CONTENTS

S.NO. 1 1-A 2 2-A 3 3-A 4 4-A 5-A 5-B 6 6-A 6-B 7 7-A 8 8-A 9 9-A 10 10-A 11 11-A 12 13 14 15 DESCRIPTION THE LATHE LATHE OPERATIONS DRILLING DRILLING OPERATIONS SHAPING SHAPING OPERATIONS MILLING & GEAR CUTTING MILLING OPERATIOINS GEAR CUTTING OPERATIONS V- GROOVE & ANGLE CUTTING IN MILLING GRINIDING SURFACE GRINDING SURFACE GRINDING OPERATIONS ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINE ( EDM ) DRILLING A HOLE WITH EDM SHEET METAL JOINING BY RIVETS, SOLDERING AND BRAZING SHEET METAL JOINING BY RIVETS COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC) GENERATION OF COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC) PROGRAM WELDING WELDING OPERATIONS METAL JOINING PROCESSSES - SOLDERING BRAZING MATERIALS LAB WOOD GLOOVING PRACTICE STUDY OF PROPERTIES OF SANDWICH STRUCTURES STUDY OF MICROSTRUCTURES OF NON FERROUS METALS AUTOCLAVE FOR DIFFERENT GEOMETRICAL STRUCTURES

SYLLABUS AIR CRAFT MATERIALS AND PRODUCTION LAB JNTUH - HYD.

II Year B.Tech. A.E.-II Semester. Production Lab;1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Plain turning, Taper turning, Facing. Knurling. Thread cutting. Drilling. Boring. Counter boring. Counter sinking. Shaping and planning of square block, V- ways and Dovetail ways. Plain Milling. Gear Milling (step milling & slot milling) Cylindrical grinding / Surface grinding Simple exercises in EDM Sheet metal joining by rivets, soldering and brazing Simple exercises on CNC machines and programmer generation. Simple exercises in solid state welding, Gas welding & arc welding Metal joining techniques (soldering and brazing).

T P C 0 3 2

Materials Lab: 12. 13. 14. 15. Aircraft wood gluing practice. study of properties of sandwich structures Study of microstructures of non ferrous alloys. experiment on autoclave for different geometrical structures

REFERENCE: 1. Aircraft production techniques keshu S.C, Ganapathy K.K Interline Publishing house Bangalore 1993. 2. Manufacturing Engineering and technology by Kalpakajam-Addison Wesley.

1. THE LATHE
Function:- The function of a lathe is to remove excess material in the form of chips by rotating the work Piece against a cutting tool to produce cylindrical shapes. The tool material should be harder than the work piece. The tool may be given liner motion along work piece in any direction.

Size (or) specification of lathe:1. The height of the centers measured form the lathe bed. 2. The swing diameter over bed. 3. Maximum job length held between the two centers. 4. The swing diameter over carriage. Types of lathes:1. Bench Lathe. 2. Speed Lathe. 3. Engine Lathe. 4. Tool Room Lathe. 5. Capstan and turret Lathe. 6. Automatic Lathe. Parts of Lathe:1. Base or Bed. 2. Head stock. 3. Tail stock. 4. Carriage. 5, Cross Slide. 6. Compound rest. 7. Apron. 8. Lead Screw. 9. Tool Post. Lathe operations:S.NO. Sequence of operation Cutting tool. 1. Facing Facing H.S.S.Single point tool 2. Plain Turning H.S.S.Single point tool 3. Step& Under cut. Single point tool / Parting tool. 4. Taper Turning. H.S.S.Single point tool 5. Knurling. Knurling Tool. 6. Chamfering H.S.S.Single point tool 7. Thread cutting V- Thread cutting tool.

LATHE MACHINE PARTS

Facing:- Facing is the operation of machining the end of a piece of work to produce flat surface With axis. This is also used to cut the work to the required length. The operation involves Feeding the tool perpendicular to the axes of rotation of work piece. Plain Turning:- The plain turning operation requires high cutting speed, small feed and a very small depth of cut to generate a smooth surface. copious supply of coolant and lubrication should be used to produce a smooth finish. Step& under cut:-Step Turning is the operation of making different diameters of desired length. Under cut is the operation of making a slot over the periphery of a circular job. Taper Turning:-Taper turning may be defined as a uniform increase or decrease in diameters of a piece of work, measured along its length. In a lathe , taper turning means to Produce a conical surface by gradual reduction in diameter from a cylindrical work piece. Tan = D-d / 2L D= large diameter of taper in mm. d = small diameter of taper in mm L = Length of tapered part in mm. 2= full taper angle. = half taper angle. Methods of tapers:- Setting over the tail stock centre. By swiveling the compound rest. By a taper turning attachment. By combining longitudinal and cross feed in a special lathe. By forming tool method.

Chamfering:- It is the operation of beveling the extreme end of the work piece. This is

done to remove burrs, to protect the end of the work piece from being damaged and to have a better look. Knurling:- Knurling is the process of embossing a diamond shaped pattern on the surface of a work piece. The purpose of knurling is to provide an effective gripping surface on a work piece to prevent it from slipping when operated by hand. Thread cutting:- Thread cutting is one of the important operation performed on a lathe. Both and External and internal threads can be cut. There should be a certain relation between job revolution and revolution of lead screw to control liner movement engaged with the screw. The tool should be grounded to a proper shape on profile of thread to be cut. In all modern lathe quick change gear box is provided with different ratios of spindle and lead screw revolution can be easely obtained by simply shifting the change gear lever. The longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of the thread to be cut per revolution of the work piece. Pitch of the threads to be cut Velocity ratio = ----------------------------------Pitch of the lead screw. But velocity ratio = (Driver teeth / Driven teeth.) Metal Cutting Parameters ;Cutting speed:- The cutting speed (V) of a tool is the speed at which the metal is removed by the tool from the work piece. In a lathe it is the peripheral speed of the work past the cutting tool expressed in meters / min. V= d n / 1000 Where, d the diameter of the work in mm. n The rpm of the work. Feed:- The feed of a cutting tool in a lathe work is the distance the tool advances for each revolution of the work. Feed is expressed in terms of mm / revolutions. Depth of cut:- The depth of cut is the perpendicular distance measured machined surface tothe uncut surface of the work piece. In a lathe the depth of cut is expressed as follows. Depth of cut = d1 - d 2/ 2

1[A]. LATHE OPERATIONS Aim:- To perform various lathe operations such as Facing, Plain turning, turning. Taper turning, Under cut, Knurling , Thread cutting and Chamfering.on a given material made of mild steel. Step

Material Required:- A mild steel bar of 25mm diameter and 100mm long. Tools used;- H.S.S. single point cutting tool, parting tool, V-tool for threading , Knurling tool, Chuck key, tool post key. Measuring instruments:- out side caliper, steel rule, pitch gage etc. Procedure:1. Set the work piece on the chuck and tool on the tool post. 2. Operations such as facing& plain turning are performed on a given M.S. bar. Then the step & under cut turning is performed using parting tool. (Final cut). One after another in the sequence upon the dimensions as shown. 3. Now the compound rest is swiveled by calculated half taper angle and taper is generated on the work piece, by rotating the compound slide screen will cause the tool to be feed at the half taper angle (). 4. H.S.S. tool is replaced by Knurling tool in tool post. Knurling generation is performed at the slowest speed of the spindle. 5. Knurling must be done at low speed available and apply lubricating oil while knurling. 6. H.S.S. V- Shape thread curing tool fix the tool post and set the work piece on the chuck. 7. The change gears of correct size are calculated and then fitted to the end of the bed between the spindle and the lead screw. 8. The top of the tool nose should be set at the same height as the center of the job. 9. Thread cutting generation is performed at the slowest speed of the spindle. 10. Engage the lead screw lever and start the operation. Apply proper coolant during cutting point. 11. The depth of cut usually varies from 0.05mm to 0.2mm. Precautions;:- Operate the machine at specific speed. Do not depth of cut more than 2mm. Apply lubricating oil while all operations Make sure that the work place is neat and clean. Result:- The required operations are successively completed.

