2005 US Army Field Fortifications Subcourse 215p

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SUBCOURSE EN0065 EDITION B
FIELD FORTIFICATIONS
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ENGINEER SUBCOURSE 65
FIELD FORTIFICATIONS
CORRESPONDENCE COURSE PROGRAM U. S. ARMY ENGINEER SCHOOL FORT LEONARD WOOD, MO
INTRODUCTION Field fortifications are natural or manmade protective features used as defensive obstacles, personnel and weapons shelters, and protected firing positions. This subcourse teaches you how to construct personnel, vehicle, and weapons emplacements, intrenchments, shelters, entanglements, and obstacles under various climatic conditions. Standard plans, types of material, construction procedures, and estimated time and labor requirements are also given. The subcourse consists of five lessons and an examination as follows: Lesson . !urpose and "equirements of Field Fortifications. #. Trenches, and Fieldwor$s. %. &bstacle 'mployment. (. )arbed *ire 'ntanglements. +. ,amouflage -!rotection .gainst 'nemy Surveillance/. 'xamination. Fifteen credit hours are allowed for this subcourse. The format of this subcourse has been developed to facilitate student self0pacing and self0testing. 'ach lesson in this subcourse is followed by a number of Self0Test questions and exercises designed for a review of that lesson. .fter completing study of the lesson, you should answer the Self0Test exercises, then turn to the bac$ of the subcourse boo$let where the correct answers to the Self0Test have been included. . comparison of your answers with those given in the bac$ of the subcourse will indicate your $nowledge and understanding of the material presented. *hen you have completed all lessons to your satisfaction, complete and forward the 'xamination .nswer ,ard which you will find in the subcourse pac$et. The grade you receive on the examination is your grade for the subcourse.
* * * IMPORTANT NOTICE * * * THE PASSING SCORE FOR ALL ACCP MATERIAL IS NOW 70%. PLEASE DISREGARD ALL REFERENCES TO THE 75% REQUIREMENT.
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LESSON 1 PURPOSE AND REQUIREMENTS OF FIELD FORTIFICATIONS CREDIT HOURS.......................................................................................................... 3 TEXT ASSIGNMENT.................................................................................................. Att !"#$ %#%&' ($)%. LESSON O*+ECTI,ES 1pon completion of this lesson you should be able to 00 1. * -i! R#.)i'#%#(t &/ Fi#0$ F&'ti/i! ti&(-. 2escribe the basic requirements for field fortifications to include efficient employment of weapons, protection qualities, and progressive development. 1. P'&t#!ti2# M# -)'#- A3 i(-t N)!0# ' W# 4&(-. 2escribe protective measures against nuclear weapons to include before, during and after explosion actions and procedures. 3. I($i2i$) 0 E%40 !#%#(t-. 2escribe construction methods for individual emplacements to include s$irmisher3s trench, improve emplacement, one0man fox hole etc. 5. C'#6 S#'2#$ I(/ (t'7 W# 4&(- E%40 !#%#(t-. 2escribe construction of infantry weapons emplacements to include machine gun emplacements, emplacements for recoilless weapons, etc. 5. ,#"i!0# ($ A'ti00#'7 E%40 !#%#(t-. 2escribe construction of vehicle and artillery emplacements to include vehicle pit, towed artillery weapons emplacements, and self0propelled and tan$0mounted weapons emplacements. 8. Fi'#9 -# C&(-t')!ti&(. 2escribe construction of a firebase to include layout, artillery requirements, and construction tas$s in !hases 4, 44, and 444. 7. D#0i9#' t# S"#0t#'- ($ *)(:#'-. 2escribe construction of deliberate shelters to include general construction requirements, sectional shelters, bun$ers, overhead cover, and standoff. ;. P'#/ 9'i! t#$ S"#0t#'- ($ *)(:#'-. 2escribe construction of prefabricated shelters and bun$ers to include design considerations of the *'S concrete arch bun$er, and *'S concrete arch shelter. <. P'&t#!ti2# S"#0t#'- /&' F'&=#( E(2i'&(%#(t. 2iscuss the barriers and shelters which can be constructed of snow or ice and the qualities of snow and ice as protective materials.
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ATTACHED MEMORANDUM S#!ti&( I. P)'4&-# ($ P'&t#!ti2# R#.)i'#%#(t- &/ Fi#0$ F&'ti/i! ti&(1>1. USE OF FIELD FORTIFICATIONS cannot disperse sufficiently to obtain adequate protection. #. A0t#'( t# ($ $)%%7 4&-iti&(-. *hen time and the situation permit, dummy and alternate positions should be constructed to deceive the enemy and to allow flexibility in the defense. 1>1. RESPONSI*ILITIES
. O( t"# &//#(-#. 2uring offensive operations periodic halts may be required to regroup, resupply, or consolidate positions gained. *here the enemy threat is $nown to include a counterattac$ capability -or probability/, offensive units should see$ available cover or should dig hasty emplacements. 9. O( t"# $#/#(-#. . defensive position is built around a series of organi5ed and occupied tactical positions. !ositions are selected for their natural defensive strength and the observation afforded. Fortification measures include clearing fields of fire, digging weapons emplacements and positions for personnel, strengthening natural obstacles, installing artificial obstacles, and providing camouflage. !. F&'ti/i! ti&( 40 (-. !lans for fortification not only provide for the desired degree of protection but also for bringing the enemy under the maximum volume of effective fire as early as possible. Fortification plans are usually based on progressive construction, that is, proceeding from open to covered emplacements and shelters, to the ultimate protection permissible under the circumstances. ,haracteristics of personnel and individual weapons emplacements are shown in table 0 -in bac$ of course boo$let/. $. Di-4#'-i&(. The separation of units and individuals is a primary means of protection, particularly from the effects of nuclear weapons. 4f the area occupied by a unit is doubled, it is less vulnerable to shell fire or the effects of nuclear weapons. !roper dispersion can greatly reduce the requirements for high level protection from field fortifications. The amount that a unit spreads out depends on the mission, terrain, and the enemy situation. Fortifications, properly employed, can be used in lieu of, or to supplement, dispersion, but fortifications are particularly important for units that
Field fortifications are constructed by personnel of all arms and services. 6asty shelters and emplacements are normally constructed by the combat units occupying the position. Some engineer equipment and supervisory assistance are frequently required to assist the combat units. Fortifications of a more complex character may require construction by engineer troops. .ctually, engineers at all echelons of command assist in the preparation of plans and orders and furnish technical advice and assistance in the construction of field fortifications. 1>3. *ASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR FORTIFICATIONS
. E%40&7%#(t &/ 6# 4&(-. 'mplacements must permit effective use of the weapons for which they are designed. This requirement may limit the protection which can be provided and may influence the design and depth of ad7acent shelters. 9. P'&t#!ti&(. .s far as possible, protection should be provided against ha5ards except a direct hit or a close nuclear explosion. To obtain maximum protection, excavations should be as small as possible, thereby limiting the effective target area for high tra7ectory weapons and airbursts. !. Si%40i!it7 ($ #!&(&%7. The emplacement or shelter should be strong and simple, require as little digging as possible and be constructed with materials that are immediately available.
