min a
sh-shay*
"it
;
is
absolutely necessary
(there is
'
no alternative from
the matter)
(2)
' '
jt ^3li x
* *
there
is
no hawk
is
flying.'
If the subject of
negation
is
*O
ox
retained, as:
U*"
<xj
^ t^i
is
#0 x
if" there
"
;
Uy brt; V
4 ' '
" there
no rider of
^rXXXX
a horse /
'
$ <j9
;
<*'
ft<t
'
J(
but *J*
#
^l> "
"
^ (ditto)
/^CAXJ A!*J
"
U-*
(3) If
the noun
is
from
V, there is
no
has none.
806 GOVERNMENT OF
U>
AND
^,
iff
government, as:
cu-aJt
XX
^9 ^jil "Zayd
is
home"; J
"X
" there
(4)
is
no
man
in the house."
^
With
are indefinite
is repeated before each, and if the nouns and do not govern a word, the two constructions can be used
several negations,
if
For
(c)
i after j vide
LVIII
The government
C,
of I*
x x
XX
(6).
and
)J
is
extended to e>V
XXX =
(
:
X
)
xG
<
x" "
negative
u>J,
as
/*v
*
cL, e>il
"
Cx G^ x X o
s
it
' '
U>i~*> y* ^f
"
"
vide
LIV
(e).
S'&sft.* f 9
(d)
i
The
following
reverse the
government
and predicate.
The predicate
consists of
o
**
tf
its
preposition, as in \&j
3*** of
x
"
Zayd."
U> is
the pleonastic
its
governing power, or
be regarded as the subject governed in the / ^x ^cx & f /.x '3i acc. and as meaning " the fact is," as but \& ^j *JJ. iyj,
:
U may
M
ft
(1) ut
tww
"
truly, verily
"
;
/
)
33
'U>
IAJJ
c^t
"verily,
'
Zayd
X x
*
is
'
standing";
X X X
35
;^l
_>A aJJi
is
"
;
all-powerful
^x^U a ^AX>
03
^t
x
your friend
is
with you."
ot
X
is
'cx
/
x
as if
x
"then,"
f^l
/
IX[)
oj
x
,G ^^ o^l
^
^
*,
"
sit
where there
is
Zayd
sitting."
*/ * C ' '
1
tf
Named
also
L3[jf j ^f
GOVERNMENT OF
If
U AND
35
i,
the subject of cl
is
When
c>J,
the predicate
may
take the
"
:
#*'
3i
corroborative J, as
^5laJ
when the
take
subject
is
separated by a porin
may
vide
example
Remark
O '
to (5).
<
is
Remark.
copulative j
If there are
is
usually omitted,
&*&**
'
,yj
*,
"I am
attentive (and)
well-informed."
(2) u>t
ann*
"that" and
its
though,
i*fli
9 9
J^;
* Nominal' as: clause, just as if," introduce a subordinate < &' 9 &'?,<,' '' " I t^.3a^o o;! <X0| testify that Muhammad is the Prophet of God
35
/x^3ii'o
is
-^
x
'
'
erf
the object)
'*
^^ <~&1 &*>
if
^jacu:
lion.
*! \^.)^
as
Zayd were a
(i)
Remark.
Either
e;}
or
&*\
may
;-
signify-
^C*
/XG>*3/: AJU
^Ij
|V*x
^x>
if
is
honoured";
f
as:
-
(ii)
JL
after
'
#o- 33^
5U|Vje>!
5U>
aj^ f
JJ
affcer
'
<<is
not?", and
?
^ "undoubtedly,"
as
iixj)
^J
Uf
'
is
"
;
;^
ifir
^1
' '
^31
undoubtedly
-o
Nominal Sentence
xt*t ^'J->
begins with a
noun
or
pronoun
a Verbal
JZ
Sentence
(
fn.9
^xL*
'JU^
with
a verb.
"but")
3
are used.
its
808 GOVERNMENT OF
U AND
after
)f,
God
as
:
is
"
forgiving
>,
x
;
*<,?
(iv)
Ox
J,~
*Uf
^>
^i] * *>
**
^^f
^y
(
'" Jy the
35
*
thing I say
is,
I praise God.'
"
(3)
^
j>
lakinn*
or
<
"but "
1
(4)
oJ
foyj
etc., as
i-
.'*
labf
^
C5 ' X
..
^f
^ = U^ U^f ^p.
^
'
.,. ;. :
(5)
cW*
'"
* o'
?a'aZ^
''perhaps"
^U
t^j
J^)
<{
perhaps Zayd
is
sleeping."
Remark
I.
in
\^~l e^^t i^
would be,
&
J;[AJf
XXXVII
Remark
(d)].
II.
redundant
if
without
it
t
'
<J^ ^j *
?
ft
^
C*5
^] Jx^.
*'
In,
fo" *&
ait
<J^* J^ol
it is
words," the
after ^J is redundant;
(e)
(1)
e>!
^-
>
C^'
in a
verbal,
f
as
:
c ,
f<
(jJiai/o <xij
^f
o-4-Lc
know
Zayd
is
going away."
But
ver&, as
,*
tv
?9 99
' o
*1J> ju~J
Adverbs
^5
" but
t^ie ir
hearts hardened."
also
XXXIV (6)
(6).
s s
3 If
verb,
*#~
come."
809
(2)
This
e)J
takes
o
J before
f
'
its
x
predicate,
o
it
c
c^
'o'
&\, as:
*
"
verily
,
Zayd
s s*
is
x x
&\
,
* * * 3* '
Wj^lj
ofc,
andW>t>^ j (^).
:
is
G*x
c/'
be inserted, as
/tx
*ij
<' o " ^
va*L|
AJJ
*$
up";
^J
^
'c.
'
'
as
(4)
For &t
vide
XLV
(a).
XLIII.
Particles of
t,
*
l
(a)
U is
C/
is
used
more
forcible
than
U
(6)
O'O"
= "he
)
never did."
"not yet"
like
and gives
it
a past sense.
(c) 9 prohibitive, is used before the apocopated Aorist (Jussive), or the Energetic, as an Imperative (the Imperative proper is affirmative only).
:
V UJ|
I&A
osoj
it
!
}f
<Of|
<
by God,
I mill not
open
this
door
"
;
but in blessings
and curses
a
:
Preterite
(in
its
<c
when
or more verbs, as
negative
is
often
I*.
"no."
is
of
The
infidel (generally).
810
Remark.
<*'
Note that the Energetic increases the force of the " Prohibitive.' r
used,
it
(d) If p) is
verb
but,
if
followed
by
9 *
^o"
xx
b'
ace., y succeeds, as
&*>
&t $ j
IAJ) jf
<^
= eJ?
V) precedes the
Subjunctive (Aorist in
),
and gives
it
The
interrogative negatives
Vi
or the copula
understood) often mean "truly, verily, certainly" in a present or future & & f> x c-o 9 , --- " sense, &\ being sometimes added, as &~j *l\ JWf JU3 ill certainly thou wilt
:
)|
-*
, x ^C/x X xxx x c ^ not attain learning save through six things"; V fi|<xaJt si{ 5/1 "truly jy*3 .2-0 99 c fZ '' ^, " youth does not last for ever ^' ^' "verily these are the fools."
;
*WM ^
c<
(2)
ill
ijj
O'&
'
U^J
<J
are
O
3^'S5
REPROOF"
(u*^l
u**'**^'
-W*) and
^e
*
future tense
AA>
*
"
why
" = "pray da
'
U
(g)
is
U "why
standing
up?"
XXXIV.
XLIV.
Tenses.
PRETERITE.
(a)
The PRETERITE
still
expresses a completed action, and also an action exists the time is not fixed but may be defined
:
by
which
is
regarded as certain^
3as
:
ft.9*
*
I
*
4J
x
o*j>f V
Mj
"
by God
Hence
^J "if
its
use in
C>
0*4.5
VSA*J
you
rise,
then I will
risen."
rise, i.e.
Hence, too,
TENSES
PRETERITE.
811
Examples
(1)
down";
U*"
x>'c~
x x
_,-AiiJi
said."
X
(2)
j^*J
AlJl
"
is
U^ U*Jb
/I
allf
^
;
"
God was
and
is
v-^*J|
UT
<
"
**
x >*0'
'
(3) |&*
uAkfif
" I
grit;e
^O'c*giving)
;
oU
"
;
'o*
oJUS
= " I do."
(4)
*Uf **A.;
"
;
(also as
a statement
"May God
God
(i.e.
have no mercy on
^xx
"
:
/OU^ 9s"
<J"
(
0( *
^x-Ox
*U| &*J
ajJb
*JJ|
&J
<4
)
May
^o^^
cu<-^
!
OU^^x
iJD|
curse
him":
"by God!
!
I <wiII
3
hand,"
shake him by the hand) stop him, from doing that deed).
I will
"
(i.e.
Remark.
the wish
is
In such cases, the speaker assumes the fulfilment of the wish father to the thought. So, in conditions too, the Preterite indi-
The
Preterite
is
past,
or future, or present,
particles
S]
if
any
as:
* *
(conditional)
LVI
"O' C^'? O
(e),
C*
'
x^x*P"Ox
A.
(j^o
/O"^'/O-
"he who
strives,
succeeds";
Or
&*j
is
The tanwin
9,9
*
over the j
.
the
waw
is
Umar u
If
For ^a^J
tabkay
after ^) the
is
dropped.
812
TENSES
of
"
(to
the fated
and
ox
x x
/
1
'
after jf / xx
"or,"
is
\j>j**> jf
!^ * *iy
"it
all
same whether
S
*
Remark.
its
'
If the Preterite is to
;
sisters
'
must be inserted
& x
vide
or one of
(6)
The
it
restricts
" particle *J already, just," prefixed to the Preterite, properly to a time already past, and must usually be rendered by
xox
*
& *
as:
G/i
&$
"we
"we
x~
"we had
mentioned."
But
'i
"the prayers are just going to begin" (said by the Mukdbbir just before the Imam begins the prayer) here too the commencement of the act
;
is
(b) (6),
and
also p. 782.
x x
(7)
terite
with or without *,
prefixing &\6 to the Pre' x , x xox s * " Gx x xOx C/' f <j* " as: uxJi Jlw |^A JL*J ^f ^jj df^c! ^ i^ Zayd
\
|
OX
'
' '
(or
^ *j*\ **
x^ ox
^O"
" x
MJ &K).
Remark.
G'
by
iJ
o-?
' -
and yet":
l^jwau
X
oiT
&^
x? 5
^4^!
^y^
'
J "why
X
me up
at
blind whereas I
infidels
say to
God
the
Resurrection)
this
^Lo^
*AAJ;
(8)
The
o
Preterite
x
I
'c/xx
-^C'x
as: o^fei^i
e^t
A?
"
)
^
power
"
,
or o^feUj ^l
x
x
\&a>
oiA/.
omitted.
O-
^X
Ox
If
two
[or
c;f
(with
O'
nominal clause)
-1/P
],
TENSES
signification of
AORIST.
813
Potential,
an English Pluperfect Subjunctive or Past Conditional, or of a and occasionally of an Imperfect Subjunctive or a Potential,
^UJi J*sJ
cJo;
AX>I
*uy
if
He would
it
surely
/x^
$..*<,.
JLety "had
'Ali,
- <"'
^Jb
XX
<*>.
Umar would
' *
-
";
if
ly'U* Ijt*^
" and
let
(or
X
were
to leave) behind
If
them weak
would be afraid on
their account."
WM
(I
Ul*a.*lJ>y
"
if
we
pleased,
we could make
it salt
water."
Vide also
LVI
(a) (1).
Remark.
It is to
conditional past
be noticed that both the conditional present and would write or I would have written) may equally be
a Preterite.
expressed by
(& with
AORIST.
It may express the the Present, the Future, or Imperfect. Like the Preterite, the context or else particles may define its time. Vide also L (c).
(b)
Remark.
p. 749.
(2)
sense
vide
XXV,
<j
",
The
particle
Jj~ sawf
Future
:
or its inseparable
shortened form
it
(3) The Aorist expresses an action accompanying a past action, and is then equivalent to the English present participle expressing state or condi-
tion,
infinitive
expressing
the
end or object, as
* *U>
=)
laughing";
in both these
examples the
words
2
U. for emphasis:
XV
x f
he came to
me
"
;
<*'
0"Co
<ir*J
-^i
" he
Note that
this
LV
(e)
and
p. 774, note 3.
814
TENSES
AOEIST, IMPERFECT.
it."
A
:
Remark
II), as
j *>)
"
Zayd came
to
me
not
running.
Remark I. The Present Participles, however, have the idea of doing a thing, wanting to do a thing, or having done a thing, according to the
context.
Remark
a sentence
II.
It will be seen
of the
examples in
'
:
(3),
<*>*
that
*
* *
may
be used as an adverb
J* j ^j
/O*
'
s^
in his
hand "
f'
;
9 o
flj'CX
&JU> u*+2J\j
o*j
rising."
This
waw
is called
*V^f
ji^f
"the waw
LVTII
(e).
nouns have
may
be omitted.
Vide p. 774,
note 3 and
(4)
X
LV
x^Oxx
(o).
The
may
9, -xx
*--- x
>
0^0'"
l;
as: ^jtt&J
$3L!;,
or
e^ai-!, f* j
fighting."
" I saw
x x
Imperfect, however,
AJ
is
usually expressed
by prefixing
otf,
as:
c-^xo
"I
&
(this
"we
will
be
said
by the
\& j
!<yT
at
the
to
Resurrection)
tell
4.5*
Ji**
&K ^3
or)
^j jr
Zayd used
me
^
this every
day."
Remark.
also be expressed
by
>K
with a following
present participle.
(5)
The Aorist
&&**>.>
fc&
fM'dfej t^ "they (Adam and Eve) began to hide themselves with the
leaves of the
Garden "
^
;
JL.
he began to weep
"
;
>jJ\
;^l
I cannot speak
Arabic"
^^kof oJj
<
to walk."
Fi^e also
815
The
9
9, o'
as
|i*
vfy
perhaps
x x
it
may
be so."
Vide also
(a) (6),
and
(7)
Remark,
p. 812.
(7)
The Aorist
of
oK
x
(8)
The
Future,
X "
'
Perfect
O
'
Preterite,
as: Uv]
X"
tW
X
J,'/
with the
will
^f
JAJ>
XX
^l
X
J^
0,^3
^yj
Zayd
have
Remark
x "
I.
When
O'
by j "and,"
Jr and
Remark
in Arabic
The English Present and Past tenses can also be rendered and Past Participles. the Present by
II.
XLV.
(a)
(1)
When
&\ (and
compounds
time,
it
)/f
and
something in
'present or past
is
&> e
"
know
that he
"
asleep
;
J^
erf
fM
know
"
;
AJ? is
commoner.
^^
x>O'
ix
ill
x"
o>
J^f
<^ij
"I
fear
he
w hat hath hindered thee from " not worship) him? worshipping (that thou shouldst
will
not leave
me"; *-~J
{<
the Subordinate verb expresses a future after a verb of supposing or doubting, it may be in either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, as
(3) If
:
-/xo x
9 <*"
'u&
"I
Remark
/.In
is
vide
(b).
'
^
<
^1
UU
xx''
i
XXX
c
.
4.5*
e^^
'
:
O^ C' O
u)f
AC
il^ t as
*J
J^f
JL
/O"
I seek refuge
AiJb i^sf
*
with God
816
I*
*-'
U/o, ^Aa..
G*
uSI
x
~'s'
In (J*JUf
*
-&^i
"
have come
for that I
be omitted.
OX
The
(5)
ellipse of
erf is
common
of &l
[
after
<J>
**"$>''' and o.
-
J^>
The predicate
is
very
Sti
*5
know
standing)."
with
its
precative
J\**j& o^ai*
-
), it is better
to insert as a separating
word
-^T
(
cUk'
),
the particles **
'
o>
^&3 o>-
c>f
(*^
will
stand."
Rem ar k.
vide
'
Indeclinable verbs'
are
those
one tense ,
VI.
^
(6)
In the Indicative,
(
c;f
or ^f
(^.*
*ox
didst strike
Zayd" =
o^^x
(^/oU^ x
xOxO
l
oa^^ "I XX
^
+
wonder /rom
iAa^,
that thou
|*jj
-^y
f
e^*
^x
V ?^'
1
"I wonder
at
thy striking
Zayd
here
"
;
w^' /&-
//^
=)
^^5^
'
\yoj*& &\ j
you
"
;
'
':
^o^3
(c)
^f
is
the subject.
'
When ^i*
mere
or the
it is
result of
an
act, without
/ X
1
as:
CS '
^i^
' '
L>;
f^^t-o
till
f' 9 Q ,
;
AJ>^J ^
^j^/o
" he
is
*X>J
v-j0 '
(^xs
would be ambiguous, as
G
'
^^
may
meaning.
<Xij
^ r^
3
'
G ^
t^*5 &s
two muzaf
ilayh^
817
so
that they have no hope for him." Bat when ^i^ expresses the intention of the agent or the object of the act, it is followed of the Subjunctive,
ill
,5
x*
x C^ x
^^
as
by o;^
^^
^
**
^vx'"
""
G'*
uj^JJ-o
<-lw
J/oUtff
^^
&9*
we must meditate
before
we speak,
in order that
words
may
be appropriate"; ^1
ajlj
L$ iaw
"
I will
my father give me
leave."
it is
(d)
When J
&
:
equivalent to ^j***- and takes the Subjunctive. contain (i) an Imperative or its equivalent
The preceding
;
clause
must
or
(iv)
(ii)
express a wish or
hope or request;
or
(iii)
ask a question; or
be a negative clause.
Examples
(i)
(^*^lj
or) ^jOc^U
X
" ^jj *
visit
me and I
x
will
'
honour thee"
'
)
( ' 9
=
'
J|
"
if
'
C*'
thou
visitest
me, I
will
honour thee")
(or lest) I
(jXfc! ^ or
kl*U
^3.^1^3
"do
perish."
(ii)
j or)
(jjJ^aH*
^U
J
"
;
ooJ
4<
would
that
had money,
it
in alms!
U*&
(jylj or)
Jy
won
great
gain!"
, /'
or)
9 '
**'
-r^f
c^
s
"
perhaps I
may
go on pilgrimmage so as to
<c
visit
thee":
\j*p*
C*-*--^
or)
vi**^ ^^^
<-/>* ^'
with us, and thou wilt meet with good treatment": <J.*j&>
" , G' "
lixJ]
^U
iU
j or
we
will
honour thee."
"is Zayd at home, that I
is
(iii)
JjJf ( {tSA*\
} or
c<
^^oUjitxti
jjj ci*
may go
go to
to
him? " (=
").
tell
me
if,
whether, Zayd
at
home
so that I
may
him
(iv)
( ty^+J
j or)
ty^Jj*
x^j.
^1* ^^j
)
" sentence
is
not
passed upon
XXX UlxsJ^ or
x'X.VXX^x'oJf'
UJ^sJ^' liJU
U "
'
us something."
Vide also
LVI
0).
52
818
SUBJUNCTIVE
WITH^-jf-cM
OPTATIVE MOOD.
Remark
I.
"hold
hush."
Remark
II.
tional sentences.
(e)
It will
same circumstances
taneousness
" the
waw
of simul-
"
;
it
introduces an
It is said to
be equivalent to &\
g.
I
when
it is
equivalent to
$[
*
"unless that," or
9
i*
^J,
<
or <y^.
"until that," takes the Subjunctive, as: *l~iy \j&\ vl&V "
the unbeliever unless he turn
till
I will certainly
kill
stick to thee
.
thou givest
me my
case,
cJli^SJ
" I will
(00
o^l or
t^J
"in that
i'/
begins
a clause that
expresses
some
and
is
not separated
from
its
verb except by
For example, to
the remark,
v
"I
will
come
AjJij
il
c;- f,
or tJ^o/l
u>{ etc.
But
to the
remark "
I will visit
' '
Zayd,
if
Zayd
c,
will
9 ^9 /ox
iJU^J
ojj ^>ij ),
o; as ^it
jjj
AJJ[^
e)^J
used, as
interposed.
t
XLVI.
(a)
Optative Mood.
Preterite, or less
Is expressed
If negative,
like &j
then
II
^
;
or
ojJ b "
djf.
also used."
I
Examples:
"
(V^V
"
"
;
GOVERNMENT OF VERB.
821
amative,
"and
when they
f"
if
=
1
are set
"
!
^LLf
^si
y =
^X.,-0
u^f *
(6)
^i&Jf
An
without a verb
may
also
be used, as
"
!
Vide also
XLIV
(a) (4)
and
XLVII.
(a)
Government of Verb.
is
The object
(I)
of
an action
(b)
Some
IV
J** or
cWl
);
8
"C,
G"
<*"&'
others,
as
^.^
x
t^j
"
;
f?^
*
L>jU
*
ix^.
thought
him
(to be)
a thief
"
;
man
into an ass
"
;
5U Axjfj
In the
last
example
U'lJ
+
may be
the ace. of
state or condition.
(2)
Note that
U^U ^tsj|
cu*4^
" laughing", or I heard of the Governor laughing, me) that the Governor laughed."
(c)
Some verbs
of
*0
cr>*
*
'
"Zayd came
o '
to
me";
Asu-^Jt
*
Ja.i
"he
entered the
mosque")
but ^^-aJl jy x ^
J^^ "he
$ <j P
f<
he entered and
"
stayed
\
;
X xC*O
^l>Jf f^U.^1
"
*C**
(v^t ^
c$*
*
Remark,
(d)
But verbs
Some
f
intransitive verbs
become
*
y^b '
*
1
w^
Accusative
*'/
( (JHJI ).
Nominative
^^J^l).
o^
S
v.
or
818
THE PASSIVE,
OF INTRANSITIVES.
nt,
.^
In the Imperative
to another).
& u^i =
-*****
"let us
"
go
(of one, or
Such
>
'
_*jbi
verb'*
as:
"
)
;
t^
<j
^j*)\
Vide
XLVIII
Remark.
(b)
and
(g).
is
" takes the ace. of the As <^>( " to come person, ^T (stem IV) the thing. the both and the ace. of takes and person doubly trans.,
(e)
Some
:
transitive verbs
' '
used, as
(i.e.
U^U* iJw
in
v^
<
^*t =
' '
' '
some one
:
not
be used here
/xL;f
"I
"
and
ith
yX*
him
I sent a letter to
9<j
them "
I
& oi*
I busied myself
t,s
'
(or
ai*
oi*
9"
"
(i.e.
occupied
s s
it):
^ ^* "he
(i.e.
prayed to God
for
him," but
*A!C
called
down
L.
curses
on him).
XLVIII.
(a)
The Passive,
is
The Passive
OX
is
(,'
"
/J
(j+
j*aj
*'
o;
jjAaJ
^
(6)
xx ? xodU ^UJUJf,
"He
was
is
killed
mentioned.
and not
taken
state,
may have
XX
;
a passive,
t f
as:
^Ai"he
went,"
&> ^-*>J>
"he was
i.e.
away"
jU "he marched,"
t'i^j**,
XL VII
and
(c)
(iv).
Active Voice.
Adverbial accusative
vide
(c) (iv).
THE PASSIVE,
(c)
(t)
SUBJECT OF ETC.,
if
JU
is
821
in the nominative,
The subject
<
expressed,
^o"
as
:
'
*>)
Ji5
Zayd was
killed
"
;
9 >
' '
f^ &
they were killed
' J ;
'
'
fjUJ
0*3 gt
was
killed
except Zayd.*'
(ii)
In ^^>J
[ lit.
"
it
vide
(</)],
a preposition with
its
(Hi)
An
used as a proper
e>U^;
^"
he
declinable
it is
fu*
<
restricted
$<*,
by an
adjective, as:
(^^
j* j~* "a
" he
'
(without an adjective)
in
0,-
would be wrong;
(b).
^
of
^J 45^ <_r^
sat
by Zayd,
"
or of **<
'
'
"he
is
recited the
'
glory to God,'
as neither
<^^
nor ul*<^o
*(d) If
declinable.
a transitive verb governs two accusatives, the second remains in ^x < 9 Psf,** & ' the accusative in the Passive, as: la+ax* aJui ^.^ *he named his son
Muhammad";
4
'(,
t^* 3 ^ 40
*Vt
t5--*
Muhammad";
'
<*
t^3 \J-^
I*AJ^
U<*>p
pjj)
s 9
/ 9
/o'
a dirham
UtaJ
"
^jjjfe/o yjj
Zayd
is
thought brave."
XL VII
(6).
"
say
p
governs only one accusative and when it means to " the direct narration after it ; (but when it means " to order requires
JU!
The verb
"
it
may
o*.sv>
*J
J&j
'he
is
called
Muhammad,"
' ;
j* or
aij
aJ Jlftj
* *
it is
said of
him
'
he
is
Muhammad "
^ in the
:
first
example.
When a verb
is
U^
)
or
*^ "
*JJ*
^l
him
"
(or her)
;
XXX
passive
XXX
or
*
(W^
IMPERSONAL PASSIVE
(g)
of neuter verbs) is
x^
,
9
lit.
(in
as: AJ!C
^^3
him",
fell
i.e.
" he
died
"
;
l^U
,-niSjf
xO'- f
" he
under the
V>A
^A = "she
is
cursed by
God";
' ' ;
"
)
;
AxL
.*
< <
he fainted
',*-?
c
In
f&Jk
oo*
is
understood.
Vide also
XLIX.
Cx
-^
(h)
cdix.
Jf\
+
&* <^*&*
dates"
;
XX
of the
^JJ<A* *>)
"
Zayd's slave
(is)
beaten,"
vide.
(d).
Remark.
take their
or their
may
Noun
of
Number
of Times,
$,
Noun of Kind
Manner
X), as
/
(,,
f*
^^
'
o''
"
He
hath numbered
Uj
AxslJap
if
^=
&
XLI
(c) (1).
XLIX.
(a)
The impersonal
"
it,
one, they,
X
expressed as follows
'
9&~
Ox
OX
<;'
,9
(1)
By
^jL^j X X
*
ex
**)\ X X
iy^
cu5j
X
^* " X
"
^
/
l
35
in
....";
iJjj3
jj
iJll'
^J
God has
a son."
'
*xff
or
cit
"
35
1
^j]
x*
it
If a
JU
it is
direct narration
823
9,t
'
(2)
By
>A
pi. active,
as: f^li
"
they say,
it is
said ";
"and they
question."
9*
(3)
f 9. 9
,9
By the
he
is
&>l ;
J>a3
fc.j
< '
very
is
a palm-tree
" = " he
tall
it
as a
palm";
1^
*Ut
<-L*j
^yo
^fy "do
J
By
/
-
JU, or
-
JW
^
J^ =
<{
someone has
' '
:
said
xx&
' '
;
J3t J
9
XX
' ' ;
^ ^^ " it
t
&
^o
xx o *
l^lLo
*
^i^Jf
(jr;j
*A**.^
XX
*AX^
a pretty
girl,
whose
like
Remark.
-
The cognate
*
J/
participle
is
"o * ''<.;
**,!
(5)
By an
intransitive, as
it
(j^v^vjis^tf
*
;
^.yo
e*AA^ or
is
e^Lai "hence
'
the proverb, so
he that ridicules
ridiculed
"
;
the
6^9
or &L+*> understood.
/' xo-O' x x
is Afyi/o
etc., are
expressed by ^iaJtysx)
the
is
XXX
^A^-lS
x
9^*3*'.
rain rains"
*UJt
fern,
Remark.
f
"
it is
necessary,"
is
"
t5*^i.J
it is
necessary,"
^?u "it
c
"
allowed,"
the subject
the following
clause
(1)
future,
as:
jjj
*
*
J^l>
'
<L>
^ = ''who
I
killed
Zayd
"
;
or
"who
1*^
is
going to
kill
Zayd
"
;
$
1
^Xxt/T'jJ
'
/*5U> x
^Jf -
am
fasting, or going to
fast"
J^ s cJUU
^J!
"I am
xj
l
x*
Fide footnote
on
p. 822.
824
{&*
LJ|
am
coming, I
am
on the point
coming, I
(2) If
will
come."
*
they
may
ox
used for past 1 time, they govern the genitive, but in other cases also govern the accusative. They may also govern by a preposition.
x
.
'
Ex.:
*t)
v/^
is
t**
"this
is
the
man who
struck
Zayd
"
;
'o~ ''
J3t&| >*
'
he
going to
* f,
kill
Jf
the
X
,fi
is
the killer
99
f
'
of the
x>
man," and
JU.;
J3U
x
y*>
"he
is
going to
t,
kill
man"
<4
c^
*
^
x
'
->
y-
/
>
Of Ox"
Kdj4*
^ -
^JlUf
the striver
after
x x
U^xx)
*
cuJj
*
" o ne that
or
kills
people," and
i)|
^UJt x
= "he who
kills"
=
**
a verb governs two or three accusatives, its active participles have the same government, though they may govern the first object usually
(3) If
#
*
tb?
<j"
"
1^1
f^jj
(^
d&
x
"I
oJt
will dress
Zayd
thou
in a splendid
robe"; ^'U
j+c.
6
*
^Ui or
9
# x
U+*
.^
JA
"dost
think
'Amr
intelligent
"
:
<j
Cx ^ &
lalkU t^p
*j) JUx.
J^A
this
is
going away."
(4)
When
the
^
^
S3^>
active participle as a
Jl, as:
,<j
^r^t cUU or
33^ 9
'
'
" one
who
kills
JjlaJf
or
^/.Ix/f
Ji'laJf
he
who
kills
people
"=
Jiftj
^ML
So, too,
is
^i^
^^
2
825
(1)
The Subject
of a Verbal
Noun
in the genitive,
and
its Object is
&
either in the accusative or else has the preposition J, as
(the fact of)
*
:
t&
(j*
(*+^J or)
#
l<x*.3*x:
^ JUj
$ t-
"Zayd's
killing
Muhammad";
country."
^V
- ,*
L?*^-
(hubbiy*
'l-watan")
or
e>fcjiJ
^^ " my love of my
When
+i?
(2)
vide
XL VIII
it
a verbal noun governs a genitive, it may have a passive sense, If however such a governed noun is separated from the (h).
in the accusative, as:
muzaf,
must be
y +
<.
U^Ii
*
^u/o
^ ^j ^
-
j4ljtfe|
"or
to feed, in a
its
day
of famine,
an orphan," since a
genitive
governing word.
(3)
vl.
noun can
also be construed
s* 55 'O
s * 9 kso 9
with the gen. of the subject, and the ace. of the object, as: j^aJ\ <^;UsJt
^j
***> is
used for
(c)
To
express an act
now
AORIST
or the
XLVIII
<4
It
may govern
:
/ /c-c-o
f^
'
*x>3U
VJlriji <x3
"by
Zayd
* $<,'
(but *x>3U
Vjj^axj
.
djj
his slave").
Arabic Pres.
(e)
by the
(I)
VERBAL ADJECTIVES
may
J*c
^
or
PARTICIPLES
their subject
are
sometimes
the
must be in
is
saliva
sweet"
f"*
;
but as the a of al
is
hamzat tt 'l-wael,
al,
it is
y of
JJL
is
is
sakin,
it
which
is
is
It
is
rule that to
y) fathah
make a
added.
Here
(after
euphonius.
826
99
CONCORD OF VERB
x/x
'
PREPOSITIONS.
^X G
;
*
f.
x x o '
X
*fljj
v xc X
J*j
X
lj|jjf
&U&/0
$*x
35 x
..
;/
x </>
of various
xx* xt/""
O X'X O
C x
:
colours"
(2)
= ipf
/
/*
cJJlij
u^ oupf;
like
,
wde Adjectives
or
XXXVIII
(a)
and
(d).
INTENSIVE AGENTS
[vide
(6)
(chiefly
#o x
*
/&
noun
(1)],
' '
as:
t^
v'r*
?*<,*$ 9
*^
LI.
tribe
"a
Concord of Verb.
(a)
The verb
is
It is
it;
following
Feminine Singular before a feminine singular immediately generally before broken plurals immediately following it; and
,
It is either Masculine or Feminine Singular a singular feminine not immediately following it: (ii) before before (i) collectives destitute of reason (but for female persons the feminine is preferbut if they denote male persons it is (iii) before all broken plurals able)
:
usually masculine
so too
if
the verb.
first
When
If the
as
it
usually does in
modern
natural.
else agree
(g)
verb has several subjects, it may either be put in the plural or with the nearest subject in number and gender. X
x
&T
:
& p&*\*> J 5
<<
VJ
9 O^t'V
'
" " even though every sign should come (be shewn) unto them
agrees with the genitive Ajf
(h)
.
The verbs
'
o
^
Prepositions.
seize, begin,
(a) (1)
^
vide
hang on,
take
(a).
->
It
may be
sentences
XLII
and
{Vide
XXXII
(6)]
any verb.
PREPOSITIONS.
x x>>
;
827
x
(2) It
may
be used with
"see!
|4
"and
"
;
ja* ^J^Usj
c$^ *
*
j^j
^a^
&$
XXXII
and footnote.
^' ^Ij *
my
"may my
father
ransomed (= thou
'
me)."
It is used in dates, for
on
"
:
X'
'
this
f
*
i.e.
happened on the
five
from Ramazan,"
"
;
this
happened on the
5lh night of
Ramazan "
also
iuij Jx
It It
is
^]l
^iJ
*
v ide
XXVIII
(/).
"
before the
names
of editors or authors.
\,
:
"for the benefit of" as opposed to ^Ic, as X J^ O G'XO xx^ox' " " " I cursed him) (but &d* &*c* fy* prayed for him
signifies
:
9' a)
9^,*
&js*"I
^^ ^
"you owe
me
a dinar."
It denotes the
purpose or cause.
xo/-
Vide also
&
t& means " what a
Remark.
vide
The phrase
^\
man
"
;
LX.