2. DRILLING Introduction: - Drilling is a process of making a hole in an object by forcing a rotating tool called drill. The same operation can be performed in a lathe by holding the drill stationary and rotating work.

RADIAL DRILLING MACHINE

Types of drilling machines:-1. Portable drilling m/c.,2. Sensitive drilling m/c. 3Gang drilling m/c. 4. Radial drilling m/c. 5. Automatic drilling m/c. Etc. Radial drilling machine:- It is intended for drilling small and large holes on a heavy work piece. This consists of a heavy round vertical column, mounted on a large base. The column supports a radial arm which can be raised and lowered to accommodate work piece of different heights. The arm may be swung around to any position over work bed. The three movements in radial drilling machines when combined together permit to be located at any desired point on a large work piece for drilling. Parts of a drilling m/c.:- Base, column, Radical arm, Elevating screw, Drill head, Drill spindle, Table, Motor for elevating the arm, Motor for driving spindle.

PARTS OF A DRILLING MACHINE

Spindle Drive and Feed Mechanism:- There are two common methods of driving a spindle. a) Contact speed motor is mounted at extreme end of radial arm. b) Train of gearing within the drill head

S.NO. Sequence of operation Marking 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Punching Pilot-holed drill Drilling Reaming Boring Counter Boring Counter Sinking

Tool used
Vernier height gauge, Surface plate. Dot punch, hammer. Drill bit. Drill bit. Reamer Boring tool. Counter bore drill. Counter Sink drill

Marking:- Before drilling any hole on the given work piece, the center of the hole is located by drawing two lines at angles to each by means of venire height gauge placed on surface plate. Punching:- After locating a center, identification is made at the point where the hole is to be drilled. Pinching is done by means of center punch and ball peen hammer Pilot-holed drill: Before drilling a hole of a larger diameter, a pilot hole of 3mm which is slightly Grater then the width of the chisel edge must be drilled. The reason is that the action of the chisel edge during drilling is more or less an extrusion process. So 80 to 85% of total thrust, i.e., vertically upward force will come on chisel edge which increases the power required and decreases the tool life. This refers to eliminate the thrust acting on the chisel edge pilot hole is made prior to drilling. Drilling:- It is the operation of producing a cylindrical hole by removing metal by the rotating edge of a cutting tool called the drill. The drilling is the one of the simplest methods of producing a hole. Drilling does not produce an accurate hole. Reaming:- It is an aureate away of sizing and finishing a hole which has been already drilled. In order to finish a hole and bring it to the accurate size. The hole reamer is made half that of drilling and used for reaming is known as reamer, which has multiple cutting edges, reamer can not originate a hole, its simply follows the path, which has been previously drilled and removes small amount of metal, the materiel removed by this process is around 0.395mm and for the accurate work, this should not exceed 0.125mm. Boring:To enlarge a hole by means of an adjustable cutting tool with only one cutting edge, this is necessary where suitable sized drilled is not available or whole diameter is so large that it can be ordinary drilled. To finish a hole accurately and to bring it tothe required size. To machine the internal surface of the hole already producing. To correct all of roundness of the hole. To correct the location of hole as be boring tool follows as independent path with respect to the hole. Counter Boring:- The enlarged hole forms a square shoulder with the original hole. This is necessary is some cases to accommodate the heads of bolts, studs and pins. The tool used for this is called counter bore. The counter bores are made with straight or tapered shank to fit in the drills spindle. Counter boring can give accurately of about

0.005mm. The cutting speed for counter boring is 25% less than thatof drilling operations. Counter Sinking:- It is the operation of making a cone shaped enlargement of the end of a hole to Provide a recess of a flat head screw or counter sink rivet fillet in the hole. The Tool used for counter sinking is called counter sink standard counter sinkers have 600 , 820 and 900 inclined angle that the cutting edges of tool are formed at the conical surface. The cutting speed in counter sinking is 25% less than that of drilling. Drill Chucks:- A drill chuck is a device intended for holding smaller size drills. It has two or more adjustable jaws set radially to hold straight shank drills. It is provided with a taper shank which is fitted in the tapered hole of the spindle. These are made in various sizes. Twist Drills:- It is an end cutting tool. It is the most common type of tool used in drilling. It consists of a cylindrical piece of steel with special grooves called flutes Types twist drills: - 1) Parallel shank twist drill. 2) Taper shank twist drill. Drills materials: - Cutting portion---- High speed steel Shank portion. ----Carbon steel. Cutting speed: - It is a measure of peripheral speed of the drill in operation expressed in m/min. Cutting speed (S) = D N / 1000 m/min. D is the diameter of the drill in mm N is the r.p.m of the drill spindle. Feed = the feed of a drill is the distances the drill moves into the work at each revolution of the spindle. It is expressed in mm/ revolution or per min The feed for min. = Feed per revolution X rpm Depth of cut = the depth of cut in drilling is equal to one half of the drill diameter.

2[A].DRILLING OPERATIONS
AIM:- To perform Drilling. Reaming, Boring, Counter boring, Counter sinking, and tapping.

Drill bits, Reamer, Boring tool, Counter bore drillbit, Counter sink drill bit, Tap setWith wrench, Vernier height gauges, surface plate, Dot punch Hammer. Etc.

TOOLS;-

Material:- Mild steel flat piece. Procedure:- 1) Before drilling holes, center of holes are located on a work piece by
drawing Two lines at right angles to each other using vernier height gauge and surface plate. 2) Punching is done using center punch and ball peen hammer at the located centers. 3) Work piece is firmly fixed in the vice on a drilling machine table and drill bit is firmly fixed by drill chuck. 4) The pilot holes are drilled at the chosen location by starting the drilling at the drilling machines. 5) Drill is replaced by actual size drill and required holes are made in previously drilled pilot holes. 6) The adjustable boring tool held in a boring bar replaces drill bit and the first hole is enlarged to final size. 7) Boring tool is replaced by the reamed and the subsequent sizing and finishing of the reaming a hole is done by performing reaming operation by giving hand feed. 8) Reaming is replaced by the counter bore with pilot to enlarge, to form a square shoulder with the original hole. 9) Counter bore is replaced by the counter sink for given diameter and 900 inclined angles to the end of hole and enlarged conically. 10) Tapping is done using hand tap set, by a tap hole. Precautions:- 1. The drill bit must be properly fixed, 2. Centers must be correctly marked. 3. Slightly lower speeds of the order of 25% less than drilling should be used to counter boring, counter sinking operations. 4. Holes of larger diameter should never be drilled without a pilot hole. 5. Apply proper coolant during drilling operation. Result:The required operations are successively completed.

