Chapter 6: A New Order in Science and Politics (Notes) CHY4U

(pg 71) The Scientific Revolution: - A series of breakthroughs in our understanding and interpretation of the heavens and the Earth - 17th century - Changed the way Europeans viewed themselves, nature, and God Cosmology: A branch of science and/or philosophy that deals with the structure and order of the heavens and Earth Epistemology: The branch of philosophy that deals with the origin and nature of knowledge, and with how we ascertain that something is true or false. (pg 71) New Ideas About The Universe: - Aristotle and Ptolemy theory that said the Earth was the center of the universe and that Jerusalem was the center of the Earth - They believed there were 10 spheres (Gods home was the highest and then Earth). Humans were the center of the universe. - Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) challenged the Ptolemaic theory saying that the Earth revolved on its own access and also circled the sun in a heliocentric way. His theory was a hypothesis as supposed to something that was evidence-based. His work was very controversial - Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) astronomer who believed and collected data saying that every other planet circled the sun which then circled Earth - Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) three laws of planetary motion: 1) planets circle the sun regularly in an elliptical way; 2) Planets move at an equal velocity; 3) The square of the length of a planets orbit is equal to the cube of its distance to the sun . He believed that the whole universe could be understood through mathematic reasoning. His findings reinforced Copernicus theories Heliocentric: The theory of the universe that posits the sun at its centre Geocentric: The theory of the universe that posits the Earth at its centre Circular motion: The idea that the planets revolve in circular motion around the sun (pg 72) Galileo and the New Science: - Built a telescope to observe the heavens - Discovered Jupiters moons, observed the mountains on the moon and the suns changing spots - He supported the heliocentric point of view - He got in trouble for believing theories that went against the Bible and religious dogmas - He argued that the Bible was open for interpretation - 1633 tried before the Inquisition for heresy. He was forced to recant his views and then sentenced to house arrest for the rest of his life

- His theories included that bodies in motion kept moving unless something stopped it instead of the opposite which Aristotle believed (pg 73) Newton and a Unified System: - English physicist and mathematician who provided the basis of the new model of science for the next couple of centuries - Developed a theory of gravity that supported Keplers theory. He wanted to put Kepler and Galileos theories together and came up with the law of gravity. - Law of gravity the force that holds the solar system together is the same force that causes bodies to fall on Earth - He still believed that God created the world and ruled it - His model of the universe made it look like a perfect machine that was created by God who let it be run by man. - Newton did not believe that God did not get involved directly with humanity (Deism) - Nature and cosmology were perceived differently after Newton. Mathematics had a great importance - Humanity losing its importance because they were no longer center of the world vs. Humanity gaining importance because of their ability to question old authority and become independent Law of gravity: The phenomenon associated with the natural force that causes things to move toward the centre of the Earth (gravity) acting on any body that has mass and is located within Earths gravitational field; comprises a series of laws formulated by Isaac Newton (1642-1727) Deism: A belief associated with the Enlightenment and the idea of reason that God founded and ordered the universe, but, after having done so, did not control life and exert influence over and orderly nature (pg 73) New Ideas About Knowledge: - What we know + how we know - Francis Bacon (1561-1626) only way to gain reliable knowledge is through observation, evidence and experience. He used inductive reasoning. Published Novum Organum(True Nature) in 1620 - John Locke (1632-1704) published Essay Concerning Human Understanding in 1690. He challenged Descartes theory that the human mind is all important by saying that we gain knowledge only from experience rather than the mind/reason. Believes that education and society shapes who you are (we start off with a blank slate) (progress is in our own hands) - Rene Descartes (1596-1650) Published Discourse on Method (1637). He had a theory of knowledge based on humanitys reasoning ability + intuitive powers (importance of human mind). I think, therefore I am. He developed rules for logic (clarity, simplicity, understanding complexity, to be complete). Deductive reasoning and rationalism - Europeans began believing that they ere capable of problem-solving and discovering things without being so reliable on old tradition