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$. P'&3'#--i2# $#2#0&4%#(t. !lans for defensive wor$s should allow for progressive development to improve the usefulness of the fortification. 2evelopment fortifications can be accomplished in three steps 00 ?1@ 2igging in quic$ly where speed is the principal consideration and no special tools or materials are required. ?1@ 4mprovising with available materials. ?3@ "efining, using stoc$ materials. #. C %&)/0 3# ($ !&(!# 0%#(t. Fortifi0 cations should be built so that the completed wor$ can be camouflaged. 4t may not be practical to conceal a defensive position completely, but it should be camouflaged enough to prevent the enemy from spotting the position by ground observation. 4f possible, dummy positions should be constructed the same time as the actual position. /. I(3#()it7. . high degree of imagination and ingenuity is essential to assure the best use of available materials as well as the best choice and use of the fortifications constructed. 1>5. PROTECTION FROM CON,ENTIONAL WEAPONS infantry heavy weapons, bombs, and other serial weapons. .dvantage should be ta$en of all available natural cover. 4mprovement of the position continues until the unit leaves the area. 9. O2#'"# $ !&2#'. &verhead protection is important particularly in the forward areas where the threat includes airburst shelling in addition to the possibility of nuclear attac$. ,overed firing positions should be built for individual riflemen. Small readily accessible shelters ad7acent to weapons emplacements are also necessary. . minimum of +0#8 centimeters -90: inches/ of logs, (+ centimeters - : inches/ sandbags, roc$s, and dirt, in that order, is required for overhead protection. .ny available material may be used but cover should be $ept low. 6owever, cover of this type will not protect personnel against direct shell hits. &verhead cover should be strengthened and improved as long as the position is occupied. &nly part of the firing position should be covered. Sandbags are placed over the logs to prevent dirt from falling on the occupants. 1>5. PROTECTION FROM CHEMICAL AND *IOLOGICAL WEAPONS
. Di33i(3 i(. !rotection against conventional weapons is best provided by constructing a thic$ness of earth and other materials. This is done by digging into the ground so that personnel and equipment offer the smallest target possible to the line of sight of weapon. This means of protection is effective against direct fire of small arms and hori5ontally impelled shell fragments. 2igging in also provides some protection against artillery,
&pen or partially open emplacements afford no protection from chemical or biological attac$. !ersonnel in open emplacements should use the poncho for protection against liquid contamination and the protective mas$ to provide protection from chemical vapors and biological aerosols. &verhead cover will delay penetration of chemical vapors and biological aerosols, thereby providing additional mas$ing time and protection against direct liquid contamination. ,overed emplacements with relatively small apertures and entrance areas which can be closed, provide protection from napalm and flame0flamethrowers.
S#!ti&( II. N)!0# ' W# 4&(- P'&t#!ti2# M#t"&$1>8. EXPLOSIONS understand the effects of these weapons on personnel and equipment. *ell trained and
Since the threat of nuclear weapons is present in modern warfare, it is necessary to
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well disciplined soldiers can protect themselves and their equipment against this threat and continue their mission, even though a nuclear weapon has more destructive power than any other device. 1>7. WEAPONS EFFECTS 9. *0 -t ($ # 't" -"&!:. )last and associated earth shoc$ effects are caused by violent changes in pressure that move out in all directions from the center of the explosion, li$e a very strong wind. =ost direct in7uries from the blast effects result when personnel are thrown to the ground by the blast. 4ndirect blast in7uries are sustained from flying debris and the collapse of emplacements, shelters, trenches, or buildings. 1>;. PROTECTI,E MEASURES in7ury depends on: -a/ amount of body exposure< -b/ length of time exposed< -c/ previous radiation damage to the body tissue< -d/ other in7uries received which may contribute to disability< -e/ general physical condition.