3. SHAPING
Introduction:- The shaping machine is used for producing flat surfaces. Machining on shaper more economical with easier work setting and cheaper tooling. On a shaper job is fixed on table and the cuing tool reciprocates across the work piece. The tool cuts on forward stroke and the return stroke remain idle. As there is no cutti9ng action in return stroke, we deploy quick return mechanism to reduce cutting time. To produce flat surfaces, channel sections, V- channels and gear teeths.etc.

SHAPING MACHINE Types of mechanisms:- 1. Crank shaper: In construction the crank shaper employs a crank mechanism to change circular motion of the bull gear to reciprocating motion of the ram. The bull gear receives power either from an individual motor from an over head line shaft if it is a bell drive shaft. 2. Gear type shaper: this type of shaper carries a rack under it is ram which is driven by a spur gear. The pinion(spur gear) machining with the rack is driven by a gear drive. The speed and the direction in which the machine traverse depend on the number of gears in the gear train, 3. Hydraulic type: In these shapers hydraulic pressure is used for driving the ram .it has become very popular and is also more efficient than the both of the above tool.

PARTS OF A SHAPER Parts of the shaper: 1. Base. 2. Column 3. Cross slide 4, saddle 5. Table 6. Clapper box 7. Ram 8. Tool head. 9. Feed disc. Elevating screw. etc.. Driving mechanisms: 1) Crank an slotted lever mechanism 2) whit-worth quick return mechanism 3) Hydraulic shaper mechanism Shaper operations: 1. Horizontal machining 4. Slots, grooves and key ways cutting 2. Vertical machining 5. Cutting gears or splines. 3. Angular machining Cutting sped:- In a shaper the cutting action is intermittent and is considered only during the forward cutting stroke. Length of cutting stroke. Cutting sped:- -------------------------------------------Time required by the cutting stroke. Feed:It is the relative movement of the tool or work in a direction perpendicular to the axis of reciprocation of the ram for double stroke. In is expressed in mm. The feed is always given at the end of return stroke when the tool is not cutting the metal. Depth of cut:- It is the thickness of metal that is removed in one cut. It is the perpendicular distances measured between machined surface and non machined surface of the work piece.

3[A].SHAPING OPERATIONS AIM:- Shaping of square block, V- groove.

All dimensions are in mm tolerances0.05mm Tools:- side tool, V- tool, try square, vernier caliper, steel rule Materiel;- m.s. square block Procedure: 1 .The job is fixed on a vice. 2 The tool is fixed on tool post. 3. The stroke of ram is adjusted to required length and machine is switched on. 4. Always during machining the job should be properly fixed with the half of try squareand vice to get a right angle surface after machining. 5 After completion of work, the job should be filled help of file. 6. Before fixing the job, V block dimensions are marked on the job with the help of dot punch. 7. The tool head should be rotated at 450 to make the V- groove. 8.The feed is given such that the tool moves gradeavelly on either side of the middle line. 9. The tool is moved to get the required groove. Precautions:- 1. The tool should be properly fixed. 2. Proper movement of tool must be entered. 3. Select proper cutting speeds. 4. Dont touch and measure the job during the process of machining. Result:- The given square block is machined for plain shaping and done by V groove as for given dimensions.

4. MILLING Introduction:- Milling is a machining process in which metal is removed by rotating multi-edge cutting tool called milling cutter, while the work piece fed against to it. A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal chips. Work is fed against a rotation multipoint cutter. It removes metal at a very fast rate. The job movement is horizontal, vertical and cross feeding.

GENERAL MILLING MACHINES Types of milling m/c.:- Column and knee type. 1. Horizontal milling. 2. Vertical milling. 3. Universal milling. 4. Omniversal milling. Parts of milling m/c:1. Base. 2. Column. 3. Knee. 4. Saddle. 5. Table. 6. Spindle. 7. Arbor. 8. Elevating screw. 9. Overhanging arm. Etc. Milling m/c. mechanism:The spindle drive mechanism is incorporated in the column. All modern machines are driven by individual motors housed within the column, and the spindle reeves power from a combination of gears and clutch assembly. Multiple speeds of the spindly may be obtained by altering the gear ratio. Work holding devices:- T- bolts and clamps, V-blocks, Angle plate, Vices, etc. Cutter holding devices:- Arbors, collets, Adapters, Spring collets, Bolted cutters, Screw on cutters. Standard milling cutters:Plain milling cutter. Side milling cutter, Angle milling cutter, End milling cutters. T- Slot milling cutter. Fly cutter. Formed cutters, (Convex, concave, corner rounding, gear cutter.) Face milling cutter or T max cutter, Saw milling cutter. Types of milling processes:

UP MILLING

DOWN MILLING MILLING METHODS

( a ) Up milling : The up milling which is also called conventional milling, is the process of removing the metal by a cutter which is rotated against the direction of travel of the work piece. ( b ) Down milling : The down milling which is also called climb milling, is the process of removing the metal by a cutter which is rotated in the same the direction of travel of the work piece. Cutting speed:- The cutting speed of a milling cutter is its peripheral linear speed resulting from rotation. It is expressed in meters per minute. The cutting speed can be derived formula. V= d n / 1000 minutes per min. V= the cutting speed in inch per min. d= the diameter of the cutter in mm. n= the cutter speed in rpm. Feed:The feed in a milling machine is defined as the rate with which the work piece Advances under the cutter. Depth of cut:- The depth of cut in milling is the thickness of the material moved in one pass of the work under the cutter.

GEAR CUTTING
Gear cutting methods:- toothed gears are indispensable elements in mechanical transmission of power, and their accurate production necessitated the development of ingenious tools and process. Gears made my be manufactured by casting, stamping, machining or by powder metallurgical processes. Out of all such process, the most, and accurate method of production of gears is by machining.

SPUR GEARS
Spur gear:- The cutting of spur gear in a milling machine involves the following procedure, 1. To determine the important dimensions and proportions of the gear tooth element. 2. To control the spacing of the gear teeth accurately on the periphery of the gear blank. 3. To select the correct number of cutter for the required number of teeth on the gear. 4. To determine the proper speed of the cutter, fed of the table, and the depth of cut. 5. To set the cutter and the work and to perform the actual operation.

4[A]. MILLING OPERATIONS

Aim:- To machine a rectangular m.s. block to prepare plain milling, Step milling, and slot milling.

Tools required:- Vernier calipers, steel rule, scriber, dot punch, hammer, file. Accessory in machine:- parallels, tri. Square, end milling cutter, plain milling cutter, Material required:- M.S. block.( 75x75x 25mm3.) Procedure:- 1. The job is fixed on the table vice. 2. The Face milling cutter is fixed on the arbor. 3. Cut the job by giving proper feed and cutting speed. 4. Always during machining the job should be properly fixed with the help of try square and vice to get a right angle surface after machining. 5. All sides machined the work, the job should be filled with a file. 6. Remove the face milling cutter, replaced by collets arbor fix the end mill cutter. 7. Before fixing the job, the step & slotted dimensions are marked on the job with the help of dot punch and hammer. 8. Using end mill cutter or side milling cutter, the job is machined to the given dimensions. 9. After completion of work, the job should be finished using triangular file. Precautions: - The cutter should be properly fixed. Select proper cutting speed, feed and depth of cut. Apply proper coolant during machining. Safety devices like goggles, apron and shoes must be wear. Dont touch and measure the job during the process of machining. Result:The required operations are successively completed by given dimensions.