(c)
^ic
"
JL*
"
me," but
<*lij
iJ^jjlc
^x
"you must
by God";
stick
to him,
not leave
him";
"
;
-xUie
"Icon-
jure
thee
f*j)
^ic
isH^tP!
^^
^-^
it is
<**U?Jl?
^*
"you must
as a conjunction
$
x
"
Khalawn* 3rd
-^iu
" to be empty."
c-
'xG'
AJUJJf
would be used.
But
<U*4.iJ fem.,
"on
828
PREPOSITIONS.
never separate yourself from the majority, you must act as others do ";
;*JU
"you must
xx
(&& **A*
x
*>**
jjAi^Jb * ^
jsA*fl!>
,oi
"if aaif of * ?
^^
"
according
to"
erf
^^
"
;
tf&jtyj&i ^^U
so far as possible
^/W X
of"
<J^
"
willingly";
<(
(^i*
xx
k"ilf
uv^; "publicly"
^ ^^U "in
spite
/*^J
^ x
J^c
in spite
of their ill-doing."
(d)
is
flee,
avoid, restrain
and defend.
With many
of these verbs
^
it is
used with verbs denoting to uncover, reveal, " about concerning ").
the authority of ",
of
= "on
erf
j+*
&*
".
"
related
on the authority
<u* *Dl
"
"
May God
"
!
&*
^*
^
;
'after a little
while"
j&*
dj
^ e,U
he died,
JUr^T
t^U
"they were
man."
be
(e)
(1)
e>
is
free, to forbid,
near, approach,
wonder
be pleased with.
#
:
With verbs
x x
of selling
to
or giving in marriage,
it is
9^ Uy *U
x-
^U
" he sold
him
a horse."
o
^o
>"
c -
(2)
1
^>
" some
of, of,
*ix>
loj;^
it
"
;
'
J*
no
A^t
^AJ
is
there any
God
"
;
<
*J|
^>
I*
" there
is
is
Min
is
PREPOSITIONS.
829
"
\'&*
J& &
p***
"there
are
^
"
cuiT
G
of
them."
^AwU
^=
U
^,-xiU
&
years
ago":
jl*aJi
^
1
;
>^^l
"O-" x
"a
certain
&
merchant"; v^i
all I
I'llll
chain
made
of
gold"
JUl
^x /^i* -
possess"
oi>li
Remark.
(/)
pleonastic
be is
often suffixed to
^ ^ and
.
^.
(1)
t5
"in,
among,"
etc., is
(for),
yearning
multiplying (by).
"Multiply
is
&** a
x
(2)
It
<*
"he
fell
into a
tank
"
;
*t;*jf
"
^y 5^ "he "
fell
"
;
t^f
^^^ ^ a^y
^
<
he set
"
& 3
to)
o-^l ^>U ^
sick
' '
"exactly atsun-
"0"''X
rise
< I
' '
;
Ua^x>
^y
X
^x>
of)
my being
= l-aj^o cuiT^f
"
;
Ox/o^^v^x
.
xx
*
<
in spite of
that"
I**
^x>
&1
x/xx
A*x) a
xo"
'*
"compared ^ij| x
to
him
Elias a is a tent-peg."
'Remark.
with).
(h) (I)
The accusative
Ut*
= "at
in
company
The
between"
(a
noun
to
in the ac-
cusative.
but
&#
O
^
O
genitive
be
repeated
X
1
Ox
l/o
"I own no
property."
of the Muslims.
830
PREPOSITIONS.
if
ifc
is
a pronoun, as
jj ^ J^
(
yU c>#j
" what
is
(j
brother.'
'
But
'
'
Jj->;
t
^ ^ &*) U
I
<*+>'
'
<;'
?<S(.rOS
4'
and rasul
(2)
e>#
and
0"'O*
(3)
A^J
to
"before
him";
^
<
^.^
fc
>'
^ ^xa*
is
^
x-
ex
^uT
'
came
me "
e>^
cUU ^ ^U ^yfc
middling, fair
he
between learned
and ignorant,
half
and half
slain
"
;
&X "
"
;
<5
"
'
p. 773.
c^
" on this
under,
^\
&)$
<c
on
river"
',^,
^^
'
'<,
Jolir
&&
is
a paper
"
;
,,b~,
?' 9
^^\ &<
^^
,
$99^,
IAJJ
'
,^1^
'
I will certainly
^ /
Zayd and
all
besides
him
of the
Arabs
"
;
'
JUi
^^
&
x-ju
or,
^V or)
Wv Uj S^^l
'
more").
s ' 9
(j9
Remark.
tJo^i
s r
=
,
J'b]
*
f
:
f
and
C/x
^Tljj f
" be+
C/x
9
' '
ware
1 '
' '
!
But
\Jb$ ^
' '
^L
take
" as
*jj *-&jt>
<Vj
-^^
,'
seize
Zayd
a&ji
"
seize
him."
(j)
^i; preposition
XX
CX
*Jji^wJ
?
>j
as a substantive
=,
"
'Mike,"
as:
to
xi
C-xX
p
5
*<,'*'
or)
!
Jj^ or
X
^xfei
>so JU;
"a man
like
a lion";
>^x>
"I
passed by a
man
is
like
"
as
it is
ambiguous, and
liable to
be mistaken for
so on, such like."
the preposition
but
^) i yso
(which
PREPOSITIONS.
831
(of
As a substantive
(k) ij\
x
X
it
also
numbers).
is
"up
X
I
that one
thing
added to another,
JL
!<>d>
f*
"add
this to that."
It
is
used with
atj
"to augment"
:
v^*^ and
v^:su*
etc.
dear
"
;
x -
*-**'
9
;
(jM
^Oj
etc.;
and with
x
signifying
"near"
as opposed to
&& ^**
^'
as:
^]
*->j**\
&>\*
"
for this
^1
X
(contracted ^\ ^
>
"et
cetera,
and so forth,"
^
-
^x
xx
-xUJt
(
JJ
X'
)
<AJ
" stand
off
"
!
C'
;
"
him."
(/)
&*
(vide p. 771
and footnote
'
3)
may
"
nominative or the genitive, the latter being generally used for a yet unexpired
>3ix
<j
9
c '
xl^o-o^ ^oCJi'
;
'
* {
period of time, as
Jjf
fU
&*>
IAA bj^i
' '
;
i^o
4!? to
O'
have
-^
-^
C'O-o O
of)
this
month
li*yj *">
or ^^t A*
x
LV
(k).
Vide also
LIII.
or
(o)
^ and
c
*
^-
/'o^'
*i*>
o ^
may
position, as:
(j^ &<*
9*9 ?f^s
*J^!;
him
since he
was born";
prepositions
I
jfljf
jlj
<MX)
"since
the
tribe
-
departed."
ol or
U, as
is
" till
grew up
"
;
x>
"though
it
easier to destroy
than build";
"as we
sent
"after So-and-so
perished."
The redundant
LXJ
after
fci
is rare.
832
TO HAVE
To Have.
l -
is
<3Ju:-c
or^aJ according to
or about, the
I have
Thus
I
'
person," as
cU
^*x>
cU ^AXP "
watch."
J
"
also
means actual
possession, as
&U <J
"
^c***
>JJ-)
'
JUJ)
" the
f<j
J
after
is
^ ^"
i.e.
know "
it also
' '
of
"
an indefinite noun,
'
<i
^ ^a^U
'
a friend of mine."
JU
/
^
^-ciic
= "I
have money
(generally,
on
me
or at
home)," but
cs^<c
JU
^jj
my
person."
Remark.
/-x"
LIV.
'^A
my
opinion."
(a)
(i)
t{
i} s
except" (not a
preposition), governs
^&'o
ilt
the accusative, as
is
lx>j
(*j.a)f
^^f.
same case
*
follows
Hi
-
that
<i
precedes
as
iff
o*+vc
'
<
&* &
it
*'
t,
'
or
iJ^
S
'
'
I heard nothing
is
nominative, since
it is
&
3/f
'
,
31
*Jf
" there
is
"
1
J>
From
jJkfi
comes
AjjJis
"
opinion, intention.
"
C4>**'
except"
is
is
indeclinable.
noun
:
or
pronoun
vide
XXVI
(*),
and
'
is
declinable
j*
is
a preposition
only
except.'
5t
jAimust
:
itself
were used, as
x>3 it
ty j**
fjM) f(*
' '
,
and
is
*3
ilt
=
;
^3^*^!
ftf
U.
In ^3 ^juj *U.
AJ) j**?
U
i
'
jz
a noun
"
so too in c*;^ to
DU ^
^ (j&
J/^ ^^V
cujijAJ
as a preposition or a noun.
(iv)
IAC, JU.,
butxc
("what
^U
is
^ ^
("
what
is free
from
'*)
Rarely
is
lL=^ preceded
^
by U.
Remark.
<*
&U.
"
far be it from.*'
particle of denial is
(v)
^1
may
and as a
f,
^|
" there
is
' ' ;
&y*j^
Jit
Hi ei>*J^ c^J X Xx
"
they
Vide p. 783.
ADVERSATIVE CLAUSES
'
/OX x/
'
(i)
51
is
yjj
^U
%X
"
Amr "
#
;
O'
"
^v-*x
|^*c
t*JJ
35
() J^ x
or
(^ s
:
(often preceded
by
rectify
or
emend a previous
^^
tj+e
^
=
^3
<y*W
3/
*'
Zayd came
to
not come.'*
}j**(Jj
or)^!^;^^*
"do
This
o
'
is
better than
*i)
*
j&
c
fjj)
)lf
).
It
between
it
(c).
and Jb
is
Manual," Lesson 60
53
(w)
'
(Jj
= " nay,
"
)
is
opposed to an affirmative or a
*
<~s
$i,'
'
"
jj+e
JL>
A^ fU "Zayd
^
-^^
Jj *j
plS
*
U
o*
"
o
(nay rather)
f
^
5)
iif
t/
cb \*
w^t "beat
Zayd, not so
'Amr";
[^c
(^
or) JL i^jj
= nay
rather)
(beat) 'Amr.''
(c)
RESTRICTIVE CLAUSES
are introduced
by CS;
vide
XXXIV
(6)
(3), p. 781.
(d)
INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES.
&
-
(i)
The
particle
'
may
be prefixed
&
to
e)f
-
and
^>.
It is used
in
direct
may
:
or jf, as
&*,9'
,9
<,
* 9
(,*
, *(,*
'
>A*~Jf >*>|
cUl^ A
^.^x>
WA^P
wj.5ljkJ| 4.^0
strange things is the self-conceit of him who does not will be saved or damned, or how his life will end."
It is
know
jf*
f&
"
jjf
am
or not."
is
If
placed between,
f
Uic
X
"whether he be
rich or
poor";
vide also
under
XXXIV
(a).
o
1
'
^0
It
distinction between
it
and
cA* is
not drawn as
in
Urdu
vide Phillott's
"Hindustani
Manual," Lesson 60
(c).
For
^iLif. ^
For
o-
1x1*1 f.
<*'
f
implies ignorance, in a simple question, as:
c<*
'
<"*
fv*iX)|
It
is
said that
)\
^to
it
'
"
?
;
S
if
+\
were substituted
it is.
should
(it)
The
particle
cU may be
.,.**>
preceded
by
>
and
f>,
but
it
cannot be
&
prefixed to these particles, nor to uf.
*
It
finite
ox>
verb.
It
may
fl
it
must be repeated,
"
$JP&*Mrc.d5*
G*
' Ox
-
was he reviled
"
;
'^'
l^Wf v^
<j***>^f
ojJ&
ox
my
Vide also
are,
XXXIV
ill
(6), p.
783.
and Uf and
;
(the particles of
^U
U*P and $ j)
& '
mte
XLIII
x
(/).
The
interrogative pronouns
x Ox
^ "who?"
,
and
\*>
"what?" may
x ^x
O x
vs*Jf
(but oJf
<f
what art
art
oJu "whose
daughter
thou ye,"
"
;
- O xx
oJLJjl
Ox
'
whom
"
Jj^
**
etc., etc.
^U or
is
*[;
as
J^
^"
*^^
O ^
c^J-* ^^ cir *
^
'
'
=)
jjojjj l .^o
* * *
everything
More
^
lively
X
forms are
$<<
'
|^
'
:*'."' ^ and
t
i Lo
which
may
*;
^AJf
<J
/X
as.
Jyj( liU
'*
or)
5^1
td
to
"what
is
it (that)
thou sayest
";
M) e^
who
is it
L<>
genitive,
f
'
The
relative adjective
^J\ =
"
?
836
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
^.yo,
the verb
is
usually
?
masculine
' '
but
may be
"
'
feminine, as
<J^f oafc
(^
is
The
interrogative
U
c/
is
not
(>*>.
LV.
g'
(c)
XXVI
*
(o) (3), p.
757,
and
XL
and
f
<**
(6), p.
"
797.
*i
/'
be used for
AJI fern,
w'
pi.,'
+ x
"
The
x o^
**
interrogative
^f may
thou
epjT,
ox
as
^f
x
er*
>*
**
99*
<c
ox
(.>;!
+i
c*if iJUjji
of
what
tribe art
"
;
c^*3
^b
*
^^
^^jj
U^
" and no
soul
knows
in
what land
it
shall die
" oJf
;
^M ^1 ^
LX
of
what people
art
thou?"
(it)
When
^/\ expresses
it
astonishment, vide
if
(d), it is
sing. ,
governs,
undefined
is
in the genitive.
as:
noun
indefinite,
^1
agrees with
(and)
it in case,
cUj
'
<^f
'
u**?
*
'
^^
"'
'
.*
4<
thou
is
'
hast brought
definite,
me
is
man
But
if
<
^^ ^!
of state
^t^
*
"Zayd came
to me,
what a
* ^
man
35
he is!"
The
first
substantive
may be
tor-
^f
[
Cf-o
]
^1
&&
'
l^i>
X
"how
mented!"
LV.
(a)
Relative Sentences.
by the
(called
adjective
f
-
pronoun
f
*
*3U or
?
aj;
this
pronoun
is
either expressed or ,?
t&~?
else
,,9
&, / 9&
^x
<,*
&'
s^ *
as there
is
^AAJ ^oJf
^3}
"
the youth
who
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
837
sings,
f -
came'*
is
';
hidden
in
?&'
4*1
t/^Oxv
3*
x f
*z+*
*&
c5^Jf
Jl *W " the
man whom
father."
x
9&
x,,x
man came
whom you
*
o
'
-
thought dead
"
:
&jj
^^AJ!
tU.y
" the
saw "
S-
^31
oofc
^i
x
"
my
my
(6)
may
to
me
the (who
is)
handsome
of the
face"
or
),
vide Adjectives
XXXVIII (rf).
There
long
is
in Arabic
no
' '
possessive
whose
"
'
" the
man whose
beard
is
"
is
the
man
"
;
here J?
^dJi
this
may
also
be expressed by
<*
'xo
>
-c
9 95> ,
*jjdt|
x-^
Jj^t Jk^l x
& ~
*
^o
or) <XAJ
x '
as to
Je beard";
^ ^3i ^
*xi>aJ
JL^JJi
*
x
JL^y
/
*
'*
<o
"
;
tfU
(&**$ or
<ksJ
JLi^JWf
cU^f
of
is
a muzaf, J'
x'
"
' '
who,
as
^i^
11
/ /35
'
<e
killer of
^e man
' '
= cU^f
JUI
AJ?
J^
wWe
(a) (4).
But
interrogatively
Jlif
x
(jjfc
is this
?"
fiJk iyli
"
x x
'
:
am
"
x Ox
xO
X
{
;
oof
^.yc
e bl
^ C" x
passed by
fte
article
Ji
838
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
9
(d)
The pronoun
/&'x
fl5~
is
/A,xx
(
ii>j*or) cuj^*
<.5*Jf
s
"this
(is)
the
man whom
there
is
beat."
Vide also
(e)
.
,
When the
"
I
antecedent
is indefinite,
no
relative, as
^
+9
*>
+ + 6
k
$<.
jJ
in
thy hand
"
;
,+~9
(
t5+~-
or)
"he had
Muhammad"
x
**su
the
J&
cU;
9
>
xox
"a man
Muhammad";
"
J&>
"on
day
(that)
he was killed
"
:
^ /
!
9 e c^
c^^
'
(>*
Such
a sentence
is
4 called <JU>
>
an adjectival sentence.'
The
J**
relative
9 XGX
-
is
also omitted
generic article,
& x ^o
as
^i^Jlj
x
*
w^
<J*aJf
^
J^
>
x
4<
by whist-
ling."
(/)
*&'
,
<,'
*,
.
& &
or
by U,
as:, .oli^
[^Lof
^jJf ^]
"
have gardens
"
;
here, either
substituted, or ty
XXVI
(p)
ix
.KemarA;.
When
^<iJf
stands for
"
;
^^
or t,
it is
a noun and
it
=
*'
" he who,*
but as an adjective
means
who, which,
The
substantive
&*
is
who say
x
-?
(sing.)
^t x
but
these are
^e?/
<X
x oX
Ox
(j^
deceive
God";
<J^i
c^**^
"
;
O.
who
c^'
er'
L
(
^ ^^ tr*
f
entered (or
1
may
"
53x
*a
9 oxx
aw
)o
^jJlj o^>o
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
839
definite
x
[for
the use of
^f
vide
XXVI (o)
'*.*
**
(3),
'
and
XL (6)], whilst
' *
^ and U
have."
o x
thus
*^
<j^>
=
I
o
either
,J
U =
either
"that which
have
"
or
something
Though
^ and
U>
them must
^^ ^
<j
'
O '
*> ~o
*Ux)f
*
*~*'
o*>t>
" I saw a
woman
who did
(h)
O
**+
o ^
The accusative
^
C
p*
f
etc. (*$Uff)
^^c,
andt*,
xx
Ox
i
"<''>
<^fuf
"shall
fall
down
before
one
whom
thou
hast
made
(i)
of clay
"
;
here
aiais.
could be used.
Vide
(d).
The
'
indeclinable substantive
s
s
**>*O
<jf*
*Uiif
v .^o
p)
9
^sJlj
c^Us
"marry what
*'
pleases
?9*f
(*il
or
"
;
*<.,'<,"&*<;*
t^j
o^ U*
x
CUASU:
x
<{
wonder
>*u
for
"
;
X 0<*'
^^X^'X
c^Wf crx
x
^^
^>^
i^xxo
S;i Jlalxi
AJ-C
xxo''
^|
"f
^> >
/ / > C'
"
jjijjjf
^x: jj^ji
il
if
thou
fulfillest
my
need,
be
indebted to thee for such a pleasure that the kings of the earth could not repay a grain of it."
(j)
An
(
indefinite antecedent
may
&
<XA>U.A.
%>
)
,,?<,',
oUl+A.
oujf;
i\j***
J^ or
"
saw some
pigeons, each
of
" What
past
is
is
hoped
for is hidden,
and thine
is
the
hour
m wfeicA
thou art"
l^ oJt
*^^t JPj
cU^Jij u^b
^^c U
o ^ ,.yc is
840
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
.
" That
in
is)
mentioned
"
jfb*
U^
"
*JJ*ur*?
Verily
i
with the measure u*'^ wAtcA you measure
it will
be measured to
you"
cM
/*#
J& *
"
"
J>y*&
" c**^*-^
' '
"
A
//ox
He whose tongue is
girl smiled,
long has
little
intelligence
ri
<,
x
;
Ala*
JjjJk
ASU
^x>
" The
flower
"
yk) Uxj ^
^ ^i
X
* X
ixj^i
X
o**-^
X
x>;
"I saw
girls in
4<
;
is
clever
' '
' c
;
of
'
you
is
a high
mountain "
x C <x
^^c
x
e^ 1
e>j>>
c5^
"0^
^<
<-***-
JU
,
JU&. k-oyLjt^aiJl
0^ X
' '
((
(in
alms
&
XO-^
C^
giving)
^|yf
O
*
o^iij
&.^
And who
them?"
xxO
x*
fc
gu-e
xX xx, oCS
^xC.
Ufef
^
A
<5x
/x"
^
{<
;
He made known to me aU
he was leaving
'
'
*^l
U g*apu ^j*j
"
;
day
x x
no
xx f&f
31
"
/k<x x /t,x
*j
icli*
$ ii^ ^ ^ &x
^>
"We
were removed to another room, which had been sprinkled with rose-water"
Remark.
relative sentence
is
When
"
is
O 9 x/ xox
^x
x>
(I)
841
LVI.
(a) (1)
If
a condition
9*
or Conditional
possible or likely,
it is
Particles
&\
2
orM^t
y (or
in nominal clauses
After
^ etc.,
After fij or
Either Preterites or Aorists (Jussives) may be used in both clauses, for the English Present or Future, or one in one and one in the other there are
:
thus four ordinary possible combinations. In the Apodosis, the Subjunctive and Indicative form of the Aorist can sometimes be used. Vide (c).
If
'
a Preterite
is
is
eJ
M>\
used. 8
with the
be intro-
Preterite,
is s
the Apodosis
may
duced by
J.
is
seldom used.
Withy,
the Preterite,
is
Vide, also
XLIV
the
<)
(8).
Remark.
present
(2)
is
The Subjunctive Aorist always refers Intended, the Indicative must be used.
(
to future time:
if
The Apodosis
$ *X f ff * tj^ or *->[?*>
*
)
is
generally introduced
by
<J,
or less
often
by
>
<,
'
(b)
If
the Protasis
J^
is
Preterite,
'
<j
o"
^ ft**
o^ o
as
<-&j**t
or
you
(c)
hit
If
me,
I'll hit
you."
Vide
(h)
and
(t).
the Protasis
is
S
)
x O
may
1
<J^-*? or
is
LVII(o) and
(b).
is
a wish (= "
if
only"); vide
"
;
XLVI,
Optative
Mood
XL VII, p.
3
847.
(e) (2)
even
if,
although
vide
examples on
p. 846.
Vide also
and
(3).
842
(d)
After o, the
o
x
first
Aorist
is
^>j
'
''
^JTJ'
<-M
ij^l
wVL>*f
"0! God,
delayed
me
have been
(e)
of fche just
only up to a speedy death, I would have given alms, and would " (said by the Infidel at the time of death).
(1)
by
' '
^f
"
if
",
^c
"if anyone",
I*
"
if
' '
anything
x *
1
U$*
<
<
whatsoever
xx
Jtf
how ? "
U
x
Ca*r
"
,
" howsoever
{,
' '
:
x x x
iw
"
xy,
s> x
^ixi
when",
;
"whenever"; ^\ "which, if any"; ^f x33-? ox^ ^^ " everyone who " UK " whatsoever (a/so whenever *)"
c5Lo(
or
lx>lix>
where*
' ;
UH^
* '
wherever
' '
;
^l
"
where"
Ux>
'
f
wherever
' '
,
are con-
sidered as Protases,
is
Jk>
anyone
" = he finds
*
O 'x
o ^x
O x
Jlx
is
(2) If
the Preterite
to
have the
one
of its
sisters'
particle
:
^xx
0< i*
tf^^-xo &\4
e>|
os5t>,AA>
is
(3)
But
if
the Preterite
(or Preterite)
C,
Tense,
o
^
<
X "
or a
sister
'
introduces
its
clause
and
is
followed
by
/xx
:
x'/x
fytflj
*'
if
c;t,as
tyOb
^] ty
attained it."
Remark.
il
is
in
cij
but rarely
is
i|
construed with*
Ficfe
LVII
(a)
(/)
The
particles
mentioned
in
(e)
(1)
take
two
apocopated Aorists
(JussivesV
Vide Conjunctions
x;>
XXXIII,
of
p. 776,
note
3,
and
LVII
(a).
UIT
:
in the
sense
the
Preterite
in
a past
sense
843
(0r)
<J)
may
follow
a Conditional Imperative,
*
<j?
<**
as
l
:
w&oyf ^j)
(h)
"
visit
me
if
you
visit
"
&
o may
*
in the Apodosis.
(b).
(i)
Unlike
cjj,
"
(j)
If
not
"
O"*
o
i^t
***
**"
t**
is
or
51
*
o" &'
the P'reterite, or
(A)
(i)
^y
The Apodosis
is
introduced by
8
o in
C*
In a nominal clause;
(ii)
in
<*>
(were
vJ
'
^
-
be future);
o
"
(iii)
with o^*
^*
^
o
o
<4
(
not")
or
o"
*-**
or
^,
;
or
xj;
clause expressing
a command,
prohibition,
c >-
"?
:
9
x
o^
wish
(v) in
'& JJr^*^
(vi)
&'>&*'{& * +
us?";
in a verbal clause
x
I
x
-
-*0
^^
^^-^
*i etc.).
(1)
after
a long
If
or
involved
3/
protasis.
With
and
V,
the use
of vJ is optional.
o is inserted,
re-
Or
tJ'U
+
a a f"-ukrim k
Prohibitive sentences
Precative
hope
(as
"
.
perhaps he will
come and we
is
will
U*p
*
ayjllcb'
s
J5L,
S
^
I
"
if
there
him a dirhem
who
is
a beggar so that
f
may
? ).
jj
X
stituted for
^_j
844
is
rarely, it is followed
o>
^
ji-o/
'* br
by the Aorist
<-M
f
<Vt
,
/^V^
'
t^j*ltitx* "
#
WfrLc
^y
I*
"if
God
were desirous of
calling to
account mankind, he would not be leaving on the earth any moving thing, but he giveth them respite to a named time."
(n)
LVII
(/).
Temporal, Conditional,
is strictly
etc.,
(j
Clauses.
(/
(a)
^f^
S <f
O"
SS
conditional,
I
as
go, I'll
go"
*
if
(,
won't); but
t^J
when, if",
is
also tern-
*'
' '
<.*,
t^J'*
when (if) I go
to him, I find
always
it
may
(if
there
is
the action takes place repeatedly, but the , &~, 2 one) must always be a Preterite, as ij * J^ij
'
V
I
^l$xJf
j ^^iju
'
"I swear by
Vide
the night
p.
when
it
covers,
and the
out.'
LVI,
either
842
(e).
by the
Preterite or
by the Jussive,
but
|.M
(6)
fit,
of the Preterite
instead of the Aorist after &\f in the sense of "used to, to be wont
s
to";
UIU V * '
f s , lN|
s ,
lit
-j^
^ "he
,
used,
when he went
is
out, to meet
him
at the door."
(c)
"
when, after,"
used,
is
usually
rendered in English by the Pluperfect. For^f, vide XXXIII, p. 776. Sx can be used, either with the Preterite, or with the Aorist Indie. (d) uv
I,
or Subj., vide
**
is 2
"c,
:
XLIV(c).
Note the
^tf
also interrogative,
" when
"
If
f^|
begins a clause,
it is
TEMPORAL, CONDITIONAL,
9fb xox x x
~e x
ETC., CLAUSKS.
845
x x
x
til
jrf
o
the house."
(e)
^^
as
"
followed
him
he entered
I*
"as long
x 9
"
is
XOMI~O
meaning,
as:
&&+
Jt>
x o-o
*o^^f
*y**A\
^
f
1j*\*
$>
^jJjJf
"men
are
careless as
long as they live in this world"; v Uf *3j*a Vide p. 778. often as (wherever) you call it."
If
^ll
"Care answers,
as
the Preterite
(e) (2)
is
to
have a past
signification,
&[{ is inserted as
in
LV1
and
(3).
as not
"
is
expressed by jj
poral sentences
"When
(if)
' '
l>!
jJO
foj X
#;
"
Accept
my
least)
O
be indulgent,
,x-
if
' *
jd*J|
*^ x^
s V*
x1
**C^
x
>*^*
' 1
.jui> ^f
xO " O oJks ^t
X
o^)^!
J^
**i>
e>i
^* X^- X
-^ jf
unjust,
if
it
"
p)(& x
c-if
= ^Uo
*
What
x
will
J
you do
'
that?"
if
^^ e^ ' ^y^*^
'
-^fix^x-
x
f^J
/xO"
/*^^
oy*JfSL;
If
C*^
Uf%'|iCy x
^
e)
9**
X x
-?c/
x
>
x-
oKtit*
JfeLJ IJA,!
JLjU odA^t; x x
^
xj.-.
35-x
x
til
is
^yif J**?** -
^UJillj
Jf
'
f^Uiu
will
make
fif
you
day
of
for
me,
I
dear one,
if
these wretches
make me drink the cup of death, for if I die, eyes; and if God allots me a fair portion,
/
x
am
x*x
'
o"
^x
s<.~'9&'
&
'
xox
846
" If
**f;
it
for the
number
of officers
' '
^j
(JHjfeJl
<y - x
aliii
c;W; "If you had not been worse than the two of j^acJi t^Ji x
" G
x-
x*
x*
g
l^w
'
o*U^
U) U*i
^ ^jy
G >V
c^'
G X 0'
Uaijjj
"
;
must consider
my neighbour even
if
v?^
was
jUy^UJf; "when
refreshed, although I
my
spirit
had despaired
'"
5
of deliverance
"
eu*iit
^l^l
s-r*
^ UJ
him"
^o3UJ|
x
j.yo '
o^u '
t>J
If
*)
Jjy
if
^5-fi*
oj ; "If they
and
p^UJt
is laid
(JoJU
UH* t^y
"*
ejl
j I^JiAt
" When
'
the Arabs
knew
of our
of their
voices,
Welcome
to the guest,
welcome to the
"
guest,'
U*ja5j
x x
*->>"^ ***
'
^^-
when
I
U51*
cJ^
tf*x)
^^iixf
L>
;
^o^t
t**J
x
"When
came
!
my
my
it
was a night
3 isjlJ** w^*
^O^
in
which
did
not
<-^ 2BLX
taste
sleep
*5I
for a single
^
x
moment" ^^
^xo-^c
c*****
vs*>/i t*^^!
^J *^>;
when
5Aa.fj
XX
^'
affljJi
(jrj^l
^
*"
/*
Ox
"^
J*'^
i3^'
W.Wi &* ^ *^ x ^
(<
How
can
I forget
thee
of love flow
***'
/x
x x
x
;
e Jfeu
steed, it
>J ^ (J^JLcT
his
x x'x x x x xVxxx was as though he and the saddle were one piece " *i|^ ^f;
As soon
as.
847
'
(*'&*'
*iw
f*
5^1 j
' '
'^' *fo
"
:
had not
x
finished
my
speech when
heard the
x o
sound
I
of firing
aj; lj
*
(jjJltl " x
Had I known
that
my
best to receive
thee"
"
:
When
"
And
if
thou couldst see * when they are set before their Lord " tj#j
!
Jp>j)j
LVIII.
*
-
(a)
&{
-
and ^,
vide
XXXIII
?
(a)
and
(6).
:
<.,
' '
v^*O U *ay*ft^,
if
^^xx/'-x^'^C,''
or vJ^! >^*a ^
suffixed
^*^
o>*Aa..
Here
'
lif
but
there
is
x&x
'
separate form, as
^j j Jj^/f
"
(ii)
-f
\n
f ' lff\U'
fathers',
5ljf
^) j
&j
in
is
usually repeated.
rare construction.
(iii)
(iv)
" To
me and
his brother
* < o
must be repeated.
(v)
He
killed
i5.
(vi)
For omission
(d)
of ^
vide
XLII
(6)
(1),
Remark,
p. 807.
The negative 5
after y.
Until.
see.
848
Neither
,
my
father nor
"
&9
(^*f
X X
'
(,'
"*
<^f
<j^#
*J:
&" <XX
here
V^
equals ^Jf
an d saves a
' '
In,
UXAJ
^
to
&+
$x x Vj JU* $ x
x^ o^ ^ xx
gSj
Uj the
first
il
might be
for
me
<-Uc|
ml <^J*t
and
Single verbs
/JL;
aJJf
pfy
^U
God knows
?;^e
(e).
know."
This
is
practically a
'
A.,
'
o
(
Xp'XXX
in
^-. "he
LXII
(a)
time"
Remark.
(e)
is
XLIV
(6)
if
(3)
construction
shown Such sentences vary slightly in the clause indicating state is nominal or verbal, and negaand Remark
II,
and
(4).
tive or affirmative.
this
(i)
NOMINAL.
Zayd
rose
' '
up weeping
*
*J(*
3*5
x>j jlf
or ^* j
lied
Im
^j&j
^5%
x
*ij fUl ).
C^O' x
Ye
'
:
lied wittingly,
ye
knowing
-^'O x
O-^O *
this could be
Ox.
or
by the substitution
of **j.
is
Remark.
o-
9&
.
<ulc
*
*-?>
*
*
^
jj;
xx
x /c^ x x^
sou
^^
*U
*'
Zayd came,
(ii)
his
head."
&-* C-'
t
<*
9'
*>x
>"x<>x
^ xx
[vide x >
(i) ],
x7 x
or
' '
it
may be
introduced by
<iJj,
*IJ|
J^-.; ^if
e^UI
why do you harm me, knowing " Apostle of God unto you ?
am
the
ASYJSDETON
849
It is
.
negatived by ^j
),
-
'
cJJtT*-**
"
by
^1
or
#~&<
yi
e^Aiu Uj 'but
the
deceive
The
clause
is
generally introduced
by
^
$
'
'
'
O <>*,
C''x,-'
or both, are omitted.
Ex.
w>
*iJu>F
"such
is
her singing,
now
that she
'"
x
f<
is
f&* ^1 &fy
^\ J^
shall I
?
00-x
LI* ji^i
^o-'O'"
ooiJb x? j
^'0^0
(^jU
is
^'yof oJ(<5
he [Zacharias] said,
'How
have a son as
It is
my
wife
"
s *
<j'
** *
negatived by
L*j or rarely
by
jJo-
l/Oj
as:
-*; Uj
JNJJ
^L^
"
Zayd came
his father
99-.^
;
+.
'
%?] fLJ
Uj
&>j
*l^
j^L^ is
^ /c-
^&x.