. R $i ti&(. The presence of radiation and the high intensity of the blast or earth shoc$ following nuclear explosions distinguishes them from the effects of conventional bombs or other explosives. ?1@ T"#'% 0 ' $i ti&(. . nuclear explosion causes extreme "# t and 0i3"t that are comparable in intensity to the surface of the sun. 6eat from nuclear explosions causes varying degrees of burns from the equivalent of a mid sunburn to more severe in7uries. The intense heat may also set fire to buildings, forests, and equipment. Light from a nuclear explosion may da5e personnel for a short time during daylight, and at nighttime the effects are even more severe, lasting about 8 minutes. ;ight vision may be impaired for an extended period of time, and permanent in7ury will result if the eyes are focused in the direction of the burst. ?1@ N)!0# ' ' $i ti&(. 4nitial and residual radiation effects are associated with nuclear explosions. I(iti 0 ' $i ti&( which is emitted within a minute of the burst travels in straight lines at about the speed of light and has a high penetrating effect. R#-i$) 0 or lingering radiation comes from the radioactive materials originally in a nuclear weapon or from normally nonradioactive materials -such as soil or equipment/ which have been made radioactive by the nuclear reaction. Substances, including soil or equipment that have become contaminated and remain radioactive emit i($)!#$ ' $i ti&(, one form of residual radiation. .nother form of residual radiation, commonly referred to as / 00&)t, is induced when a nuclear explosion occurs under, at, or near the surface of the earth and large quantities of dirt and debris are thrown up, mixing with the fireball. These radioactive particles in the atmosphere gradually fall to earth. 4n7uries from nuclear radiation are caused by the penetrating rays of the initial and residual radiation. The degree of
4ndividual protective measures against nuclear weapons should be ta$en before, during, and after the explosion. .ll personnel should follow the unit standing operating procedure -S&!/ which covers such items as the use of protective equipment, warning signals, first aid, firefighting, reorgani5ation, mar$ing of contaminated areas, and decontamination. The following general procedures are also applicable: . *#/&'# t"# #A40&-i&(. 4f there is warning of a nuclear explosion, and available time and the tactical situation permit 00 ?1@ !ositions should be improved 00 dug deeper and covered. 'ven a shelter half, covering the top of a foxhole, provides some protection. . poncho should not be used because it may get too hot, melt, and cause burns. The position should be revetted if possible. ?1@ 4f there is not enough time to prepare a good position, a shallow trench should be dug deep enough so the body is below the surface of the ground and covered with a shelter half. ?3@ 6elmet should be worn, and personnel should $eep their faces down. 9. D)'i(3 t"# #A40&-i&(. ?1@ !ersonnel should crouch low in
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their foxholes with their heads down, or lie flat in their trench with shelter halves over them. ?1@ 4f they are in the open, soldiers should try to get into a nearby ditch or behind a wall, but they should not try to get to a shelter if it is more than a few yards away. ?3@ 4f no shelter is available nearby, personnel should turn their bac$s to the explosion while dropping to a prone position. ?5@ The brilliant flash will cause temporary blindness and may cause permanent eye damage if loo$ed at directly. ?5@ !ersonnel should stay where they are until the blast wave passes. )y this time, the greatest danger from heat, initial radiation, blast, or shoc$ will be over. !. A/t#' t"# #A40&-i&(. ?1@ Fallout will usually be present so personnel should 00 ? @ >eep under cover until fallout has stopped. ?9@ )rush the dust from their clothing. Scrape up and throw out any dirt or other material which has fallen into the foxholes. 2ig out dirt and pile it several inches deep for at last meter around the hole. ?!@ ,lean equipment as well as available material permits. ?1@ Scrape dirt from around the edge of the foxholes for at least meter, and scatter dirt around the foxholes for 8 meters. c. C&(t %i( t#$ #.)i4%#(t. Trained personnel in each unit will use instruments to test equipment and supplies for contamination. 4f instruments are lac$ing, the urgency of the situation dictates whether equipment is used without being tested. ?enerally, equipment not damaged by the explosion is safe to use. *ashing or brushing will usually ma$e contaminated equipment safe to operate. ?$@ 6elp others as much as possible. ?1@ )e prepared to continue the mission. The enemy can be expected to follow up a nuclear explosion to ta$e advantage of any resulting damage and confusion. Stay in position to repel an attac$. 1><. OTHER MEASURES
. F'i#($07 ()!0# ' 6# 4&(-. ;uclear weapons may be used close to our own areas. 4f used close enough to be dangerous there will be warning and instructions on precautions to ta$e. The individual protective measures discussed above are important in a situation of this $ind. 9. C&(t %i( t#$ '# -. 4f required to occupy a contaminated -radioactive/ area, the following actions should be ta$en: ?1@ 2ig foxholes quic$ly.
S#!ti&( III. P'i(!i40#- ($ M#t"&$- &/ C&(-t')!ti&( 1>10. MATERIALS 9. Ot"#' % t#'i 0-. ?1@ =anufactured materials, such as pic$ets, barbed wire, cement, lumber, sandbags, corrugated metal, and other materials for revetting, camouflage, shelter, and concrete construction are supplied by support organi5ations. ?1@ ,aptured enemy supplies, locally procured material, and demolished buildings
. N t)' 0. Full use is made of all available natural materials such trees, logs, and brush in constructing and camouflaging emplacements, shelters and overhead cover. 1sually, enough natural material can be found to meet the requirements for hasty or expedient fortifications. Snow and ice may be used in the construction of emplacement and shelters in cold regions.
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are other sources of fortifications construction materials. 1>11. METHODS OF EXCA,ATING made easier and accomplished more quic$ly by using explosive in any type of soil. Special explosive digging aids available include the =#.% and =% shaped demolition charges, and the field expedient det cord wic$.
. H ($t&&0-. The individual soldier is equipped with an intrenching tool and, if necessary, he can use his bayonet to assist in digging. !ic$ mattoc$s, shovels, and other tools are also useful, and frequently available for this purpose -fig 0 /. 4n addition, captured enemy equipment may be available. The relative value of each tool depends on the soil and terrain. 4n arctic areas, a larger quantity of pic$s and pic$ mattoc$s are required to aid in the preparation of emplacements in fro5en ground. 9. E.)i4%#(t. "elatively narrow cuts with steep or nearly vertical sides required for most emplacements or shelters can be excavated more accurately by hand. 6owever, intrenching machines, bac$hoes, bulldo5ers, buc$et loaders, and scrapers may be where the situation will permit the use of heavy equipment. 1sually, these machines cannot dig out the exact shape desired or will dig more earth than necessary, requiring completion of the excavation by hand. .dditional revetment material is usually required when machines are used. 2istinctive scars on the ground resulting from the use of heavy equipment require more effort for effective camouflage than fortification wor$ performed by hand. !. EA40&-i2#-. =any fortification tas$s are Fi3)'# 1>1. I(t'#(!"i(3 #.)i4%#(t.