5[A] GEAR CUTTING OPERATIONS

AIM: Study of spur gear cutting in Milling Machine MATERIALS : MS ROUND dia 40 mm x 20 mm thickness TOOLS REQUIRED : Gear tooth caliper, Gear cutter, Indexing head, Indexing plate, tail stock, mandrel, spanners

GEAR CUTTING SETUP IN MILLING

PROCEDURE: Indexing: - It is the process to deviate the periphery or length of a job into required equal or unequal no. of division. Indexing head:It is the attachment used to perform Indexing purpose. Types of Indexing: 1. Direct. 2. Indirect. 3. Deferent. 4. Compound. 5. Angular. 6. Linear. 7. Block indexing. Direct indexing: - It is called rapid indexing. It is done on Direct Indexing head and universal Indexing head. No. of holes in indexing plate. Indexing moment : ---------------------------------------------N I.M. = 32 = 2 spaces in 32 16 Indirect indexing: - Simple indexing or plain indexing

As the shaft carrying the crank has a single thread worm to which meshes with the worm gear having 40 teeth, 40 turns of the crank are necessary rotate the indexing head spindle through one revolution. Indexing plates with circle of holes patented by the Brown and Sharpe company standard index plates. Plate no. 1:-- 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20. Plate no. 2:-- 21, 23, 27, 29, 31, 33. Plate no. 3:-- 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49. Example:- N=15. No. of holes in indexing plate. 40 Indexing moment : ----------------------------------------- =----------N N 40 8 2 5 10 ----- = --- = 2 --- x ---- = ---15 3 3 5 15 I.M.= 2 complete circle of indexing crank and 10 spaces in 15 hole in a circle plate. INVOLUTE GEAR CUTTER: Cutter no. No. of teeth cut. 1 135 to to a rack. 2 55 to 134. Teeth. 3 35 to 54. Teeth. 4 26 to 34. Teeth. 5 21 to 25. Teeth. 6 17 to 20. Teeth. 7 14 to 16. Teeth. 8 12 to 13. Teeth. GEAR It is round and teeth on periphery. There are two goops. 1. Spur Teeth: - They are parallel to the axis. 2. Helical Teeth: -They are parallel to the at an angle to the axes. So according to the Right and Left hand axis. Types of gears:1. Spur gear. 2. Helical gear. 3. Bevel gear. 4. Hearing gear. 5. Rack& Pinion gear. 6. Worm and worm gear. 7. Internal gear. Spur gear nomenclature. Out side circle: It is biggest circle. It is cut on lathe machine. Pitch circle : It is the imaginary circle. Which separates addendum and dedendum and on this circle. It is most important circle as all the calculations and design of tooth is based on this circle. Clearance circle: - This is circle on which the out side circle of other gears touches. Root circle: It is circle do train by the milling cutter. Bore circle: It is circle of bore which is the shaft passes. It is obtain by lathe machine. Out side diameter: - It is the dia of the o.s circle. Pitch diameter: It is pitch diameter of the pitch circle. Clearance diameter:-It is the dia of the clearance circle.

Root dia: It is the dia at the bottom of the tooth spaces. Bore diameter: It is the dia of the Bore circle. Addendum: It is the height from the pitch circle to tip of the tooth. Dedendum: It is the depth of tooth space below the pitch circle and equals addendum plus clearance. Clearance: It is the difference between the dedendum of one gear and the addendum of the making gear. Cordial addendum:-This distance from the o.s. circle of the straight line drawn by joining the pitch point on the tooth. Cordial Dedendum:-This is top surface. Face: It is the part of the tooth surface lying o.s. the pitch surface.(imaginary rollers) Flank: It is that part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface. Circular pitch:It is the length of the arc of the pitch circle between similar faces of successive teeth. Cordial pitch: It is the distance measured in straight line from tooth along the pitch circle. Diameter pitch: It is the number of teeth divided by the pitch diameter. Depth of pitch: No. of teeth per inch pitch dia. Module: It is the size of the tooth in mm. Thickness of tooth: - It is the thickness of the tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is the cordial thickness measured in straight line of pitch circle.

SPUR GEAR GENERATION PRINCIPLE

SPUR GEAR FORMULA 1. Addendum:lm (module) or ded- clearance. 2. Dedendum:Add + Clearance. or 1.25m. 3. Clearance:0.25m. 4. Working depth:- Add + dend clearance = lmx 1.25- .25 =2m.

5. Total depth:6. O.D.:7. Pitch diameter:-

Add + dend. =2.25. ( n+2)m m x n= mn. or (O.D.- 2add.) P.D. O.D.- 2m 8. N (no. of teethes): ------- or --------------m m 9. Circular pitch: - 2 thickness ( m) m 10. Thickness of pitch:- ------ = 1.5708m 2 sin.90 11. Cordele thickness: ----------------------- P.D x ---------; P.D= O.D. 2add. PD cos. 90 N 12. Cordele addendum: ----- (1- ---------- ) + a 1 2 N 13.D.P. = -----------Module 1 14. Module: ----------------- -----D.P. EXAMPLE:- M= 4. T. = 45. 40 40 8 3 24 Indexing = ------ = ----- = ----- x ----- = -----. 24 space in 27 O N 45 9 3 27 O.D.= m (n+2) = 4(45 + 2) = 4 x 47 =188mm. Total Depth:- 2.25 x m = 2.25 x 4 = 9.00 mm. No. of cutter = 3. Module = 4. N. = 45. Thickness of tooth:- 1.5708 x 4 = 6.2832. Sin.90 Chordal thickness: - P.D x ---------; (P.D. = O.D. 2 add. ;), P. D. = 188 8 = 180mm. N Sin.90 C.T. = 180 x ---------- = 180 x sin.2: 180 x 0.0349 = 6.282 45 P.D. cos. 90 180 Chordal addendum:- ------ (1 - -------- ) + 4. = ----- (1 0.9994) + 4. = 90 (.0006 ) + 4. 2 N 2 = 0.054 + 4 = 4.054mm. Result: The given block was machined as a spur gear successfully.

5[B].V- GROOVE & ANGLE

Aim:- To machine a rectangular M.S.block and prepare V-groove and angle with given dimensions.

All dimensions are in mm tolerances0.05mm Tools required:- vernier caliper, steel rule, scriber. Accessories in machine:- parallel blocks, end mill cutter, plain milling cutter, spanner, Material required:75 x 75 x25 mm. M.S.block. Procedure:1. The job is fixed on the table vice. 2. The cutter is fixed on the arbor. 3. Before fixing the job, the stepper dimensions are marked on the job with the help of height gauge and dot punch. 4. Using end mill cutter or side milling cutter the job is machined to the given dimensions. 5. After completion of work the job should be finished using the tri-angular file. Precautions:1. The cutter should be properly fixed. 2. Apply proper coolant during machining. 3. Select proper cutting speed. 4. Safety devices like goggles, apron and shoes must be wearing. 5. Dont touch and measure the job, during the process of machine. Result: The given rectangular block is machined for V-groove and Angle with given dimensions.

6. CYLINDRICAL GRINDING
Introduction:- Grinding is a metal cutting operation performed by means of a rotating abrasive wheel that acts as a cutting tool. This is used to finish work pieces which must show a high surface quality, accuracy of shape and dimension. In grinding process, work piece is brought into contact with revolving grinding wheel. Each abrasive grain will act as an individual cutting tool and removes the metal in the form of small or tiny chips. Hence grinding wheel has a self- sharpening action.