/o
e^-j
(c),
A^xJt
oJ^d ^-^
= "I
journeyed on and at
(6), p.
last entered
al-Kufah."
Vide also
XXXII
XXXIII
778, and
XLV
(c).
LIX.
Asyndeton.
xcx~
x-
f ,
*T&*i/l
(JL
&>Jl
v*^
and
' *
f* "rise,
"
;
in these cases
two
the conjunction
j
'
is
x ox
LX.
etc. (v-
viz.,
J*l
U (the Srdpers.
9'<j
XXXOXX
ej**]
is
#XX(,X
*'
tive, as
a^
U
!
how quick
is
his
walking
!
";
c-
\*ij
c,'
(
cr*^'
^*
" what a
good
man Zayd
or
(ii)
v J^'f
III.
Fide also
XLI
(c) (5),
Remark
54
850
ASYNDETON
*& ]*/f
is
Zayd
"
!
mired must immediately follow these forms. No. i) means literally "what has made Zayd
(
(so)
(i.e.
(ii)
"Try your
if
ability of
good
you can)."
is
' *
Past time
f<S
"
*'<,'"
t>~^i I*
was! ", or
*x>3
ofc
= "what
was?"
(2)
The complement
as
:
of these
forms
may
"
or I*
fju"*>
^^
' '
^t -*J^ cs*?
s
* *
<^^'
how
for a
man
of intellect
to seem patient.
Verbs of surprise are formed from such verbs only as express something in which one person may surpass another. They cannot
Remark
I.
xx
which express an act in which one agent cannot excel, nor from negative verbs, nor from verbs defective in inflection
like
^b',
p*>
eU or
like
and
^k,
Grammatically, too, they are not formed from derivatives of the triliteral, nor from the passive voice, nor from verbs signifying colours or defects,
though
When
circumlocution
employed.
diminutive of
*JU*A|
Remark
(
//.The
occurs,
is
"
!
ju*xa4
U
<
and
it is
also of **JUf
U "how
handsome he
is!
" and
of
U how
(6)
sweet
' '
!
x xc,'
If
is
3 or <^, there
is
no permutation,
oil
I
as:
!
XX<X?CXXCX'<
U
)
:
^\ ^
I*
"how
to^j
d^f
how bounteous
(c)
' '
Zayd
(not
#
aUf
I
U
a
).
li
U;
^5x
tya
All
<
what a
fine
horseman he
is
"
!
' '
1
From
The
literal translation
appears to be,
he
is
horseman."
851
"
(here
his
"
-f
\tt*
<JJ
is
^Vjl*
^'
^j
t
aJJ , ,
"
what
!
a good reader
Zayd
is
"
!
f s
:
JUI
er
1 " )* *$
how
' '
(d)
A noun
and separated by
,jyf
often ex
presses admiration, as
JU,
&l
ff,
p. 757(3).
LXI.
j-^fj
^^Ji JUif
and Approxi-
mate (and
(a) **>
'
Inceptive),
-lj
"how bad"
35
^o
"excelthough some grammarians do decline these words: xj v-^^Uilf " lent is the companion Zayd," i.e. Zayd is an excellent companion."
ii*
x o.
<xjj
Ua.Ua
^*>
excellent as
a companion
Zayd."
(6)
Also indeclinable
t^
is
"bravo!
or
is
said
to be derived
agreeable"
is
"that":
I*.
it
must be
in apposition to
(c)
#
*
A*
* *
how bad
' '
in gender
* +
and number
xx,x
\Ju>j3
*U
"
!
1
:
L^***
*
o*U
it (Hell, fern.) is
"
!
(d)
to
all
except
r^j
as:
oJU'(Uu
or)
"good
etc.
is
(e)
f*
51
=
has the same constructions as
(/)
^L
(fully declinable)
^.
It
may
also
this construe-
tion in the
Quran
for +**.
id
is
"
to offend."
852
(g)
APPROXIMATE
all
(and
INCEPTIVE) VERBS.
e)').
These are
of
three
kinds:
(i)
an action
is
('
"
)
,
as
er]
&
*&.
o^; Act.
(Act.
Part.
?
M
9
) ;
rarely followed
by
(^ J*y wAy
-
Part.
cJ&j^)
*
personal or impersonal:
and
*--/
use(i
n tne
Preterite only
fc^-j
9
is
rarely followed
by
&\
junctive.
Examples:
9
,
^la))
,
,
&
u
f
'
also p. 784)
^j
^'^ /<,-
jjj
uif^j
and
^ap-*
AJJ
xi)
**>
on
possibility, as:
(J
^^s*
0"
^
),
JA>f
g.i;.
it
may be preceded by
or not
;
noun
may
agree in
;
it is
usually followed
9
it
may
an
ace. suffixed
etc.
it is
^f
"
'
it is likely,
'
probable,
"
;
may be
9 9*
^ ^^^(rare).
stand up
Examples
;
u~* *j
9 9,
i, '^
f
etc., etc.
;
e;'
"
*
will,
"
stand up
,,
(or
l^o^
etc.
"
will
"
;
15J
>^3
;
"
,jt
j^vc ^f r
perhaps ye
f
may
' ^
it
* *
9-
s s
be good for
you"
5^ cl~, or
(*^a3
^ vU*
(compare (-W
p. 785).
(iii)
A^l
JU.^
*yi,
" ne began to
Vide
also
APPOSITIVBS.
853
XLIV
(b)
(5),
p. 814.
prepositions
as ^ or <^-% '
*
_i-^f '
s
c?*
'
* -
to travel."
[ But
*-
Ak'
11
when
*
there
is
no
Jl
].
Remark.
It will
be noticed that
& and uy
excepted,
all
the Approxi-
mate (and Inceptive) Verbs are used in the Preterite only; that, <^~* excepted, all must precede the noun, and the noun must precede the
predicate; that,
if
is
used.
(h)
POTENTIAL VERBS.
with the Subjunctive, as
(i)
>&
c^
;**
is
9
<*'>
or by
iyf
^^
?' o'
'
>x*'
"
cannot walk
' '
;
cUUi
'&*
work"; d ^9\
&1
&j*3
I could
him"
(ii)
^0? "to
t
)
c^
"
followed
by
C
as:
J**''
c^
J^+l
"
cannot
*;
is
do it";
is;'
e,C} "it
possible that
^
to
"
it is
not possible
to do this."
'
"
?
Remark
' (^
//.'
,
Can "
in the sense of
'
"
to
'
know how
do,"
is
expressed
,'
-
??(,'*<,'
by oyj
J>j*
as
v-v^J 4^t>
he can write.'
LXII.
Appositives
ej
).
(a)
Words
in Apposition are
there
The Arabs
(1)
*&'
,
''.*'
The
854
s
APPOSITIVES.
?
is
<{
man."
"
fij*
^ '
"
oi>;^
"
J^-y *>f *
passed
by a man whose
(2)
-
a generous being
"
;
vide
XXXVIII.
(vifec,
or
?~ f^
<3~JJt
-&*),
tive)^
tive),
"and,"
f
"and,"
"then,"
"or"
(disjunc-
" or "
(after
U
"
"
(simple negation,
as in
<c
nay, rather,"
" but."
(3)
u^f
vJt*
one which
defines
more
(i.e.)
particularly,
as in *JA*O
# -
*U
*
a~j
* -
pus."
/
x'f-'
(4)
(5)
*tfji\
LXIII.
Remark.
Even two
same
f\Z
tense
may
be regarded as in
Apposition, as in:
himself before him
iJ <i^*
' '
;
(for
*
*)
isu*>
er^^f (^^
cS>
'
he sang well
compare
p.
785
(7)
and
9 ^9 ?
p.
848
(d).
In
fJij JU^j,
may
first
sition or of
State*
Jl^Jf
).
But
if
the
State
'
only,
and would
p. 800.
vide
XLI
:
(c) (5),
Concrete idea.
Abstract idea.
APPOSITIVES.
g*
855
X
9 <jrO
^t
fO
9 XX
;
'
f'
t<*'
(1)
x
dfyLf
^3
*U
"
xe, .
V***
(2)
<*>
0^1 J<*, as
'
*JT
aJUJ
x
kiss
' ' ;
A^a]
X
"I
'
'
(3) JUi^SIt
J^,
as;
<
I praised
(4)
^U-All
_,
*UJf
^^i
o^ "
mean
the mule."
(c)
may be
in
^ *
^*
"Oh! Muhammad,
in
the
Prophet";
>jW
it
x
Lj
;
^f
JLAA'f
U.
If
apposition governs
another word,
/ J,~ x xc, *Uf cixU. /^ A ljj|
must be
in
Accusative (vide
XLl
(c)
(9)
),
as:
x--
^
^i.f
1
"x
J.
If
(jjj
*^
occurring between
it is in
two proper
be either
names
in the
loses its
apposition
*'
may
Nominative or
' '
!
^^ v^ s
&*+ j+* ^
Oh *Umar
the
son of Khattab
(c?)
The
Infinitive as
^G x
*
an intensive adjective
may
stand in apposition to
"
<j
"
personification of justice
a noun, as
31**
"
(i.e.
cujf;
justice itsetf."
'
it
One grammarian at least treats such an infinitive as an adjective and makes agree with its noun but such a construction is usually condemned. However
,
such expressions as J^b <jy "a well-schooled mare" are found, though incorrect. This infinitive should be masc. sing. only.
(e)
^x
'
/xx
of Apposition
>>
- x x
But
j\
c$y=4
*^
"
'
(i.e.
So-and-so
'), is
ejUJl <Jlkc
856
APPOSITIVES.
(1) Size.
&je X
(jwU afji ^
" 99 9
"a
yard
of stuff"
cMjj)
^Uj"
C
But
ft*??
&
9&
9,
aJ^i cU.j
" a man
"
;
(2) Likeness.
JS
'
f*
*\
t>a^
" a
man
like a
woman "
* *'
'*'
;
'
'
Sj^t
t ,
cU
'
'\l
JU.^
o^fy
" I saw
a
CO
man
x
like
woman."
x /
^
is
X>
',
9s
If Ji**' is
substituted,^ c5^'
understood, as:
>k ^^Jt
JU;
vsofj
(3)
Material.
AJ<^ *JUJU
X
a chain
made
of
iron"
= ^<^ X
#
&~A-
).
is indefinite,
as in the example,
it is
better to use
^uki
#
A'JUl^ )
x
(
"a
gold
<c
chain."
If
definite,
the
/x x O *
v^^f x
,
AJU
un
(4)
The substantives
1M
Kaffat
and Jami'
Jt
/cx &\t
>
1
house"
i- i^
x
;
>
^jJi
JT
'*
every
Vide
people";
also
^UJf
(h).
all
the people" or
XXXVIII
Remark
/.
^^
)
'all
the world."
"
Every person
3J-.0
x w^ *^j J>,
S^
or
u*^
&
t*
Jr.
or all," as:
before
means "each
or every," as:
elf
"
every
day."
(5)
So too with Ba'z un u**s " portion " in the sense of "some, a part / ^ cx x Cx
3
"
;
or
^ " " ^* J^; *U another than he came
(6)
Ghayr
un
"another than.'
'
EMPHASIS OR CORROBORATION.
"
lit.
857
(7)
Ibn un ^j,
son."
*"**
^Aj
" ^t JU ; a man
(8)
Kunniyyat
**&,
subs.,
name
some
nickname,
(9)
is
put in apposition.
"
title,
nickname," as
5^
jjf, lit.
" father
l
:
of a kitten
"
(a
nickname
for
of cats)
LXIII.
(a)
Emphasis or Corroboration
also called
^^\
or **fjW
).
This
is
CORROBORATIVE APPOSITION.
It is either
(i)
s), i.e.
;* *
repetition of
or
(ii)
^^yi.e. repetition
by
of
them," "all
(b)
of
them."
first
:
*,'
'- x
^ " 2ayd,
"
-Za?/cZ
came
to
me."
struck him.
"
"
yes,
yes!"
" he came running, running
o
-
"thou hast
\
struck, thou.'
,-
-'>
or
>"I saw
thee,
also
given
to
animals and
lifeless
things,
as:
<(
mother
J^T
Jit
" son
of a seeker of shelter
"
(i.e.
the jackal)
-daughter
in
vine"
(i.e.
wine);
4^'
(a fever
which there
is
Axil^f
#
(local)
(i.e.
the
/"
till
shark).
2
Nicknames given to animals and lifeless things are styled *-*&. " he ran the whole way But in Hindustani daurta daurta pahurah-gaya =
he
arrived."
3
so repeated separately in
its
nominative form.
858
X
EMPHASIS OR CORROBORATION.
x
cJo
or
x O'
x
"
passed by thee,
% thee."
&[ tH)
x
"
c>l
verily verily
Zayd
' '
x x
Uf
jjL*
lif
"I am
fasting, I
am
fasting."
'
*W
9
(,
/ /
O" f
v^J *L^
Six x x(X
\
lion.'
JO
&X
^?^! |^^?<>f
or
CV,.
I
"
" the
army
retreated, retreated.
"
^U
xx
^j^^i
x
O**.
>?Af;
j*^ fj
"
yes, certainly."
9
'
(,
"X
the
first
(c)
In the phrase
x^
^SLJ or) Uf
^Ul Uij
up
(or
we),
is
me
(or us)
"
,
By
in the sense
^y^f
"
;
atflSJf ).
,j*fti
^/iA*f ),
and
^s
(PL
<f
e>i*'
self
"
;
and the
pronoun.
all
ejlitt
x
fern,
"both", with an
affixed
Examples
pHJf, or U.-A**!! or
^lf
}
them 9t ,
o'
or ^j**^!
9>
*
''<<;
$
f ^ ^\ ^
o
^i
oof;
"
of
f
s$*
,'-
ox x/
<{
*Jii^ *U
he
^'rnse//
came."
Remark.
Jf
is
Not sj^.
Not
PARADIGMS.
859
LXIV.
Paradigms.
I.
TABLE
(A.)
PARADIGM OF
(/J
OR
VERB
"HE KILLED."
+
Active Voice
Preterite or Perfect
Person.
ImperaEnerg.
1.2
Tense
Indicative.
(or
State).
Energ.
II. 2
tive.
9
3.
9<<*
masc Sing.
Jii
JLxoj
Jiib
3. fern.
Jj&>
2.
masc
fern.
JUiy
2.
1.
c.
(Jijif
3.
masc. Dual.
fern.
to
lUfl,
ill'
wanting
wanting
**
3.
2.
wanting
masc. Plur.
fern.
3.
3.
wanting
fjliflj
2.
masc.
2. fern.
wanting
jus;
Strengthened by J.
it
it
After J
" not,"
2
The
For
truly, surely ", is usually prefixed. greater emphasis J 8 The Jussive must be used for prohibition, as no negative particle can precede the Imperative.
860
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
(concluded).
(B.)
Pre-
Person.
Tense
(or
1
<D
Imperative.
^4i
Infinitive.
Perfect
State).
Energ.
Energ.
II.
li-a
oo^
3.
C,
masc.
Sing
t> ''<..
9 o
o 9
and
3.
If
if
is
A_
it
remains A_ in the
it
Aorist; but
it
may
be either
'._
or -7-, viz.
/**i
"
it
^
c<
tf***," '
few
bethought;
^j^3u
x-
it
dried
";
<JU>
he excelled"
" he despaired";
C
^*
he appeared.'
'
2nd m.
c:
2nd m.
Q..
PARADIGMS.
861
TABLE
Infinitive Nil
l
;
II.
x
HE WAS KILLED
xO
Passive Voice
Person.
862
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
PARADIGM OF THE QUADRILITERAL
1
III.
x/
VERB
^b; J*
jk+S
" TO TIB UP
BE ASSEMBLED.'
Active Voice.
Tense.
PARADIGMS.
863
M
O
i s
II
QJ
I
Pu
I i
i i
3
'43
864
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
PARADIGM OF
I
V.
y "HE
FLED."
y; Participle
^l?.
Active Voice.
PARADIGMS.
865
TABLE
PARADIGM OF
I
VI.
(continued).
866
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
VII.
5
x
J.
Tense,
etc.
in
IV
VI
VII
VIII
'0
Preterite Active
&
Aorist
Imperative
Participle
,,
t
Infinitive
,
f xO
Preterite Passive
~
>f
'
e ft*
Aorist
Participle
,,
irregularity.
Some
verbs,
/^
as
curly";
^
X
>"
"to be intelligent";
x>>x
<4
to be
may
also
The forms
\lj.jli5,
etc. as well as
jj
(for jj^J),
x
ft r
PARADIGMS.
867
TABLE
9
(,
VIII.
OX
Hamzated
(A.)
Foice.
Person.
868
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
VIII
(continued).
Active Voice.
Person.
PARADIGMS.
869
TABLE
VIII
(continued).
Active Voice.
Person.
3rd raasc.
870
PARADIGMS.
"N
*
Vide
Stems
III,
V or
I,
are substituted.
I O
g 3
CL
s * 3
H
CO
H
;<&
?'V
'C
i 4
PARADIGMS.
871
Vo
i '1
i "I
>
l'\
^
\'1
' '1
X
*"
'\
4'
">2
Oj
H
J"^>
a
'
872
PARADIGMS.
--*
*} v
'3V >j
-i
\i
,-i
& :|
3-
^.
IS
11 **
i
?s
,u
i.-a
3-'
."
I
9
f
&
s
03
'
PARADIGMS.
S73
TABLE
X.
/
G
J*5, or *w|
and
<c.
874
PAJRADIGMS.
Some with
f
.,
fathah
peculiarity, as:
*>
is
"to place";
dropped and
Aor.
5
*AJ
Impera.
suffixed.
and fathah
'9,
-
(-)
,<,,
-
JL^j
>>'<,'
Jjj-! to
be insalubrious.
z,
:
j,
as
is
^
'*
&~ "
to love."
in the Active,
as
<x&^
ASU
to find
"
;
f
-
9*^
Aa^j
<^j
The changes
that
when a kasrah
letter is
"
( )
or a
zammah
'
( )
precedes a weak
as
weak
cUul
for ckjj),
s
Imperative of
cU>
*
ss
**
is
assimilated to
its
following o, as:
9
3>,
:
cLj
to
X*
,
-
? '^'
unite," VIII
J^i "to
be continuous," Aor.
JAU
^A;
(j^ "todes-
^t
'**
^
" to despair."
x-
XX
The same
A)J
comes
of birth
"
(for
" to
fear
"
:
<*
**
k
to slumber, also to
awake/
PARADIGMS
875
TABLE
(A.)
?
l
XI.
' <*'
Stem
of
JJ
(for
Inf.
Active, Voice.
Person.
876
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XI
(continued).
(B.)
Stem
of
;U
(for^A*)
Inf. j*~
Active Voice.
PARADIGMS.
S77
TABLE XI
(continued).
Stem.
PARTICIPLE.
878
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XI
(D.)
(concluded).
AND ^.
<p)
" to say,"
Jli
"
;
(for
<jp-
" to fear
"
;
yl
(for
JH
" to
travel
Ji
to lead."
PARADIGMS.
(ii)
879
in
Hollow verbs denoting colour or defect always retain their ^ or ^ ^x C u>^0 ^ ^*G** " Stem IX, as *y\ " to be or become black Aor. dj~* oaxi to be or
' '
:
'
>
UJ ^,<-
U^A**.
The
0"0'
is
often
retained in
**
C ^ O
>
Aor.
vj^flL-o.
x
(iv)
^
j,
as: c5^(v)
it
"
'
*"
to be
with a following ci or & as 'o> 3>f ,' J6 " he was," but Itf (for IxiT
(vi)
oU " he died
4<
" but
,
/
<^**
^o
>
'
(for
ol*)
died"
we were."
''r In the measure J*3|, verbs with the 2nd radical weak, use the strong
9
'
>*
-'
"black"
(not
'
(M).
t
9'
, ,
;
,9*
(for
J^fc)
;
>
On
is JLfc
Aor.
J^
9,
Impera. masc.
Jt,
fern.
J>.
880
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
(A.)
XII.
s *
cU')
DIFFERENT FORMS.
!>*
= j>) "to
raid
' ' ;
Inf. 3^*.
Last Radical
Fence.
AORIST.
Person.
Number.
Preterite.
Imperative.
Indicative.
Subjunctive.
Jussive.
/o>
3.
masc.
Sing.
!>*
3.
fern.
2.
masc.
/ox
3.
masc.
..
Dual
x /
3. fern.
/O'
2. c.
/OX
3.
/Cx
masc.
Plur
/fcx
3.
fern.
/o'
/OX
2.
masc.
x
/Ox
'
/Ox
2.
fern.
/CX
1.
c.
Or
PARADIGMS.
881
TABLE XII
(continued).
(B.)
Last Radical
)
J*j
;
).
,
o'
;
Inf.
<**;
Act. Part, fh m.
#
f.
Active Voice.
882
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XII
(continued)
(C.)
s
).
Last Radical j or
J*J
to be pleased
"
;
Inf. ^-*>
and
f.
&\j~>
and
Act.
Part.
*' '
(^tjm.,
*
A^ct;
'
Active Voice.
PARADIGMS.
883
TABLE
XII
(D.)
(continued).
to decide
"
;
m.,
f.
884
PARADIGMS.
TJ
5-1
.2 no
si
iil
^,
O . ^T
\:5
>
J-^
-> rof
'V
:v^|
nn
*.
'
^
Krt
"\3
v<
;i
CO
^H.5l
PH
T
a x
-x
"
"B
Jrt
1 ^
OH
J U
t>
PARADIGMS.
885
o
.2
*
,
,8
11
eo
"2
"
X X
3
<\
rV
J-s
.
eg
!'
>
<M
^
OL,
CO
'ts
I
1
886
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XIII.
(A.)
WEAK
LETTHR.;
1st
'
J\
or
vf
Inf.
^ and V
stt
LI
PARADIGMS.
887
TABLE
II.
XIII
(A.)
(continued).
1st
^l "to come"
Inf.
888
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
III.
'
XIII
(&)
(continued).
" to despair
$<,*'
' '
;
Inf.
^b
and
***(
PARADIGMS.
889
TABLE
XIII
(A)
(continued).
890
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
V.
'
XIII (A)
(continued),
^.
>''
*<"
;
V>
"to tread";
Aor.
Ik,
Inf.
Uy.
*'',.'
*U
or *L (for
' '*
* '
fj
to be bad
' '
;
PARADIGMS.
891
TABLE
* or
* 11
(
XIII (A)
< )
(concluded).
>*
for *Ua.
to
come
' ' ;
Inf.
892
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XIII.
(B.)
1st
.
" to guard
<j'
Inf.
&Mj and
PARADIGMS.
893
TABLE
II.
XIII
(B)
(continued).
" to
894
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XIII (B)
(concluded).
or
to live
'
'
;
Inf.
PARADIGMS.
895
TABLE
PARADIGM OF TREBLY
XIV.
&i\
Inf. <cJ.
896
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XIV
(continued),
" to promise."
PARADIGMS.
897
TABLE XV.
- o"
<jNjJ
"he
is
not" has no
Aorist or
(>s .
lc.
898
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XVI.
FORMATION OF VERBAL NOUNS FROM
WEAK
VERBS.
Noun
and
of
Time
ciple.
Agent or
Active
Participle.
Place.
"
*#**
>X^
JlflXJ
/ O'
J5li
Jy
/x
APPENDIX
(Continuation of
B.
125.)
:
Vaqt-l
the idea
dar sahrd mi-raft did ki hama-yi darakhthd uftada and here the plural verb gives of number, but uftada ast *! ,>&( would also be correct.
ki
*&
did,
AXJO
^ ^
chi
might be used by Indians and Afghans, but not by Persians. The Perfect <xi| aa&i uftdda-and shows Indefinite Past time. The Preterite would signify that the
(2)
Vaqt-l ki bachcha
+A.
{^
Aaw aCuij
is
^\
The
j*jlfi|xi,3
defined.
plural o^to'l
(3)
Khwdhish-i
ma
raftan
bi-Bushahr
bud
llkin
bl
ta'mlr
kardan-i
jahdz raftan naml-shud jL^ &*j$ ^*5 ^j j^> & ^^ (# ^JUI^L 5 *~ to wished to we Bushire but it was impossible to do e^ ; go Dar shab chunln awazha-yi muhlb-l shunldlm so without repairing the ship." x C5^ A Jtjf ki raftan bi-sdhil mumkin no-bud * <^**) * Vs* t5-?it
^J ^
* '
&j*> 1-J&+*
terrible
(D&$-
J^
that
it
was
The two
Pers.
^
rafta
naml-shud in Mod.
&j*> (zjZ*'
mumkin
&)
this
J**\~*
bi-sdhil
;
naml shud
is
used.
of
construction
probably in
imitation
to
hove acted on
my
advice
"
J^A*
6 \j*>
0*4*^ o
IA*J
jb
A^A
Jl*^
'j
"the
jackal
steals
whatever
it
finds."
bi-kunad would signify that there was a doubt about the jackal *v** ml-kunad shows that finding is its occupation. finding anything The copula j is wrong or at least a redundancy. Grammarians consider
;
the final
Ml-ravad could be used for did, but might be mistaken for the Future. L (Urdu) "it is impossible to Taqdir se lara nahin jata 13U, \ji
^^
J&
fight
against Fate."
8
Or
classically <X;^youi
J^
OM*^
bayist
qabul mi-kardid.
900
l
CONTINUATION OF
(6)
125.
Agar jandb-i dU urd yak nazar bi-farmdyid ummid ast ki bi-zudl ^^ l*A LS&JJI ** Here ***' ^*j'*t j& +. fjjt ^UAj^ j>\. shifd ydbad V^ the Subjunctive shows the doubt after '1 hope.' The Future o'tj **\j. khwahad ydft could be substituted to show certainty but in this case it would be better to substitute ^*i <^& yaqln ast for cu^j JXA/OJ urnmid ast.
(
(7)
&j*
Ndm-i an mulk
ki
bud
fuldn
of
bud
the
e/f
^
an
&&
for
(Afghan) ty ^; c)U jl^ which the ship was about to sail was So-and-so."
is,
af
"the name
country
of agency
imitation of
bi-ravad iyj
shurf-i
modern Persian at any rate, incorrect. Substitute & jahaz the Urdu construction.
in
<^*>
l
bi-ddnjd mi-bdyis. or
*^,
^^^
?^l^ j t^
l
*^> or r<*>ft<*>m
bud
^ ^^
jt
ki
jahaz da-
ty*
lJtJj
o^*.
J^
3^
or
mushrif
bi-raftan bi-danja
(8)
bud
^ lJ|v ^ji
"he
is
vJ^i^c.
An-qadr bi-tali' ast ki agar bardy-i ab khurdan biravad jub mikhushkad, or A*C&^ AAf^L khwahad khushkid vf cfl'^ *^ ^-*" ^^*^ ;*SST
1
*&A
it
C^A.
e>^>^
^ bud were
and H&ka.
mi-raft
^v* nii-khushkid.
t$
"I
^x>f >Afyk or
>J^
jj^ot
Mc^
bi-Tchayal-am na-rasid
of
From neither (or khwahad dmad). whether he came or did not come.
(10) In,
it
clear
Shabhd ndlida-am
id
^1
^JU
l^x-i
jJjy the Preterite would also be right. The Perfect f! indefinite time, and cu-o! <uAj bakhshida ast because the son
o^t
^xi..j
(God) gave
present.
Ndtidam
it
the year or place had been stated, and could be followed either by the Preterite JJ^SLJ bakhshid or by the
if
^^
could be used
The Pluperfect pty **& ndUda budam, followed by the Pluwould mean that he had a long time ago wept and then received the perfect, The Pluperfect followed by the Preterite would signify that a blessing.
Perfect.
long time elapsed between his weeping and receiving the blessing.
(11)
man
bi-zdyad) (**\j>
m.c.
or) *^|3 ^3 3(/4^ both the Pres. and Past Subjunctive are used here
*b
^^
signification.
Instead of ^-~t
chi
^^
&*-
^
used.
JA^
" that." ki
Better t
ki
CONTINUATION OP
(12)
125.
001
ty ble kardand
^^
<3J|
"Whatever people thought, they thought wrong" mardum har khaydl-l kardand ghalat bud the
:
^^
j*>
Preterite
signifies
But
in
]
itjf
o*|
M*
^(^ ^A
mardum
ast,
whatever they have thought in the past or are thinking now. Substitute the Past Subjunctive AiAU *^y karda bdshand and the meaning is " whatever they may have thought (but they may or may not have thought anything)
."
OM!
i&jf
****
A^l?
Harchi u karda bdshad bi-khud karda " whatever he &*j& may have (or have
was and
to say I
is
wrong."
fool
(13)
-- that
is
am
3
me
"
it (if
you had
dn-qadr
*$
?
(&+**}
ya'ni
man
condition,
or
or rather a condition
&f
p*)js*
future.'
a past that cannot be fulfilled; bi-kunam fi& kard would signify that I should believe it in the
signifies
'
time
.
she might
have said
an qadr ahmaq budam ki f&# (J+^f )<&tf In the above instances, the meaning of mi-kardam or practically the same.
(14)
bi-kunam
is
Kujd budi?
^ W.
l*
^
is
UJ
called
for
this
time?"
me)"
was present or the news has but u hold murda ast o~t "he is J/la. y
a^
no longer
(15)
living,
he
already dead."
Ai 'ildj karda-i balki mu'jaza karda-l %?**> &k ^&c Sof If the time were a cure you've done but a miracle." "its not by fixed or mentioned (as yesterday, last month, last year) the Preterite would be used.
Na dnki
\^
(16)
"I would
go through
*
" and water to serve you u>* ^(^ Ij man khudrd bardy-i shumd dar db u dtash mi-anddzam
fire
would past i*^!^! ^j*> or were future used and the context showed an adverb denoting present that the clause was the apodosis of a condition), but vaU agar fardd
(not
refer to
mi-anddkhtam
which
time unless
bi-man
ml-guftid khud rd j vf
^
=
JavAtM)
l>y J*'
to
tell
c5^
me
Not ty
bud.
Ast o~*(
'
is
wrong
still'
o*W 8^J
but
may
2
be right now.'
;
made up
by him
3
*y*j|
understood.
902
CONTINUATION OF
fire
125.
to serve
you
"
;
transfer
t^
farda to
and
**&*;'*
a future
frjj& jSj t
In agar diruz mi-guftid mi-anddkhtam sense. the whole supposition becomes past.
(17)
^IM
^
l5
&#&#t
"I
forgot
it
up
till
"
to-day
fl
**jZ (J>y*\f
?\ $
j.*>
td
imruz fardmush
karda
am
td-diruz
fardmush
(Gul.)
f!
AJJ>
<^|>^
propitious
"I have had a dream. He ^:L oj Here the one what did you see ?
;
said 'I
hope
is
it
was a
&*.
Perfect
used as the
time
chi
is
indefinite.
mubdrak
Later on the addressee says <_$*$,> *$ va**f khwdb ast ki didi. Here the Preterite signifies
v^
^j *
1
that
the
dream
also
brother
Ghanim "
man
<Wf.;^ ^>U
U^j^j
shumd Ghdnim
** (J& kdsh-ki an ^jgjia &)}* c>f dar dmada bud (or *-*f ^*> dar ml-
dmad) here the Pluperfect without dlruzl shows that the time is past the Imperfect alone (as also the Past Habitual) migh't refer to past or future time, " d/iruzl clearly indicates past time. but the adjective Would that this were brother man Ghanim" your (now present) ;,M/ ert^ ^t <J& young
;
cJ^
^j ^JU IM
(or
^^j
budl or
mi-bud); here the three tenses are indefinite as to time, but the demonstrative pronoun ^1 In gives the clue; x&t bdshad might be sub-
^xo
stituted
(20)
pt
future.
oJyl/c
" Since the time I was born I have never told a lie"
j)t>
*guj
jl
Aift^i
W*>
(*^*
am.
man an
ast
>f
ki
AxU
j^;
jj,^k
I
means "it
har ruz ruz-ndma bi-Miwdnam <&* l^cU is my usual habit to read the Substitute
'
may have
omitted to do so occasionally).
is,
rm-khwdnam for ^L*=*v bi-khwdnam and the meaning ^if^sBax custom to read and I do read regularly.'
(22)
It
is
my
"You
*u^l
j$<>y
t^a+A
me
in
my
distress"
lj
ovAx^ax cxiiyf
^ o^jt ^5^
U-i
shumd
an
vaqt-i
musibat bd
man
Instead of
mi-bdyist, o*-jb bdyist can be substituted, followed by the Imperfect *> In mi-kardid, but this construction is used in writing only.
Buda bud
Bi-kunid
jj^j
is
Jjij
CONTINUATION OF
125.
903
dar haqq-i
Also, as
man
<tf
bi-suzad,
ki
U dar an vaqt-i musibat dil-i tan bud gives to *>?-> bi-suzad the idea of past time. in this second sentence is the of the equivalent Jh
j>y
agar,
its
clause introduced
in reality the protasis of condition can therefore correctly be put in the Imperfect, i.e.
by
it
is
and
verb
Mi-sukht
oA^ <^*^t
in
."
ing with
(23)
me
o^*, o^-,
"
^ however would
a&j|
o,^
mi-sukht
in this instance
o^su
bi-jihat-i
mki
mi-sukht
agar mi-sukht)
it
^^
^ \^ ^
^^
would that he would come bi-yayad) ^(^ hash d\ruz mi-amad (or 6> 8<vof amada bud)
!
kunim
ki ghaflat na-karda
bdshtm
8^
^xb = ya'ni ba'd az kardan-i an kar g&aflat na-karda bashim &$jS )\ Here if ^iC bi-kumm were substituted after oJ& ^xl ^i culftp ;f^ ^f
).
ghaflat, there
would be no
meaning.
(25) Kag&az ra navishta kardt ^s^ ***?> tj <^^ (Afghan) " written the letter (yourself), or have you had it written for you aiiy navishta khwaham kard (Afghan). &f
ftiji*
"have you
?