SECTION I,. C&(-t')!ti&( &/ I($i2i$) 0 E%40 !#%#(t1>11. TBPES OF EMPLACEMENTS of the squad from their designated positions before they dig individual foxholes. *hen the situation is stabili5ed, even temporarily, positions are selected so they can be connected by trenches later. The emplacements described below provide protection against flat tra7ectory fire. They are used when there is no natural cover. 6asty
. H -t7 #%40 !#%#(t-. 6asty emplacements are dug by troops in contact with the enemy, when time and materials are limited. 6asty positions should be supplemented with overhead cover and strengthened as conditions permit. 4f the situation permits, the small unit leader will verify the sectors of observation and fire for the individual members
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positions -figure 0#/ are good for a short time because they give some protection from direct fire. 4f the unit remains in the area, they must be developed into well0prepared positions to provide as much protection as possible. ?1@ S:i'%i-"#'C- t'#(!". This shallow pit type emplacement -fig 0(/ provides a temporary open prone firing position for the individual soldier. *hen immediate shelter from heavy enemy fire is required and existing defiladed firing positions are not available, each soldier lies prone or on his side, scrapes the soil with his intrenching tool, and piles it in a low parapet between himself and the enemy. 4n this manner, a shallow body0length pit can be formed quic$ly in all but the hardest ground. The trench should be oriented so that it is least vulnerable to enfilade fire. . soldier presents a low silhouette in this type of emplacement and is protected to a limited extent from small arms fire. 4t can be further developed into foxhole or a prone emplacement.
Fi3)'# 1>1. H -t7 4&-iti&(- i( ( &4#( /i#0$. ?1@ S"#00 !' t#'. . shell or bomb crater of adequate si5e, 8.9 to meter -# to % ft/, offers immediate cover and concealment and can be quic$ly made into a hasty position -figure 0%/. )y digging the crater to a steep face on the side toward the enemy, the occupant can provide himself with a firing position. . small crater can later be developed into a foxhole. ,raters, even if developed, are susceptible to being overrun by trac$ed vehicles.
Fi3)'# 1>5. S:i'%i-"#'D- t'#(!". ?3@ P'&(# #%40 !#%#(t. This emplace0 ment -fig 0+/ is a further refinement of the s$irmisher3s trench. The berm dimension of this emplacement, as shown in the parapet detail, is varied to conform to the position and arm length of the occupant. 4t serves as a good firing position for a rifleman and provides better protection against small arms or direct fire weapons than the improved crater or s$irmisher3s trench. ?5@ R&!:-E -(&6E ($ i!#. Limited protection can be provided by piling up roc$s, chun$s of ice, or pac$ed snow. 4cecrete, formed by mixing dirt and water, is very effective as an arctic building material. . minimum of %8 centimeters - # inches/ of this material will resist penetration of small arms fire.
Fi3)'# 1>3. I%4'&2#$ !' t#'.
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Fi3)'# 1>8. O(#>% ( /&A"&0#. a sitting position on the fire step, must have at least 98 cm -# ft/ of overhead clearance if a tan$ overruns the foxhole. This will normally provide protection against the crushing action of tan$s< however, in loose unstable soils it will be necessary to revet the walls of the foxhole in order to provide this protection. ?9@ W t#' -)%4. . water sump, (+ cm - : in./ by 98 cm -# ft./ and (+ cm - : inches/ deep below the fire step, is dug at one end of the foxhole to collect water and to accommodate the feet of a seated occupant. &ne or two layers of large stones are then placed at the bottom of the hole with smaller stones on top up to the level of the ground -fig 09/. The sump may simply provide a collecting basin from which water can be bailed. ?!@ G'#( $# -)%4. . circular grenade sump large enough to accept the largest $nown enemy grenade and sloped downward at an angle of %8A is excavated under the fire step beginning at the lower part of the fire step riser. 6andgrenades thrown into the foxhole are exploded in this sump, and their fragmentation is restricted to the unoccupied end of the foxhole. For good drainage and to assist in disposing of grenades, the fire step is sloped toward the water sump, and the
Fi3)'# 1>5. P'&(# #%40 !#%#(t. 9. F&A"&0#-. Foxholes are the individual rifeman3s basic defensive position. They afford good protection against enemy small arms fire and can be developed from well chosen craters, s$irmisher3s trenches, or prone emplacements. Foxholes should be improved, as time and materials permit, by revetting the sides, adding expedient cover, providing drainage, and excavating a grenade sump to dispose of handgrenades tossed into the hole by the enemy. ?1@ O(#>% ( /&A"&0#. The overall dimen0 sions and layout of the one0man foxhole are shown in figure 09. ?1@ C&(-t')!ti&( $#t i0-. ? @ Fi'# -t#4. The depth of the fire step will vary depending on the height of a comfortable firing position for the occupant, usually meter to .+ meters -% @# to + ft/. The occupant, crouched in
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bottom of the water sump is funneled downward to the grenade sump. ?$@ P ' 4#t. 4f excavated spoil is used as a parapet -fig 09/, it should be placed as a layer about meter -% feet/ wide and %8 cm -9 inches/ high all around the foxhole leaving an elbow rest -berm/ of original earth about 98 cm - foot/ wide next to the foxhole. 4f sod or topsoil is used to camouflage the parapet, the sod or topsoil should be removed from the foxhole and parapet area, set aside until the parapet is complete, and then placed on top in a natural manner. ?#@ C %&)/0 3#. *hether or not a parapet is constructed in wooded or brushy type terrain, a foxhole can be camouflaged effectively with natural materials, as shown in figure 0B. 4n open or cultivated areas, it may be preferable to omit the parapet, remove the excavated soil to an inconspicuous place, and improvise a camouflage cover for the foxhole. This can be a light, open frame of branches garnished with grass or other natural foliage to match the surroundings. .s an alternate method, the foxhole can be covered with a shelterhalf, poncho, or other expedient material, and further covered with snow or some other material, according to local terrain conditions -fig 0B/. The occupant raises one side of the cover for observation or firing. ?/@ O2#'"# $ !&2#'. . half0cover -fig 0:/ over a one0man foxhole provides good protection for the occupant and permits full use of the weapon. Logs, 8 to + cm -( to 9 in./ in diameter of ( cm -9 in./ timbers approximately .# meters -( ft./ in length, support the earth cover. They should be long enough to extend at least %8 cm - ft./ on each side of the foxhole to provide a good bearing surface. 2irt should be removed on each side of the foxhole so that the supporting logs or timbers are even with the ground surface. 4f the ground is soft and tends to brea$ away, a bearing surface of plan$s or timbers should be provided for cover supports. Logs or timbers of this si5e will support an earth cover %8 to (+ cm - ft to @# ft/ thic$. The walls of the foxhole should be stabili5ed with revetment material -fig 0C/ at least under the Fi3)'# 1>7. C %&)/0 3#$ &(#>% ( "&0#. overhead cover to prevent a cave0in from the added weight of the cover. ?3@ R#2#t%#(t % t#'i 0. 1se of different types of revetting material are shown in figure 0C. 'xpedient material, such as brushwood, saplings, sheet metal, or dimensioned lumber should be thin and tough so that it will support the sides of the emplacement when properly sta$ed and tied. "evetment sta$es, either metal or wood .: meters -9 feet/ in length, should be spaced not more than 98 centimeters -# feet/ apart and driven into the ground %8 to (+ centimeters - # to : inches/. The revetment sta$es are held firmly in place by anchor wires of barbed wire or ( gage wire attached to anchor
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sta$es -fig 0 8/. Five or six strands of wire should be stretched between the revetment and anchor sta$es at ground level and tightened by twisting. The distance between the revetment and anchor sta$es should be approximately twice the depth of the excavation. The wire between the sta$es should not pass over the parapet in any case.