CYLINDRICAL GRINDING

CYLINDRICAL GRINDING LINE DIAGRAM

Types of grinding m/s;-1. Cylindrical grinders. a} Center type (plain & Universal). b) Center less.) 2. Surface grinder 3. Tool & cutter grinder. Cylindrical Center type grinders:- Center type cylindrical grinders can be used for grinding contoured cylinders, types, faces and shoulders, fillets, and even cams and crankshafts. Main features:- The work piece is usually held between dead centers and rotated by a dog and driver on the faces plate. The work may also be rotated about its own axis in a chuck. There are 4 types in a Cylindrical Center type grinder: 1.The work must revolve, 2. The work must revolve. 3. The work must pass the wheel, 4. The work must pass the work. External cylindrical grinding:- This is produces a straight or tapered surface on a work piece. The work piece must be rotated about its own axes between centers as it passes lengthwise across the face of a revolving grinding wheel. Internal cylindrical grinding :- This is produces internal cylindrical holes and tapers. The work pieces are chucked and precisely rotated about their own axes. The grinding wheel or, in the case of small bore holes, the cylinder wheel rotates against the sense of rotation of the work piece.

6[A]SURFACE GRINDING
Surface grinder:- Surface grinding m/cs, are machines that are employed to finish plain or flat surfaces. But they are also capable of grinding irregular, curved, tapered, convex, and concave surface. Parts of S.G:-1. Base, 2 columns. 3wheel head, 4 .Table, 5. Wheel, 6. Saddle 7. Magnet table. Tool & cutter grinder: - Tool cuter grinders are used mainly to Sharpe and recondition multiple tooth citter like reamers, milling cutters, drills, taps, hobs and other types of tools used in shop. With various attachments they can also do like surface, cylindrical, and internal grinding to finch such items as jig, fisher, dies and gauge detail and sharpen single point tools. Parts of T& C grinder:- 1. Base, 2 columns. 3wheel head, 4 .Table, 5. Wheel.( cup & shaped wheels) 5. Saddle. The Grinding wheel:- It is a many hard particles known as abrasives. The abrasives grains are mixed with a suitable bond, which acts as a matrix or holder when the wheel is in use. Abrasives in two principal groups. 1. Natural abrasive, like as sandstone or solid quartz, emery, corundum,, and diamond. 2. Artificial abrasives. Two types (A) Silicon carbide (Sic) abrasive. (B) Aluminum oxide (Al2O3).

6[B].SURFACE GRINDING OPERATIONS

Aim: - To perform surface grinding on a given work piece.

All dimensions are in mm tolerances0.005mm Tools required: - micro meter, oil stone, diamond dresser Procedure:1. The given work piece has to be cleaned with emery sheet properly. 2. Keep the job on the magnetic table and switch on the magnetic lever. 3. Dress the grinding wheel properly for effective grinding. 4. Check and use the proper coolant in sufficient flow. 5. With a minimum of 0.5 mm feed operate the table smoothly and slowly and start grinding operation for one side of the work piece. 6. Similar way repeat the same on all sides of the work piece. Precautions:1. Use always proper coolant. 2. Depth of cut should be minimum. 3. Do not touch the running grinding and work piece when the machine is in running. 4. Use safety goggles. Result: - The given work piece is grinded to the given dimensions.

7. ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING

Electrical Discharge Machining is a process where hard, tough, fragile and heat sensitive metals that are difficult or impossible to machine by conventional processes can be worked.

WORKING PRINCIPLE: Almost everyone is familiar with the sparking and arcing that takes place when an electrical switch is turned on or off. Pitting or burning such as occurs on the switch contacts, is the basis of electric discharge machining, Fig An electrical discharge unit, fig is composed of a power supply to provide direct current and a method to control voltage and frequency; an electrode of the proper configuration the electrode, usually yellow brass, can be compared with the cutting tool in conventional machining; a servo mechanism to accurately control the movement of the electrode to maintain the correct distance between it and the work as machining is done; a coolant, usually a light oil, that forms a dielectric barrier between the electrode, and the work at the arc gap. The servomechanism maintains a very thin gas (about 0.001in.) between the electrode and the work. These are submerged in a fluid (dielectric) that is a nonconductor. When the voltage across the gap reaches a point sufficient to cause dielectric to break down, an arc occurs. Each spark erodes a minute piece of metal, but as the sparking occurs 20,000 to 30,000 times per second, appreciable quantities of metal are removed. The dielectric fluid also flushes the particles from the gap, and keeps the tool and work cool. The process is used for shaping and sharpening carbide cutting tools, machining the very hard metals used in missile construction ,and other applications where the physical characteristics of the metal or its use makes it impossible, or very expensive ,to machine by conventional methods.

7[A]. DRILLING A HOLE WITH EDM

Aim: To make a hole in a copper block of dia 10 mm Tools required: EDM cutter, Fixture, Dielectric fluid. Procedure : The methodology is as follows.

Description of the equipment: TYPES;Sinker EDM Wire EDM Sinker EDM sometimes is also referred to as cavity type EDM or volume EDM. Sinker EDM consists of an electrode and work piece that is submerged in an insulating liquid such as oil or dielectric fluid. The electrode and work piece are connected to a suitable power supplied. The power supply generates an electrical potential between the two parts. As the electrode approaches the work piece, dielectric break down occurs in the fluid forming an ionization channel, and a small spark jumps. The resulting heat and cavitations vaporize the base material, and to some extent, the electrode. Those sparks strike on a at a time in huge numbers at seemingly random locations between the electrode and work piece. As the base metal is eroded, and the spark gap subsequently increased, the electrode is lowered automatically by the machine so that the process can continue uninterrupted. The typical part geometry is to cut small or odd shaped angles. Vertical, orbital, vectorial, directional, helical, conical, rotational, spin and indexing machining cycles are also used. WIRE EDM, In wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM), or wire-cut EDM, a thin single-strand metal wire, usually brass, is fed through the work piece, typically occurring submerged in a tank of dielectric fluid. This process is used to cut plates as thick as 300mm and to make punches, tools and dies from hard metals that are difficult to machine other methods. The wire, which is constantly fed from a spool, is held between upper and lower diamond guides. Along with tighter tolerances multi-axis EDM wire cutting machining center have many added features such as: Multi-heads for cutting two parts at the same time, controls for preventing wire breakage, automatic selfthreading features in case of wire breakage, and programmable machining strategies to optimize the operation. Wire cutting EDM is commonly used when low residual stresses are desired. Applications; Prototype Production: The EDM process is most widely used by the mould-making tool and die industries, but is becoming a common method of making prototype and prototype and production parts, especially in the aerospace, automobile and electronics industries in which production quantities are relatively low. In Sinker EDM, a graphite,

