MODULE 1:
RATE AND RESISTANCE
Displacement (Sesaran)
Suppose a student walks from his house (labelled H) to a shop (labelled S)
in a straight line as shown below:
H 100m S
E.g. 1 :
Student walking from his house to the shop. If the student takes 50 seconds
to walk the distance.
Since, we know that his displacement is 100m.
Then,
Linear velocity = Rate of displacement
= Displacement
Time
v = _s_
t
= 100m
50s
= 2.0 ms-1 in the HS direction
E.g. 2 :
Since v = _s_
t
Then s = v x t
= 750 km h-1 x 3 h
= 2250 km
The measurement of the angle that the rotating object has gone through is
called angular displacement, that is:
θ = angular displacement
E.g. 2 :
Referring to Diagram 3, suppose it takes 0.1 s for the point on the disc to
make one complete turn. What is the angular velocity of the disc?
= 2π rad
0.1 s
= 2 x 3.14 rad
0.1 s
= 62.8 rad s-1
E.g. 2 :
e.g : When the piston in the engine of a car moves up & down, heat is produced
and the engine will get hot. The surface of the piston will wear out after some
time.
To reduce the surface wear and the heat caused by friction, parts of engine
(bearings, gears, chains etc) require lubrication.
VOLTAN/V
VOLTAN/V
VOLTAN/V
VOLTAN/V
Figure 5 : Alternating current changes direction 100 times in 50 cycles
50 cycles a second or 50 Hertz is a measurement of a quantity called frequency.
Example 1:
A commercial generator produces an electrical signal that has 240 cycles in 4 s.
Find the frequency of the signal.
Solution:
n = 240 cycles and t = 4 s
f = n
t
= 240 cycles
4 seconds
= 60 cycles
seconds
= 60 Hz
VOLTAN/V
Figure 5 : Alternating current changes direction 100 times in 50 cycles
From Figure 5, if 50 cycles are made in 1 s, then 1 cycle will take 1/50 of a
second.
f = 1
T
therefore T = 1
f
Example 2 :
What is the period for the commercial generator describe in Example 1?
Solution:
T = 1
f
= 1
60 Hz
= 0.017 s
MODULE 2:
ENERGY- Defined as the ability to do work
E.g. 1 :
A pile driver shown in Figure 2 is dropped from a height to hit the piling
rod, so that it gets buried to a certain depth. Calculate the potential energy of
the 50 kg pile driver if it is dropped from heights:
a) 2 m b) 3 m
a) E = m g h
= 50kg x 10ms-2 x 2m
= 1000 J
b) E = m g h
= 50kg x 10ms-2 x 3m
= 1500 J
E.g. 2 :
Solution :
E = m g h
= (5000 kg) x ( 10 N kg-2) x (50 m)
= 2 500 000 J
= 2500 kJ
Importance of GPE:
Helps piling to go very deep into the earth.
Allows us to build strong & tall structures.
Water falling from hills & mountains in hydroelectric power.
The spring constant = The force you need to stretch/compress the spring
Elastic Potential
Energy = ½ x (Spring constant) x (Length of spring
stretched/compressed)
E = ½ x k x x2
Solution :
Note that x must be in meter, 1 m = 100 cm:
e.p.e of the rubber band:
E = ½ k x2
= ½ x (40 N m-1) x ( 0.03 m)2
= 0.018 J
E.g. 4 :
The rear spring of a car has a spring constant of 100 000 N m-1. After being
filled with some loads, the spring gets compressed to 10 cm. Calculate the
potential energy stored in such a spring.
Solution :
E = ½ k x2
= ½ x (100 000 Nm-1) x (0.1m)2
= 500 J
Importance of EPE:
Useful in valves, car part such as the brake, suspension & pressure
regulator.
When a pile driver is released from a certain height, the velocity when it
hits the piling rod is 8 ms-1. Calculate the kinetic energy of the pile driver
when it hits the piling rod.
Solution :
E = ½ m v2
= ½ x (50 kg) x (8 ms-1)2
= 1600 J
= 1.6 kJ
If the pile driver hits the piling rod at a velocity twice the above, calculate
its kinetic energy. Twice the velocity means, v = 16 ms-1
Solution :
E = ½ m v2
= ½ x (50 kg) x (16 ms-1)2
= 6400 J
= 6.4 kJ
Note that the gravitational potential energy stored in the pile driver has
been changed to kinetic energy as it falls onto the piling rod.
Rotational
Kinetic Energy = ½ x Moment of inertia x (Angular velocity)2
E = ½ x I x ω2
In a linear motion:
The larger the mass, the bigger the translational kinetic energy.
In a rotating motion:
The larger the moment inertia, the larger the rotational kinetic energy.
Photograph 3: An exercise bicycle, a top and a fan blade
Table 1: Comparison between translational and rotational quantities
Translational
Rotational
Moment of inertia depends on the size and shape of the object. A thin object
(small radius) has a small moment of inertia compared to a wide object (big
radius)
2) Inductors
Function : Stores electrical energy
Function : Stores electrical energy by creating voltage
* PE = Potential Energy
Capacitance
Capacitance is the quantity that tell us the amount of charge that can be
stored across the plates of the capacitor when it is connected to a certain
voltage.