Similarly
"
(26)
(
How
or
)
"
;^AJ
^ ^*L^
p& J^w
^iuo ^1 ^/o
X)^
w/ ao. man
a/
<*> <ijlao (27) Hargiz na-shunida-am ki kas-i talib-i Shaytan shavad J^A ^U2* *,JlJ5 ^-^ "I have never heard of any one loving Satan." Here shavad gives the idea of indefinite time, past or present, but o*U x& <5r " I have never heard that sfa#Za bashad would mean any one ever has been
(*t
"
ow.t **
" There was an earthquake a few days ago" 4>!3 chand ruz ast ki zalzala shuda ast (not * 5^%^ a ) or
;
pish
zalzala
shud
or o**t '^
ua.
^A
"I
&at?e
cJ/* pa barahna
*^ ^
rah
WM*
you going about barefooted for a long time" man m>i-Vinam ki tihayti vaqt ast ^^ c^*^ ** {*. ^s* mi-raw (m.c.): here *# rm-binam shows that the
see^
t
(J
leash
may
;
with
only.
2
Shud
<x
is
904
CONTINUATION OF
125.
person addressed is still barefooted. Substitute meaning may be that the person now has shoes.
(30)
ft
x>^
dida
am and
the
" in what In rd chiguna khwdham kusht oJtf p*\j. &>^Ca. t; " but substitute f&& bi-kusham and the meaning manner shall I kill this ? is primarily 'I cant kill it'; and secondarily 'I intend to kill it, but in
,
what manner
(31)
shall I
do so
'
Wa'da mi-kunam ki biydyam fjl# tS ^ix* j$^ " I promise to "I come," but wa'da mi-kunam ki khwdham dmad **1 f*LA *> f&t* ***) promise that I will (and shall) come."
(32)
must
(I
<^g\**>
&.\
"
this
^fx ^f
in sadd-yi
ought to be (but
may
In jd
kas-i hast ki
is
Here the Aorist there anyone here who knows Turki (to Turki) In m.c. however the Present is often correct as it indicates uncertainty.
?
know
^y "AT O^A
^^-.^ lapjut
"is
incorrectly substituted,
is
but in this case the meaning might also be " There knows Turki."
1
U f>ljAft*f ''I 'hope you shumd khwdhid dmad UX j*)tj *x) ummidvdr-am may be able to come Umidvdr budam shumd I hope and know that you will come." ^of jsj^iyL * " ummldvdr budam I come l*^ hoped you might bi-ydyid >jj5Uj j*^j fo***)
Ummid-vdr-am
shumd
bi-ydyid d*5U?
' '
'
<3>*>f
^A(^ U
{1
^jy
you would
certainty
^*b ^.
yaqin ddshtam
to be preferred to
*iftXi
Had
illdh but they didn't" cu~ol> illdh gufta bdshand, na-gufta-and. b'ism ^-*j mi-bdyist the speaker been present at the occasion, he would have said
"They
ji^L
aifif
*U
na-guftand.
(36)
Dar
qad/im injd
^>
&*-^t>
l^Jut
"there has been (was) a lake here formerly": bud ty would signify that the writer has, or had, lived near the lake or else that he knew by tradition
that there had been a lake there.
(37)
Mazanna
*$\jc
shuda
ast
<->IH
&
Axkc
' '
;
the goods in the wagon have probably been stolen here the Perfect, even after the word probably/ signifies it is the conviction
'
o*f x^ o;U
^y
2
3
In Urdu the Dubious Present Tense janta ho should be used and not the Pres. Indie. In neither case is it known whether the person came or not.
Should be
in m.c.
<xb
*o*
shuda bashad;
o~!
*-
shuda
ast is really
wrong though
common
CONTINUATION OF
of the speaker that
125.
905
Shuda bdshad
(38)
<xlj
>,
they have been stolen, that he has no doubt of the matter. would mean they may have been stolen.'
'
'ariza-i
bi-man ddda
ast ki
j^jj ^J &f o^f 1*1* L^J^ y vi~l *Wf u* Here a*w MA ddda ast signifies cjljyU ^j^iiu !; ^^. indefinite time c**) */of mi-dmada ast shows that the speaker was not present. Mi-dmad <vf might be substituted, but would not indicate whether the speaker was present or not.
^
:
lj
^ ^
(39)
(*(
Ijfd^"
J^
^~*\ jjJe
oU*
ast ki khaydl karda am u*^ (*jj* " I listened and found out it was even as I had
^u
Here the Perfect ft i/ JU^. khaydl karda am signifies 'as had thought previously and still think the Pluperfect would signify I had thought' (but probably do not do so now). Kardam c^ would mean as I had thought on one occasion. Mi-kardam j*^^ as I had thought
thought."
I
'
' :
for
Ay ndddn
^IAA*
is
this if(& j^ j jk~ Simpleton ^s^.f*- (Afghan) not called a gale. Your voyages have been confined to streams and
isjf
!
^^
magar
*ti
bi-jubhd-yi kuchak
^
"
\>
^\
^i^G
^\
canals,
Safar karda mi-bdshi ^5^^-^ t^ j&<* is apt to is a compound safar-karda adjective like j>y j&
is
aiL otax
(41)
najdt-ydfta
2 dushndm ddda ast e~t ^^ ^Ix^^ && " So-and-soabused me yesterday." Here the Perfect shows that the speaker was abused behind his back and that the abuse was reported to him. Had he been present and heard the abuse, he would have said ^f^j*liA^ dushndm
Fuldn
diruz
^^
dad.
"he didn't Ndmi-ddnist ki kujd mi-ravad tjjt* ^^ ** o~~if,> " nami-ddnist *^ ki l*^ o know where he was going if^4J kujd mi-raft ^j**> (not so good and more uncommon) has the same signification. Didam ki
(42)
:
mutaghayyir mi-shavad va nasihat-i mard bi-kardhat mi-shinavad ^i^x) o^ktyj \JM cu^vaJ j t^u^x) "I saw that he was getting angry and " here the Present was taking my advice in ill part dj^* mi-shavad might
:
'
thought he
'
;
but
^x>
mi-shud
Payg&ambar
gufta ast
^^\
&&
j*"ty
to say
"
"Has
been coming."
Or fulam.
906
CONTINUATION OF
(44) Ihtimdl mi-ravad ki
125.
u khwahad amad
**ti
^a>f^
j\
probably come." Though the Future is often used in such cases after ki, both in speaking and writing, it is incorrect. The Pres. Subj. should be used after &jj* jUia.| ihtimdl mi-ravad, as there is a doubt.
will
'he
However
(45)
**1 *AI_^.
.1
&f
^ ^QJ
amad
<x
is
correct.
khwahad
bud
(or mt-bashad, or ast, or mi-shavad ; but not bashad) ; U **! ^ ^Ux* 1J ) ^J AAfyk (d9&fe y^j vty vag$-t (&i ki chiracf.h-1 shumd rm-sukht (or mi-suza
;
5^J^'j
mi-amadam dldam
(46)
Agar nami-tarsidam
.i^,.
ki dir
lacof
This
may
shavad anja mi,~raftam signify either, "Had I not been afraid that
I
it
late I
late
would have gone there," or " were I would go there." The adverbs
if
now not
afraid that
it
jj^ja
would
for
Vaqt-l ki
man
bachcha buda
am
ft u^a. t^l*- ^JJf (*t^ *^j ,^x3. Here continuance of the action up to the present.
*^
^>^
o^
mi-zada
am &^j am shows
ot
ki ruz-i padishdh-i bi-shikdr mi-rafla *$ ouft^x) *ijj* J the what to jbJ Xj,i o^*| >j{* j^; jjjyf ^Jt*^ *&j** j^&J "according used to say ') that Darvish was saying (either on a particular day or
(48)
Az
an ruz
ruz-i 'Id
buda
ast
^l^b ()
^^
saw a
jackal, that
day must
been 'Id." Mi-rafta ast o*t *i^y shows that the Darvish might have been present on the occasion the Imperfect oJ^/o mi-raft could be Instead substituted but would indicate that the darvish was not present.
have
of
it
-xitj
to>>
bdyad
*' it is not cu-^ *-+*^ *Ajab mst ki ( or agar) bi-ravad &jtf (jt\ or ) " *$ o # khwahad if he but nisi ki 'a raft, jab (not agar) strange go *' it is not strange that he will (or should) go (as he will oJ; AAf^L (^\ not)
;
^^
go).
(50)
(
/*Ujjx>
Muddat-i banda muntazir-i muldqdt-i sharif buda am (or mt-basham) i oU'^l>^Jaii> JJ^ yi^ but muddat-i'st banda muntazir-i or f( toy -ft: r
<
p2>(**>
In Afghan Persian, the perfect participle is prefixed to buda ast to give the sense of " " he must have must, as: rafta buda ast gone" karda buda ast he must have done." But buda buda ast cannot be said, though by analogy it would be the correct form.
1
;
Or ml-bayist bashad.
CONTINUATION OF
(
125.
907
ft
ity not
be written,
(51)
it
" I have long been expecting to meet must be followed by buda am.
you"
if
muddat-l bud
ittild'mi-diham
Uof
*&f
\\
**j
here
^
(52)
" after I have gone there I will inform you of my going" bi-ravam could be substituted for ^>) raftam also vulgarly fL> *i;
;
:
rafla bdsham.
Kagkaz-l ki dar fuldn tdrikh bi-man navishta budid imruz rasid " the letter ***)) 9j*l *t& Ai *y (j^ &fi o^*;> *^}^*^ you wrofe me on such and such date arrived to-day." Here the Pluperfect is used to indicate a
J
is
Gumdn mi-kunam
(&>
ki chiz-l az
jt
(^b
or
j*;|c3J
p~3
cs>i^ ^ {&%* ^^
fjf*> is
an qism na-ddram (or na-ddshta bdsham) " I dont think I have anyhere Present Tense, Indicative.
Na-ddram
THE END.
itf
INDEX.
A,
interj.=ha, q.v. a or e, vulg. for ast, p. 218 (c), Rem. .465, poet, for 6a, p. 322, footnote 2. Abar, poet, for bar, p. 322, footnote 4. Abbreviations and contractions, p. 38 arts _of, vide Number of Words.
; ;
without izafat, precede nouns to form (g) compounds, p. 151 (h) a series may be connected by izafat, or by conj. av, p.
; ; ;
Abdari, mule with saddle-bags, etc., p. 409 and footnote 2. Abjad, p. 32. Ablative case, p. 464. Able, to be, expressed by Passive, p. 253 (e) ddnistan, p. 254 (g) yaraatan, p. 254 (g) tavanistan, p. 248; shudan, p. 253 (d) paraphrases, p. 254 (i). Abna* with izafat, p. ^Q (/). Accent or stress, p. 45 on verbs, p. 237
; ;
follow in apposition, p. 152 if (i) (3); with affixed pron., p. 152 (/) predicate is a noun qualified by a simple adj., latter may precede or follow its noun, p. 152 (I) adjecs. used as subs, may be pi., p. 152 (m); pi. adjecs., Pers. and Ar., occasionally used to qualify a dual to qualify pi. subs., pp. 153-4 (rc) dual, 154 (10); Ar. fern sing., lifeless noun, how qualified, if ending in o, Ar.
(i)
;
151
may
fern, rational
noun with
of unity
how
qualified (11); sing. Ar. subs, denoting rational being, how qualified (12); summary of rules of concord, p. I ~>4 (o) ; Pers.
adj. treated as subs., may be qualified by another adj., p. 155 (p) a few subs, used as adjecs. in Mod. Pers., p. 155 (q) ; Noun of Agency and Past Part, used as
;
falls
on
stem or on
ra=def. article, p. 451 (d) (1) and (2); ra must be added to direct obj. of Impera., p. 452 (3); when a phrase is in apposition, p. 452 (4); ra in app. of qualification, p. 453 (5); after the indef. ra art. 2/5, p. 453 (5), Rem. II and (6) usually omitted after cardinals, p. 454 noun in app. to a def noun in the {7) ace. does not take ra, p. 454 (8) ra added to Inf., p. 455 (9); with several nouns, added to last only (10); added to indef. nouns to avoid ambiguity (11) old form omission of ra does of ace., p. 455 (12) not always make noun in def. pp. 455-6 omission of ra, pp. 456-8 (14) to (13) in same clause ra cannot=both dat. <2l) and ace., p. 456 (14) omitted after carafter generic nouns, p. 457 dinals (15) with compound verbs (17) in Clas. (16) Pers. often omitted after affixed pronouns, p. 457 (18); omitted in familiar language, p. 458 ( 19) cognate ace. rare, p. 458 (20) vulgar form of ace., p. 57 (d).
;
mast, dust, plr and adjecs., p. 156 (r) plra, p. 153 () (1); kamina, p. 157 () (2); broken pis. gen. fern., p. 157 (t) (1) and (2) if fern, rational noun is Pers. or
; ;
Ar.
it
or
is
adj is of measure cl*l* or clxxj usually fern, sing., (JUc( ojJ> and
if
.
<5:Lc($
,jA5, p.
157
(t)
(3)
if
Ar. adj.
is
separated from its noun or is predicative, it is preferably in masc. form (4) optional to add 2 to Ar. adj. in mod. Pers., in
;
speaking
% generally omitted, but inserted in uniting (5); za'if and za'ifa (5); advantage of adding *, p. 158 (t) (6); in
and
seldom take
fern. *, p.
Adam,
(c)
(4),
and
p.
u rarely fern. , p. 158 (7) ; guft gu-yi sabiqa, why fern ?, p. 158 (8); musammat, fern., and 'ulya-jah, p. 158 p. 158 (9) ; 'ali-jah with Pers. or Ar. (10); Ar. fern, elative noun, p. 150 (11); Ar. Part, used as noun 159 (11), Rem. ; two subs, used takes
*,
p.
p. 167 (13),
Rem.
'Adim, in comp. adj., p. 167 Adlna, p. 210, footnote 1.
;
(13).
Adjectives pp. 141) to 181; Comp. Adjecs., pp. 161-9 Intensive, pp. 169-171 Adjecs. Num., pp. 199-200; adjecs. generally indeclinable, follow their noun with izafat, in old Pers. preceded noun, p. 149 (a) of unity inverted epithet, noun takes
; ;
Ar. adjecs. follow their noun, Turk(6) ish precede their Turkish subs., p. 150 take sing, or pi.; (c); khayll and bisyar, chandan, "much" with sing, or pi., and in m.c., one with neg. verb, p. 150 (/) their subs., p. 150 or two
;
;
for sing. subs, adj., p. 160 (v>) (1) and (3) ; Pers. subs, and Ar. kull, Ar. subs. , kulll husn and M% p. 160 adj., p. 160 (w) (2) m.c. p. 160 (w) (w) (3) ; husn-i kj^ubl-yash, class, and sujchan-i (3) ; sukhan-i 'amm, 'umumi, mod., p. 161 (x) ; izafat, after some part, in place of prep., p. 161 (y) ; muhal-i mumkin, vulg., p. 161 (y) pak and saf, p. 161 (z) ; -ana, p. 161 (o o) : COMPOUND ADJECTIVES, p. 161 a phrase of adj. =adj., p. 161 (a); compound 162 (&)(!) and (2), and of noun
; , ; ;
noun,
adjecs. precede
162 (6) (1), Rem. qualifying two nouns, p. noun + II; noun + noun, p. 663 (3); Pers. verbal, p. 163 (4); adj. or adv. + subs. -H Past Pers. verbal, p. 164 (o)
;
p. adj. (6)
(2),
Rem.;
adj.
compound
910
INDEX.
Interrogation expresses denial, p. 293 (e) " emphatic denial Never," p. 293 (/) na for "no," vulg., na-kjiayr, etc., 294 (g) (1); ikjitiyar darld, polite affirmation or negation (2) ; adv. of affirmation, p. 294
,-
Part., Ar. or Pers., p. 164 (6); prep. + subs., p. 164 (7); kam, + subs, or Pers. verbal, p. 165 (8); kam + subs., p. 165 na, + adj., subs., Pers. verbal, or (q) Past Part., p. 165 (10); ghayr-i, prefixed to nouns, p. 166 (11) and footnote 1 ; la,
;
(t)
p. 295,
;
Rem.
;
167 (12), Rem. 'adim and ma'dum, + Ar. subs., p. 167 (13) compound Ar. adj., 167 (14) Ar. pi., p. 167 (15) adj. of
; ; ;
resemblance, and br.pl. qualifying adj., p. 168 (16) words commonly used to form Comp. adj., p. 168 (c) verbal adjec. in a, rare in comp., p. 169 (16) ADJECTIVES, INTENSIVE, pp. 169-171 formed by add; ;
ing -a, p. 169 (a) (2) by adding adj. or adv., pp. 169-170 (6) (I); intensified by ya of unity, p. 170 (&) (2) repetition gives continuative or intensive sense, p. 170 (c)
;
meaningless appos. may be inten140 (a), Rem. shah, kJiar dev, preCOMPARISON of ADJECfixed, p. 170 (e)
(1) (3);
sive,
TIVES and COMPARATIVE CLAUSES, pp. 171-181, vide under Comparison of Adjectives: Adjectives ending in t, compara.
and
in sha* Allah, p. 295 (4) ADVERBS OF INTERROGATION, pp. 296 (;)-299 DOUBT., pp. 299-300; COMPARISON, pp. 300-302; PLACE, pp. 302-5; QUANTITY, 305-8; QUALITY, MANNER, pp. 308-311; TIME, PRESENT, p. 312-3; PAST, p. 313-4; FUTURE, p. 314-5 other methods of expressTIME INing time, p. 315 (4) j'akht (5) DEFINITE, etc., pp. 315-9; ORDER AND NUMBER, p. 319-320; EXCEPTION, p. 3201 QUALIFICATION, p. 321 Adverbs, SYNTAX of, pp. 495-7; adv. qualifying of a noun, p. 495 (a) adv., (6) position substituted for nouns, p. 497 (d) one (c) adv. with 2 or more verbs, p. 497 (e) 2 negatives=an affirmative, p. 497 (/) adv. rejoined to Inf. by izafat, p. 497 (g) garded as part of the Inf. (h) ; a subj. after a prohibition requires a negative (i). Adverbial Clauses, p. 545-573, 128, 129,
; ;
132, 133.
pp. 199-200; VERBAL ADJECTIVES, p. 234: ADJECTIVES in -var, -ana, generally adverbial, p. 414 and footnote 4:
Adverbial Numerals,
dinals
p. 196 (a)
Pers. or-
and
dimu-
nition of quality, p. 490 (a); 'a little' or 'few' changes negative into positive, kam and Team-tar, as negap. 490 (6) tives (6); adjecs. implying unity or plurality, p 491 (c) ; in comparisons noun
;
should
be
repeated
(d)
some
adjecs.
joined to same subs., p. 493 (?) and footnote; non-repetition of adj., cause of obscurity, Rem. one adj. qualifying two nouns (k) two or more adjecs. with one
; ;
note (3). Adverbial Verbs, p. 247 (a). Adversative clauses, p. 582 (c) to p. 584 conjunctions used, afterthought, p. 582; examples, pp. 582-4. Affirmation, polite form of, p. 294 (g) (2); m.c. phrases, p. adverbs of, p. 294 (i) 295 (5) (6).
;
AfkanUan, obs., p. 283 (d) (3). Afrlnama and afrin, p. 368 and footnotes 1 and 2. "After that," followed by Pres. Subj. p.
502
(i).
izafat, p.
(I);
494
subs,
with
prep.=adj.j
;
some
adjecs. followed by gen. (n) ; adv. used for adj. , p 495 (a) all adjecs. can be used as adverbs, p. 495 (6) VERBAL ADJECTIVES in -a, p. 534, Remark ERRORS in
: :
(5).
p.
(c),
vide under
Co-ordinate Clauses ADJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTION, p. 577 (c). Admiration, Ar. forms, p. 368 and footnote 4. 'Aduv-i a' da 9 and dushman-i dushmanan,
Agar-chunanchi, m.c. = "if," p. 339, footnote 1. Agency, Noun of, p. 156 (r) and p. 534 (p) and footnote 2 and (q); used class, as
r adj. (p) (1) (2); in Mod. Pers. rare, gen. a mere adj., p. 534 (q) ; Afghan
noun or
have
idiom, p. 535 (2). Aghazidan, obs., p. 256 (6) and footnote 4. Aghlab, p. 125 (o) with izafat, p. 444 (1). Ahad-i=Yak-i, p. 101 (c) (2); br. pi. ahad, p. 102 (c) (2). Rem.; ahad-l na, p. 106
;
(2);
(6).
adjectives and participles as adverbs, p. 289 (6), and p. 414 and footnote 4 subs, with or without preps., with pron. , adj., subs., adv., phrases, p. 290 (3) to (6) Ar. phrases, p. 291 (7) and (8); adv. with prep., p. 291
;
Ahl, p. 435
Ahlfl*
(c).
wa sahl,
559
p. 382,
Rem.
4.
Ajal-i
mahtum and
(c)
SCARCFLY,
p.
293
(3)
and
p.
396
(4).
INDEX.
and
atehavl, p. 64 (n)
;
911
in neg
Andak and
2.
Alast. p. 430 (q) and footnote 1. Al-hal, p. 291 (8), and p. 312 and footnote All, every, p. 112 (i) and p. 119 (/).
;
2.
Alia, interj., p. 373 and footnote 3. Alliteration, p. 628 (?) p. 633 (k) and footnote 3. Vide also under Repetition. *Ali, one attribute less than God, p. 190,
Andar=dar, p. 324 (g). Andarun adv. and noun, p. 303 and footnote 1, and p. 331 and footnote 4. Andun or azun, p. 311 (13). Anfiya, Pers. for Ar. anfiyyah, p. 410 and footnote 5.
Ani,
rel. adj. terrain., p. 402, Rem. VJ. Anjuman, p. 569 and footnote 2; p. 653 and footnote 1.
footnote
alif-i
1.
Ant, p. 87
(p).
Alif, significations
11-3;
and p. (;), 20 and mamduda, alif-i pp. 20-1, and p. 25, footnote 2; names of final alif, p. 169 (a) (1) (2), and footnote 2; added to qualified subs, in old
maqsura,
p. 10 footnote 3 ;
Rem.
II,
Pers., p. 169 (a) (2) alif-i nudba, p. 366, footnote 2 ; abst. nouns and adjecs. formed by, p. 398, footnote 2; FORMATIVE ALIF, p. 147 alif-i rabita, exs. and p. 626 (5) (6) and footnotes 1-2. 'Ali-jah and 'ulya-jah, pp. 158-9 (10). Aliq, p. 503 and footnote 3. Almanacs, two kinds of, p. 11, footnote 2. Alphabet, pp. 1-27; Morphological, p. 2. Alternative Clauses, pp. 579 (d) to 582 joined by ya, etc., (d) (1) (2); other alternative conjs., p. 580 (3); negative
;
; ;
alternation, p. 581
(4).
Although,
Amadan,
as defec. verb, p. 249 (c), Rem. 'Amala, used as sing., p. 69, footnote 3; 'amalajat ditto; pi. of 'amil, p. 60 (/),
Rem.
Ambiguity,
ibham, p. 631 (d) ; examples in adjecs., p. 493 (/), Rem. and (k) (I); in advs., p. 495 (6) (c) and Rem.; p. 497 (e) ; by omission of 'and,' p. 500 (d) ; ta often ambiguous, p. 500 (e) and foot-
Antanaclasis, p. 655 and footnote, and p. 668 (i) and footnote 1. Antecedent, how styled, pp. 559 and i60 (4). Anticlimax, p. 670 (m) (2). Antika, p. 572 (13) and footnote 3. Antiphrasis, p. 633 (/) and footnote 1. Antithesis, p. 631 (e) and footnotes 6 and 7; p. 632 (e); p. 638, Rem.; faulty or incomplete, p. 670 (I). Antonomasia, p. 632 (c) and footnote 1. Anvar-i Suhayll, best portions, criticisms on, pp. 642 (0-4. Aorist and Preterite, in class, and in Mod. Pers., p. 516 and footnotes 5 and 6 ; Aor. both Indie, and Subj., p. 505 in CLASSICAL PERSIAN, pp. 505 (a)-8; as Pres. as Indef. Fut. (a) (2) Indie, (a) (1) as Pres. Subj. or Condit., p. 506 (a) (3); Def Fut. and Aor. in same sentence with same meaning, p. 506 and footnote 2: in MODERN PERSIAN, p. 508 (6) as Pres. tense (6) (1); as Indef. Fut. (6) (2); as takes place of Pres. Subj., p. 509 (3) Eng. infin. p. 509 (4) used optatively (5); for Impera., p. 510 (6); for Pret.
;
Indie,
in
Eng.
(7)
Inf.
;
can be substi-
notes 5-6; p. 503 (6); p. 505 (a) (1) and footnote 2; participial, p. 531 and p. 648 (3); ambig. words, p. 653 (a)-654; ' fine writing' ambig. phrases, p. 654 (6) a source of obscurity, p. 655 (4). Vide _also under Obscurity and Incoherence. *Amil pis. of, p. 66, footnote 3. 'Amim, vide' 'Amma. Amir, without izafat, p. 437 (a). 'Amr, p. 450 and footnote 5 and p. 453, footnote 1. * Amu, p. 371 and footnote 2.
; 1 (
p. 675; Appen. B of 125) examples of use of tenses, p. 899. Apodosis, of command and oath, p. 545 (a),
Rem.
II
Aor. of DASHTAN,
Appendix A, Arabic,
Rem., and p. 651 (2) and footnote 4. Apposition, adjecs. following in, p. 152
(3)
; :
(i)
of Qualification, position of ra, p. 453 (5) pp. 614-22; in Ar., p. 674 (a)
;
Pron. and Adj., p. 615 (6) (1) ; Noun and Adj. or Phrase (2) Adj. and two Phrases in, may follow verb (2) indef. nouns in Ace., p. 616 (3); two
Exs.,
;
'Amma,
;
subs., and 'amlm, adj., p. 118-9 'ami, adj., vulg., p. 119 (20) (21). (20) Amma, p. 345, footnote 2. *Am(m}l, vide' 'Amma.
'
Among and
Amukhtan,
p. 503 (d). to learn,' to teach,' in m.c.= former only, p. 244, Rem. and footnote 4. An, as adv. termination, p. 198, footnote 2 ; an-i nisbat, p. 416 and footnote 4 ; ba'z-l baran-and, idiom, p. 83 (d). Anagram, p. 9 (h), footnote 1.
Amidst,
'
Anchi, p. 123
(5).
2.
nouns in Nom. (4) ; SITION, (4) Rem. I in Voc., p. 616 (5) and footnote 3; noun CORROBORATIVE or pron. understood (6) APPOSITION (c) ta*kid-i lafzi, p. 617 (1) ta'kid-i ma'navi, p. 617 (2) tamyiz, etc. 9 Rem. further exs. of exs. of tabi (3) ta'kid-i lafzi, p. 618; ra with def. or words conindef. noun in appos. (d) nected by certain particles considered, by Arabs, to be in appos., p. 619 (e), but not if connected by particles of exception, footnote 6; Pers. app. for Eng. with Ar. vice versd (g) gen. p. 620 (/) interj. ya, correct Ar. construction better, izafat in m.c. often incorrectly in(g)
;
;
912
serted,
;
INDEX.
Aya,
p. 238 (a) and footnote 3; p. 298 (9) ; p. 354 (14) and footnote 6; whether" in inten. clauses only in direct narration
Rem. qualifying words with numerals or signifying quantity in appos., pron. in appos. to subs, or p. 621 (h) adj. may or may not take izafat (i) and footnotes; not used after pron. u, p. 622; pi. prons. and adj., p. 622; appos. is brief, p. 652 (s). 'Appositive Meaningless,' p. 426 (d) and footnote 6; Appositive Clauses, p. 576
;
="
only, magar takes its place in m.c., p. 579 (2), footnote 4; p. 580 (2) and foot-
note
2.
Ay an
'Ayn,
2nd
i
pers., p. 68 (a).
(a)
and
(6).
'Aqab for
footnote
'
'aqib,
5.
and
beginning of words, p. 27; 'Ayn-i yakRabi ^l-avval, p. 200 and footnote 4; 'ayn with izafat, p. 310
(5).
letter, p. 16; at
Rem.
qism
"one
p.
172
(c)
(1);
of," p. 172
;
(c)
Aqall, with 3rd pers. sing., p. 70 (c). Aqsam, followed by pi., p. 470 (m)
Arabic Noun of Relation, p. 61, Rem. Arasta bash, p. 265 (6), Rem. IV.
by
sing.
(I).
az 275, Rem.; p. 504 (h). Az an-i , denote possession, p 76-77 Az an ja-l ki , p. 357, footnote 1. Az bas pp. 306 (3) and 360
ki,
(6).
p. 65 (c), Item.
p. 436 p. 625
(11).
Aray balay, at Zardushti marriage, (g) and footnote 1. Arl, p. 294 (i) and p. 295 (2).
'Arl, of prose, p. 638. Article, p. 48.
B.
Ba,
p. 363
p. 322
and footnote
3.
;
Ba and
'As long as,' p. 362 (13). 'As much as,' p. 362 (13). 'As much for' as, in compar. between
clauses, p. 179 (v)
for
(4).
63, p. 504 (/). p. 331 (3) tiger," vide' Shir. obs. form of bachcha=" sprout,"
;
p.
in
=Urdu
compounds,
ko,l hai,
classically used
;
animates only, but in Mod. Pers. for inanimates also, p. 71 (a) (2) ash substitute for shan, p. 75 (k). Ash'ar-i razm, p. 635. 'Ashiq-baz, player with kuncklebones, p.
441
(6). 2.
Bad, bada, buvad, p. 227 (d). Bad and nlk, frequently precede their subs.,
p. 149 (6).
Ba'd with izafat or az, p. 331 (5) ba'd az an ki, etc., vide After that. Badal or Apposition, p. 614 (a). Badraqa kardan, in rn.c.=ma8hay'at k., p. 178 (v) (1) and footnote 4; and p. 380,
;
footnote
4.
Aspak, p. 396 and footnote 1. Asses of Bahrayn, p. 467 and footnote 5. Astaghfir* 'Uah, etc., p. 293 (/) (1) and footnote 7. Aste=ast, p. 219 (h} ; 220 (c) p. 546 and footnote 5. Astl, p. 232, VIII, Rem. Asyndeton, p. 651 (q) and footnote 3. Atabaki, variety of pomegranate, p. 377 and footnote 1. 'Atf-i bayan p. 614 and p. 616, Rem. I and (4), footnote 2; 'atf or simple appos., p. 619 (e) 'a&f-i nasaq and f atf-i bi hiiruf (c) and footnote 4. 'Attjar, sells Persian medicines, ginger, paper, etc., p. 459 and footnote 1. Aula or awlq, elative without a positive, not to be confounded with ula fern, of awwal, p. 172, footnote 3. Auxiliary Verbs, pp. 248-9 (e), Rem. Awa'il, p. 193 (g). AwakJiir, p. 193 (g). Awla-tar, how written, p. 21. Awwal, adj. a subs., used in dates, pi. of, as subs, followed by izafat, p. p. 193 (g) 193 (g); p. 193 (h).
;
;
Bah bah, inter j., p. 368 and footnote 1. Bahman (or Pashmadan), p. 107 (2); fulun as adj., fulani not, p. 108 (2); fulan u
bisar, for things, p. 108 (2)
;
bahman,
p.
2.
(4).
obs., p. 266, footnote 5. Bajl, p. 371 and footnote. Balagha eloquence, p. 629 (a). Balance in sentences, p. 638, Rem. Balanced sentences, vide under Sentence. Ballyh and fasih, p. 629 (a) and footnote 1. Balki, p. 299 (k) (2) p. 345 (7) p. 582 (e). Ballads, p. 635. Baluchis, p. 393 and footnote 1.
; ;
Ba,Uan,
Banda,
etc., for
(c)
1st
and 3rd
pp. 69 note 1.
and
70,
Rem.
Rem.
Bar, in class. Pers. indicates a superlative, p. 176 (n) (6); p. 324 (e) and footnote 1. Barabar, p. 303 and footnote 4.
INDEX
Baray, p. 331 (3). Barbarism, p. 631 and footnote Bard" 'l-'Ajuz, p. 210 (d).
;
;
913
Bina
1.
Barkh-i, p. 126 (7) p. 308 (9). Bas, bas-l, basa, p. 123 (m) bas, etc., and az bas ki, p. 306 (3). Baah=" halt," p. 228 (;) bash bash for afterthought, p. 582 (e), and 584 and footnote 4. Bashad= perhaps, p. 505 (a) (1) and footnote 3. Bast, p. 393 (g). Batar, class, and colloq. for bad-tar, p. 175, footnote 1. Bd vasf-l ki, p. 360, footnote 4; 65 vasf'-i in ki, p. 361 (9). Ba v'ujud-l ki, p. 360 (7). Bayistan (and ba*idan obs.), p. 266, etc.; substitutes for, 272 (r); =should, p. 271 (o) ;=must have, p. 271 (p) .p. 540 (d). better, p. 175 (fc); p. 345, foot.Bas, m.c. note 2 p. 653 and footnote 4. Ba'z and ba'z-i, pp. 127-8 (q) ba'z-i bar an-and, p. 324 (/).
;
bar, p. 358 (2). Bi-nisbat, with compar. adj p. 172 Blrun, p. 331 (6). Blsar or blstar, p. 108 (2) (4).
,
;
(c) (2).
Blsh, as compar., p. 175 (5). Bish-tar, blsh-tarln, p. 125 (o) blsh-tar=ihe greater part, p. 304 (o) with or without
;
2.
Bismi'llah, inter j., p. 381 and footnote 1. Bisqumat, sing, or pi., p. 66 (g) and foot-
pi.
;
noun,
latter can;
p.