copper tungsten or pure copper electrode is machined into the desired (negative) shape and fed into the work piece on the end of a vertical ram. Coinage die making. For the creation of dies for producing jewelry and badges by the coinage (stamping) process, the positive master may be made from sterling silver, since(with appropriate machine settings) the master is not significantly eroded and is used only once. The resultant negative die is then hardened and used in a drop hammer to produce stamped flats from cutout sheet blanks of bronze, silver, or low proof gold alloy. For badges these flats may be further shaped to a curved surface by another die. This type of EDM is usually performed submerged in an oil-based dielectric. The finished object may be further refined by hard (glass) or soft (paint) enameling and/or electroplated with pure gold or nickel. Softer materials such as silver may be hand engraved as a refinement. Small Hole drilling Small hole drilling EDM is used to make a through hole in a work piece in through which to thread the wire in Wire-cut EDM machining. The small hole drilling head is mounted on wire cut machine and allows large hardened plates to have finished parts eroded from them as needed and without pre-drilling. There are also stand-alone small hole drilling EDM machines with an x-y axis also known as a super-drill or hole popper that can machine blind or through holes.EDM Drills bore holes with a long brass or copper tube electrode that rotates in a chuck with a constant flow of distilled or deionizer water flowing through the electrode as a flushing agent and dielectric. The electrode tubes operate like the wire in wire-cut EDM machines, having a spark gap and wear rate. Some small hole drilling EDMs are able to drill through 100mm of soft or through hardened steel in less than 10 seconds, averaging 50% to 80% wear rate. Holes of 0.3 mm to 6.1mm can be achieved in this drilling operation. Brass electrodes are easier to machine but are not recommended for wire- cut operations due to eroded brass particles causing brass on brass wire breakage, therefore copper is recommended. Procedure: The given job is fixed in the vice of EDM. 1. The machine is switched on for the circulation of dielectric fluid. 2. Then the top of the tool is brought near to the job so that the feed can be completed in a short time. 3. Then the required level of fluid is to maintained in such a way that the job should be completely dripped in the fluid. 4. Select proper range of the tool feeding. 5. Start the machine by generating a spark between the tool and job & the required hole is generated by erosion of the particles. Safety Precautions: 1. Do not touch the tool or job or liquid during machining to avoid shocks. 2. Do not mix the water or splash the water during machining to avoid contamination of cutting fluid. 3. Do not start the machine without the cutting fluid. 4. Be aware the smoke that is generated during machining and wear proper masks. Result: The given work piece is drilled a hole of diameter 10mm is successfully completed in EDM machine.

8. SHEET METAL JOINING BY RIVETS, SOLDERING AND BRAZING. Riveting:- Rivets are used to fasten two or more sheets of metal together. Tin mens
rivets with flat heads are used on sheet metal work. Light sheet metal is usually punched for riveting, while the heavier sheets are drilled. A solid punch, rivet- set, snap and a hammers are the tools required for the job. The shapes of rivets used in sheet metal work.

The following rules must be observed while riveting sheet metal work; 1) Diameter of rivet = 1.2 x thickness of one plate. 2) Distance from the edge of the hole to the edge of the plate = 1.5 x diameter of rivet. 3) Length of the projecting shank = diameter of rivet. Shapes of rivets: Flat Head or Tin Mans Rivet. --- For thin metal. Bifurcated Rivet. --For soft materials. Snap Head Rivet. --- Used for general engineering works. Countersunk Head rivets. --- 900 for general work. 1200 for thin sheet metal. For better results, it is advisable to drill all the holes in one plate and only one in the other. Secure the plates with one rivet and then complete the drilling of the remaining holes.

8[A].SHEET METAL JOINING BY RIVETS

AIM:- To make semi permanent joint by riveting. 1) Solid riveting. 2) Blind riveting

Material required:- Aluminum sheets2 (5mm) , Rivets (solid& blind). Machine required:- Sheet metal cutter, hand drill, rivet gun. Measuring instruments:- Steel rule, vernier calipers. Tools:- Drill, Hand vice, Bench vice, Smooth file, Snap, Spacer& Dolly. Sequence of operations:1) Aluminum sheet is cut into required dimensions. 2) Using a smooth file, the corners are filed. 3) The plate is hammered using a mallet in order to minimize universes in them. 4) Marking is done according to standard. 5) The holes are drilled, using drilling machine & the extra mat near the holes is filed using a smooth file. 6) Riveting is done. Procedure:- Aluminum sheet is taken & cut into required dimensions & cleaned. - Using a smooth file the corners are filled reliving the sharp unwanted even rough surface. - The plates are hammered by using a mallet to straight then up. - Markings are made for holes using the scriber & steel rule. - Using a drilling m/c ,holes are drilled of required dimensions. - Using a file the unwanted, upward projection which occurring during hole drilling are filed. - Hole drilling in plates is done by fixing the plates in hard vice. - Fix the dolly firmly in bench vice & given rivets on it followed by plate via the drill hole & hammer it using ball point hammer. - Using spacer finish the rounded head of rivet. Precautions:1) Snaps& dolly should be closer properly. 2) Gaps bet plate or plates or rivets should be hammered well. 3) Holes should be drilled of correct size of rivet shank. 4) Rivets dist from the plates edge should be properly maintained as per I S std Result:Solid riveting& blind riveting is completed for a given sample

9. COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC)

XL Turn: - A2 axes CNC slant bed lathe with Fanuc emulated control programming software. The software ware incorporates major functions and facilities used on industrial controls with further option of linking the machine to CAD/ CAM and FMS (Flexible manufacturing System. XL Turn that performs drilling, boring, reaming, grooving, threading, parting, roughing, chamfering, tapping of circular work pieces, using CNC programming . Introduction: - CNC program is define as a program which contains various codes which have to be followed according to the given dimensioning methodology operating software.

There are two types of diminishing systems. 1) Absolute Dimension system 2) Incremental Dimension system. Example:Absolute Dimension system ------------------------X Y -----------------------P1 0 0 P2 20 0 P3 20 20 P4 70 20 P5 70 0 P6 100 0 P7 100 40 P8 70 70 P9 0 70 -------------------------Incremental Dimension system ----------------------------------------X Y ----------------------------------------P1 0 0 P2 20 0 P3 0 20 P4 50 0 P5 0 -20 P6 30 0 P7 0 40 P8 -30 30 P9 -70 0 ------------------------------------

A standard billet (raw material) can be represented for a diameter of 20mm and length of 70mm in CNC program methodology is given by various types of codes. Various types of codes:G- codes:- They are instructions described in the machine tool movement in a program. a) G00 -b) G01 -c) G02 -d) G03 -e) D well 04 -f) G20 -g) G21 -h) G28 -i) G70 --j) G71 -k) G72 -l) G73 -m) G74 -n) G75 -o) G76 -p) G90 -q) G92 -r) G94 -s) G98 -t) G99 -Rapid travel. Linear interpolation (cutting feed) Circular interpolation (clock wise) Circular interpolation (anti- clock wise) Idle period to the cutter. Input data in inches. Input data in metric units. Go to reference point. (home portion to the tool) Finishing of the cycle. stock removal is turning. (Multiple turning cycle) multiple facing cycles. Pattern repeating cycle. drilling cycle (peck drilling cycle) grooving cycle. Multiple threads cutting cycle. Box turning cycle. Thread cutting Box facing. Feed/ min. Feed / revolution.

M. Codes:- These are also called miscellaneous codes. 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) M00 -M03 -M05 -M06 -M30 -Program stop. Spindle forward. Spindle stop. Automatic tool charge. Program stop & rewind.