Empiricism: A philosophy that states the senses are the only source of real and verifiable knowledge Induction: A method of reasoning from the particular to the general in science and in philosophy Rationalism: A philosophical doctrine that posits reason in itself as a source of knowledge independent of the senses (pg 75) The Style of Absolutism: - Questioning the legitimacy of authority - The arguments centre on the concepts of order, authority, and rights - Absolutism became most present in the second half of the 17th century in France - Absolutism was closely related to classicism (the admiration of ancient Greece and Roman culture). Classicists believed that the quality of life had been way better in the middle ages - Absolutist regimes required order and obedience to establish rules - The rulers wanted to bring stability after the issues of feudalism - They also wanted centralized authority instead of local because then everyone would be more of the same (unified state) - The Bourbon monarchy (France) led and developed absolutism as a new system - King Louis XIV (1643-1715) absolutist, his style of war , economics, and culture was copied by many other rulers, Le Roi Soleil, saw himself at the centre of his kingdom and the West, he believed that he was put on Earth by God and ruled by divine right - He got rid of old nobility and created the intendants - Intendants civil servants. They were mostly from the upper middle class and their status depended fully on the monarch. They were responsible for collecting taxes and administrating certain regions under the authority of the King Absolutism: A political philosophy based on the concept that the monarch in any sovereignty has absolute power and that the state should be centralized under this authority Classicism: The belief that the ideas of beauty in ancient Greece and Rome should be the models for modern architecture and art; associated with concepts of symmetry, order, proportion, and an emphasis on form Centralized authority: The idea that the state should be governed from the centre and that local areas and individuals should have little or no power (pg 76) Absolutism and the Economy: - Absolute rulers wanted to control the economy - Louis XIV collected a land tax and created a new head tax. They also tried collecting taxes on salt, tobacco, and wine - The Kings representatives were always given the power to overrule local authorities who disagreed with them

- Louis XIV wanted to get as much money as possible in order to finance his wars - Imports and exports were highly encouraged to make more money - Jean Baptiste Colbert (1619-1683) economic adviser for the King, implemented a system within the Five Great Farms where goods could circulate tax free - Production was increased in France so that they could export more products and import less - Centralization of the armed forces brought about larger armies, new weapons, sophisticated military strategy - Religious conformity Roman Catholic (French National Catholic Church), the King put pressure on the Huguenots to convert - 1685 King Louis XIV revoked the Edict of Nantes to try and enforce religious uniformity - Huguenots went to England, Germany, and America to escape the persecutions in France (pg 77) The Palace of Versailles: - The Palace represented Louiss absolutist temperament and classicism through architecture - Louis built it near Paris because he wanted himself and the monarch to be the centre of the world - It was built very symmetrically, geometrically, proportionately and beautifully based on Greek and Roman classics/culture - He lived at the palace and also governed at it - Louis was treated amazingly and everything he did was celebrated (pg 77) Absolutism and the Social System: - Old nobility lost a lot of their political power (army, local government, public service) but still kept their wealth - In feudalism, loyalty was given to local authorities whereas under absolutism, loyalty was to the centralized authority - Louis: Ltat cest moi (I am the state) (pg78) Louis XIV, Europe, and the Wider World: - Louis did not achieve French domination - War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713) issue was about whether France and Spains crowns would be united, modern war - Peace of Utrecht (1713) said that France and Spain would never be ruled by one ruler, Spain had to give up some land to England, Austria and Italy, Spain gave up the right to slave trading in Spanish America to England - When Louis died, France was the most powerful state in Europe but also very much in debt (pg 79) Eastern Europe: - Absolutism spread throughout Europe (to the East) it was a reflection of the desire to centralize authority - Frederick William (1640-1688) Ruler of a German state who built his own modern army to achieve absolute power, nobles supported him because they wanted tax exemptions, control over peasants, and important positions in the army