150 (d)
bisyar,
Bazm,
Be, tr,, verb, pp. 217-221. 'Before that' followed by Pres. subj.,
502
(i).
'
Bisyarl and bisyar-l,p. 124 (n) (1); p. 306 (2) and footnote 2. Bisyar-tar, not much used, p. 304 (4). Blue, wards off evil eye p. 392 (/). Blows, three, how expressed, p. 189,|Rem. I. Bombast, p. 630 (c) and footriote 1. Both, and neither of two, p. 108 (/) isnayn, indirect ways of expressing, p. 109 (3) expressed by Ar. dual, p. 109 p. 109 (4) (5) p. 190 (0Brevity, p. 644 (a) (6). Budam, budaml, mi-bud, p. 548 and footnote 2. Sudan, paradigm., p. 2231; Contin. Im; ; ; ; ;
Rem.
;
buvam
Impera. in Mod. Pers., gen. omitted before shaw and always becan be prefore bash, p. 230, footnote 2 fixed to Past Condit., p. 231, VI Rem. when omitted in verbs, p. 223 (3); with ml-, p. 223 (4) p. 237 (6) ; before tavan, Def. Fut., p. p. 252 (a), Rem.; before sometimes used with sim259, Rem. I
; ; ; ;
bad, bada, harchi bad-a-bad, p. buvad, p. 227 (d) ruz-i 228 227 (d); (e) mabada, p. mabada, p. 228 (e) chi budl, p. 228 and in Mod. Pers. Pret. used footnote 1 for Imperf., p. 228 (i) ; bash=ha\t, p. 228
used by Afghans,
;
p. 224
Bu
ki, p. 299 (k) (1) and footnote 1. Bulbul, p. 351, footnote 4. Bulls, Irish, and Incongruities of speech, p. 667 (2). But, p. 345 (9). Buvad, old=bad, p. 227 (d)._ Buz, female goat vide' Chapish.
'
but not with compound verb, p. Vide Ba-, and On. 275 (d). Bibliomancy, Divination, superstitions, pp.
ple,
390 to 394; istikJiara, p. 390 (a) tafa'ul, p. 391 ; geomancers, etc., David, p. 391-2 unlucky days, p. 392 (d); omens (c) (c) evil eye (/) Nau-Ruz, (h) bast, 393 (g) revolution of heavens and misfortunes,
; ; ; ; ; ;
(i).
;= expenditure, 418 and footnote 2. Bi-farma*id = please, p. 391 and footnote 2. Bi-gard-ash naml-rasad, p. 293 (/) (12) and footnote 8. Begin =giri/tan, pp. 254-6; other verbs, p. 256 (6); Afghan idioms, p. 257 (c) uftadan, m.c., p. 257 (d). Bih, positive for compar., p. 174 (i) (1); as
Bi-di'h, subs., p. 262 (d) (5)
;
Calling, vide Etiquette. Cardinals, p. 182 (a) noun in sing, with, to cardinals and p. 469 (6); predicate noun, p. 469 (h) and footnote 2. 4. Carpets, p. 188, footnote Cases of Nouns, pp. 445 to 464.
; ;
-Vide' also Causal Clauses, p. 574 (c) under Final Clauses. Causal Verbs, pp. 282-4; how formed, p. causal 282 (a); intrans. made trans, by 2i termination, and trans, causal, p. verbs with two roots have two (6); stem endforms, p. 283 (c); verbs with to y, p. 283 (/) in ing in n change it
;
poetry, optative bih, in/terj., p. 36s and footnote 1. Bi-har haV, p. 365 (20). 361 (12). Bi-mujarfad, etc., p. Bin (son) without izafat, p. 437 (a) and 438 (3).
ii]
Bih
p.
m.c. shorter form of causal preferred, p. 283 (/); some verbs have no causal, p. 213 (g) a few causals only used in m.c., examples in use, p. 284 (2) p. 283 (h) 284 (2), Rem.; passive of causals, p. other methods of expressing causation,
;
58
914
p. 284
;
INDEX.
Chihil-var, vide Qamls. Chilla or chitta, p. 205 (6).
*
'
qabulariidan (/) ; simple verb (i) takes place of causal, usually, p. 284 (k) p. 574 (c). Cha, dimin. terrain., p. 396 (5). Ch'akavuk, desert lark, p. 656 and footnote
;
Chlm-i tasghir,
'
5.
Chaman,
Chand, inter, "how many?" for nouns animate or inanimate, p. 96 (w) "how to. chand "how much?" p. 97 (w) " chand-sala " of a few long ?, p. 97 (w)
;
p. 411
and footnote
1.
years or of
", p. 97 (w),
!
chand ta ab, p. 97 (w), Rem. II. ^Chand and Chand-l "a few, some," page
Rem.
109
I.
followed by sing, subs., p. 110 (2); Afghans use a pi. subs., p. 110 (4); in m.c. cliand-l or yak chand =a little while, p. Ill (5) chand-l in m.c.=chandgah, chand bar, etc., p. Ill (5), Rem. I; yak chand a few, p. Ill (5), Rem. II tan1 chand, class. =a few individuals, p. Ill (6)=m.c. chand nafar yak chand, sing, noun, pi. verb, p. Ill (8) and 5, Rem. II, but with ta sing, verb connected with and and andak, p. Ill (9), Rem. I p. 199 " of a few (c): chand-sala= either years or of how many years ?," p. 97 (w), Rem.
(g)
;
298 (4) and Rem. ' Chi-san, vide under chi. Chist, vide' under chi. Chlz and chlz-l, p. 86 chlz-l qadr-l, p. 86 r footnote 3 chlz or chlz-l with neg. p> C/M cfcfe or chlz- I = what's his 107 (7) name ?, p. 108 (3) chlz-l, p. 125 (1). Chu, p. 347 (11). Chun, p. 98 (6) =ktin, p. 98 and footnote 4 p. 29o and footnote 4, and p. 298 (5) bi chun u chand, p. 345 and footnote 1. Chun and chun ki, p. 345 (8). Chunan, in India and Afghanistan (but not in Persia) followed by the demons. (.5,
'
' ; ; , ;
p. 397, Rem. II ; various of chi, p. 97 (x). Chira, dat. of c/w and cAira ki, p. 94 (Z) p.
names
p. 148
(s);
sian, p. 148
Chunanchi=ii,
p. 339, footnote
; ;
pp. 363
6 p. 364 and 4, (16) and footnotes 5 and footnotes 3 and 4 p. 578 (1) and footnotes 5 and 6.
Chunan
;
ki, p.
363 (16)
344
(6).
p. 89 (h)
and 90
(2)
Chunln and chunan, p. 88 (a) (1) (2) and (6) k. =to procrastinate (c) chunan u chunln
,
chandan-'i, p. 90 (2); chandln, p. 90 (3); both precede a sing, noun, p. 90 (3), Rem. chandan in India and Afghanistan fol;
p. 89 (d)
pi. of,
not used, p. 89
6.
(e).
lowed by the demons. t_c p. 148 chandan = much, many, followed by sing, noun in Mod. Pers. by negative, p. 150
, ;
(/)
Chandanchi, obs. p. 363 (13), Rem. Chandan-ki, p. 307 (8) chnndan-i ki, Afghan, p 308 chandan-ki=as soon as, p.
;
;
Chuza, obs., p. 379 and footnote Circumlocution, p. 645 (6) and 646 (/). Clauses, comparison between, pp. 178-9 (v) Clearness in style, p. 631 (d). Climax, p. 670 (m) (t). Coherence, ride Incoherence. Collective Nouns and Nouns of Multitude, when pi., p. 470 (k) concord of, p. 586
;
357, footnote 2
Chapar, p. 509 and footnote 1. Chapish or narl, he-goat; buz she-goat, p. 379 and footnote 2. Chapter, p. 613, Rem. Ill and footnote 1. Charand u par and, p. 156 (n), Rem. Chawush, p. 652 (t) and footnote 3. Chi, what, which etc. ?. p. 93 (k) sing, or
;
Collocation faulty, examples of, in advs. and adjecs., pp. 495 to 497 p. 49'J,Rem. Pers. and footnote 1 p. 498 (5) Rem. errors in, p. 610 (n) ; exs. of, p. 608 (m) follow adjecs. or phrases in appos. may the verb, p 615 (b) (12); faulty collocation, p. 648 (2) and footnote 2. Commentary, p. 646 (/) and footnote 4. how Comparatives, Past Part, of kardan, used by Afghans, p. 280, Rem.
;
;
pi.,
ay
(k); chist, chi-san, p. 94, Rem. I; chi, m.c., Rem. II; dat. chira and
Comparison
not
pi.
of Adjectives
and Comparative
sup.
chira ki, p. 94 (Z);=of course, (I) Rem ; ace. with ra rare, (m) ; in m.c. gen. followed by chlz or harf, etc. (n) ; common colloquialisms with chi (o) ; chi what ?, p. 95 (p) chi how, what (q) ; chi how ? chi budl would to God (a] and 550 (r) (e); chlha, pi., p. 96 (t) ; chi-chi, (u); chi-yi musavat, (u) Rem.; used also for animates, (v) ; various names for chi t p.
!
how formed,
much
sup Past Parts., (a) Rem.; Ar. elative, how formed, (6) (1) conap. and min, but sup. and gen (6) (1); s comp., makes no conchange for gen. and num., (b) (2) structions with some Ar. superlatives, after Ar. pp. 171-2 (b) (3) cognate br. pi.
;
,
used in Mod. Pers., comp. has none, p. 171 (a): comp. of some
97 (x); chi-chlz= what's his name?, p. 108 (3); chi chi, p. 218, footnote 4; chi and aya, p. 298 (9) chi <arz mi-kunam, evasive reply, p. 294 (?) (3); chi mishavad, p. 300 (7) p 346 (11) p. 580 (3) and footnotes 5, 7 and 8. Chiasmus, p. 638 and footnote 5. Chiguna, p. 98 (a).
;
; ;
sup., p. 172
(b)
(4);
from degrees
of
p. 172 (6) (5) ; suffix-torm -In, p. 172 (6) (6) ; double <u*mparatives, Pers. suffix added to Arfej tive, p. 172 P. expressed, (c); 'than' with comp
p. 172 (d)
(2)
;
by
az (d)
(3)
;
(<ud
'
by
ki (d)
;e 4.
or Ar.
INDEX.
with gen., gener. pi., p. 173 (e) (I) sup. treated as ordinary adjec. (e) (2); " the nearest village." how rendered, p. 173 (e) "one of the most," p. 174 (4); (3);
;
915
prefixing adv., Pers. comp. p. (/) (g) and sup. of kamil, p. 174; positives bih, mih, kih, kam used as comparatives, (i); bih as optative in poetry (i) (2) positive for compar. (i) (3) ziyad and ziyada (i) are afzfm, blsh, pish (4); comp., p. 175
;
comp. strengthened
by
(a)
irrationals
(6)
two or more
pi.
sing,
(c);
verb
;
two or more
sing, irrrational
of expressing, p. 175(6); too, p. 175 (/) ; comp. between person and thing and rest of the class, either pos. or sup. is used (I) comp. followed by positive, m.c. vulgarism (m) other methods of expressing sup., pp. 175-6 (n) sup. followed by comp. p. 176 (n) (4) sup. expressed by pos. (n) (5); bar, class., indicates sup. (n) (6); and comp. super, suffixes added to partics., preps., subs, (o) (1) (2) (3); -tarln
(5);
;
"more," methods
nouns, p. 586 (e) and footnote 1 of noun preceded by cardinal (/) (g) pi. neu. nouns, material things, with sing, verb, p. 587 with pi. verb (2) and p. 588 (3) (h) (1)
; ;
several abstract nouns and sing, verb, p. 588 (4),; pi. of respect () exs. of mood, slovenly concords, p. 589 (/) and footnotes: ERRORS in CONCORD, p. 591, vide under Errors: NOUNS of MULTITUDE, p. 464 (a), vide under Generic Nouns. Conditional Clauses, pp. 545 (a) to 552 (h) ; three classes (b); tense most used clas;
stranger still," how rendered, p. 178(r); progressive Jbuble positive, how rendered, p. 178 (s); two or more comparatives or superlatives, suffixes where added, p. 178 (t) (1) (2); the quicker the better, (u) ; COMPARI(<?)
seldom added to Pers. particips., (o) (1) -tar, where added to compound of adj. and subs., p. 177 (p) comp. sometimes gives meaning of sup. (q) (1) comp. with az hama used in Mod Pers. for sup.
Rem.
sically
(c)
;
for
"IMPOSSIBLE CONDITIONS"
(3);
"what was
time past or future (c) and footnote 4, and p. 547 and footnotes 3 and 4 Imperf. Indie, substituted for Past time past or fut., Habit., p. 54H (2)
; ;
Sentences, pp.
Composition and Rhetoric, notes on. pp. Vide under Rhetoric. 629-44. Compound Adjectives, p. 161, vide under
Adjectives.
Sentences, pp.
;
Compound Substantives,
pp. 425-30 of two subs., p. 425 (6) (c) (d) pi. of, p. 475 (w). Two Ar. nouns, p. 427, Rem. II contracted Infs., or Inf. and Irnpera (e)
;
;
Pres. 428 (/) Pers. noun of II ; contrac. Inf. or Pret. with subs, or adv., p. 428 (?) ; prep, or adv. 4-subs. (k) ;
(h)
;
+ Impera. root (k) (2); prep.+contrac. Inf. (3); adj .+ Impera. root (I) ; na with an Inf., p. 429 (m) ; comp. adjecs. as nouns, (n) ; phrase as subs, (o) ; Turkish Compounds (p) ; Ar. phrases as subs.,
prep.
p. p.
548 and footnote 3 and Rem. I ; pp. 548-9 and footnotes 1 and 2 Plup. can take place of Imperf. in protasis Optative Clauses, p 550 (e) and footnotes 3 to 5, and p. 53 (/) and footnotes 1 and 2; Conditional changed into Predicative Clauses, p. 551 (g); apodosis sometimes placed first, p. 552 (h) POSSIBLE CONDITIONS, p. 552 (a) to 556 (g); tense most used Pres. "Subj.; gen. supposes the condition may be fulfilled whereas the Imperf. Indie, for a fut. condition does the reverse, p. 552 (a) and footnote 3 Indie, can take place of Subj.-if there is no doubt, examples, p. Pres. and not 552 (a) and p. 553 (b) A or. of khwastan used after agar, p. 554 in conditions, the past tense in m.c. (b) other used for the Pres., p. 550, Rem.; construction in unrealized alternative conditions, p. 554 (c) Fut. Indie, used use of for Pres. Subj. classically (d) Pret., p. 555 (e) similar construction in temporal clauses (/) and p. 556 (g), Rem. ; Clause may be converted into a Rel. Clause (g) Conditional Particles, p. 545 and footnote 3. Conditional Pluperfect, p. 527, Rem. Conjunctions, Adjunctive, p. 577 (c) Alternate, p. 579 (d); Adversative, p. 582
p.
; ;
;
492
(g).
(e).
274-80
examples
of,
274(6) (1) faru (2); fara (3); faraz, 275 (4); prep, incorporated with verb, loses its meaning (6) no ra after nounprefix, p. 276 (e) prefix separated from verb,(ei; sometimes two constructions admissible, p. 277, Rem. II examples tr. of compounds, p. 277 (g) to 279 verbs in compounds may give tr. and intr.
p.
; ; ; ;
ma
p.
229
(b)
and footnote
*9.
Vide
meaning,
p.
279,
Rem.
vulg.
com-
916
INDEX.
datives in two clauses should balance, Rem. for locality, dative in bi used, (4); when ra cannot be substituted for bi- (5) duration of time expressed by ra, p. 450 (6); ra added at end ot several nouns in the dative, p. 450 affixed pronouns take place of dat. (7) in ra, p. 450 (8) ra of dat. and noun or phrase in appos. pp. 450-1 (9) dat. in ra with mar, dat. as logical subj., p. 451 (10) and Rem.; ra=prep. baray, p. 451
6
;
Construction louche or 'Squinting Construction,' p. 660 and footnote 4. Construction, new not to be introduced without cause, p. 669 (k).
p. 449,
Contractions and Abbreviations, p. 38. Contrast or Tazadd, p. 631 (d). Coins, current in Persia, p. 212 (a) to (d). how Co-ordinate Clauses, pp. 576-84; classed, p. 576 (a); examples of APPOSITIVE CLAUSES (b); Adjunctive ConjuncADJUNCTIVE CLAUSES tions, p. 577 (c) if adjoined clause implies a (c) (1), etc. logical sequence of thought, pas may be substituted for va, p. 578 (2) apparently * therefore,' adj. clauses introduced by
;
; ;
(1).
Dava
medicines, p.
Rem.
Corroborative Apposition, p. 616 (c), vide Apposition. Crow, Royston, p. 556 and footnote 3. Crowding of Circumstances, p. 607 (;').
313 and footnote 1. Dawr= re volution of the heavens and circulation of the wine cap, p. 367 and footnote 4; dawr-i sar-at, etc., p. 385 (/) and footnote 4. Day, name of month or of day, pp. 207-8
Dawn,
(c).
Days
of
of
month,
(6)
days
(c)
names
day begins
at sunset,
Indian, p. 261 (c) m.c. exs. of dadan, p. 262 (d); dih interj., p. 262 (d) (3) bi dih, subs., p. 262 (d) (5). Dah u du, =12 in Shah-Nama, p. 182, footnote 3. Dalija malija, p. 626 (16) and footnote 4. Dam, prep., p. 328 (4); dam-i dar m.c.,= threshold of the door, p. 176, footnote 7. Dam-rahiior sar-rahi, p. 392 and footnote 5. Dana, in 'counting, p. 188, and p. 189
;
;
(d).
Decimals, p. 196 (/). Declension of Pers. noun, pp. 51 and 56. Defective Verbs, p. 249 (e) Rem. Defirftte Article, etc., p. 130; expressed by ra, p. 130 (a) proper names, certain pronouns, etc., and interrog. ki, are de;
Rem.
II.
Dananidan, obs., p. 283, footnote 2. Dancing, vide Music. Dang, =the 6th part of anything, p. 216 (d). Daniel, discoverer of geomancy, p. 392 (c). Danistanto be able, p. 254 (h). Dar, p. 324 (e) dar sfirat-i ki, p. 365 (19). Dard-i sar and sar-dard, p. 438 and foot;
and require ra (b), so also yak-i Gulistan, ra may be owing to exigencies of rhythm, footnote 4; certain other def. words, pp. 130-1 (c), Rem.; expressed by the pi., p. 131 (d) demons. ,. with ki makes nouns def. (c) demons.
finite
;
in
pron.=def. Demonstrative Pronouns, Simple, pp. 827; im old for In, as in imruz, etc., p. 82 (6) pis. in -an, anha ki and anha*-i ki
;
note
2.
(not ishan ki (b) pi. in -ha, p. 83 (c) azan-i man and ba'z-i bar an-and, (d)
;
;
;
Darzhan
dozen, p. 189 (h). Dashtan, pp. 263-6; Aor. used for Pres.
Indie.,
(c)
azan for
and
pp. 263-4 (a) dashta bash, p. 264 (a) and 265 (b), Rem. IV Imperf. rare, p. 265 (d) contin. signification, p. 265 (e) =hold, consider, p. 265 (/) Afghan colloquialdarad=. there are, pp. ism, p. 265 (g) 265-6 (h) lazim dashtan, p. 266 (c) ; Aor.
;
that purpose (/) anan (but not man) ki used in Mod. (g) in mystic Pers. writings, footnote 1 in u an poetry an is a subs. p. 84 (h) c.= various things (i), na In u na in In an, In man-am ki, inak ust, etc. (i) ast=he*Te I am, p. 85 (?) In Tcuja va an chun ay in ki dar in-am, At., kuja (k)
; , ;
idiomatic uses of an
(h).
footnote 2;
p. 256 (b)
;
dast
dast-i
38 * and footnote 4. Dast-kash, p. 188, footnote 2. Dast-pacha, p. 309 and footnote Dastur, p. 508 and footnote 1.
Dative case,
p.
448
(c)
two forms
(c) (1);
;
m=in spite of (n) (1) ow=' phasis (m) he over there (n) (2) bi-dm rasid matters reached such a pitch, (n) (3); other idioms, pp. 85-6 (to 13); Inak, p. 87 (o) ; DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, ant (p); EMPHATIC, pp. 87-8; &aman=when, as soon as, p. 87 (a); hamln=ihe same, p. 87 (b) hamin, as soon as, p. 88 (c) ;
; ; ;
;
(I)
demons, follows
its
noun
for
em-
(c) (2)
two
;
forms not always interchangeable (c) (3) either form used after dadan, p. 448, footnote 2 not necessary with impersonal
;
hamin=only (d) =such, (/) DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, COMPOUND, pp. 8890; chunin, p. 88 (a) (2), Rem. and (c) ham=chunin, etc., p. 89 (/); hamchu,
;
;
5.
INDEX.
Dervish, cries of, p. 375 (c) and p. 376, footnotes 1 and 2. Dev, khar, shah, give idea of size, p. 170
(e) (\).
917
'Vide'Div.
Dialects, Persian, p. 639. Dlda khwuhad shud or dida mi-shavad, m.c. , dida shud in m.c. used instead p. 287 (5) of Act. Voice, p. 286 (d) (2) and footnote
;
4.
Diffuseness, p. 644
(a)
and
(6)
and
foot-
498 (6) (4) and Rem to (5). Elegy, p. 635. Ellipsis, examples of, p. 526
p. 119 (/) ; with sing, or pi verb, p. 597 (e). Earnest, in, p. 295, footnote 4. Either or Neither, distributive pronouns concord of, p. 599 (/) either or,' p'
:
Each, every,
(k)
ex.
from
;
note
5.
Digar,dlqar-l, digar-gun, p. 99 (1); adv. otherwise, etc., p. 99 (1), Rem. I yak-lthe other," p. 101 (k) dlgar-l "the one 138 (p) (c) (1); digar and digar-i, p. dlgar. vulg. used for forming ordinals, p. 4. 193 (/) 206 (d) and footnote Digression, p. 646 (/). Dih, interj., p. 262 (d) (3). Dihlavi, relative termination, p. 402, Rem.
; ;
p.
Else=varna, etc., and introduces a condit. clause in a contracted form, p. 581 (4) Emphasis, p. 645 (d) (2) p. 669 (;). Enallage, Figure of Syntax, p. 495 (a) and
;
'
y.
Dimagh=nose
3.
in m.c., p. 385
and footnote
k, ka, h, p. 394 (b); pisaru, etc., p. 395, Rem. II, and 398 (c) and p. 50 (e) and p. 57 (d) -cha or -za, p. 396 (5) -zha -cha, p. 397
; ;
pisar and bachcha dimin. dimin. of ju and jav. (c) Rem. I; (c) mak -icha and -isha* p. 397 (b), Rem. and -anak, p. 398, Rem. kuchulu and Icuchuli, m.c. (e) gak (/) mashkula (g). Diminutive wav, p. 50 (e) p. 57 (d) ; p.
(b) (5),
;
Rem.
footnote 3. Epic, p. 635. Errors in Concords, pp. 591-600 Error of proximity,' p. 591 (a) and footnotes, apparent violations of concord in Gulistan, p. 592 and footnote 3; several nouns with the disjunctive " or" or "nor," p. 593 (6) (1) to (5) and footnotes when the nom. is a relative, the antecedent determines the number of verb, errors, p. 595 a demons, or pers. pron. used that (c) does not refer to the true antecedent, p. 596 (2) one predicate has two or more
; ;
subjects,
ellipsis,
(d)
"each" and
pi.
"Every"
(e);
with sing, or
398 (e). Dina-ruz and dina-shab, p. 313 and footnote 5. at beginning of Diphthongs, p. 22 (e) words, p. 25 (e). Diqgat-i 'ibarat or Abstruseness p. 631 (d). Dlranda, p. 156 (r), Rem. Direct Narration, vide Narration.
;
CONCORD OF AD"neither," p. 599 (/) JECTIVES and PRONOUN with noun. p. 600 antecedent of pi. pronoun should (g) not be a singular or collective noun (i) GOVERNMENT of VERBS and PREPOSITIONS, errors, p. 600, vide under Govern;
;
ment
der
errors
in
;
COLLOCATION
in
vide un-
RHETORIC
(h)
Dirge, p. 635. Distance, vide Measure of Length. Distributive Numerals, p. 198. Vide' Dw, etc., pi. of, p. 59, footnote 2. Dev. Divination, vide Bibliomancy. Dlwanl or Siyaq figures, p. 34 diwarii hand writing, p. 36 and footnote 2. Diyanldan, caus. of didan, doubtful form, p. 283, footnote 3.
;
and
48.
p. 635.
(e),
Euphemism
p.
and
632 (e) and footnote 1 p. 632 (/) and footnote 4 p 646 (/). Euphonic rules and accents in verbs, p.
237.
Ever,
misplaced,
Drinking Songs, p. 635. Drum, p 297, footnote 3. Du'a-gu, da'i, with 3rd pers. of verb,
(c).
;
Whatever,
p. 119 (?)
and
p. 70
;
Dual, Ar., p. 63 (m) in speaking, p. 66 (t) dual of some Pers. words, p. 67 (i) Turkish pi., p. 67 (/). Du char shudan, p. 189 (/). Dukh tar = unmarried girl, p. 395, footnote 1. Dukhtaru, p 50 (e) p. 395, Rem. II. Du-rilya, p. 405 (4) and footnote 3. dushman-i Dushman, sing., p. 46i (c) dushmanan and 'aduv-i a' da have different significations, p. 61, footnote 3. Dust and mast, once Past Parts., p. 156 (r)
;
;
Evil eye,
392
(/).
Examples
'
Excessively,'
(3).
how
(15).
Faces, lucky, p. 392 (c). Faghtur, p. 489 and footnote 3. Fakayf*, rarely used in Pers. p. 180 3. (3) and footnote Fakk-i iza/at, p. 437 (a).
(iv).
918
Fal
giriftan, p. 390, etc.
p.
I.
INDEX.
Pers., Fut. Perf. and Past Subj. are identical (/) (1) and footnotes 1 and 2 in Mod. Pers. preceded by bayad (2) and footnotes 5 and 7 ; expressed by Past Part, and Def. Fut., p. 522 (3) and footnote 1 and Rem. ; certain m.c. idioms PRESUMPTIVE PAST in Mod. Pers. (4)
;
;
287
(/)
and
foot-
Faraham, p. 311 (7). Faraz, p. 275 (4) p. 305 (6) p. 322, Rem. I. Farda, p. 383 and footnote 3. Farld-tar, m.c. but yakta-tar not used, p. 174 (h). Farkhunda, p. 156 (r), Rem.
;
(5)
and
(e).
p.
523 and
Rem.
in
Causal clauses, p.
Farmudan,
Faru,
4.
Fash
Faslh, vide' Baliyh. Fate, p. 288, footnote 4. Fates, the, p. 288, footnote
Gah,
4.
'
vide
'
Hargah.
Gah
(g)
, ;
of
p. 166
Rem.
m,
p. 322(11).
627 v33) and footnote 6. Oak, dim-in, termination, p. 398 (/). Oal-i mikh, etc., and gul-mikh, p. 309, footnote 4.
Gardarildan, p. 281 (e). Gardldan, p. 282 (g). Gashtan. p. 282 (g).
1
Figurative language, p. 658 (c). Figures, rhetorical, p. 631 (e). Fi'l-misl, not correct Ar., p. 364 and footnote 6. Final and Causal Clauses, pp. 573-6 deal with end or reason, p. 573 .(a) examples final clause that of Final Clauses, (6) can be converted into predicative, p. 573 (6)(l)and footnote 3; CAUSAL CLAUSES usually precede the prin. clause, correlaFut. examples (r/) tives, p. 574 (c) Indie, for Pres., p. 575 (c) conj. omitted of causal clause precedes the prin., p. 576 (/). Fine writing,' p. 655 (4). Fiqra-yi tabi'a, p. 636 (n). Fir'aun, 135, footnote 1. Fold, p. 197 (a).
;
(I)
'
Foxes, eaten by Baluchis of Bampur, p. 393 and footnote 1. Fractions, p. 194 (a) and footnote 1 for f etc., the Ar. fractions must be used, p. followed by the izafat, p. 194, Rem. I 194, Rem. II; si-yak not used, p. 194, Rem. II Ar. fractions in speaking, p.
; ;
General terms, brief, p. 651 (n) and footnote 1. Generic nouns, p. 457 (16) and footnote 1 denoting rational beings preferably in the pi., p. 465 (d) (1) unqualified by an with nouns adj. usually sing, (d) (2) 1 concord qualified by much,' footnote of generic noun, p. 586 (c) and Rem. Genitive, absolute, expressed by mat, p. 55 subjective and objective, p. 445 (/) ; (/) (4) and p. 448 (6) gen. case, p. 446 (6) two subs, coupled by izafat used for subs, and adj., p. 447 gen. of material, p. 447 and footnote 2 gen. for subs, and prep. used with a governing Inf., pp. 447-8; vide also Izafat, pp. special exs., p. 448
; : ;
433-5.
Geomancy,
GJtalat,
p. 391
(c).
195 (6); duals and pis. rarely used, p. 195 (6) a quarter to, p. 195, Rem. ; per cent., p. 196 (c) : DECIMALS, 196 (/) other method of expressing fractions, p. 196 (g). Fuhsh-i madar u pidar, p. 388 and foot; ;
p. 355, footnote 2. Ghalba, p. 323, footnote 1 * GJtamazat, obscurity,' p. 631 (d). Ghayn,' found in Ar. and Pers. words, p. 9
kardan=balki,
(/),
Rem.
;
Gharabat,p. 631 (d) and footnote 1. Ghayr, prop, subs., p. 100 (a) (2) privative
va-ghayra, (a) (2) Rem.; izafat after ghayr, (a) (2), Rem. and footnote 3 ghayr and ghayr-i, p. 166 ghayr-i maqbilza, (11) and footnote 1 ghayr-i manqula, ghayr-i malfufa. why Rem. 166 fern., p. p. 331 (6). (11), Ghayat, p. 307 (4) and footnote 1, and p. 311 (12). Ghayrat, p. 359, and footnote 1.
ghayr, (a)
(2),
Rem.;
note 7Future Definite, how formed, p. 513 (e) used in Condit. sense for Pres. Subj .of Mod. Pers., p. 514 and .footnote 1 Fut. Def. reg. used by Indians and Afghans, indicates certainty, p. 514 (e) (1); used
; ;
in Condit. sentences (e) (2) not much used in Mod. Pers. (/) " I do not and will not," how expressed, p. 526 (k); Fut. Indie, used for Fut. Subj., p. 541 (e) and footnote 2 Fut. Indie, used
classically
; ; ;
Ghazl, p. 635.
in class. Pers. where Mod. Pers. uses Pres. Subj., p. 542: FUTURE and AORIST in same sentence with same meaning, p.
PAST,
p. 521
(?)
in Class.
Ghuluv, a div. of Hyperbole, p. 630 (c) and footnote 2. (Surra. =first of the month, etc., p. 193 (h). Gi, termination, p. 398 (a) and footnote 1 p. 40_0. p. 399 GUas, 'vide' Alu-balu. Giram, glrlm, giriftam,= although, p. 556 (a) and footnote 8.
;
;
INDEX.
Giriftan, tr. and intr., pp. 254-6; =to begin, pp. 254-6 (6) (2) =to suppose, admit, p. 255 (6) pleonastic (c) intr. or reflex.
;
J19
(d); =eclipsed, p. 256 (e); glrandagl attractiveness, p. 256 (/) ; vagiriftam =to caase, p. 256 (g) ; intr. =to begin, p. 256 in m.c. =to buy (i). (h) Gw, name of the son of Gudarz. God, attributes of, p. 190, footnote 1.
;
Hadlqa, p. 323, footnote 1. Hajls, signature of, p. 70 (c), Rem.: hail for hajiyi,, etc., p. 525, footnote 2 Hafv, p. 635.
Hal
or
Mia and
;
Goodbye, p. 373 and footnote 2. Government of Verbs and Prepositions, and Errors, pp. 600-3 object of trans,
;
verbs should be in obj. or ace. case, p. 600 (a) objects connected by con Junes, should be in the same case, also nouns
;
and prons.
and
(c)
one relative may do duty for more than one clause, relative in different cases must be repeated (e). Greeting, Muslim, to Gabrs, Jews, etc., p. 382 (g) and footnotes 3 to 5; of Persians, Muslim, p. 382-3, p. 382 and footnote 5
;
note 2 p. 312 and footnote 2 p. 618 and footnote 1 hal an ki, p. 365 (18). with nunation in m.c., p. 314 footnote 4. Halva-yi arda, p. 376 and footnote 7 Ham, p. 302 (7) 342 (3) ham and nlz, difference between, p. 339, Rem. Hama, the whole, also=/iar, p. 112 (i) classically precedes or follows its subs.! in Gulistan, verb and subs, in the sinor pi., p. 112 (i) (1) with; pi. noun, with of unity, p. 113 class, and mod. con; ; . * ' ; ; ;
al-hal, p. 291
(8)
and
foot-
footnote 5. ku, p. 234 (i) pp. 345-6 (10). Gufta, for alif, 'vide,' p. 13 (8); p. 231, footnote 2. Guftan,to think, p. 247 (6), footnote 2. Gufti, p. 507 and footnote 5. p. 346 (6) r Gu, 'l, p. 346 (6) p. 507 and footnote 5. Gurg u mlsh, p. 313 and footnote 1. Guruh-i, a number, p. 124 (n), and (n) (2). Gusfand-i farangl, p. 393 and footnote 1. Gusht-i bulbul, p. 393 and footnote 1. Guya, p. 363 (15). Guzashtan, guzarldan, etc. caus. or trans, forms, p. 283 (d) (1) (2). Guzashtan, p. 261 (a) (&).