9[A]. GENERATION OF COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL (CNC) PROGRAM

Aim: To generate a plain & step turning program using CNC software

All dimensions are in mm tolerances0.05mm Software required : CNC train Tools required: Single point cutting tool, Align key and spanner Program:0 0005 G21 G28 G28 U0 WO M06 T0202 M03 S1200 G00 X26 Z2 G71 U0.5 W0.5 R1 G71 P10 Q20 U0.1 W0.1 F60 N10 G01 X0 G01 Z0 G01 X10 Z0 G03 X15 Z-5 R3 G01 X15 Z-15 G03 X20 Z-20 R3 G01 X20 Z-30 N20 G03 X25 Z-35 R3 G70 P10 Q20 S2000 F40 G28 U0 W0 M05 M30 Result: The required program is executed and the given shape on the work piece is successfully completed.

10. WELDING
Introduction : - Welding is a process of joining metals by heating them to a suitable temperature at which they melt and fuse together. 1.Arc Welding:- In arc welding the heat required for joining the metals is obtained from an electric. Transformers or motor generator sets are used as arc welding machines. These machines supply high electric currents at low voltage and an electrode is used to produce the necessary arc. The electrode serves as the filler rod and arc melts the surfaces so that the metals to be joined.

Requirements of Arc welding:1. Welding machine. 2. Cables or leads. 3. Electrode holders. 4. Cable connectors or lugs. 5. Ground clamp. 6. Chipping hammer. 7. Wire brush. 8. Face shield. 9. Protection clothing. Fundamental of weld joints:2. Butt joint. 3. Lap joint. 4. Corner joint. 5. T- Joint.

6.Edge joint. Positions:1. Flat and down hand positions.

2. Horizontal positions. 3. Vertical positions. 4. Overhead positions.

2. Gas welding:Gas welding is a welding in which a combination of gases are used to obtain a concentrated flame hot enough to melt and fuse the ends of the parts to be joined. It is the gas welding process where the parts to be joined are heated with a flame produced by the combination of OXYGEN and ACETYLENE gas.

Note: 1. In oxygen, acetylene welding, the flame must be supplied by a correct balance of oxygen and acetylene so that it is neither oxidizing nor carburizing, since either of these flames would weaken the weld. 2. Oxygen regulators have Right hand threads with plain nuts and Acetylene regulators have Left hand threads with notched hexagon nuts so that they can not be confused. The Regulator is closed by unscrewing the regulating screw. Types of flames: - The correct adjustment of the flame is important for efficient welding. The neutral flame is widely used for welding steel, stainless steel, cast iron,copper, aluminium, etc. The carburizing produced with an excess of acetylene, is needed for welding lead.The Oxidizing flame with excess of oxygen is used for welding brass. Technique of welding:Select the proper size tip for the job and insert it carefully into the torch. Open the acetylene cylinder valve slightly, say to turn. Open the oxygen cylinder valve slowly, till it is fully open. Open the acetylene valve on the torch and turn the acetylene regulator screw clockwise, until the gauge reads 0.5 to 1kg /cm2 of pressure. Then close the valve on the torch. Open the oxygen valve on the torch to check the flow and close it. Put-on the welding goggles, gloves and apron. Welding process:- Prepare the work pieces to be welded and place them in proper position on the welding table.

- Select proper size tip for the job and fix it to the torch. - Adjust the welding equipment and light the torch. - Adjust the torch for neutral flame. General safety:- Always welding in a well ventilated place. Fumes given off from welding are unpleasant and in some cases may be injurious, particularly from galvanized or zinc coated parts. - Do not weld around combustible or inflammable materials, where sparks may cause a fire. - Never weld containers which have been used for storing gosling, oil or similar materials, with out first having them thoroughly cleaned.

10[A]. WELDING OPERATIONS

AIM:- To make simple exercises like butt, lap, corner an TEE joints in Gas welding, and Arc welding.

Materials : MS flats , welding electrodes/filler rods and welding machine Procedure: 1. The given work pieces are first cleaned and sized accordingly. 2. Keep the materials in a predefined manner to make various joints like lap, butt and T . 3. By using proper techniques finish the welding as in the procedure. Result: Thus making of simple joints by using arc welding and gas welding is completed.

11.METAL JOINING PROCESSES -SOLDERING

Soft soldering is the process of joining metals by the use of filler metal of low melting point (4500c). The filler metal is an alloy of lead and tin is called solder. The malting point of solder as less then the base metals. Doping up on the proportions of each constituent, its melting point varies from 1500c to 3500c. The percentage of lead increases the malting point of soldering.

1) Soft solder ----Lead 37% & tin 63%. 2) Medium solder ----- Lead & tin 50% each. 3) Electrical solder ---- Lead 58% & Tin 42%. 4) Plumber solder ----- Lead 70% & Tin 30%. AIM-: To solder the given G. I. using Black smithy & wire. (using electric soldering) Material required:- G.I. sheets & electric wire, kerosene, coal ( both wood coal & railway coal), cotton waste, filler material, flux. Machine required:- Open hearth furnace, hot iron with a wooden handle, electric air blower. Sequence of operations (Block smithy soldering. 1. Fire the open hearth furnace 2. Soldering iron is placed. 3. A few minutes the electric air blower is switched on the coal starts burning. 4. Clamped firmly the metals to be soldered in a bench vice and apply layer of flow after cleaning. 5. Solder is applied using red hot soldering iron. 6. Remove irregularities with the hot iron.

Electric soldering:-

Start the electric solder leave it for heating. Remove the insulation for the wire to be soldering. Clean & twist then together apply flux.

Procedure:-

Filler material wire rubbed slowly against the heated soldering iron. Spread the metal uniformly on wire & make a uniform joint. 1) Plug in the soldering rod & leave it for the heating. 2) Now, remove the insulation of wires to be soldered. 3) Twist the copper of the wires & then apply flux for copper

ends. 4) Lead which is used as filler metal is rubbed slowly against the heated soldering iron rod. 5) Spread the metal uniformly on the wires. 6) Plug out the soldering rod & leave it for cooling. Result:The wires are joined using electrical soldering successfully.

11[A]. BRAZING
Brazing is similar to silver soldering but it is used when a much stronger joint is needed. The basic principle of brazing is the same whichever method is used. Sodium fluoride or sodium silicate mixed with water is used as a stopping off compound to prevent the splitter form sticking to areas of to work. The temperature of the work must be high enough to melt the smelter. The two surfaces to be joined must be at the same temperature.The work should cool evenly to prevent distortion and cracking.