Fi3)'# 1>;. O(#>% ( /&A"&0# 6it" " 0/ !&2#'.
Fi3)'# 1>10. S)44&'ti(3 ($ (!"&'i(3 '#2#t%#(t. ?3@ O4#( t6&>% ( /&A"&0#. 4n a defensive position, the two0man foxhole -fig. 0 / is generally preferred to the one0man emplacement.
Fi3)'# 1>11. O4#( t6&>% ( /&A"&0#. ? @ A$2 (t 3#-. &ne man can provide protection while the other is digging. 4t affords relief and rest, for the occupants as one man rests while the other observes. 4n this manner, firing positions can be effectively manned for longer periods of time. 4f one 1>10
Fi3)'# 1><. T74#- &/ '#2#tti(3 % t#'i 0.
soldier becomes a casualty, the position is still occupied. The psychological effect of two men together permits positions to be occupied for longer intervals. ?9@ Di- $2 (t 3#-. 4f a direct hit occurs, two men will become casualties instead of one. .lso, the area that can be occupied may be reduced significantly. ?!@ C&(-t')!ti&(. The two0man foxhole is constructed the same as the one0man foxhole except for the location of the grenade sump which is dug into the face of the foxhole towards the enemy. ?$@ O2#'"# $ !&2#'. . substantial overhead cover for a two0man foxhole may be provided by constructing an offset shown and described in figure 0 #. .n alternate method is shown in figure 0 %. !. F)00 4&-iti&(-. /'&(t 0 9#'% &2#'"# $ 'i/0#
?1@ Large positions are wea$ positions. 'ach rifle position should begin with a rectangular hole as long as the shoulder0to0shoulder length of the men who will fight in it, as wide as a man plus equipment. Spoil should be placed forward and to the sides to form a sloped, progressively pac$ed berm.
Fi3)'# 1>11. T6&>% ( /&A"&0# 6it" &//-#t. 1>11
Fi3)'# 1>15. Ri/0# 4&-iti&(. bipods should have bipod rest slot cut forward to the parapet to allow the bipod to be withdrawn easily and to rest the gun mu55le low. The fitting for firing should be underta$en carefully to counter the natural tendency to shoot high at night. This is accomplished by digging each man down so that standing in his hole in firing position his piece is level at height for gra5e, firmly seated and supported, and as close to the ground as his mission permits. Fi3)'# 1>13. T6&>% ( /&A"&0# 6it" &//-#t !&(-t')!t#$ &/ ti%9#' ($ !)02#'t. ?1@ The next step at the hole is to cut firing apertures at (+ degrees to the direction of the enemy and deepen the hole, tailoring the depth to each man, and carving elbow rests in the parapet for each rifleman to insure solid elbow0under0the piece firing positions. .pertures should be provided with grenade sumps and dug narrow and tapered, 7ust sufficient to command the assigned sector of fire -fig 0 (/. .utomatic rifles on ?3@ &verhead cover is now added. ,over can be fabricated from large logs plus sandbags or dirt, or sapling@bamboo mats in three crosslaid laminations plus sandbags or dirt, but should be sturdy enough to ta$e the full weight 7umping of a large combat0loaded soldier. Full overhead cover is constructed over all positions< full cover cuts vulnerability to airbursts and grenades, and lessens prospects of flooding in the event of rain. ,are must be exercised to hold the silhouette of the position as low as possible, and the apertures as small as sector of fire permits. The height of the cover is determined by placing the firers in the hole, and the cover ad7usted a full inch above their helmets while they ta$e up night firing positions 0head high over the sights. )erms and apertures should be extended and sloped forward to cut vertical surfacing, and to hide mu55le flash from the front. ,onstruction of revetted, walls and overhead cover should follow principles outlined in 9 above. ?5@ ,amouflage is now added. !referably this should be rooted plants and grass sod, calculated to grow naturally in place on the position, and to blend fully with the surrounding vegetation. *hile digging the fighting position, maximum care should be ta$en to prevent the destruction of natural camouflage growing near the hole, scaling off the sod to a depth that will maintain the roots, and setting it aside to be used for camouflage upon completion of the overhead cover. ?5@ . rear entrance is now dug. This rear entry should be an auxiliary, fully open, individual firing position that can be used for throwing grenades and =BC fires. 4t should
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Fi3)'# 1>15. Ri/0# 4&-iti&( ?C&(ti()#$@ be, at minimum designed to allow entry into the hole from the rear, covered with a poncho or similar screen to cut down bac$lighting the firing apertures. Full consideration should be given to protecting defenders from friendly direct fire weapons located to the rear of the position -including artillery beehive ammunition/, and to emergency resupply. The sleeping position should be directly behind the fighting position. . completed rifle position -except for camouflage/ is shown in -%/, figure 0 (. ?8@ . machinegun position is constructed generally following the same procedure as for the rifle position, except that the hole must be designed around the gun. The first step is to emplace the gun on its final protective line and wal$ the latter to chec$ the site. The hole is then traced to place a sturdy firing table with wor$ing room for the loader on the left. $. O2#'"# $ !&2#' /&' /&A"&0# ?/ 9'i!@. *hen available &verhead ,over for Foxholes -&,F/ is an effective protection for 0and #0man foxholes -fig 0 +/. 1>13 ?1@ D#-!'i4ti&(. The foxhole cover is a woven dacron fabric laminated to polyester film. 4t is .+ meters -+ feet ( inches/ long by .: meters -9 feet/ wide and weighs slightly less than # pounds. ,onnected to each side of the width are tubular sections, + centimeters -9 inches/ in diameter and .+ meters -+ feet ( inches/ long. 4t will support (+ centimeters - : inches/ of soil over any emplacement, while simultaneously withstanding the blast effects of a nuclear weapon. The unit will cover 0 and #0man foxholes and is capable of combining in multiple to cover shelter portions of crew0served weapons emplacements. 4t will function over emplacements #+ percent larger than standard. ?1@ I(-t 00 ti&(. ? @ .fter completing excavation of the foxhole -trench/, unfold the cover -&,F/ and place it over the foxhole, locating the pouch at each side of the cover in a position parallel to the edge of the foxhole. ,enter the cover so that the pouches are approximately the same distance from the edge of the foxhole.