Gu and
hama
structions with, p. 113; in Indian Pers. hama is an ordinary adj., p. 113; construes. in Mod. Pers., pp. 113-4 (2) and (3) Rem.; before suffixed -ash, p. 114 (3); hama chlz, hama kas, etc.; hama kas with sing, or pi. verb, p. 114 (4);
,
usual pi., p. 115 (7) hama with compar., followed by sup., p. 175 (I) hama si, m.c. for har si, p. 109 (/) Rem. (I),
;
kasan, Afghan, p. 115(5); hama " all tu-yi ham, m.c. together," p. 115 (6); reg. pi. hamagan, old, hamginan
Hamagl, subs., followed by pi., verb, differs from hamginan, p. 115 (8); by some, said to equal an adv., p. 116 (10), Rem. Haman, p. 302 (8) and p. 361 (12) and footnote
3.
Hamana,
;
p. 295 (1)
and Rem.
and
foot-
it,
but
Hamchln,
colloq. for
hamchunln,
p. 319
and
Hamchu
H,
19-20; a vowel, p. 19 and footnote 1 termination, aspirated, p. 19 elided, p. 395 (3) and Rems. I and III Rem. Ill, p. 395, Rem. IV; dimin., pp. 394 (a)-396 (5); terminal, pp. 404-6; silent and aspirated, p. 404 (a) silent h added to nouns, p. 405 to stem of verb (6) (2); to adj. (6) (3); to form adj. or adv. of time, number, etc., (&) (4); to Ar. Past Part., p. 406 (5); ha-yi liyaqat, p. 406 (6); other uses of h, p. 406 (c) ; ha-yi atf, p. 406 (c) (1); ha-yi fa'iliyyat, ha-yi tanls, p. 406 (2) (3) final h becomes (q) in Ar., sometimes redundant, p. 406 (c) (4), Rems. I and II; final h of Past Part, considered a cop. conj., p. 527 (m)
silent,
; ; ; ; ; l
;
9 (h)\
hamchun
Rem.
Hamchunan-l ki, correct, Pers., p. 148 (.9). Ham-chunin and ham-chunan, emphatic forms of chunln and chunan, etc., p. 89
Ham-digar and yak-dlgar,
99(1); p. 101
(6)
2)! (/) (9)-
recip.
pron., p
ml-, p. 224, Rem. I; p. 225 and footnote 2 p. 230, III B p. 257 (e). Hamila, p. 119 (M). Hamln and haman, p. 302 (8); p. 361 (12) and footnote 2. Hamln H=as soon as, p. 361 (12) and foot:
;
Haml- or
note
3.
Hamln
Ha
(1).
qadr and hamln qadr-ha, p. 475 Hamvn-tfiwr, p. 366. Ham-rah, p. 504 (/).
'
(y).
and
a, p. 371,
Rem.
Hamza,
a
,
Ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-a, interj., p. 375, Rem. I. Ha ball, p. 582 (e) or ha bash bash, p. 584 and footnote 4, introducing afterthought. Habitual or Past Potential tense, p. 519 (i) and footnote 4 with prefix bi- and mlor hami-, p. 520 is class. Pers. used for Imperf. (1) ; in poten. sense (2) ; in class Pers. used in Condit. and Opt. sentences
; ;
p. 16;
pp. 23-7; silent; vide under Ayn alif-hamza, 1st letter of alpha(c)
;
bet. p. 25 p. 400.
^ of unity,
120
(;')
(3).
karan
(ki)
(1); used for hama, (/) (1); (;'), Rem.; har yak, har yak-l.
920
INDEX
Husn-i ta'blr or euphemism, p. 631 (c). Husayn, a name of, p. 201 and footnote 5 p. 378 and footnote 1.
har kas, har Jcudam, take sing, or pi. verb (2) har= whatever (3) har kudam ki, har an ki, p. 121 (&) (1) (2) and p. 122 har kas-l ki, har ki, hama kas-l (3) (4) ki, etc., p. 121 (3); har an chi, p. 123 Vide also Har chi, Har ki, Har du. (5). Harchand, harchand ki, harchi, p. 358 (1); Vide also Harchi. p. 363 (13). Harchi, har chiz, har an chi, an, chi, p. 121
;
;
Hymns,
and
2.
635.
p.
Hyperbaton or Trajection,
Hyperbole,
pi. of
;
605
(i).
'
(Z)(l) (2) and p. 123 (5); anchi, p. 123(5) harchi= any thing, p. 258 (b) and footnote
1 harchi bad-a-bad, p. 535, footnote 4; harchi tamam-tar=aup., p. 175 (n). Har du, pp. 108-9 (/) (1); har si=m.c. hama si, p. 109 (/) (1), Rem. with neg. =neither of two, p. 109 (2). Hardly, p. 300 (5).
;
yak q.v. Ibham or ambiguity, p. 631 (d). Ibn and abu disappear when ya-yi nisbat is added to kunyat, p. 402, Rem. V. Vide
also Bin.
'Ids, p.
/, for
note
'Id"
I.
in def. pron., p. 104, Rem. takes the place of the indef. pron. " one," p. 178 (u) and footnote 2. Harf-i zarf= particle, p. 289; harf-i ta'lll, p. 574 and footnote 7. Hargah \i, p. 361 (10); az an gah ki, etc. (U). Hargiz=ever, 292, footnote 1. Hasha ki and hasha zadan, p. 292 (d) (1) and footnote 7. Hashv, different kinds of, p. 644 (6) hashv-i qablh vide Tautology. Hatim, p. 135, footnote 2. Hay, contin. particle, p. 230 III B p. 257 (e) and 537, footnote I. Hayf, interj., p. 367 and footnote 7. Heavens, revolution of, p. 343 ("). ' Help, gave no more than (I) could help,' p. 501 (g). Hich, for sizdah, p. 182, footnote 4. Hlch kas, etc., hich na, p. 104 (d); hich as
HarH="one"
II
;
'l-fitr, p. 202 (10) and footnote 2; I'd* 'l-azha, p. 202 (12) and p. 203, footnote I.
'
'
(?) and footnote 4. Ighraq, p. 630 (c) and footnote 2. Iham, p. 632 (/) and footnote 4. Ihtikar, p. 661 and footnote 4. Ijaz-i mafazl, p. 663 (d). Ikhtiyar darld, polite form of affirmation or negation, p. 294 (i). Il,T.,pl. of, p. 66 (/). I hope, p. 373 and footnote. Ilahl, m.c. Ilia, p. 345. footnote 2; p. 584 (4). Iltifat, change of persons, p. 533 and foot-
Idma'j, p. 632
note 3. Imala, p. 38. Imperative, pp. 536 (v)-1 in m.c. used prein class. Pers., 2nd catively, p. 536 (v) can begin a clause, pers. so used, p. 537
; ; ;
subs., p. 105, Rem.; =some any, p. 105 (2); =nothing, p. 105 (3); hwh-tar, p. 106 (d) (3) ; =at all, ever, p.
adj.
and
106
(4)
hich
u puch,
p.
106
(4),
Rem.
hich
kudam,
p. 106 (5).
Hope, I,Ilahl,
'
1.
However
(13).
or
dered, p. 557
1
the more (or less),' how rendered pp. 180-1 (w). Hubara and hubara, p. 626 (11) and foot;
How much
note
3.
other methods of expressing Impera., p. 233 (i) Imperative CONTINTJATIVE. p. 537 p. 224, Rem. I p. 230 III B kanda ml-bashad, apparently incorrect, p 233 (c) (3) Imperfect tense, gives a pi. sense to sing, noun, p. 475 (x), but with Pret. pi. must be used (x) Imperf. tense, pp. 517 (&)519; denotes frequency or duration, may take the place of Eng. Pret., 517 (h) (1) and footnotes 4 and 5, p. 518 (2) "be" rendered by Imperf. (3) Imgan to perf. Pass gives pot. senses, p. 518 (4) ; in m.c. used for Pres. p. 519 (5) used for conditions, its place sometimes taken by Contin. Perf. (6) Imper. Indie, substituted for Past Condit., p. 548 (2); time past or future, p. 548, Rem. I and footnote 3, and footnotes 1 and 2, p. 549; class use of Imperf. for Pres. Subj.,
p. 605
(/)
;
Huma,
1,
and
p. 407,
Rem.
II.
;
Hurmuz,
p. 208.
;
Huruf-i mutashabih and huruf-i mutamasil, huruf-i manquta or huruf-i p. 9 (g) mu'jama (i) huruf-i malfuzl (h) huruf-i masrurl (h) huruf-i maktubl (h) huruf-i fawqanl utahtanl, p. 10 (i); huruf-i muwahhada, musannat musallasa, p. 10 huruf-i 'illat, p. 22 (d) and p. 573 (i)i
;
;
Impersonal Verbs, p. 266, etc. me. exs. of some verbs used impersonally, p. 273 (s) Pers. verb with cognate noun = sing,
;
(v).
630 (d) p. 631 (d). Inak, p. 87 (o) ; p. 305 (5). Inchunln, etc., vide Chunln.
Impropriety in^tyle,
4,
p.
and footnote
and
(a).
Husn and
husn-i kjiubl-
Including, vide Besides. Incoherence, p. 659 (a); avoid illogical compound sentences, p. 671 (o) incoher ence due to misuse of ' and,' p. 672.
;
INDEX.
Indefinite Article, p. 131 ; yak and may place, p. 131 (a) ;
of unity, pp. 131-2 (a)
is
;
921
use of with certain verbs, p. 540
may
take
its
inf.,
(d).
have the
the
^
;
after har
probably the
of unity
demons, ya,
;
the ya of p. 132, unity or indefiniteness^indef. article, p. 132 (&) deriv. from .yak, in Mod. Pers. may be added or refer to a pi. noun, p. 132 (6) and p. 137 (2) how written after silent h and final ya, after silent h before
;
Rem.
Indirect Narration, vide Narration. Inhiraf or digression, p. 646 (/). Innuendo or Insinuation, p. 632 (/) and footnote 4. Insan, indef. pron., p. 103 (c) (4). Insha, p. 630 (6). In sha* Allah,=l hope, p. 383 and footnote
3.
Insured post,
4.
p. 213 (e)
and footnotes
and
waw,
after alif-i maqsura, p. 133 sometimes added to adjs., p. 133 (3), (3) Rem. I in old Pers. added to the qualified noun, but in Mod. Pers. to the adj., p. 133 (3), Rem. II and pp. 136-7 (k) (1) ; sometimes with ast in pronunciation, how written, p. 133 (e) ; exs. of this ya and its significations, pp. 134 (/)-5; in m.c. often preceded by yak for emphasis, pp. 135-6 (g) ; does not admit of the izafat, 136 (h); a noun before an adj. or
p.
Int, p. 87 (p).
133 (2);
;
Intend, expressed by khwastan, p. 280 (e). Intensive Adjectives, pp. 169-71. Interjections, etc., pp. 366-90; simple, p. 366 (1); exs. 367; ver b= inter j., p. 368, Rem.; Admiration, p. 3u8 exs. of, p. 369; Lamentation, p. 369 (3); Hatred, Attention, WarnAversion, Contempt 371 (0) ; ing, p. 370 (5); Impatience, p.
;
Distress,
Want,
p. 372 (8);
;
Repentance,
;
p.
another noun in construction may discard ya, p. 136 (i) concrete nouns, in I may take the ya of unity, p. 136 (j}j of ya, sing, abstract nouns do not admit in yak is substituted, p. 136 (/), Rem.
;
;
Mod.
Pers. in
added to qualifying
adj.,
can be referred to a
(k) (1) (2); indef.
cellaneous, p. 372 (10) Imitative sounds. Dervish Cries, p. 375-6 (c) and p. 375 (6) Street cries, p. 276, footnotes 1 and 2; 376 (d) Greeting to Guests, p. 380 (e) ; Wife, how referred to, p. 382 (/) GreetCalling to Gabrs, Jews, etc., p. 382 (g) ; 383 (h) Coming, etc., etiquette of, p.
; ; ;
numeral, expressed by ya, p. 137 (2); if the adj. is simple and can precede its noun, ya is added to the noun (3) in Mod. Pers., both jam' -I and jam' i az used (0; in Mod. Pers., if qualifying in def. adj. end in ya, a yak is used as "a "a glass art. (m) spoonful of milk," ex. of water," etc.. how rendered (m) Pers. of omission after generic noun in
;
;
ExpresAdjura(;) Shi' as and Sunnls, p. tions, p. 386 (k) 386 (m) Maledictions, p. 387 (2) Abuse,
(2)
;
;
p. 387 (3);
;
Examples,
p. 388 (4).
added both to noun and adj., p. 138 (o) exs. dlgar and digar-i, p. 138 (p) m.c. construction borrowed from Ar. (p) ya added to Ar. phrases ya added (q)
;
;
;
(in
def.
art.
in
Eng.), pp.
137-8 (w)
to last only of a series of nouns, p. 139 noun, in m.c., may be pre(s) ; first ceded by yak (s); in Mod. Pers. ya added to second only of two adjs., Rem. I ; class. E. of ya added to both adjs., 125 (c), p. 511 ; does not, as a rule, take some pers. ra, exs. (t) ; can be added to 140 (u) ; not added to mo, ,
Interrogation, may express negation, p. 293 (e) adverbs of, p. 296. Interrogative Verbs, p. 238. Inversion, p. 605 (i) (I) to (5). Invitation, to accept is a sunnat, p. and footnote 3 p. 383, footnotes. 586 and footnote 2 Iqllm, meanings of, p. 41G and lr and Tur, sons of Faridun, p. footnote 5. footnote 1. Irony, p. 633 (?) and Irrelevancy, p. 646 (/). Rem. Isha, dimin. term., p. 397 (6), 635. 'Ishqiyya, love song 638, p. 638 and footnote* 4 and
J*
IshtiqZq, figure, p.
/*
whan
am,
prons
p.
;
(u)
yak-l
yak-l
;
can be added to subs, qualiand chandan (x) fied by chunln, etc with ace. of man (y); can be added to
(v)-,
56). Ism-i mawsul, p. 559 (4) and p. Ism-i mu k'abbar, p. 170 (e) (1). Ism-i sawt,p. 275 (b). " Isnayn both," p. 109 (3). 632 (e). Isti'ara-yi 'inadiyya, p. footnote 2. Istikhara, p. 390 (a) and and footnote 4 Istiqbal, p. 380 footnote 4. Istiqbal<, p. 314 and * and Istitbagh, p. 632 (/) 645 (b) and p. Itnab or Circumlocution, p.
****
Infinitive, in nominal compound verb, p. 286 280 (5) ; trans. Inf. used for Pass., p. be substi(3); in some sentences may tuted for Aor., p. 510, Rem. II; inf. used as a noun, p. 535 (s) in class. Pers., 536 (2) of trans, neg. of, how framed, p. verb often used intransitively (3) class, used for subj.. p. 539 (6); shortened
; ; ;
(*!_("
f\
Rem.
(/) (1
) ,
**
e
after
(/) (1),
Rem.
after final
p.
^,
P-
final
hamza,
54," (f)
(/)
(2);
after
alif-i
rtra, p. 55
(3); written
and pro-
922
INDEX.
Jallall Year, p. 209 (d). Jama ak, dimin., p. 396, footnote
nounced by Indians L and Afghans, p. 55 (g) (h); with man, pp. 70-1 (/), Rem.;
with other pers. prons., 71 (/), Rom. I with after har du, p. 72, footnote 2 with verbs, p. affixed prons., p. 73 (/) some modern vulgarisms^ p. 74, Rem. I 75 (i) after kh_ud, p. 80 (e) after yliayr
;
;
5.
privative, p. 100 (a) (2). Rem. and footnote 3 may connect a series of adjs., p. 151 (i) (1): after some Parts, instead of incorrectly inserted prep., p. 161 (y) before Ar. verb, pp. 167-8 (15), Rem.; with Ar. sup., p. 171 (6) (3) and (e) (I); before compar. adj., p. 173 (d) in India omitted after name Hatim, p. 177 (p) and footnote 1 after sad-ha, Afghan, p. 190 (fc); after subs. avvaL p. 193 (g) with fractions, p. 194, Rem. II nlm-i USE and roz, Afghan, p. 206, footnote 3 OMISSION of IZAFAT, pp. 433-45; cases
; ; ; ;
;
followed by izafat, majmu' occasionally substituted, 'p. 116 (11). Janab-i 'All, followed by 2nd or 3rd persons pi., p. 282 (/)(!) and footnote 2. Janan, sing., p. 386 and footnote 2. Jaras, p. 297, footnote 3. Jarr and majnlr, p. 322 (11). Jav and ju, dimins. of, p. 397 (c). Javab-i Amr, p. 65 (r) and footnote 4. Javak-i, dimin., p. 396 and footnote 4. Jaw, dimin. of, p. 397, Rem. I and p. 396 and footnote 4. Jilav, p. 336 (14). Jlm-i yak=Jamada 'l-ulq, p. 201 and footnote 1. Jinas vide Tajnls. Jingling sounds vide under Repetition, etc. Jlra, p. 3 and footnote 3.
,
Jaml
433-4
which IZAFAT must be INSERTED, pp. between prop, name and profession, before tribal designation, p 433 (a) (6); before the words 'country river,
in
;
Job, patience of, p. 171 (4). Joking phrase expressing affirmation, p. 295 (5) and footnote 4. Joseph, beauty of, etc., p. 179 (4) and footnotes 466.
jav, dimins. of, p. .97 (c), Rem. I. Juft and linga, p. 189 (h) p. 469 and foot;
city, etc.,' in titles of books, for patronymic, with fractions, with superlative, p. 434 (c) (d) (e) (/) (g) and footnote 2 before a phrase, is inserted in Mod. Pers. but omitted in Indian, p. 435 (h) ;
; ,
Ju and
note
3.
Juja= chicken,
IZAFAT after PARTICULAR WORDS, p. 435 after Janab and Hazrat, mablagh. and ahl,
;
Jum
p. 435 (a) (b) (c) ;' after a/656, p. 436 (d) with marhum, p. 436 (e) abna* (/), sahib FAKK-I IZAFAT, p. 437 omitted 'with {g) amir, mir, vail, bin, sar, sahib, p. 437 further exs. of, pp'. 441-2 (6) (a) to 441
;
p. 379 (16) and footnote 6. banidan, word avoided in m.c., p. 181 (9) and footnote 1. Jumla whole, usually followed by izafat,
Jumla-yi zarfiyya,
p. 115 (9); in apposition, p. 116 (9). p. 570 (a), Rem. ; jumlayi 'atftyya, p. 577 (c) and footnote 3 jumla-yi tardldiyya, p. 579 (d) ; jumla-yi
;
IZAFAT-I MAQLUBI, p. 149 (6) and p. 150 (g); p. 442 cases in which IZAFAT must be OMITTED, pp. 442-3; none between prop, name and title, p. 442 (a) ;
(c)
; ;
izrabiyya, p. 582
p.
jumla-yi mu'tariza, (c) 618 and footnote 3 jumla-yi baslta and jumla-yi murakkaba, p. 036 (n).
; ;
;
Jumlagl, jumlahi
shade of difference in
none between compound words, seldom after measures of length, etc., (6) (c)
;
with nisf
;
meaning between jumla and jumlagi, p. 116(10); "all come," different ways of expressing, p. 116 (10), Rem.; by some,
said
and footnote
444
(d)
;
but not with nlm, p. 443 and footnote 6 blm but not after maslahat, p. 444
blshtar, aghlab, aksar, p. before an Inf. governed by a
;
to=an
Rem.
Jurra, a water measure, p. 215, footnote Juzv-i and juzvl, p. 137 (8) and Remark.
3.
prep., p. 444 (e) ; gen. subjective and objective, p. 445 (/) ; not used after voc. in -a, p. 463 ; in m.c. wrongly inserted in
appos., p. 620 (g) and Rem. man-i banda and man banda, footnote 3; after ma6lagh and muvazl, p. 621 (h), Remark;
;
K, dimin.
2.
with pronoun in appol. to noun or adj., is inserted or omitted, p. 621 (i) and footnotes not used after pron. ?7, with not used when the pi. prons., p. 622;
;
is pi. footnote 2 repetition of subs, with izafat, p. 625 (h) izafat possibly expressed' in writing by 55, p." 156
predicate
Ka'bah, p. 144, footnote 5. Kablsa. Leap Year, p. 207, footnote 1. Kaf-i istifham or kaf-i kudamiyya, p. 92 (/), Rem.; before -am, etc., how written, p. 92 (g) pi. kiyam and kl-ha, pp. 92-3 (h)
;
same
ki bi-klst=disorder, p. 93 (i) sag-i klst, p. 93 (/); kaf-i tarahhum, p. 397, Rem. ' II; kaf-i mawsul or sila, vide' Mawsul.
;
Jacob, p. 179 (4) and footnote 6. " Jafang, m.c. = bosh," p. 596 and footnote
Jakh.t=]uat now,
p.
315
(5).
Kaffa, not common, followed by izafat, p. 117(13). Kaf-gu,=a, shovel, etc., p. 396, footnote 1. Kaj dar u ma-riz, p. 291, line 1 and footnote 1. Kam, kam-l, kam-tar kam-l, p. 126 (4); kam, positive for compar., I74(i); kam
;
INDEX.
and kam
(5)
;
1)23
tar, as negs.
p. 231 (/)
kam-tar, p. (6). Kam 65r, = " seldom " in class. Pers., but *' of light weight," p. 196 (d) and in m.c.
kam and
p.
304
490
and
sup.,
p.
51
(/)
kamina, banda,
etc.,
fern, in Mod. pera. prons., p. 69 (c) ; in class Pers. posiPers. , p. 157 (s) (2) tive masc. (s) (2). KnmiL Pers. compar. and sup , p. 174 (h). Kandastl, old form of 2nd pers. sing Perf.,
;
note 3;=ma65da, p. 365 (24); or usually introduces subj., p. 539 (a), Rem. when, p. 570 (6), 'vide' Ki. Ki = kl " who ?," p. 218 (d) and footnote 4. Kih, positive for compar., p. 174 (*). Ko,l hai=bachcha-ha, p. 373 and footnote 7. Ku and kush, p. 297 (2) and p. 290, footnote 5. Kuchulu and kuchuli, p. 398 (e). Kudam or kudamln, etc., p. 91 (a) used
;
in 91
kudam
p. 232,
VIII, Reni.
Kanlz and kanlzak, p. 69 (c) and footnote 3. Karahiyat, not rel. noun, p. 400, footnote 3. Karavan saray, shops in, p. 439 and footnote 4. Karbala'i, form of address, p. 370 and footnote 4 Kardan, p. 280 (a) (6) Past Part, of, used by Afghans with comparatives, p. 280 (6),
;
yak-l, mod. (c) kudam, used for ace. pi. of ki (c), Rem. har kudam (d); used by " some one " Afghans for Hindustani ko,l
(e).
Kuhistan and
p.
ktihsar, difference
between,
Rem.
Kat,
kas-i, p.
(c)
102
(c)
;
102-3
p.
(3),
Rem
;
(3)
411 and footnote 2. Kuja, idiomatic meanings of, p. 297 (3). Kuja*i, adj., p. 218 (5)'and footnotes land 3. Kull, subs., p. 118 (18); classically precedes its subs, without izafat, p. 118 (18) kull Ar. subs, and kulli Pers. subs, (and kuUl Ar. adj.), p. 160 (w) (2) and p. 118
;
(19),
Rem.
I.
kas with neg. verb=no103 (c) (3) one, p. 104 (d) (1). Kash and optative, p. 550 (e). Kashi, adj. of Kashan, p. 402, Rem. V. Ka'a sunestn, construction, p. 661 and foot-
Kulfr* and kulliyyat, p. 307 (5). Kulll, Pers. abstract noun and Ar. adj., p.
118 (19)
;
bi-kulll
and
kulliyyat
different
meanings, p. 118 (19), Rem. I'; kullu-kum used by Afghans in m.c. (19), Rem. II;
notes
1,
and
5.
?, p.
293
(e)
and
foot-
cooking-pot,
p.
410
note 2. Kayf, p. 385 and footnotes. Kestril, p. 626 (16) and footnote 4. Khanam, fern, of Khan, p. 50 (d). Khar, shah, dev, give idea of size, p. 170 (e) kjiar, signifying "ass," in com(I); pounds, p. 171 (2). Kharabat, kbarabatl, p. 344, footnote 2. Khuk bar sar-am, p. 463 and footnote 4. Khariyyat, p. 400, footnote 3. Kharits-i Larl, p. 379 and footnote 5. -Khattr-i musnad, p. 9, footnote 3; khatfci shagari or kjiatt-i sarm, p. 36. Khayli and bisyar, followed by sing, or pi. subs., kh,ayli, cannot follow its noun, p.
150 (d)
;
and footnote 4. Kurur, cardinal, p. 184 and footnotes 3, and p. 185 (6).
and
and
Xw5=drum,
'
'
jchwah ma-kJuuah, p.
Khwabanidan, p. 248 and footnote 3. Kliwaja, in Mod. Pers., address to Armenians and Hindus, p. 473 and footnote
1
;
Mula.
Khwasta
I
p. 306.
alone, p.
294 (g) (1) and footnote 3. Khirsak, p. 615 and footnote 5. Khifiba, oratory, p. 629 (a). Khud, pp. 77-9 (a) jchud-ha and khudhayi-man, etc., p. 79, Rem. II; p. 80 (e)
;
bashid, more polite than mljchwahid, p. 460 and footnote 1. Khwastan, pp. 257-61 followed by apocopated Inf. , p. 257 (a) ; by unapocopated Inf., p. 258 (6): bi-bhwahad raft, p. 259, Rem. I; Subj. after, p. 259, Rem. II;
;
p. 81,
Rem.
II.
Khuda
and footnote
2.
Khurandan, p. 284, Rem. Khurda-l and yak bhurda, p. 125 (p) (3). Khurdan, in passive sense, p. 285, footnote
5
Inf., Afghan, p. 259 (c) tr.=to summon, followed by Subj. (c) desire, love, pp. 259-60 (d);=to intend, 260 (/) =it is p. 260 (e) = requires, p. necessary, p. 260 (/) =should, p. 261 (g). 78 (4), p. 79 (c) in m.c. a subs, Khwish,
preceded by
p.
only, p. 81
(/).
Khwlshawand,
p. 81
(/).
Khwishtan, applicable
;
Khustira, vulg. for khnsh ast, p. 90 (h) (1). Ki= -who?," how declined, p. 92 (/) ay with compar. of adj. or noun, p. 172 = chunan 1 (d) (3) and p. 353 and footnote ast ki, p. 179 (v) (3) ;=so as, (w)(5); " whether ?," interr., p. 238, (6) and footki conj., significations of, p. 349 note 3 saying that, p. 351 and foot(13), etc.
= =
La, in comp.
adj.,
p.
167
(12);
la-uball
'
Rem.
924
Labbayk,
INDEX.
Malla, gana, gharlb-gaz, p. 273, footnote (alif), pp. 20-1.
1.
p. 373 and footnote 5. Labbe, p. 294 (i) (4) and footnote 5. La-bud, p. 295 (1) and footnote 1. La-hawl a etc., p. 533 and footnote 1. Lak (for lakh) cardinal, p. 184 and footnote 2, and p. 185 (6). Lakht or dash=inverted commas, p. 37. Lakht-l=& short time, p. 127 (9) and p. 308
,
6.
Mamduda
Masrurl
Man,
man
ra vulg. and
(9).
poppy p. 394 and footnote 2. Lammergeyer, p. 4 00 and footnote 1. Lar or lar, Turkish pi. p. 67 (/) and p. 429
Lala
, ,
man-i ra correct, p. 63, footnote 3, and p. 140 (y); man and izafat, pp. 70-1 (/), Rem. I man-i banda or man banda, p. 620 (g) and footnote 3; man u tu, com;
mon man
(P).
Lassarii or verbosity, p. 646 (g). Lawh, the tablet, p. 227, footnote 1, and p. 422, footnote 1. Lazim and ZfmmS,=intr., p. 221 and footnote 1, and p. 574 (d) (1) and footnote 8 lazim dashtan, p. 266 (i) ; lazim shudan, p. 269, footnote 5.
:
in poetry, p. 71. Rem. II; voc. of as a possess, pron., p. 76 (6), Rem. must be followed by ki, p. 295,
156
(r),
Rem.
=like, in comp.
;
Mandan. tr.. Afghan idiom, p. 262 (/) kam manda bud for kam mand. m.c. p.
,
4.
Vide also
Leap Year,
p. 207 (a)
and footnote
;
1.
10 (m) of alphabet and significations, pp. 11-21; solar and lunar, p. 31 comparisons if poetry, p. 34. Like, equal to, in comparison between clauses, p. 179 (v) (3). Linga, odd one of pair, etc., p. 108, footnote 3; p. 189 (6). Local Clauses, vide under Temporal Clauses.
Manistan and mandan, amongst Afghans, tr., =to place, p. 242 and footnote 1. Ma qabl and ma ba'd, p. 21. Maqbul and maqbiila, p. 158 (7). Maqsura (alif) as used by Indians, p. 10 (/)', Rem. II p. 20 and footnote 3. Maqula, p. 563 (6).
;
Love Songs, p. 635. Lunar letters, p. 31. Luqman, p. 179 (4) and footnote
Lyric, p. 635.
2.
M
Ma,
neg., p. 235 (6)
(c) (e),
Rem.
;
(e)
p. 365 (24)
p.
before dative, particle, p. 57 (c) 299 (2) and footnote 5; p. 322 (6); p. 455 (12). Mardaka, p. 370, footnote 1. Mardaku, p. 398 (e). Mardum, pi., also marduman, p. 465 (b) and footnote 3. Mardumiyyat, p. 400, footnote 3. Marhaba, p. 369, footnote 1. Marhvm, in m.c. precedes its subs, with an izafat, p. 436 (e) and p. 151 (q).
;
Mar,
p.
Marsiya, p. 635. Marvazl and Marghazl, p. 402, Rem. V. Mast and dust, once Past Parts., p. 156
izafat, p.
(r)
Ma dam
Madar,
621 (h),
Rem.
ki, etc., p.
interj., p.
2.
Ma'dum,
note note
2.
adj., p. 167 (13). Magar, interr., p. 238 (a); p. 298 (8) and 299 (k) (1), p. 343 (5) p. 345 (9) and foot-
in
comp.
Vide
Ay a.
p.
Allah, p. 369 and footnote 2. Mash'al Ar., and mash'ala Pers., p. 410 and footnote 1. Mash.hadi, pilgrim, p. 300, footnote 1; p. 370 and footnote 4. Mashkula, dimin. of mashk, p. 398 (g). Ma'shuq and ma'shuqa, p. 159 (n).
Ma sha
(5).
Maggots
1.
and nightingales,
276,
foot-
Ma-ha
in style, p. 632
(/)
Majmu
=jami>'
'
'
p. 116 (11).
Majnun, p. 179 (4) and footnote 5. Majrur vide Jarr. Mai, absolute gen., p. 35 (4) in m.c. used
;
M.C. = Modern Colloquial. Meaningless Appositive, p. 615 (a) and p. 622 (a) p. 623 (a) and Rems. I and II. Measures of length, p. 213 tasu, Afghan, = and footnote 2; inch, p. 214 (6) "square," p. 214 (d): Ar. measures, Appen. E. Metaphor, briefer than lit. statement,
;
kaf-i sila, p. 559 (4) ; raji* or a*id, p. 559'. Mazanna, p. 299 (k) and footnote 3. azaq, p. 633 (I).
sila,
(g) (1).
p. 77 (g).
Ml = haml, q.v.
Mih, positive
(*').
INDEX.
Million,
925
how
expressed, p. 184
rtillyun,
(6).
Milyun or
p. 184.
French,
=
;
Mutawwal,
1,000,000,
= diffuse,
'
p. 644
note
(a)
and
foot-
5.
'
in m.c. exetc., pp. 76-7 (/) pressed by mal-i, p. 77 (/). Min ba'd, p. 360 (5). Minnat mi-daram, etc., p. 310 (3). Ir vide Amtn. Mirza, p. 437 and footnote 3. Misfortune, attributed to the revolution of the sky, p. 238, footnote 4; good to Allah, ditto. Misl-i ham, p. 82 (i). Misrelated Participle, p. 531 (n) to 532. Miyan, may take place of bayn, but not always vice versd, p. 503 (d) and footnote 4, and p. 504 footnote 2. Modal Clauses, vide under Temporal. Money, various coins current, p. 212 (a) (6) how sent by post, p. 213 (c). (c) (d) Month, first and last of, p. 193 (h). Months, Syrian, pp. 208-9; Yazd-gardi, p. 209 (6). More, how expressed, p. 175 (6). Miibalagha, p. 630 (c) and footnote 2. Mubtada 9 subject, p. 636 (n). Muchal, T., cycle of TurkI year,=Pers. duvazdah sal-i turki, p. 204 (c). Mudam, p. 316 and footnote 2. Mufjhul, p. 639 and footnote 4.
Mine, thine,
p. 174
(i) (1)
Muwahhada
letters, p. 10
(i).
'
'
N
nasal, none in Persian; in Ar. occurs before certain letters, p. 18 and footnotes. Na-, and net-, p. 165 (10) and p. 166 (10); preferred to ma, m.c., p. 231, III, c and footnote 1 ; ria in compounds, p. 231 (g) na, p. 235 (a) (d) (e) (/) with bayad, 231 ria and not na position of, p. (i) used with a part, that is an adj., p. 235, footnote 4; na for "no," vulg., nakhayr
N,
polite, p. 322
p.
;
and footnote 5;
p.
note
294
(1);
p. 343
;
Nabat
4.
(1). = sugar-candy, p.
Nabza,
p. 127 (10),
Rem.