Three kinds of oxygen, acetylene flames:1. Neutral flame. 2. Carburizing flame 3. Oxidizing flame AIM:- To join two sheets by brazing process. Equipment & material required:- Filler rod , flux, Oxyacetylene torch & two mild steel specimen. Tools required:- Wire brush, hand gloves, chipping hammer, spark lighter. Sequence of operations:a) Cleaning and preparing the surface . b) Fluxing both the base metal and filler metal.

c) Aligning the base metal parts to joined. d) Fleeting the joint which is used for brazing. e) Remove flux reside from joint Theory:- It is the process of joining 2 pieces of metals in which a non ferrous is introduced in a liquid state between the pieces of metal to be joined & allow it solidly. The filler metal is distributed between the closely filled surfaces of the joint by caliper action. The melting point of filler metal is above 42000c, but lower than melting point temp. of parent metal . During the process no forging action is present & also the parts dont melt. The bond is produced either by formation of solid solution or intermetallic compound of parent metal. The strength of the joint is provided by metallic bonding. Good brazing process involves preloading, fluxing, proper alignment, heating &post clearing. The following are the metals & alloys used for the brazing process. 1. Cu having melting point of 10800c.Joint clearance is of order 0 0.05mm & shear strength of material is 3400 3800 kg / cm2. 2. Cu alloys, brass, bronze having melting point varying from 850 to 950 0c. They are mostly used for joining ferrous metals. Joint clearance is 0.08 to 0.25mm & shear strength is 2500 3100 kg /cm2. 3. Sliver alloy, sliver & Cu or silver, Cu, Zn, having melting point of 600 8500c.The joint clearance is 0.05 to 0,13mm & strength of joint material is 1500 to 1850 kg / cm2. 4. Al alloys having melting point 5500c to 7800c. 5. Soft solders :- These having melting point of 70-300oC & the joint clearance is 0.075 to 0.2mm and strength of joint material 350-450 kg/cm2 . Depending on source of heating the brazing process may be classified as touch brazing, furnace brazing, inductive brazing, resistance brazing, and dip brazing and infrared brazing. Description: Oxy-acetylene torch is produced by mixing of oxygen & acetylene in proper ratios. The oxygen and acetylene are stored in the red and yellow colored tanks respectively for easy identification. The tanks contain gases subjected to pressure. They have valves which indicate the outlet pressure as well as inlet pressure. The rubber tubes from two tanks are connected to hand held device with nozzle. It consists of valve for regulating gases flow and a mixing chamber the gases flow rate can be regulated using this value which there by helps in obtaining reducing flame, natural flame and oxygen flame. The nozzle is made of a high temperature resistant material. Procedure:- Cleaning & preparing the surface to brazed ,cleaning is done by solvent acid, pickling and by mechanical mean. It is also essential that joint is joined properly and clearance between the work parts should be controlled. Fluxing both the base metal & filler metal surface by spraying, brushing or by mechanical means. Aligning the base metal parts to be joined. Heating the joint. Heat sources that are used for brazing are a molten bath of brazing filler metal. Oxy- acetylene touch, electrical resistance heating or induction heating. Applying filler metal to the joint. Allow cooling of the brazed joint. Remove flux residue from the completed joint. The given specimen is brazed that is attached or joined. Precautions:- 1 The surfaces to be brazed thoroughly cleaned. 2 Align the base metal parts to be joined carefully. 3. Regulators must be operated carefully. Result:The given specimen is said to be attached or brazed.

MATERIALS LAB. 12. WOOD GLOOVING PRACTICE

Air craft wood gloving practice (Bonding):Aim:- To prepare a banded structure made up of wood and aluminum with the aid of glue

Work Material:- Wood 75x75x 30mm. and 2 aluminum sheets 75x 75x 6mm. Theory:- Bonding is a method of joining bounding material called glue which is to be placed b/m the member to be joined, generally bonding is done b/m the member so that the resultant bonded structure will have hybrid properties ie. the combination of properties of both the materials. Bonded structures are widely used in structures of various a/c components like wing, of fuselage etc as a bonded joint b/m aluminum & wood has a strength that to weight ratio compared with the individual materials which is the primary requirement for an a/c. Procedure:- 1) Take a given wooden piece and san it to the given dimensions. 2) With the help of filing, give the surface finish. 3) Mark the aluminum sheet to 75x75x6mm with the help of scale and scriber, cut it from the main sheet by using cutter 4) With the aid of metal file, give the metals a good edge finish. 5) Finally bond the aluminum sheet & wooden piece with glue. 6) Change it in order to make the bond dry and strong. Precautions:- - Mark the dimensions without any parallel errors. - Paper case is to be taken while sawing the wooden piece & filing of aluminum sheet. -Bonded structure is properly clamped & allowed to dry. Result:- The respective bonded structure is (bond) obtained.

13. STUDY OF PROPERTIES OF SANDWICH STRUCTURES

Aim: Study of the properties of a sandwich structure Materials required: Wood 100mm x 10mm x 3 mm, Aluminium100mm x 10mm x 2 mm

Procedure: 1. The given wooden material is made to the standard dimensions as given in the requirement. 2. Then the given aluminum flat are so arranged over the surface of the wood material. 3. This type of structural component is called fletched beam and can have high strength and less weight. 4. These structural members are used in the fabrication of air craft structural members like wings, fuselage etc. Result: The given materials are fabricated and made as sandwich structures successfully.

14. STUDY OF MICROSTRUCTURES OF NON FERROUS METALS

Aim:Study of microstructure for Aluminum alloy and copper alloy material

Aluminum Structure Copper structure Apparatus:- Microscope, Aluminum alloy, test specimen, copper alloy, alloy test specimen and magnifying lens. Procedure:- 1) A specimen surface is grinded in belt type rough surface grinder. 2) The specimen is rinsed in water and same surface is polished using polishing, grinding machine 3) Then the solution is applied on the surface of the specimen for clear vision of the Microstructure A) Aluminum alloy:- The specimen is 3% copper and 6% Si, Al, Alloy. The microstructure showsvery fine grids of Al, Si elates in a matrix form of Al, salt solution. The particles longer and sharp. They are more angular. The microstructure of Al alloy under the acid solution. b) Copper alloy: - The specimen is wrought commercial bars. The specimen is annelid after cold working to draw into a wrought. The composition is 60% copper, Al 40%. The escheat solution for this is Ammonium and H2O2. Result:The study of microstructure of Al. alloy and Cu. Alloy was completed.

15. AUTOCLAVE FOR DIFFERENT GEOMETRICAL STRUCTURES

Aim: Study of Autoclave unit for different geometrical structures. Apparatus required: Autoclave Description:

AUTOMATIC AUTO CLAVE Bag molding is one of the oldest and most versatile of the process use in the manufacturing composite parts. The laminae( freshly impregnated with wet resins ) are laid up in a mold, covered with a flexible diaphragm or bag and cured with heat and pressure. After the required cured cycle, the materials become an integrated molded part shaped to the desired configuration. The general process of bag modeling can be divided on the basis of the pressure and heat applied to the laminate during curing into (1) Pressure bag (2) Vacuum bag (3) Autoclave.

Inside chamber of an Autoclave In the Pressure bag molding, pressure above atmosphere are applied on the laminate inside the closed mold. The curing is accomplished by heating the mold in an oven. In Vacuum bag molding, air and other volatiles between the bag and laminate are removed by a vacuum pump. Thus the laminates subjected to atmospheric pressure when it is being cured in an oven.

Autoclave processing of composites is an extension of the vacuum bag technique. Autoclave can be pressurized during processing of the composites. In this method the composite part is laid up and enclosed in a vacuum bag. Full or partial vacuum is drawn under the bag and gas pressure greater than the atmospheric pressure is applied on the exterior of the bag. Curing of the polymer is initiated by raising the part temperature int eh autoclave chamber. Augmented pressure exerts higher mechanical forces on the layup, increases the efficiency of the transport of the volatiles to the vacuum ports and results in increased wetting and flow of the resin. Reduction in volume of trapped air and released volatiles results in lower void content. Vacuum bag and autoclave methods are used to produce most bag modeled parts. The main advantages are the relatively inexpensive tooling and use of the basic curing equipment( OVEN AND AUTOCLAVE) for an unlimited variety of shaped parts. Result : Thus the study of Auto clave is completed.