Fi3)'# 1>15. O2#'"# $ !&2#' /&' /&A"&0# ?/ 9'i!@. ?9@ .llow a minimum of 98 centimeters -# feet/ of open space at one end to permit entrance into the foxhole. )e sure that the cover extends at least 8 centimeters -( inches/ beyond the closed end of the foxhole -- /, fig. 0 9/. This will insure that oil does not slide down the end wall of the foxhole. ?!@ =ar$ the inside -nearest foxhole/ edge of the pouches in the soil on both sides of the trench. 1sing the mar$ed lines as the inside edge, dig two -one on each side/ shallow trenches approximately 8 centimeters -( inches/ deep, #+ centimeters - 8 inches/ wide, and .9B meters -+ feet 1>15 9 inches/ long parallel to the length of the foxhole -- /, fig. 0 +/. ?$@ 1sing entrenching tool, fill one pouch with soil using both ends as filling points. Fill other pouch in the same manner. Stretch the cover taut between the two pouches because a taut cover does not sag as much as a loose cover --#/, fig. 0 +/. ?#@ !lace soil bac$fill around the edges of the foxhole to a depth of (+ centimeters - : inches/ minimum. The sloping outside soil edge should cover the soil filled pouch --%/, fig. 0 +/.
?/@ ,omplete covering with soil to a uniform depth of (+ centimeters - : inches/ but continue placing soil from the edges toward the center --(/, fig 0 +/. ?3@ Snap fasteners on each end of the cover provide means of covering a trench by connecting two or more covers --+/, fig 0 +/, *hen connecting two or more units to form a covered trench type structure, it is essential that only steps through % should be completed before connecting successive units. .ny two units to be connected should be connected with the five middle snaps before the pouches of the second one are filled with soil. .fter the pouches are filled, the eight remaining snaps should be connected. Step ( may be completed before all covers are erected over the trench but only on units positioned two or more units bac$ from the last one connected. 1>13. FIELDS OF FIRE
. P'i(!i40#-. There is little opportunity to clear fields of fire when a unit is in contact with the enemy. 4ndividual riflemen and weapons crews must select the best natural positions available. 1sually, there is only time to clear areas in the immediate vicinity of the position. 6owever, in preparing defensive positions for expected contact with the enemy, suitable fields of fire are cleared in front of each position. The following principles are pertinent: ?1@ 'xcessive or careless clearing will disclose firing positions -fig. 0 9/. ?1@ 4n areas organi5ed for close defense, clearing should start near the position and wor$ forward at least 88 meters -%#: ft/ or to the maximum effective range of the weapon if time permits. ?3@ . thin natural screen of vegetation should be left to hide defensive positions. 9. P'&!#$)'#. ?1@ "emove the lower branches of large scattered trees in sparsely wooded areas. ?1@ 4n heavy woods, fields of fire may 1>15
Fi3)'# 1>18. C0# 'i(3 /i#0$- &/ /i'#. neither be possible nor desirable within the time available. "estrict wor$ to thinning the undergrowth and removing the lower branches of large trees. ,lear narrow lanes of fire -fig. 0 B/, for automatic weapons. ?3@ Thin or remove dense brush since it is never a suitable obstacle and obstructs the field of fire. ?5@ ,ut weeds when they obstruct the view from firing positions. ?5@ "emove brush, weeds, and limbs that have been cut to areas where they cannot be used to conceal enemy movements or disclose the position. ?8@ 2o only a limited amount of clearing at one time. &verestimating the capabilities of the unit in this respect may result in a field of fire improperly cleared which would afford the enemy better concealment and cover than the natural state.
?7@ ,ut or burn grain, hay, and tall weeds. ?;@ *henever possible, chec$ position from the enemy side to be sure that the positions are effectively camouflaged and they are not revealed by clearing fields of fire.
Fi3)'# 1>17. C0# 'i(3 /i'# 0 (#-. S#!ti&( ,. C&(-t')!ti&( &/ C'#6 S#'2#$ I(/ (t'7 W# 4&(- E%40 !#%#(t1>15. PRINCIPAL CONSIDERATIONS weapons emplacements are shown in table -located in bac$ of boo$/. 0#.