E.g. 1 :
A camera flash circuit boosts the voltage supplied by the battery to 200 V.
If the energy needed to light up an electronic flash is 3 J, what is the
capacitance of the capacitor that supplies the charge needed?
Solution :
For V = 200 V,
3 J = ½ x C x (200)2
= 1.5 x 10-4 F
= 150 µF
Inductance
E.g. 2 :
An inductor with the inductance of 10 H is connected to a car battery.
Calculate the energy stored by the inductor if the current flowing is 1 A.
Solution :
Energy stored in the inductor is given by E = ½ LI2
For L = 10 H, and I = 1A
E = ½ x L x I2
= ½ (10)(1)2
= 5 J
Answer the question below :
The hotter object loses the energy, while the cooler object gains heat
energy.
(b) Types of the material that receive & lose the energy.
Objects of different materials behave differently towards heat.
1 kg of H2O takes longer time to heat compared to 1 kg of iron.
where,
Q = heat energy transferred (lost or gained) in joule (J)
m = mass of the object in kilogram (kg)
c = specific heat capacity of the object in joule per kg per degree Celsius (J
kg-1 0C-1)
θ = change in temperature of the object in degree Celsius (oC)
Specific Heat Capacity (Muatan Haba Tentu)
Figure 1 : Humans and plants are made up of cells. The water content ranges
between 70% to 80% within a single cell.
Water
Ice
Iron
Mercury
Silver
Human Body
Wood 900
400
840
130
4200
2100
450
140
230
3470
1700
E.g. 1 :
By using the specific heat capacity from Table 1, calculate the total heat needed
to increase the temperature of 1 kg of water from 300C to 1000C.
Solution :
Initial water temperature = 300C
Final water temperature = 1000C
Change in temperature, θ = 700C
Specific heat capacity of water, c = 4200 J kg-1 0C-1
Mass of water = 1 kg
Q = m x c x θ
Q = 1 kg x 4200 J kg-1 0C-1 x 70oC
= 294 000 J
= 294 kJ
When 2 objects at different temperatures are contact with each other, heat will be
transferred from the hot object to the cold object.
The hot object will lose heat while the cool object will gain heat.
MODULE 3:
POWER
Power (Kuasa)
Define as :
where,
P = power in watt (W) or joule per second ( Js-1 )
W = work done in joule ( J )
t = time taken to do work in seconds (s)
For linear mechanical work such as lifting things, work against the force of
gravity.
Given by :
Work = Mass x Acceleration x Height
W = m x g x h
where,
P = power produced by machine in watt (W)
W = work done in joule ( J )
t = time involved in doing the work in seconds ( s )
E.g. 1 :
An airport luggage belt takes 5 s to move a bag along a 5 m distance. If the
force exerted by the motor of the luggage belt is 10 000 N, calculate the power of
the motor.
Solution :
Power = Work
Time
= _F x s_
t
= 10 000 N x 5 m
5s
= 10 000 W
= 10 kW
E.g. 2 :
The slide before, luggage belt has to exert 15 000 N to carry an extra load.
How long does it take to move the bag in 5 m?
Solution :
time = Work
Power
= _F x s_
P
= 15 000 N x 5 m
10 000 W
= 75 s
E.g. 3 :
W = ½ I ѡ2
since power is, P = _W_
t
P = ½ I ѡ2
t
E.g. 4 :
A washing machine with moment of inertia of 2 kg m2 spins at angular speed
of 350 rad s-1. If the brake system in the washing machine has an average power of
1000 W, how long does it take to stop?
Solution :
Power, P = ½ I ⍵2
t
t = ½ I ⍵2
P
= 122.5 s
= 2.04 min
In most situation, both linear & rotational powers are involved together. Examples
:
Boat engine – A boat engine provides rotational power to rotate the propeller. The
rotation of the propeller produces the linear motion of the boat.
Examples for Linear Mechanical System:
Photograph 2 : Radio
Electrical power (Kuasa Elektrik)
Define as :
P = V I
E.g. 1 :
The power window of a car uses 40 A current & operates at a voltage of 12 V.
What is the power?
Solution :
Power = V I
= (12 V ) x (40 A)
= 480 Watt
E.g. 2 :
An electrical iron rated at 1000 W operates at a voltage of 240 V. How much
current does it use?
Solution : P = V I
I = P
V
= 1000 W
240 V
= 4.17 Ampere
Efficiency (% Kecekapan)
E.g. 3 :
Solution :
(a) Pin = V I = (20 V) x (13 A) = 260 Watt
= 200 W x 100 = 77 %
260 W
E.g. 4 :
The efficiency of a 220 V electric motor is 85 %. If the power output is 700
W:
(a) What is the power input?
(b) How much current does the motor use?
Solution :
(a)Efficiency = Pout x 100 (b) I = Pin
Pin V
MODULE 4:
ENERGY CONVERTERS
are devices that convert energy from one form to another.
MEC changes kinetic energy & potential energy to other forms of energy.
Example :
A windmill & turbine power generator is an example of a MEC.
changes mechanical energy to electrical energy.
MEC = Mechanical Energy Converters