Nafar, p. 187 (g) and p. 189, Rem. II. Nafl, = adv.,p. 289. Na-ghafil, m.c. for ghaftat, p. 166
Rem.
(10),
I.
and
foot-
Muhtamalu
note
4.
'z-ziddayn, p. 632
and
Na*ib, pi. only used in m.c., p. 458 (e) and footnote 6. .Na khitshi, m.c. = sickness, p. 385 and footnote 2. Namaz-l plshm, namaz-i digar, Afghan,
p. 206.
Mujama
letters, p. 9 (h).
Mujtahids, right to see women unveiled, p 292, footnote 3. Mukhaffafat, p. 38. MukJitasar, = brief, p. 644 (a) and footnote
5.
Namvdan,
p. 280
'
(c).
/an, p. 374 and footnote Nari, = he-goat, vide Chapish. Narration, direct and indirect, p. 502
'
3.
(a)
Mula or
note
kj^waja = Jew, p.
Nasal n,
'
N.
p. 35.
3.
Multiplicative numerals, p. 197. Milmiyafi, p. 657 and footnote 1. Mumayyaz vide Tamiz.
.
Nauha,
Munajat-i manziima,
Muqaddam
,
muryh-i dawlat, p. Musallasa letters, p. 10 (i). Mufiannat letters, p. 10 (i). Musajja' or muqaffa, prose, p. 637 (o). Mush-i fct'r, = bat (not mole), p. 173, footnote 1. Mushkil and ishkal, p. 159 (v) (1) mushkil =hardly, p. 300 (5). Mushkula, *p. 398 (g). Music and dancing, waving the arms in,
;
Na'uff* billah, p. 293 (/)(!) and footnote 6. NawakJitan, p. 245 (3) and footnote 4. Naw-Ruz, p. 205 (e) p. 393 (h). Nay, p. 292 (d) (1) and footnote 4; nay nay =balki, p. 355 and footnote 2. Nazakat, Pers. word on Ar. measure, p. 404,
;
p. 635.
Rem.
I.
Nazd, used for persons only, p. 333 (o). Nazdik, p. 332 (9). Nazm-i zarlfana, p. 635. Necessary, expressed by khwastan, Afghan,
; ;
507 and footnote 4; forbidden, p. 552, footnote 1. Mustafl and Mustafavl, p. 402, Rem. V. Must have, =bayad with Fut. Perf., p. 271 (p) p. 233 (c) (5). Mutaradif, p. 645 and footnote 2. Mutawazl, of prose, p. 637 (o).
p.
;
paraphrase for, p. 273, Rem. p. 260 (/) and andak Negatives, p. 235 (a) to (*) kam as negs., p. 236 (i); advs. of negation, 294 (g) polite form of neg., p. p. 292 (d) of prohibition, neg. subj. after verb (2) after 5, p. 500 (e) and footp. 497 (i) note 6; neg. participles, p. 531 (11). Neither nor, p. 49s (6) (5) and Rem neither and either, distrib. pronouns, neither of two, concord of, p. 599 (/)
;
p. 108
(/).
INDEX.
Never,
p. 293
Vide Ever. error, p. 663 (e). Nightingale, p. 276, footnote 1 p. 351, footnote 4. Vide also under Rlza-khwarii. Nihayat* 'lamr, p. 365 (22). Nik and nikii, rare in m.c., p. 162 (6) (1),
Rem. I riik and bad precede their subs. p. 149 (6). Nim, nl nlma, p. 194 (a) and footnote 2, and riim-shab and mraa, p. 313 p. 195 (e) (d) and footnote 2 nim-i roz, Afghan, p. 206,
; , ; ;
tional beings preferably pi. (d) (1); unqualified by adj. are usually sing., p. 466 (d) (2) pi. gives prominence, p. 467 (e) wheat, butter, etc., pi. or sing., p. 468 (/); pi. for Eng;. sing., p. 469 (g) ; after 'pair' and card. no. in sing, (h) ; subs, of compounded verb is sing, (i) ; pi. for
;
collectives, when pi. (/) p. 470 qism and aqsam with sing, and pi. noun used fig. may be sing, with (I) (m) pi. of shutur-bachcha,. pi. meaning, (n) etc. p. 475 (w) sine, and pi. nouns with
dual
(k)
;
footnote
3.
Nlsf and
mm,
and footnote
and
Niz, incorrectly used as a correlative of nlz and ham, differagarchi, p. 556 (b) ence between, p. 339, Rem. Nizd, not adv., prep, only, p. 303, footnote
2.
Pret. (x) ; harmn qadr and hamin qadr-ha (y) subs, repeated in pi. as a superlative, p. 476 (z) sing, in Pers. before two inconsistent qualities, pi. in Eng., p. 493 (/). Vide also under Nouns. Number of Words and Arts of Abbreviation, pp. 644-52; three forms of diffuseness,
Imperf. and
65 (c), p. '
or
'
Rem.
however,'
how
ren-
644 (b); Tautology, Pleonasm, Redundancy, Circumlocution, p. 645 (b) justidual tautological fiable Tautology (c)
p.
;
'
'
dered, p. 557
(c).
Nominal verbs,
note
2.
p. 275 (e)
and
p. 274, foot-
Nominative
and footnote
Not only, vide only. Noun, common, collective, generic, concrete, abstract, p. 56, Rem. II primitive and derived, def. and indef., p. 56, Rem. II; Pers. noun of instrument usually a compound, p. 428, Rem. II NOUNS of MULTITUDE, concord of, pp. 464-476 and
; ;
expressions (d) (1) (2); refrain of song, p. 646 (3) ; emotion expressed by repetition (e); circumlocution, examples, euphemism, is used in tafslr (/) verbosity (g) ; prolixity (h) ; SOURCES of BREVITY ; selection of aptest words, use of Figures, p. 647 (i) and footnotes 1 and 2 ; METHODS of ABBREVIATION, one predicate 'for several subjects, etc. (i) ; employ"ment of participles, (?) (1); parts, as
:
relative clauses, p. 648 of phrases (3); "being" omitted, p. 649 (3); omission of verb, p. (k) ; ELLIPSES (I) ; METAPHOR briefer
equivalents of
(z);
equivs.
briefer
p. 586 (e)
take sing, or
;
pi.
verb,
pi. after
,
ya of unity, p. 464 (a) mardum, pi. p. 465 (6); dushman, sing, (c); generic nouns
denoting rational beings or preferably,
(d) (1) ; unqualified by adj. are usually sing., p. 466 (d) (2) pi. for sing. Eng., p. 469 (g); COLLECTIVES, when pi., noun used fig. may be sing. p. 470 (k)
pi.
; ;
statement, p. 650 (m) gen. terms than particular, p. 651 (n) and footnote 1 phrase expressed by one word (o); a statement briefly implied, Impera. for (p); con Junes, omitted, (q) " " if APPOSITION is brief, p. 652 (r)
than
lit.
with
pi.
pi.
meaning
be
(n)
as a superlative, p. 476
parenthesis, p. 652 (t) CLEARNESS consideration. Rem. Numerals, pp. 182-203; CARDINALS, p. 182 (a) ; Ar. numerals 1 to 10 (and ordinals up to 20), p. 184; system ceases at
(s);
;
the
first
repeated in comparisons, p. 491 (d); but not so in superlatives (e) sing, in Pers. before the inconsistent to be qualities, pi. in Eng., p. 493 (/) repeated after each adj., p. 494 (I) concord of collectives, p. 586 (e) NOUN of AGENCY in -anda, vide under Agency NOUN of POSSIBILITY or FUTURE PART., GENERIC NOUNS vide under p. 535; Generic. Vide also Number of Nouns. Number, a number repeated has a distributive, contin native or intensive sense, when repeated in Afghan, but p. 623 (6) not in mod. Persian, p. 627 (32) and footnote 4.
;
should
constr. of
(e)
;
Ar.
pi.
with card., p.
t
'
'
p. 191 (&); suffix in -m added, (c); card, for ord. in poetry, (c), Reno.; may be made by adding digar, p. 193 (?) ; FRACTIONS, Pers., how formed, p. 194 (a); for f , Ar. frac. to be used, Rem. I ;
after hard, (/) harsi,etc., (/) qualifying or determining words used with numerals, p. 187 (g) : ya of unity and cardinal, p. 189, Rem. II ; juft, zauj, linga, darzhan, p. 189 (h) du char shudan (/) sad-ha, hazar-la (k) ; sadha-yi mardum (Afl), p. 190 (k}; year expressed by card, (m) things commonly accompanied by nos., p. 190, footnote ORDINALS, p. 191 Ar. ordinals up to 20, p. 184; formative suff. added to last only,
;
karvr and lak, (&) noun with card, (e) 786 (e) and footnote noun in pi. after
;
; ;
no ra
Rem.
II;
INDEX.
p. 194, footnote 2; Ar. fractions in speaking, p. 195 (6) duals and pis. rarely used (6); minus J, Rem.; per cent., p. 196 other methods (c) ; DECIMALS, p. 196 (/) of expressing fractions (g) ADVERBIAL, NUMERALS, p. 196; MULTIPLICATIVE, Ar. seldom used (b) and (a) DISp. 197 TRIBUTIVES, p. 198; yaganyagan, p. 198 and footnote 2; RECURRING, p. 198; (1) APPROXIMATE, p. 199; numeral prefixed to noun forms comp. adj., p. 168 (17) and
; ;
;
927
p. 309,
p.
Rem.
404
I.
Pah,
interj., p. 369. noun in sing, after, p. 469 (6). Pak and fa/, p. 161 (2). Palindromes, letters that are, p. 9 (h)
Pair,
and
footnote.
Rem.
Numerical Adjectives, pp. 199-200 formed 55 (a), p. 199; Story by silent (h), Tellers idioms (6) obs. idioms from Tuzuk-i Jahangirl, (6); Ar. num. adjs.,
;
;
p. 200
(c).
1.
how
(e)
Paludci'&nd faluda; p. 243, footnote 4. Palvdan and palidan, amongst Afghans to search, p. 243, footnote 4. Panja-yi duzdlda, or Ishamsa-yi mustariqa, names of, p. p. 206 (a) and footnote 7 209 (&)(!). Paradise, four grades of, p. 180 (w) and footnote 1 p. 190, footnote 1.
written, p. 400.
Nuvvab, p. 458
and footnote
Paragraphs
and chapters,
p.
613,
Rom.
6.
Objective genitive, p. 448. Obscurity, =. ghamazat, p. 631 (d) p. 654 (b) (1) to (4) great length or brevity causes it, p. 659 (6). Vide Ambiguity and Incoherence. * or Odd,' more, p. 198 (3).
; ;
Para-i, subs., p. 125 (p) (2). p. 244, Rem. and footnote 5. Parenthesis, p. 652 (t) and footnote 2. Pari kah-i, p. 127 (12). Participles, Past, p. 527 (m) (1) to (w),p. 531 ; used conjunctively, final n considered
Pardakhtan,
(1)
re-
Odes,
p. 635.
Omens,
p. 392 (e).
dundant vav with, p. 528 can take place of adv. (2) and footnote 3; of subs., p. 5-9 (3) and footnotes 1 and 4; of a clause (4) of an adj. (5); as pass, part.,
;
p.
504
(g),
Once again,
Only, note
p. p.
530 (6) used for pres. part, in Eng., 530 (7); and in Pers. with slight
;
(
kash chi budi, etc., p. 550 (e) and footnotes 3 to 5 Opt. and Past Opt. , represented by same tense, p. 551 (e), Rem. in Mod. Pers., both can be represented by the Aor. or the Imperf., and the Past Opt. by the Plup. also, p. 551 (/). Or, p. 342 (4). Order of Words, and Errors in, pp. 604-13 ; formal order, p. 604 (a) ; dat. follows the ace. (b) words denoting time placed first (c) when complement is a sentence,
; ; ;
indicates state of certain trans, vbs. is used pas(9) sively, p. 531 (10); neg. formed with na-, with na (11); as a means of condensa' tion, p. 531 (n); misrelated,' p. 531 (n) to 532 ; p. 156 (r) (4) ; Ar. fern. Past Part., p. 51 (g); Perf. Part, prefixed to buda asi "must" in Af. Pers., p. 906
change of meaning
;
(8)
(48;
(o)
;
and footnote
PART. PRES.,
p. 532
part, in -an not much used, always for contin. action, p. 532 (o) to 533: contin. tense may be formed by it, p. 533; p. 156 (r) (1) and (3); VERBAL ADJEC. in -a, p. 54, Rem. ; ADVERBIAL PART., p. 528 (2) and footnote 3; vide
it
can precede (e) more than one verb at end of sentence, p. 605 (/) Impera. can begin clause (/) in m.c. a few verbs precede their dat. (g) position of first portion of comp. or pot. verb Inversion (i) exam, of, pp. 605-7 (h) avoid crowding circumstances together, p 607 (?) circumstances should not be placed between two capital members (k) corresponding order to be assigned to circumstances (I) examples of collocation, pp. 608 (m) (n), 613 adjs. and phrases in
clause
it
;
comes by a rel.
;
last (d)
when
obj. is qualified
p. 628 (?) and p. 655 (b) (2) Vide also Tajnls. footnote 1. Parsis, Indian, how divided, p. 401, footnote 3. Pas for va, p. 578 (2). Pashmadan so-and-so, such and such,
Paronomasia,
p. 107 (2).'
p. 129,
Rem.
of ex-
(2).
Oxymoron,
7.
Passive Voice, pp. 285-88 ; methods verb adpressing, p. 285 (6) not every mits of a Passive, p. 286 (c) ex. of gram, trans. Inf. used for pass. p. 286 (d) pass., p. 286 (3); pass, to express possibility for impossibility, p. 286 (4); pass, expressed by Ar. Past Part. p. 287 (e) by
;
;
928
3rd pers.
pi.
INDEX.
of trans.
(/)
;
pass, of neut.
verb to express impossibility, App. B, p. 891 and footnote 2. Past Tense, vide Preterite Eng. Past Indie, expressed by Pers. Aor. p. 539 (c) PAST HABITUAL, for mere supposition, p. 547 and footnote 3 for future but impossible suppositions, p. 547 and footnote 4; PAST POTENTIAL vide Habitual PAST SUBJ. and PAST PRESUMPTIVE, p. 531 (/)'; CONTIN. PAST SUBJ. p 523. Pathos, p. 622 (g) and footnote 3. Paya = thunder, vulg., p. 274, footnote 1. Per, p. 322 (11) and footnote 9. Per cent., p. 1:6 (e). Perfect Tense, old form of 2nd pers. sing.,
;
,
Plup. not used, p. 538 (u) and p. 232 (c) a little used form of (2) and footnote 3 Plup., p. 232, IX, Rem. and p 668 (i) Ploce, p. 655 and footnote 1 ) and footnote ( Plural, formation of, in CLASS. PERS., pp. 5864 of nouns ending in a or u t p. 59 of words ending in silent (h), p. 59 (c) in aspirated h, p. 60 (e), Rem.; (d) (e) br. Ar. words take Pers. pi., p. 60 (/) Ar. pis. (/) reg fern. Ar. pi. (g) used for neu. nouns, p. 61 (g) pi. of pis. (h) barbarous form, p. 62 (i) Pers. words with Ar. br. pi. (/) Ar. fern. pi. added to
;
i
some
Pers.
pi.
barous
232, VIII Rem.; contin. Perf., p. 232 Perf. tense, pp. 523 (fc)-7 ; its use in Eng. (k) (1) ; expressed by Pers. Pret., pp. 52.S (fc)-4 ; Pers. Perf. indicates that an act is past but its effects continue, p. 524; indicates time indef. and anterior to Pret., p. 524 ; indicates as recently finished if time is indefinite, p. 525 (1) ; h
(c) (1)
;
masc
few
pi.
(I)
in
br. pis.
used
;
;
in m.c.
dropped
in
;
3rd
pers.
sing.,
(2);
;
ast
even by the vulgar, p. 65 (c) incorrectly used as sings., p. 1 (c), Rem. Pers. fom., Ar. pis. used in m.c. (d) words with imitation, Ar. fern. pi. (d) reg. pis. of pis. used in m.c., p. 66 (e) br. pi. raasc. Ar. pi. in speaking (h) treated as sing., Pers. pi. added, p. 469
;
;
omitted (3) subs, verb of other persons omitted in certain sentences (3) some emphatic statements, p. 526; exs. illustrating Pret., Perf., and Plup., p. 527 (I) CONTIN. PERF., p. 536 (t) and Rem.; PERF. PROGRESSIVE, how expressed, p. 513 (8); PERF. SUBJ., p. 542 (/). Periphrasis, p. 646 (/) and footnote 3. Permit, pp. 261-2. Persian, dialects of, p. 636 (p) prose works, p. 639; Mod. Pers. simpler, but lax (r) rhetorical style, p. 642 (t) styles to be compared, p. 644 (u).
; ; ; ;
footnote
(p)
:
pi.
to give
(e)
;
prominence to a word,
;
used for sing, to avoid a pointed allusion, p. 473 (q) Eng. pi. trans, by Pers. sing., p. 473 (r) pi. after cardinal (s); with several nouns, pi. termination added to .last, p. 474 (v); pi. of shuturwith Pret. or bachcha, etc., p. 475 (w) Imperf. difference (x); ham/in qadr and
467
;
(y) ; royal pi. p. 476, footsubs, repeated in pi. to indicate superlative (z) pi. dama* "bloods" for excess, p. 350 and footnote 1 ; pi. used in
,
hamin qadr-ha
note 2
:
Perspicuity, p. 631 (d). Pidar-sag, p. 387 and footnote 5. Pig in stables, p. 393 and footnote
Qur*an when Allah speaks, p. 288 (h) and footnote 3 the Fates as a possible
;
1.
pi.
subject, footnote
4.
(s) (1);
pira, fern., p.
Afghan,
p. 151
(g).
;
Pisar, as dimin., p. 397 (c) pisar-bazzaz young cloth merchant, p. 441 and footnote 3: pisar farangl p. 442 (6): pisaru, vulg., p. 5 (I) and p. 95, Rem. II. Pish, p 331 (6) pish-i man of place, and pish az man of time, p. 303 and footnote 3 m.c nazd-i man, pish-i man Af. p 86, footnote 3; pish, a cornpar.,p. 175 (5); pish kardanto set a door ajar, 336, footnote 4; pish az an ki, followed E. y Pres. Subj. even when referring to past time, p. 502 (i). Pisf.a*i, p. 400 and footnote 5. Pithy, p. 644 and footnote 5. Please, 'vide' Bi-farmayld. Pleonasm, p. 645 and footnote 1. indicates time Pluperfect, pp. 526 (l)-7 anterior to Pret., used in Condit. sentences, after kashki, Eng. Plup. expressed by Pers. Pret., p 526 (1): exs. Perf. and Plup. (I) illustrating Pret. Old Condit. Plup., p. 527, Rem. Contin.
,
Poetry, p. 634 (m). Polysyndeton, p. 651 (q) and footnote 3. Posh posh, p. 371 and footnote 3, and p. 372 and footnote 3. Possession, expressed by dat., p. 77 (g), Rem. by mat, vide under Mine. Possible, expressed by shudan, p 248 (b) as quickly as possible, p. 627 (23) and footnote 1. Potential, Past tense, vide Habitual. Prayer, times of, p. 206 (d). Precative, class., p. 231, Rem. p. 233 (/). Precision, lack of, p. 658 (a). Predicate kjiabar, p. 636 (n). Predicative Clauses, pp. 562-70; in class. Pers., the statement that completes the predicate is indirect nom., p. 562 (a);
' ' ; ; ;
(6)
after
etc..
exs. of direct, p. indirect preferred (c) 564 (d) m.c. exs. of indirect, p. 565 (e) ; same sentence may be rendered by direct or indirect and have different meanings, exs., p. 566 (/) and p. 567; the 2 constructions may account for the difference in tenses in some subor. clauses, Pred. p. 567, Rem. II; exs. of other
INDEX.
clauses, p. 568 (g) to p 570; Pred. clauses changed from Condit., p. 551 (g).
929
;
Prepositions, pp. 322-38; noun preceded and followed by a prep., p. 322 (c) prep, added for emphasis, p. 323 (c) (2); 2 preps., or prep, and adv., joined (d) exs. of simple andar=dar, p. 324 (g)
;
; ;
man ra (vulg.) and man-l ra, footnote 3 with preps., p. 69 (a) for 3rd pers., the demons, sometimes used, p. 6i) (b); u used for an (b) banda mukjilis, kamina, vide also Aqall, Du'a-gu, D&i, Haqu (b) 3rd pers. pi., polite forms, p. 70 (d) (e)
;
(/)
Syntax
of, p.
476;
preps, (h)
(1),
; ;
Rem.
AFFIXED PRONOUNS,
-shan for
j
j
pi. of
shema
;
(e);
p.
71
-ash
and
may be preceded by simple preps., p. 331 (2); the subs, that take the place of preps, in m.c., p. 332 (ri) exs. of common preps., p. 333 (o); nazd,
;
words that
71 (a) (2); how enunciated, p. 72 (3); after final -* (4) after alif-i maqsura (5) ;
;
'
vowel
poetically
omitted
(6)
;
(5),'
Rem.;
after final
used for pers. only some preps, interchangeable, p. 338 (20) compar. and
;
;
sup. suffixes
added
preps, syntax, pp. pressed by izafat, p. 502 (a) repeated and not repeated (b) among and amidst and betwixt between (e) (d) govern;
after silent h, p. 72 (6) and p. 73 (/) joined to conj. ki exs. (d) ; (b), Rem.; after -5 or -u (c) pi. affixed prons. not much used in class.
; ;
hamzah
not followed by ra, p. Pers., p. 73 (c) 74, Rem. II ambiguity of, p. 74 (g) ; in m.c. affixed to some preps., p. 75 (h) not affixed to bar, ba, bl, ta, juz, zabar,
; ;
ment
Government.
when possess. how named (h) some mod. vulgarisms (i) may take
etc. (h)
; ,
;
Present Tense, dramat. pres., p. 299 (2) and footnote 4 pres. tense, p. 510 (c) in class. Pers. chiefly used for Def. or Contin. Pres., rarely for Fut., p. 511 (c) in Mod. Pers. as a Pres. Def. or Indef. (d) in Pot. sense, p. 512 (1), as Fut. (d) (2) in dram, narration in quoting (4) (3) inconsistent to change time from (5) used in Persia for Eng. Pres. to Past (5) for propositions that Past, p. 513 (6)
;
; ; ;
;
(/) ; joined to qual. to noun, p. 152 (/) ; affixed take the place of the dat. in ra, p. 450 (8) ; ra omitted after noun in class. Pers.,
and not
p. 457 (18); ra omitted when the pron. POSSESSIVE PROis the obj., p. 458 (21) NOUNS, p. 75; affixed prons. as posses;
are always
true or false (7); for Eng. Perf. (8) ; dramatically used for Fut., Rem. I; Contin. Pres., Rem. II; "I do
followed by ra (a) sives, p. 75 (a) classically ra used only after 3rd pers., footnote 2 ; cases formed by preps. , p. 76 suffixed to last of a series of nouns, (a)
;
not and will not" and "is and always has," how expressed, p. 526 (k). Presumptive Past, vide Fut. Preterite Perfect, Past Definite, pp. 515-7 used in narrating events that closely follow each other, bi- prefixed, exs., p. 515 (g) expresses action just completed, used for Pres. Subj., as an uncertain Future, in class. Pers. after verbs of ordering, p. 576 and footnotes 1 to 6; refers to a definite point of time and Pref. to Indef., p 517 like the Imperf. is used for the Pres., p. 517 and footnotes 2 and 3 used for Eng. Plup., p. 526 (I); exs. illustrating Pret.,
; ; ; ;
last (b), Rem.; voc. of man (b), Rem. (d) possession sep. pron. with az demons, reflex, pron possession (e)
expressed by pers. prons. (6); dat. ace. requires ra (b) formed by ra or bl- (b) sep. prons. come
(a),
;
Rem.
sep. pron. in
pron.
"mine,
mine, etc., p. 77 (g) possession expressed by the dat. (g), Rem.; 612 (10) and poss. preceding its noun, p. footnote 2. REFLEXIVE and RECIPROCAL Pronouns, p. 77 (a); refer to subj. Tchud for animate or inanimate nouns (a) lehud or khwish but not jchwlsh(a) (1) tan with immaterial things, p. 78 (4)
man,
etc.
thine." etc.,
(/)
malri
',
khud common
Rern.
in
compounds,
p. 79 (a),
Perf., and Plup., p. 527 (I); takes place of Eng. Inf., p. 530, footnote 3 ; used for Aor. and Pres. in conditions, p. 251, footnote 1 used for Pres. Subj., p. 539 (b), Rem. and p. 543 (2) ; in conditions, p. 555 (e) ; Pret. and Imperf. with sing, and pi. noun, p. 475 (x) ; class. Pret. forms of 3rd pers. sing., as gufta,p. 231 footnote 2.
; ,
II; I; khud-ha jpl., (o), khudha-man, etc., ditto; bi-nafsi-h* (b) khwish for {chud (c) khwishtan, poss. and reflex., unlike khwish can stand in alone, occurs compounds, used for
;
;
Rem.
Prose, p. 634 "(w); three kinds, p. 637 (o) 8; impassioned Eng. prose has rhythm, etc., Rem., Prosody, accent and quantity, in Eng. and Ar., p. 635 and footnote 1. Pros to semainomenon, p. 661 and footnotes
1, 2 and 5. Protasis, understood, p. 548
(c)
(l),Rem.
in m.c. rational beings only, p. 80 (d) in Mod. Pers. is a subs, only, p. 81 (/) can be expressed by affixed pronouns, in m.c. reflex, does p, 81 (h); kjiud (e) not always refer to subj., p. 81, Rem. I ; kjiud-ha, Rem. II; bl-khud-am and blkhud, Rem. Ill; kj^wlsha-wand , subs., reflex, pron. (g) ; jchwlsh t an p. 81 (/) in Mod. Pers. reflexives can be expressed by affixed prons., p. 81 (h) ; RECIPROCAL DEpronouns, p. 81 (i) and p. 100 (6)
; ; ;
;
Plup. for Irnperf., p. 549 (d). Pronouns, Personal, p. 68; ma vulg. for
MONSTRATIVE
pronouns
;
may =
man
(a)
voc. of tu (a)
ay an ki
(a)
im ancient sion, pp. 76 (/)-7 In, p. 82 (6) ; pis. (6) ; un-ha classically
possesform of
930
they
INDEX.
(6)
;
idioms with an, p. 83 (d) (/) ; an in certain phrases (g) t* an an in mystic poetry, p. 84 (A); In = about to m.c. = various things (i) In =- here I am, p. 85 (/) old idiom (i) with In (I) In kuja va an kujd (k) position of (m) added exs. of demonstratives (n) inak, anak. p. 87 (o) ; ant
m = latter ()
',
Pronunciation of consonants,
p.
11;
sum-
m
;
(p);
EMPHATIC
DEMONSTRATIVE
pro;
nouns, pp 87-8, vide Hami.n and Hainan COMPOUND DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns, 'vide' Churiin, Chunan pp. 88-90, Hamchu, etc., Chandln, Chandan; INTERROGATIVE pronouns, pp. 91-8 kil is 'Vide' def. and requires ra, p. 130 (6). Kudam, Ki, Chi, Chand, Chlm; SUBSTITUTES for INTERR. pronouns, p. 98; chiquna, p. 98 (a); chun (b); INDEFINITE PRONOUNS, pp. 98-129; hama "is def. and " one can often requires ra, p. 130 (6) be rendered by har ki, p. 104, Rem. II expressed by 2nd pers. sing. Aor. or Past Vide' Yak-i, Habit, (c) (6). Dlgar ghayr, Ahad-l, Kas, kas-l, Adam, Insan, >hakjj,8- i, Hich, etc., chiz, chlz-i, Fulan, So-and-so, Such and such. Both, Neither of two, Chand (a few), Qadr-i, etc., Hama, etc., Jumla, etc., Jaml', Sa'ir, Kaffa,
;
Prophets, number of, p. 190, footnote 1. Pun vide Tajriis, Punctuation, p. 37. Pusht pusht, p. 371 and footnote 3, and p. 372 (10) and footnote 3; pusht-i ham, p. 337, footnote 2. PiJstin darldan, etc., idioms, p. 416 and footnote 1.
,
inserting diacritical
'
Qabl, p. 331 (6); qabl az an ki, followed by Pres. Subj., p. 502 (i). Qabulanidan, m.c., p. 284 (/). Qadr-l. In qadr, etc., p. 112 (h). Qahwa-chl. p. 409 and footnote 5. Qajar, p. 653 and footnote 5. 3. Qalam-dan, p. 410 and footnote ' ' QalU and qalll-l, vide Andak-l. Qamia and chihil-var, p. 378 (7) and foot-
note 4
loaf sugar, p. 377 and footnote 4. Qaslda-yi madhiyya, p. 635. Qatiiba, not common, followed by izafat, p. 117 (13). Qaza and Qadar, p. 393 (). ' ' Qishlaq, vide Yllaq. Qism and Jur, p. 470 (I) aqsam, pi. (m). Qizil-bash, p. 653 and footnote 5. and footQiziljih, qizilcha, dimin., p. 396
Qand
Tamam,
'Amma, Har,
Guruh-l, Aksar, Para-l, Kam-i, Andak-l, Taraf-l, Khurda-i, Lakht-l, Shamma-l, Barkh-i, Juzv-l, Nabza, Zana, Par-i kah-l, Ba'z-i, BisSYNTAX OF PRONOUNS, yar, Baql, etc. pers. prons. Shah and pi. pp. 476-90 prons. should follow their p. 476 (a), etc. nouns without the intervention of another noun, p. 479 " it" prospective, impersonal, p. 480; pronoun should not
etc., Bas-i, etc.,
:
are in
a noun following, p. 480, Rem. and p. 612 (10) and footnote 2; 1st pers. more worthy than 2nd, etc., p. 481
refer to
II
antecedent to prons. is not known ambiguity results, p. 482 (d) (1) position of ra with an affixed pron. often deterformer ' and mines antecedent (2) 'latter,' p. 483 (e) (1) and (2); pros, and ' such '= of unity, retros, p. 484 (3)
(6)
;
Rem.
if
'
Ra
of
prons
p.
an ki, te ki and accusatives 484 (4) omission of pers. pron. when not emphatic, p. 485 (g) (h) noun repeated to avoid use of ambiguous pron., Rem.
p.
;
ace., after proper names, certain hama, interr.of, ki, yak-l, etc., 130 (b); omitted in Gulistan, foot,
;
note 4
in
(/)
when emphatic
'
;
ra of dat. cannot be omitted (c) : Pers. the affix, possessive prons. rare in usually have ra, this construe, ra and def. nouns that class. Pers. ;
Mod.
(i)
each other and one another,' every,' pp 479-80 (I) either, neither (m) self all (o) both (p) RELATIVE PRO(n) NOUNS, syntax of ,pp. 487 (g)-900 'which' referring to a clause = ki, p. 487 (q) (1) * 'that,' for who,' and Pers. paraphrase
*
; ;
;
'
'
(q) (2);
that' and
'
who
'
restrictive (q)
p.
ra of unity, p. 131 (/) ra with footnote and 5; 463 baray, p. def. and indef. noun in appos., p. 618 (d). Vide Accusative and Dative cases. Radd kardan and shudan, p. 334, footnote to pass by, 1 in m.c. radd shudan miss the mark, p. 176 (o) (3) and footnote
(c)
have the
<j~
(3);
(4)
;
488
Rafizi, p. 653 and footnote 6. to continue, Raft'an, p. 263;
relatives should be placed to avoid ambiguity (6) transition from a rel. clause to one of affirmation, p. 489 (8) ; errors in the use of the relatives (8) ; errors in concord of, p. 600 (g) ; pron. of
;
how
(/)
Afghan
and
foot-
to be on the
rel.
clause,
how
styled, p. 559
(4).
Rajay, note
name
1.
INDEX.
Raji'
(4).
931
and
a*id,
= pron.
Ram,
popular note 3.
belief, p.
'Rather
than,' p. 179 (v) (2); zinhar. pp. 370-1. Indian Rail, weight, p. 214, footnote 3.
Rauza vide Rawza. Razm, a division of poetry, p. 635. Rawza, meanings of, Indian belief,
*
'
p. 323,
(c),
noun in restrictive rel. clauses may b preceded by demonstrative pron. or followed by ya, footnote 4; antecedent and pron. of relative clause, how termed, 60 (5): excessive susp. 559; exs., p. pence, p. 561 (6) and footnote 5, and rel. clause may be converted p. 562 (c) into condit. (d) one relative may do duty for more than one clause, if in different cases the rel. repeated or otherwise, p. 601 (e); exs. illustrating the
;
;
footnote
1,
Rem.
Ravanidan
p. 284,
ravana
k.,
substituted
for,
Rem.
footnote 1 ; Redundancy, p. 645 (&) p. 668 (/). 285 Reflexive Verbs, p. (I). Refrain of Song, p. 646 (d) (3). and Demonstrative or Relative Pronoun, Relative Fa, pp. 141-9, so rel. pron., its place, p. 141 (a) particle hi takes
;
ad
of some verbs and preps., 602 (/). Relative Noun, Ar., p. 400 (3) and footnote 3; Persian imitations, ditto. Vide also Appendix A. Repetition of Word or Phrase, Jingling Sounds, Alliteration, pp. 622-8; exs. of jingling words, p. 622 (a); MEANINGLESS
government
p.