. Fi'i(3 4&-iti&(-. *hile it is desirable to give maximum protection to personnel and equipment, the principal consideration must be the effective use of the weapon. 4n offensive combat, infantry weapons are sited wherever natural or existing positions are available or where weapons can be emplaced with a minimum of digging. The positions described in this section are designed for use in all types of terrain that will permit excavation. 9. P'&t#!ti&(. !rotection of crew0served weapons is provided by emplacements which give some protection to the weapon and crew while in firing positions. .s the positions are developed, the emplacements are deepened and provided with half overhead cover, if possible. Then, if the positions are occupied for an extended period of time, shelters ad7oining the emplacement or close to it should be built. ,haracteristics of crew served infantry
!. C'#6 -"#0t#'-. Shelters immediately ad7oining and opening into emplacements improve the operational capability of the crew, since the men are not exposed when moving between the shelter and the weapon. 1>15. MACHINEGUN EMPLACEMENTS
. Pit t74#. The gun is emplaced initially in a hasty position -fig. 0 :/. 9. H&'-#-"&# t74#. The dimensions and layout of the completed emplacement are shown in figure 0 C. The horseshoe shaped trench, about 98 centimeters -# feet/ wide, is dug along the rear and sides, leaving a chest0high shelf in the center to serve as the gun platform. The spoil from this trench is used
1>18
to form the parapet, ma$ing it at least meter -(8 inches/ wide and low enough to permit all0round fire. This type emplacement permits easy traverse of the gun through an arc of :8A, but the crew cannot fire to the rear effectively. The firing table must be reverted to prevent the vibrations of the automatic weapons from brea$ing down the walls of the table. !. T6& &(#>% ( /&A"&0# t74#. This emplacement consists of # one0man foxholes close to the gun position as illustrated in figure 0#8. The parapet is low enough for all0round fire and good protection for the crew, . foxhole is dug for the gunner at the rear of the gun and another foxhole is dug for the assistant gunner on the left of the gun and (+ cm - : in./ in front of the gunner3s foxhole. The spoil is piled all around the position to form a parapet, care being ta$en to pile it so as to permit all0round fire of the weapon. .lthough %98A fire is possible from
Fi3)'# 1>1;. P0 (2i#6 ($ !'&-- -#!ti&( &/ % !"i(#3)( #%40 !#%#(t.
Fi3)'# 1>1<. H&'-#-"&# t74# % !"i(#3)( #%40 !#%#(t.
Fi3)'# 1>10. T6& &(#>% ( /&A"&0# t74# % !"i(#3)( #%40 !#%#(t.
1>17
this position, fire to the front or rear is most effective since the =98 machinegun is fed from the left side. 1>18. EMPLACEMENTS FOR RECOILLESS WEAPONS limited protection for the crew against nuclear effects and armor except when actually firing. 9. *0 -t #//#!t-. 2ue to the bac$blast effects of the recoilless weapon, it should not be fired from a confined space such as a fully covered emplacement. )ecause the bac$blast will reveal the firing position, alternate firing positions with the connecting trenches should be constructed if there is sufficient time. 1>17. MORTAR EMPLACEMENTS
. T74#-. Two types of open emplacements for recoilless weapons are the pit type and the two two0man foxhole type. ?1@ Pit t74#. This emplacement is a circular pit about .# meters -( feet/ in diameter and about meter -(8 inches/ deep depending on the height of the occupants. . parapet should not be constructed for this emplacement because of the bac$blast. 4t is large enough for two men and permits the assistant to turn with the traversing weapon, to avoid being behind it when it is fired. This emplacement is shallow enough to permit the rear end of the weapon to clear the top at maximum elevation, thus insuring that the hot bac$blast of the roc$ets is not deflected to the occupants. Since this emplacement offers protection for the crew against direct fire weapons only, supplementary personnel emplacements should be provided -- /, fig. 0# /. ?1@ T6& t6&>% ( /&A"&0# t74#. The emplacement shown in -#/ figure 0# provides
. G#(#' 0. The emplacement illustrated in - /, figure 0## is circular in shape. The emplacement is excavated to the dimensions shown with the sides of the emplacement sloping inward toward the bottom. The floor slopes to the drainage sump located under the open gap in the parapet. .n ammunition ready rac$ or niche, located so that it is convenient for the gunner, is built into the side of the emplacement. The bottom of the ammunition rac$ is elevated from the floor of the emplacement. .nother ready rac$ may be constructed in one side of the trench leading to the position. The initial emplacement is revetted using sandbags and the improved emplacement is revetted using
Fi3)'# 1>11. E%40 !#%#(t /&' '#!&i00#-- 6# 4&(-. 1>1;
described above for the : 0mm mortar except for dimension changes shown in - /, figure 0##. 1>1;. EMPLACEMENT FOR 108>%% RECOILLESS RIFLE OR TOW MISSILE ?+EEP MOUNTED@
These weapons are often fired from their @(0ton truc$ mounts since the weapons should be mobile and moved to new positions after firing a few rounds. 4n a defensive operation, several open pits should be constructed with concealed routes from these firing positions to a concealed shelter position with overhead cover. The weapons remain in the shelter until needed, then after firing, they are moved to other firing positions or bac$ to their shelters. The firing pit for these weapons should protect the sides and front of the body of the vehicles. The rifle or T&* should be above the parapet level. The rear of the emplacement should be ramped so the vehicle can move out quic$ly. 'mplacements of this type require approximately %8 manhours to construct since alternate positions are required, so the necessity for using heavy equipment is obvious. Figure 0#% illustrates an emplacement for the 890mm recoilless rifle which will permit the weapon mu55le to extend over the parapet to preclude damage to the vehicle from the mu55le blast. Fi3)'# 1>11. M&'t ' #%40 !#%#(t-. corrugated metal. )efore constructing the parapet, the mortar is laid for direction of fire by the use of an aiming circle or alternate means. The parapet should be not more than +8 cm -#8 inches/ high and a minimum of meter -% feet/ wide. .n exit trench may be constructed leading to personnel shelters and to other mortar positions. ,onstruction of the parapet should be coordinated with the infantry commander. 9. T"# ;1>%% %&'t '. . pit type emplacement for the : 0mm mortar is shown in -#/, figure 0##. !. E%40 !#%#(t /&' 5.1>i(!" %&'t '. The (.#0inch mortar emplacement is identical to the one