- The Hapsburgs in Austria also tried absolutism but didnt succeed too well because there was too much of a variety of people in their empire (Italy, Bohemia, Hungary, etc.) -Russia Orthodox Church, they did not experience the Renaissance or the Reformation and became very powerful during the reign of Peter the Great (1689-1725) (pg 80) Constitutionalism: - England + Netherlands became powerful empires without the use of absolutism they used constitutionalism (laws and stuff that limited the power of the royals and gave more rights to the people) - Authority was distributed equally amongst different levels of government Constitutionalism: A political philosophy that all states should have a constitution that clearly outlines the nature of law, the powers and limits of the state, its organization, and the rights of the citizens Canada has a constitution (pg 80) England and the Puritan Revolution: - In England, the power of the monarch had always been fairly limited because of tradition, civil wars, revolutions, and religious reasons - Religion the monarchs were often Catholic and had to defend the Church of England - The Calvinist Puritans challenged both the church and the monarchy - King Charles I (1625-1649) governed very selfishly (money-hungry, avoided parliament), very Catholic (which upset the Puritans) - Some English Puritans left and went to America in order to set up new colonies that they could control - Scotland members of Presbyterian Church rebelled against Charles which finally made him face parliament - Parliament decided to limit the authority of the King, abolished unlawful taxes, got rid of courts run by the King (corruption), King Charles was not allowed to abolish the parliament - Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658) led the New Model Army ^^^, opposed the established church, wanted religious toleration - Rump Parliament a small group of Parliamentarians who put King Charles on trial and decided he was public enemy to the good people of this nation, executed Charles in 1649 - England became a republic (citizens elected government reps) for the next 11 years but then dissolved - Protectorate led by Cromwell (^^^), had a written constitution by the army >> hard times - 1660 new parliament was elected as well as a newly established monarchy with limited powers - Charles II (1660-1685) son or Charles I, became King and accepted the fact that the Parliament was necessary to run the country >> leads England towards becoming a constitutional monarchy (parliament + royals = awesome ruling) - King James I firm believer in Divine Right Constitutional monarchy: A state in which the ruler has only the powers given to him or her by the constitution and the laws of the nation

(pg 81) Hobbes and the Problem of Authority: - Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) wrote a book called Leviathon about the issues of freedom and authority - Rejected divine right - Wanted to create a political science based on rational thought and observation - Questioned whether power was necessary and then who should get it - Thought poorly of human nature (we are all just power-greedy and then we die) >> we always want more power which leads to wars - Believed in political sovereignty >> to preserve life, society and property - BASICALLY >> if one person has absolute authority then everyone should listen to that person and not challenge their authority or else this will cause big problems - Believed that all people were equal under the law >> very modern! - Believed that people were responsible for their own destiny Sovereignty: A state, territory, or community independent of other governments that has the right to make laws, engage in war, and make treaties with other states; associated with the modern state (pg 82) England and Constitutional Monarchy: - Conflict in England did not end when Charles II came along >> he was Catholic which worried the parliament - Test Act (1673) created by the parliament, states that only people who supported Anglicanism could hold civil or military offices - England divides into 2 groups 1. Tories >> WE SUPPORT THE KING! 2. Whigs >> ABOLISH THE KING, WE LIKE THE PARLIAMENT! - James II (1685-1688) younger bro of Charles II, very Catholic (oh, oh), started lots of complications - The Whigs and Tories asked their buddy William of Orange (guy from the Netherlands) to help them fight against England - Glorious Revolution no blood (for once), the people and William scared away James II (they fled the country) and in 1689 William and his wife Mary took over together (awwww), this affirmed Englands constitutional monarchy - Bill of Rights (1689) re-gave parliament the rights to: make laws, impose taxes, petition against the King, trial by jury, fair election (no interference from the King) - Act of Toleration Puritans can worship freely now too - England became governed by the wealthy class (kinda like Canada right now) until the 19 th century (pg 83) Locke and the Idea of Natural Rights: - John Locke rationalist, had a positive outlook on the state of nature - Believed in sovereign authority because that would mean that the government is protecting the rights of its citizens (everyone retained their natural rights) - Contract to establish authority and contract to limit the powers of authority (constitution)

- Believed in civil liberty >> not too much power in one hand - Did not agree with political democracy >> only wanted men with property to have political authority although everyone was equal under the law... - Believed in the right to revolution >> if the state broke the contract (constitution) then the people could rebel and form a new government (pg 83) Conclusion: - 17th century Europe - Lots of innovations - Scientific discoveries - Intellectual change - New forms of government (absolutist and constitutional)