APPOSITIVE
(a)
and Remarks
and
II
omitted or inserted, (a); noun before a rel. clause may be considered def. even if preceded in Eng. by in def. article, p. 141 (6) and footnote 4, and p. 142 (d\ noun made
pron
in rel. clause
the same number repeated has a distributive, continuative, or intensive sense, other words (6) Ar. Sing, followed by its br. pi. p. 624 (c) two different measures from same root (d) Pers. pi preceding
; , ;
;
by ya (6); is possibly an extension of the izafat, p. 142 (6) ; this ya corresponds to the Eng. restrictive rel. names of this ya (c) ; hove pron. (c) written (c) pron. in rel. clause expressed another or understood, pp. 142-4 (d) way of declining the rel., p. 144 (e) ; ex. of incorrect modern construction (e) and footnote 5 ; rel. cannot be joined to sing, of demons, prons. an and In, or to kar t may be added to pi., pp. 144-5 (g) should not be joined to pers. p. 145 (g)
specially; ;def.
; ; ; ; ;
Profess. Story-tellers repeat same word for continuation (/) repetition of word or phrase for emphasis (g) ; repetition of substantive with izufat, p. 625 (h); Exs. of repetition (*) (1) to
Pers.
sing,
(e)
Persians repeat Present but not p. 627 (26) and footnote 2; Afghans repeat Past Part. (28); ALLITERATION, p. 628 (7). Require, expressed by khwastan, p. 260 (/). 213 (c). Registered post,
(37)
;
Past Part.,
p.
how
divided
no Ar.
terms exactly
corre-
prons
;
can be omitted when noun is made def. by demonstr. pron., exs. omitted from noun following anchi, (h)
(g)
; ;
Rhetoric "; how divided by sponds to the Arabs, p. 629 (a): COMPOSITION^ insha, p. 630 (6) Style, kinds of (c)
; ;
footnote 1 ex. of its employment after an and in (i) ; with proper names a simple adj. (?) ; with noun qualified by ex. from Sa'dl and its mod. (k) (I) equiv. p. 146 (m) with subs, and num., az qarar-l ki ma'-lum mlp. 147 (n) shavad (o) if noun is indef. , verb precedes ki (h) exs of omission in non-restrictive demons, ya before ki rel. clauses (r) may represent the Eng. indef. art.,
p. 146,
; , ; ; ; ; ;
all
styles
(d)
p. 148,
Rem. chunan and chandan used with demons, ya in India and Afghanistan but not in Persia (s) abstract sing, nouns do not admit of rel. ya may be used with pi. abstract nouns, concrete added to nouns take p. 149 (v)
:
^,
two nouns coupled by (w) RELATIVES introducing the SUBJUNCTIVE, p. 538 (a); RELATIVE CLAUSES, pp. 558-62; introduced by "who, what, etc.,' p 558 (a) (1) position of relative,
last
of
antecedent to ki may be a demons indef., or pers pron., or common or proper noun, p. 559 (4) common
p.
559
(2) (3)
,
dialects, some Indian prose Mod. Pers. prose simple works, p. 639 but lax, p. 640 (r) .; quality, preferable to quantity, long and short sentences, rhetorical style of the Persians, p. 641 the Anvar-i Suhayll, p. 642-4; comfor students, parison of works suggested
tries (p)
;
;
tences, p. 636 (n) (I); balanced sentence Muperiodic or loose sentences (3) ; (2) or Muqaffa. Saj' rajjaz prose, Musajja' and its divisions. Murassa" , p. 637 (o) ; <Arl prose, p. 638 (o) ; Eng. prose and rhythm, balance, exs. of Antithesis, Ishfiqaq, Tajnis, Taqlib, the Faoana-yi 'Aja'ib the language of several coun(o) ; Persian,
;
rhythm, rhyme, metre, p. 634 footnote 2 p. 635 and Bazm and Razm, what they include divisions of Eng. poetry, p. 635; Prose; sensimple, compound, and complex
Poetry;
(m)
;
variety, p. 632 (/); pathos ludicrous style (h) : humour (*') ; wit melody or harmony, p. 633 (k) ; taste and composition divided into Prose
(e)
;
git
not nazm,
932
p.
INDEX.
Salam, kardan and kj&wandan, p. 604 and footnote 2; salam Hn 'alay-kum, etc.,
p.
644. ERRORS in RHETORIC, pp. 65972; incoherence, p. 659 (a); length and brevity, source of obscurity (b) construction that looks to the implied sense pros to semainomenon and katasunesin, p. 660 (c) zeuqraa, p. 663 (d) negatives, too many exs. of further errors, p. 664 (/) (e) metaphor, false, p. 665 (g)(l) Irish bulls, incongruities of speech, p. 667 (2) and footnote 2; confusion as to topical subject majaz-i mahall bi-ism-i hal (h) and {h) footnote 3 skilful use of same word in different senses, p. 668 (i) (1) ; unskilful
;
;
382
(g).
Salasat-i f ibarat or simplicity, p. 631 (d). last of the month, p. 193 (h). Salkh, ' Salu, vide Shlla. Salutation, of Jews, p. 382 and footnote 4 of Muslims, p. 382-3 and footnote 5.
'
San, T., = total, p. 419 and footnote SariaH or Figures, p. 631 (e).
1 -
Vide Greeting.
3.
use,
Rem.
(2)
;
QABIH
;
215 (6). Sang_-i 36, p. Sani, not rel. adj., p. 401, Saqi-nama, p. 635.
;
Rem.
II.
not be introduced without cause, p. 669 (k) ANTITHESIS, faulty, incomplete, p. 670 (?); CLIMAX, (m) (1); ANTICLIMAX (TO) (2); RULE OF STJSPENCE, violation of, p. 671 (n) COHERENCE, illogical compound sentences, p. 671 (o) mistaken use
;
of 'and,' p. 672
(o).
p. 634 (TO). Rice, grains for weighing drugs in India, p. 214, footnote 3. Ridan, coarse, polite phrases, p. 241 and footnote 4. Riza-khwarii, of nightingale, p. 380 and footnote 1.
Rhyth,
Roots or Stems, of simple Pers. verbs, p. 239; of Arabic, Appendix A. Ru-yi ham, m.c., = on an average, p. 355,
footnote 4 p. 302 (7) and p. 304. Rud-khjana, p. 413 and footnote I. Ruq'-ah handwriting, p. 36. Rustam, p. 179 (4) and footnote 2. RGz'ii jawza*, longest day, p. 210 (c)
;
Sar, without izafat, p. 437 (a) and p. 438 Sar-i stiuna, p. 386 and footnote 3 (4) sar-i sar-i ash, etc.*, Af. idiom, p. 310 (4) khar, intruder, p. 386 (I) sar-afganda, in Mod. Pers. head cut ashamed class. off, p. 174 (i) (2) and footnote 3. Sar-a-bala, p. 304 and footnote 1. Sarahat, clearness, style, p. 631. Sar-darakhtl, p. 440 and footnote 4. Sarf, p. 48 Sarf-i saghlr and sarf-i kdbir, Indian term, p. 234, Rem. II. Sarkan parkan, Afghan, p. 627 (30) and footnote 3. Sar-khwar, of wife, p. 440 and footnote 3. Sarma-yi plr zal, p. 210 (d). Sar-rahi, vide Dam-rahi.
;
'
'
Satires, p. 635.
Savar and Savara, p. 308 and footnote 2. Saya-yi shuma kam na-sha'ad, p. 384 and
footnote 3. Sayyid, signature of, p. 70 (c). Sazldan, p. 266, etc. scarcely ever, vide Scarcely, p. 293 (3) Ever. Sea-cunny, p. 666 and footnote 1. Seasons, p. 205: yllaq and qishlaq, p. 206
;
iskamba-shuy
(c)
ruz-i
(e).
mabada
and
ruz-i
p. 228
(?)
foot.
(c).
Sects of Islam, etc., p. 199, footnote 1 pi. of, from Ar. rel. noun, p. 400 and foot;
note
'
3.
3 and asa, suffix, prob. connected with Hindi sa, p. 419 and footnote 1. Sad, written with s to distinguish it from Ar. said, p. 183,' footnote 3 and p. 184, Rem. II du sad class, for duvlst, p. 183 sadha, hazar-ha, etc., p. 189 (k) sadha-yi mardum, Af., p. 190 (k). Saf and pak, p. 161 (z). Safar, Prophet died in, Last Day, p. 392 and footnote 2. Sag-i klfit, p. 293 (/) (2) and footnote 9. Sahib, with izafat, p. 436 (g) fern, and pi. of without izafat, p. 437 (a) ; p. 440 (5). (g) *' " the Sa^ir, prop. remainder." also whole " followed by izafat, p. 117 (12). Saj rhymed prose, mutavazin, mut.arraf, murassa' p. 637 (o). Sakhtabash, p. 265 (6), Rem IV. Sakhtaji, = adulteration, p. 281, footnote
; ; ; ; ;
and
Sakhtan,
= kardanin compounds, p. 245 (3) and footnote 3; p. 281 (d) intr. = "to put up with," (d) (1).
;
(d) (2).
if ever,' p. 50 (/). Semi-vowels, p. 22 (d). Sentences, order of, pp. 612-3. Remarks I and II; BALANCED Sentence, p. 636 (n) PERIODIC or LOOSE sentence (3) (2) sentences not to be extended beyond their natural close, p 658 (d). Sentimental vide Mandhir. <S7ia, corrup. of cha, dimin., p. 396 (5). shab-i chahar Shdb-i yalda, p 210 (c) shamba, etc., p. 211; shab-guzashta, in m.c., izafai often omitted, p. 313 (6). Shabash,'p. 368 and footnote 3. Shab-kh'm and S/KZ&-* khiin, p. 425 and footnote 4. Shagird chapar, p. 509 and footnote 1. Shah, how addressed, p. 70 (c), Rem. look fortunate, right to see any woman unveiled, p. 392 and footnote 3. Shah-i chiragh, for castor oil, p. 378 (6) and footnote 3. Shah, Miar, dw, give idea of size, p. 170 (e). Shahr-i kjiamiishan and mahalla-yi khamushan, p. 435 and footnote 2.
;
Seldom
INDEX.
Shakhs, indef. prons., p. 103 (c) (4) and Rem. I shamma-i, p. 127 (10). Shan, affixed pron., vide Ash. Sharminda, p. 156 (r), Rem. Shast for shast, p. 184, Rem. II. Shavanda, p. 248, footnote 2. Shay ad, = hould, p. 287 (/) and footnote 6; p. 299 (k) (I) and footnote 1 always followed by Aor., p. 300 (3) p. 365 (24). Vide also Shayista. Shayista and shay ad, the only parts of shayistan, q.v., used in coll., p. 541 (d)
;
;
933
p. 350, footnote 1 expressed by ba, p. 504 (/). so Square, many yards square, p. 214 (d).
;
and footnote 1. Shayistan, p. 266, etc. p. 540 (d). Shi'ahs' oath, p. 296 (t). Shikasta, hand writing, p. 36. Shlla, vulg. for shilla, the Indian p. 378 (7) and footnote 5. Shilla, vide Shila.
; ' '
salu,
Strange still,' how expressed, p. 178 (r). Street cries, p. 376 (d). Style, p. 630 (c) (d) rhetorical style of Persians, p. 642 (t) further observations on style, pp. 652 (a)-8; better known word preferable to less known, a concrete term to an abstract, etc. (a) Persians fond of obsolete and out-of-the-way terms, p. 652 (a); exs. of ambiguous words, p. 653-4; phrases or words susceptible of different interpretations or used successively in different senses, skilful use of same word in p. 654 (b)
; ; ; ;
in Persia, p. 283
Shir,
shayad, p. 287 (/) and footnote 6. Shout's distance, p. 213 (a) and footnote 5. Shudan, aux. verb, p. 248: for forming grammatic pass, (c) idioms with p. 249 = tavanistan, p. 253 (d) p. 540 (d). (d)
;
; ;
in Persia, p. 23, footnote 1. Should, expressed by Imperf. of khwastan, p. 261 (g) by bayad, p. 271 (o) by
lion
;
"
"
pis.
of
shuma,
1.
Shutur dtdl
Na;
p. 343, footnote
SI, si-sad (class.) and si-sad, p. 183. Sifr, in Ar. not a numeral, p. 182, foot-
note. Signs and Signals, pp. 389-90. ' Sila, kaf-i sila, vide Mawsul, wire, p. 415, footnote 3. Sim, Simile or Tashblh, p. 631 (e). salasat-i ibarat, p. 631 (d). Simplicity. Since, p. 523 (k) and footnote 4 and p. 525,
'
the marvellous, puerile, profound styles, p. 656 (c) (1); lack of precision, sentences not to be extended p. 658 (2) beyond their natural close, p. 658 (d) figurative language, p. 658 (e). Subject, confusion as to logical subject of discourse, p. 667 (h); subject and verb, concord of, vide Concord. Subjective genitive, p. 448. Subordinate clauses, p. 545, etc. p. 636 (n) Vide Conditional, Optative, Con(1). cessional, Temporal, Local, Modal, Relative and Predicative Clauses. Subjunctive Mood, pp. 538-44; indicates uncertainty conjs. and rels. that introduce it gen. employed to express condition, intention, desire, doubt, end, p. 538 (a); introduced by ki, p. 539 (a), Rem.
(4)
; ;
;
different senses, p. 655 (6) (2) ; inconsistent words or phrases to be avoided (3) ; ' affectation of excellence or fine writing
'
is Inf.
used for
;
it,
even
;
principal verb
is
Remark.
Sipas, p. 331 (4) and (7). Siyahat, probably implies pilgrimage, p. 585, footnote 1.
past, p. 539
(b)
exs. of Pers. Pres. Subj. for used (b) Eng. Past Indie., pp. 539 (c) to 540;
Siyag or Dlwanl, p. 34. Slzdah, unlucky to say, p. 182, footnote 4. So As, in compar. between clauses, p. 179
(5).
So-and-so, or such and such, pp. 107-8; fulan for person or thing, fulana or fulan, fern., p 107 (c)'; yarn, vulg. m.c. Rem. II Fulan n fulanl, persons only (2) Bahman, Fulan u Pashmadan, pi. of fulan, but not persons or things (2) fulanl, may be used as an adj., former indef., latter def., p. 108 (2); chi chlz,
; ; ;
after tavanistan, bayistan and shayistan either subj. or shortened Inf. used ; Fut. Indie, for Fut. Subj., p. 541 (e) and footnote 2; in class. Pers. Fut. Indie, used where Mod. Pers. uses Pres. Subj p. 542 ; Perf. Subj. used to express doubt where the Pres. obviously could not be used Past. Subj. used for Pres., p. 543 (/) ; for Aor. (2); Aor. (1); Pret. Indie, used " ' to have of dashtan (h) ; Past Habit.,
,
etc.
= what's
his
name
(3)
blstar,
practically
obsolete
(4)
Bastar u ; fulan
for chandln,
Rem.
;
Imperf. Indie., and Plup. Indie., take the place of certain tenses of the Subj. Afghan Imperfects, for Pres. Subj. (**).; COTIN. exs., p. 544 (k) and (m) f/j ; PAST SUBJ., p. 523; CONTIN. PERF. Vide also Aorist SUBJ., p. 536 (<)i Rem.
;
So much,
p. 362 (13). solar months, Solar, year, p. 206 (a) p. 207 (6) ; solar letters, p. 31. Solecism, p. 630 (d) and footnote 3 and p. 631 (d). " Somehow or other," how rendered, p. 370
(e).
and Future
gender
(6)
;
Perfect.
;
Substantive, p. 48
def.
and
indef., p. 49;
Ar. nouns forms of, p. 50 (c ) in old Pers. -a added to subs, qualified by intensive adj. in -a, p. 169 (a) (2)-; compar. and super, suffixes added to subs., pp. 176-7 (o) (3) and p. 178, foot-
Song, comic,
p. 635.
note
1.
934
Substantive Verb vide Verb to Such and such, vide So-and-so.
be.
INDEX.
and 6 ex. of, p. 654 and footnote 655 (6) (2). Takaltu, p. 321 (1) and footnote 1. TakJiallus, in Persia joined by izafat but not in India, p. 616, Rem. II. Takhfif, p. 29 (d), Rem. I. Tcfkld or mvbalagha, exs. of, p. 534 and footnote 1 ta^kld-i lafzl and ta^kld-i ma'navi, p. 616 (c) to p. 618: p. 645 (d)
3, 4, 5
1
; ;
p.
Suffixes, ban, van, etc., lakJi, kada, etc., etc., pp. 406-20. " coarse," Sufta, past part, and sifta adj., p. 247 (6) and footnote 1. Suhayl, p. 205, footnote 3. Sukkan, p. 666 and footnote 1. Sukun or Jazm, p. 28. Sulsl handwriting, p. 36. Sunnl, p. 387 and footnote 1 ; oath of, p. 296 an d footnote 1. Superlative latter term of corapar. should not include former, p. 491 (e) followed by pi. or used as a simple adj., p. 492 (/) if Ar. and precedes noun, izafat sometimes inserted (/) compar. used as
>
(2).
Taklif and zahmat, p 279, footnote 1. Ta'liq handwriting, p. 35. Tamam, both subs, and adj., has the same izafat constructions as hama, p. 117 (14) tamam-i rilz and tamam-i ruzha, p. 117
;
super., double comparatives and supersome adjecs. strictly latives, p. 492 (g) speaking do not admit of super, (k) ; order in sentence is num., subs., adj., p. 493 (i) ; to avoid repetition, inconsistent qualities may be added to the same noun, sing, in Pers., pi. in Eng. (?) ; nonrepetition of adj. cause of ambiguity (;),
;
izafat in class. Pere. when ta(14); precedes its subs., p. 117 (14); harchi tamam-tar, p. 117 (14), Rem. I; tamm u tamam, p. 118 (15). Tamamat, class., subs., still used by In-
no
mam
dians and Afghans, p. 118 (17). subs., p. 118 (16). Tameness, p 630 (c) and footnote.
Tamaml,
Tamm,
class.
em-
Rem.
= adj.
(n);
adjs. followed
by gen.
(m) superlative
;
some
and
= adv.,
tamylz
p. 289.
(g)
Tan, contrac. of tavan, p. 252 (a), Rem. Tan-i chand, = a, few individuals, class.,
p. Ill (6).
(i) 1.
Tanwin,
1,
p. 400.
;
Suspence,' Rule of, p. 641, footnote 4; 1 excessive susp. 607 (5) and footnote pence, p. 561 (6) and footnote 5, and and footp. 562 (6); also p. 647 (/) (1) note 3 violation of rule, p. 671 (n). Synchysis, p. 607 (5), Rem. Syndoche, p. 632 (e) and footnote 1. Syntax, etc., pp. 433 to 672.
;
participles, preps., advs., subs., adjs., p. 176 (o) (1) (2) and (3); tarln seldom added to Pers. parts., Rem. tar, where placed p. 176 (1), after compound adj. of adj. and subs., p. 177 (p) and Rem.; where added after two or more Comparatives or Superlatives, p. 178 ()(!) (2) and footnote. Taraf-i, p. 126 (6). Taraf-tar, pp. 176-7 (o) (3).
;
Tarh,= design,
Ta,
pattern,
etc., p.
290
(5)
and p. 189, Rem. 11;=' and,' p. 348 footnote 2 ta-yi ibtida*iyya,p. 348, footnote 3 ta-yi tajahul, p. 258, last line and footnote 4, and p. 259 and footnote 2 ; and p. 349 and footnote 1 ; ta-yi takidl or zinhariyya, p. 349, footnote 2; pp. 347-8
; ;
and footnote 4. Tarji'-band, p 646 and footnote 1. Tascha or tasak, measure of water, (c) and footnote 3.
p.
215
p. 504 (g), Rem. T56t', ex., p. 617 (3), Rem.; tabi'-i muk. mat, p. 615 (a); and p. 622 (a); and Vide also p. 623 (a) and Rems. I and 11.
" on,"
(12)
ta
bi-
Tashabih, vagueness, p. 631 (d). Tashbih or Simile, p. 631 (e). Tashdld, p. 29; loss of, p 30; for poetical licence, p. 84 (h) and footnote 2.
Tasriif (ballad), p. 635.
Tatimma,
p. 129,
(a)
= = mlzan
Rem.
(c)
and
646
;
= hashv-i
;
(k).
Tafa*ul, p. 391. Tafsir, p. 646 (/) and footnote 4. Tahakkum, a Figure, p. 633 (/), footnote 1. Indian, p. 345, nevertheless, Taham, footnote 2; p. 358; p. 365(23); p. 556 (b) and footnote 9. Tajnis, p. 297 (2), and footnote 1 tajnls-i khattj,, p. 322, footnote 2 and p. 546 and footnote 3; p. 638, Rem. and footnotes
and footnote 4 645 (c) and (d) p. 646 (e) and footnote 1 (exs. of ghuluv)
'p; ;
p. p.
p.
(2)
and
(/).
(2) and p. 252 (a), Rem. tan contrac., p. 252 (a), Rem. Tavanad ki-, p. 299 (k) (1) and footnote 1. Tavanistan, p. 249; class, constructions, p. 249-52 (a); Mod. Pers. constructions,
INDEX.
tavan, pp. 250-1 (2) and p. 252 tan contrac. p. 252 (a), Rem. need not be repeated before two verbs, p. 252 (4); trans, or trans, verb understood, p. 252 (4); tavanad bud, Indian idiom, p. 253 (c) before a cornp. verb, position of, p. 254, Rem.; tavaria, etc.] tawr-l K, p. 365 p. :54 (/); p. 540 (d)
p.
(6)
;
252
(a),
Rem.
of,
(iO
Ula, p. 193
(g),
Rem.
Ulu
'l-amr, p. 445
'Umar, name,
5.
and footnote
Tazadd u tabaq, p. 631 (d). Vide Antithesis. Tawjlh or muhtamalu 'z-ziddayu, p. 632 (;') and footnote 4. Tawriya, p. 632 (/) and footnote 4. Temporal Clauses, p 555 (/) and pp. 570-2; normal shape and order, p. 572 and footnote 2
(e);
'Umar-i Khayyam, astronomer, p. 209, footnote 1. subs, and adj., p. 159 (v) (2). wm,, pp. 118-9 (20) and p. 119 (23). 'Umumi, adj. and 'umiim-l, p. 119 (23).
,
"a
tenth,"
p.
195,
p. 571
exs. (g).
; ;
Tensos, some rarely used, p. 232 (c) paraphrases for (g) USE of TENSES, pp. 50537. Vide Aorist, etc., etc. EXAMPLES of use of TENSES, App. B, p. 898. Terse, style, p. 644 and footnote 5. 'That' for 'who,' and Pers. paraphrase, that' restrictive, (q) (3) p. 487 (q) (2) that which' and * what,' p. 488 (4). * The quicker the better,' how rendered, p. 178 (u). Thirteen, unlucky number, p. 182, footnote 4. Tikran or Tikranfp. 19, footnote 5. Tilism, p. 392 and footnote 5. Times, twenty times as much, etc., p. 197
* ;
; 4
'
'
3.
368.
;
Vagueness, = tashabih, p. 631 (d). Vail, without izafat, p. 437 (a) (1) (2). Vail ha or ha 'ball or bash bash, for afterthought, p. 582 (e). Vangahl, Vungahl. p. 315 and footnote 3.
Fasraa,
10.
footnote 2 = " or," and footnote 1 and p. 340 and footnote 3; va hal an ki, how written, p. 357 and footnote 4.
= indigo,
p. 378 (11)
and footnote
(a).
Tiryaq and
note
4.
and
foot-
Too, how
expressed, p. 175 (/). Toward, p. 505 (i). Trajection or Hyperbaton, p. 600 (i). Transliteration, Exercise in, p. 41 puzzled in, p. 44 (d). Tu bi-mlrl, p. 299 (10). Vide Marg-i shuma. Tufayl, p. 330, footnote 4. Tu/u, interj., p. 369 and footnote 4.
;
Vav, pronunciation of, p. 340 (2) and footnote 2; indicating state, p. 341;=t/o, with several adjs. qualifying one p. 341 noun, pp. 341-2 = a point in punctuaas dimin. tion, p. 351 and footnote 3 termination, p. 50 (e), and p. 398 (e)
; ;
;
vulg.
p.
and dimin.,
(d)
;
p. 50 (e)
57
final,
Rem. I; redundant
528 (m)
(1).
;
Tufu
liyyat,
3.
not
rel.
how
;
note
verb TRANS, and INTBANS., of, pp. 221-8; karchi bad-a-bad, bad, bada, p. 227 (d)
;
BUDAN paradigm
;
;
Turk! year-cycle, p. 203 (a) Turkish dialects.in Persia, p. 40, footnote 2. Tuv Kbuda, m.c. for tura bi-Khuda, p. 71,
'
ruz-i mabada, p. 218 (e) ; 3 p. 227 (d) forms of Pres. tense " to be," p. 228 (g) ; chi bu di, p. 228 and footnote 1 (h) ; Pret. used for Imperf. in Mod. Pres., p. 228 (i) ; " ** in m.c. (/) ; Afghans use halt bash Pres. tense for "to dwell," p. 229 (/) ;
!
some VERBS are both TRANS, and INTRANS., p. 229 (;'); ACTIVE VOICE of
KANDAN,
sing
(/).
p. 229; old form of 2nd pers. Perf., p. 232, VIII; Past Condit.
p.
p. 231, VI Rera. 230, footnote 2;
;
bi-
and
another
;
U
U, dimin. form
in, pL7, pers. pron., class,
398 (c). used for an, p. 69 (b). Uf, interj., p. 369 and footnote 4. Uftad, perhaps, p. 505 (a) (1) and footnote 3.
NEG. form of Plup., p. 232 IX, Rem. ACCENT, pp. 237-8 VERBS, pp. 235-7 INTERR. VERBS, p. 238 STEMS or ROOTS
;
HYBRIDS, of simple verbs, p. 239; pp. 248-9 (c), Rem. AUXILIARY verbs, pp. 248-9 (c), Rem.; SHUDAN, p. 248
;
(a)
= possible
(b)
936
; ;
INDEX.
Whoever, whosoever,
Wife, how mentioned,
kas-l ki, p. 121 (k).
liar
by (c) idioms with, p. 249 (d) DEFECTIVE verbs, p. 249 (e), Rem. TAVANISTAN, q.v., p. 249. Khwastan, q.v.
; ,
kudam
382
1.
ki,
har
etc., p.
(/).
p.
257;
PERMIT, to, other verbs for, tr., q.q.v. RAFTAN q.v., continue, p. 262 (e) p. 263 (a) = to be on the point of doing, m.c., p. 263 (h) ; DASHTAN, q.v._, p. 263 IMPERSONAL verbs, p. 296 BA.YISTAN,
p.
178
p. 311 (12)
3.
q.q.v.
q.q.v., pp. 274-80; verbs in compound, 280-2 kardan, namudan sakhtan, pp. 280 sakhgardanldan, farmfidan, p. (a) gashtan gardltagl, sakht, saz, p. 28! (d) CAUSAL verbs, q.v., dan, p. 282 (g) pp. 282-4; REFLEXIVE verbs, p. 285 (I) PASSIVE VOICE, q.v., pp. 285-8 SYNTAX of verbs, two or more verbs at end of sentence, p. 559 (3), p. 560 (5) and footnote 3, and p. 561 and footnote 2 p. 561 and footnote 2 p. 561 (b) GOVERNMENT of verbs, q.v., p. 600; in m.c. a fewdat. 605 verbs may precede , p. (g) position of Comp. Pot. verb, h and Verbal Nouns Adjectives, pp. 421-5 ; Impera. root, p. 421 (a) subs, in -an (b) suffixed in -ak (c) -ya (e) Inf. alone = noun (h); Inf. used in pi., p. 422 (h); cornp. nouns from Impera. stem,
COMPOUND verbs
some
common
;
Y, elided in dimin., p. 395, Rem. IV; sometimes added to Ar. past parts., Vide Ya. p. 167 (ii), Rem. and p. 399. Ya, formative pp. 398-404; kinds of formative -I, p. 398 (a) [abs. nouns and
'
adjs. in -a, p. 398 and footnote 2]; added to Ar. Past Part. p. 399
,
Pers.
:
ya-yi
masdar, ya-yi musahabat and ya-yi mushabih, p. 399; ya-yi nisbatl, p. 400 (3) and footnote 2 ; hamzah substituted for (3) : Hindi I, p. 401 (3) ; ya added to nativecity of person, p. 401, Rem. I ; sanl not
adj., Rem. II; bayzl, bayzavl, Basravl, Rem. II and footnote 2 ; pleonastically added to adjs. Rem. Ill ; added to affixed to kunyat, p. 402, Infs., Rem. IV Rem. Ar. terrain, -am, Rem. VI; ;
rel.
;
added
(i)
Pret. Stems,
;
(;)
(k) (I);
;
two
its neg. (q) Pers. or Ar. Past Part. = noun, p. 424 (r) some Pers. nouns of instrument, p. 425 (r), Rem.
57 (e) ; not followed by izafat (e} and p. 463 ; sing, only, p. 462 (g);' nouns in silent (h) do not admit of this vocative, p. 58, mana voc. of man, p. 463 poetically, dat. in ra voc., p. 463; nouns in voc. in apposition, Vowels, p. 21 (a); short, at p. 616 (5). beginning of words, p. 24 (6); long, at beginning of words, p. 25 (d).
;
ya-yi ma/'wZ, (4) ; ya-yi fa'il, p. 402 (5) ; other descriptions of y (6) ya-yi ma'ruf p. 403 (9) ya-yi majhul, p. 403 (10) ya substituted for alif, p. 404 Rem. II ; Arabic abstract nouns of quality in-iyyat, added to Pers. words, (c) p. 404 (c) (1) no tashdld on ya when fern, h is (2) Rem. II suffixed, ya of unity, to form nouns of number, p. 189, Rem. II; after Ar. sup., p. 172 (6) (3): ya after har, is
; ;
; ; : :
Ya
ya prob. demonstrative 7/5, p. 120, footnote 1 and vide also rel. ya for detail of ya of unity, vide Indefinite Article.
;
W
Walad-i ziria. p. 388 and footnote 1. Songs, p. 638. Wara, adv. and prep., p. 305 (7). Warning, particles of, p. 292 (d). Water, how measured, p. 215 (6);
in ki=illa, etc., p. 581 (4). p. 198 (1) and footnote 2. Yahudl Yahud, etc., p. 401. Rem. II. Yak, yak-l; I for yak is obs. p. 182, footnote 2; yak-l, indef. pron., p. 101 (c) ; an (or In) yak-l t m.c., pi. (c) yak-l dlgar-i "the one the other" (c) (1); " " one in ten (c) (1) Rem. yak-l dar dah
Yagan yagan,
War
how
(c).
Week,
Weights, p. 214 dang = the sixth part of anything, p. 21 (d). Vide Water. What and that which,' p. 488 (4) (5).
;
vide
Days
of
P>
Week
'
Whatever, each,
p. 1203.
'
all,
every, p. 119
(I).
(;')
and
ki, p.
487
yak-l requires ra, p. 130 (6) requires ay, p. 136 (*") Rem. requires sing. verb. p. 592 and footnote 1 p. 606 (1) and footnote 2 p. 609 (12) and footnote 3. Yaka u tanha, p 189 (i). Yalc-digar and ham-dlgar, recip. pron., p. 81 not to be con(i) p. 99 (1) p, 100 (6) founded with yak-l dlgar (b), Rem. I. Yak-sar, p. 119(24). Yakum, less common than avval p. 191, footnote 1. Yalta, interj., p. 372(10). Ya'ni chi, p. 298 (7). to be able, p. 254 (g). Yarastan, Yarn, p. 107 (e), Rem. II p. 398 (e). Yazdan, formerly a pi., p. 58, footnote 2.
(c)
;
idioms with
;
(1)
Rem;
INDEX.
Yazd-gardl Year, p. 209 months of, p. 209 " Stolen (6) days," names, (6) (1).
; ;
937
(<) (5).
Ye or yay
also yazza,
duvazza, etc.,
184,
Rem.
;
III.
;
Zanabu 'S-sirhan, "wolf's down, p. 313 and footnote Zanaku, p. 398 (c).
'
tail"
1.
false
5 (panja-yi duzdida) days added (a) leap year, p. 207 (a) and footnote 7 Day or Farvardln, the first month, (a) names of Persian
; ;
p. 206
solar
Urmuz and (c) Day, p. 20S SYRIAN JALALI YEAR, p. 209 YEAR, v., p. 209 (6);
days
;
TURKI YEAR, p. 203 (a); to find the MUSLIM or A.D. YEAR, p. 34. Yes, p. 295 (2) and (4). YUaq and Qishlaq, p. 206 (o) and footnote
Yusuf and Zulaykha, p 35, footnote
1.
Zagh, magpie, p. 220 (c) and footnote 1 p. 547 and footnote 1. Zaghcha, chough, p. 220 (c) and footnote 1 p. 547 and footnote 1. Zafymat and taUlf p. 279, footnote 1. Zaid, p. 453 and footnote 1.
;
,
Zaniyyat, p. 00, footnote ,3. Zar, p. 415 and footnote 3. Zarafat vide Wit. Zarf = adv., p. 289. Zarra, yak zana, p. 127 (I). Zanj, p. 189 (h). Zengma, p. 663 (d). Zha, dimin. termination, p. 397 (6), Rem. Zl, prep., obs., p. 322, footnote 8. Zi, vide Zu. Zlbldan, p. 273 (t). Zinhar, pp. 370-1. Zir-dast, p. 304 and footnote 2. former pos. and latter Ziyad, ziyada; compar. p. 174 (i) (4) ziyada = slzdah, p. 182, footnote 4 ; ziyaa and ziyada, p. 301 (2) and footnote 1, and p. 300 (I) (1), footnote 2 ziya, p. 384 and footnote 1. Zodia, p. 204 (a) (6) (c) formed 2000 B.C., p. 205 (e). Zoroaster, p. 207 (a). Zu and zl, etc., how used in Persian, p. Vide also Appendix A. 445. Zuma'niyayn, p. 633 (?) (1).
' '
'
JBIND1NG SECT.
JUN
7 1982