Fi3)'# 1>13. E%40 !#%#(t /&' 108>%% 'i/0# TOW %i--i0#. 1>1<
S#!ti&( ,I. C&(-t')!ti&( &/ ,#"i!0# ($ A'ti00#'7 E%40 !#%#(t1>1<. TBPICAL ,EHICLE PIT delivery of fire and protect the weapon and its crew against the effects of conventional and nuclear weapons. 9. E%40 !#%#(t /&' 105> ($ 155>%% "&6it=#'. .rtillery weapons emplacements are constructed so as to allow for continuous improvement in order to provide additional protection and comfort in the event of prolonged occupation. These emplacements are developed in stages as described in -1/ through -5/ below. ?1@ St 3# 1. This stage provides open foxholes for the protection of the crew and open emplacements for infantry weapons used to defend the position. !rovision is made for only minimum essential shifting of the gun trail and ammunition is stored in the open. Stage0one emplacement for a 8+0mm howit5er is illustrated in figure 0#+. ?1@ St 3# 1. This stage provides trail logs for all around traverse of the weapon, a low parapet to protect the weapon, and covered emplacements for the crew, defensive weapons, and ammunition. Stage0two emplacement for a 8+0mm howit5er is illustrated in -#/, figure 0#+. ?3@ St 3# 3. 4n this stage a parapet revetted on the inside which permits all around direction fire is provided. *or$ is
2igging in should be restricted to essential vehicles. Dehicle pits should be as narrow and as short as the vehicle si5e permits. They should be oriented randomly. .ll canvas should be removed and the top of the truc$s should be at least foot below the top of the surrounding parapet. The excavations should be as shown in table 0% and figure 0#(. 1se of soil in construction of the
Fi3)'# 1>15. T74i! 0 2#"i!0# 4it. parapet reduces the depth of cut necessary to properly protect a vehicle. The parapet should be streamlined and as well compacted as possible. The ma7ority of vehicles should be concealed or camouflaged, with advantage ta$en of natural features such as woods, defilade, hegerows, and buildings. 1>10. TOWED ARTILLERB WEAPONS
. P)'4&-#. 'mplacements for artillery weapons must provide maximum flexibility in the
T 90# 1>3. Di%#(-i&(- &/ T74i! 0 ,#"i!0# Pit-
1>10
Fi3)'# 1>15. D#2#0&4%#(t &/ 105>%% H&6it=#' #%40 !#%#(t.
1>11
Fi3)'# 1>15. D#2#0&4%#(t &/ 105>%% H&6it=#' #%40 !#%#(t. ?C&(ti()#$@ 1>11
begun on covered shelters for personnel and ammunition. Stage0three emplacement for a 80mm howit5er 4s illustrated in -%/, figure 0#+. ?5@ St 3# 5. 4n this stage revetment is provided for the round fighting positions and for the outside and top of the parapet. &verhead cover is also provided for the personnel ready position and the ammunition shelter. Stage0four emplacement for a 890mm howit5er is illustrated in/ -(/, figure 0#+ and -#/, figure 0#9. 2imensions and layout are also shown in figure 0#9. Figure 0#B shows semipermanent position for ++0mm howit5er. ?5@ U-# &/ &2#'"# $ !&2#'. 4t is usually difficult to provide overhead cover for artillery weapons. The widths and heights involved ma$e such construction impractical under most conditions. &verhead cover would unduly restrict the firing capability of the weapon. 4n addition, under most conditions, it is not desirable to excavate an emplacement for the weapon much below ground level or to construct a high all0round parapet for the following reasons: ? @ . high all0round parapet restricts the direct fire capability of the weapon. ?9@ .n emplacement excavated below ground creates difficulty in rapid removal of the weapon from the emplacement. !. A!!#--&'7 -t')!t)'#-. ?1@ A%%)(iti&( -"#0t#'-. Sectional shelters as described previously may be used with overhead cover as ammunition shelters with the types of weapons emplacements discussed above. ?1@ A!!#--&'7 -"#0t#'-. "eady shelters for personnel and shelters for fire direction centers and switchboards are constructed using standard shelter designs. 1>11. SELF>PROPELLED ARTILLERB AND TANF>MOUNTED WEAPONS EMPLACEMENT Fi3)'# 1>18. Fi( 0 -t 3# $#2#0&4%#(tE "&6it=#' #%40 !#%#(t. 1>13
. S#0/>4'&4#00#$ 'ti00#'7. Large caliber self0propelled weapons have a limited
Fi3)'# 1>17. P&-iti&( /&' 155>%% "&6it=#'E SP ?-#%i4#'% (#(t i(-t 00 ti&(@. 1>15
traverse without turning the vehicle. For this reason it is seldom practical to construct emplacements for this type of weapon. *hen positions for self0 propelled weapons are prepared, a sloped ramp is built to facilitate the vehicle3s entry into and withdrawal from the gunpit. 4n extremely cold weather, gravel, saplings, or similar covering may be necessary for the floor of the pit so that the trac$s of the vehicles will not free5e to the ground. The rear of the pit and the sloped ramp should be widened sufficiently to permit driving the vehicle in at an angle in order to compensate for the limited traverse of the weapon. 9. T (:-. . tan$ is emplaced or protected in the same manner as any other vehicle. ;atural defilades such as road cuts or ditches are used where available. 4n open areas, parapets are provided to protect the sides and front of the hull of the vehicle, and the rear is left open. The simplest form of a dug0in position of this type is shown in figure 0#:. *henever possible, such positions are constructed and occupied during dar$ness, with all camouflage being completed before dawn. The emplacement normally includes foxhole protection for relief personnel, preferably connected with the emplacement by a short trench. . dug0in emplacement of this type should have the following: ?1@ .n excavation deep enough to afford protection for the trac$s and part of the hull of the vehicle with maximum thic$ness of the parapet at the front of the emplacement and the rear left open for entry and exit of vehicle. ?1@ 4nside dimensions 7ust large enough to permit entry and exit of vehicle. ?3@ .n inside depth permitting the weapon to depress to its minimum elevation. Tan$ emplacements must have sufficient space for the storage of ammunition. ?5@ )arrel stops, if necessary, to prevent fire into ad7acent units. ?5@ !rovisions for drainage -if possible/ and frostproof flooring to prevent trac$s from free5ing to the ground. ?8@ 4f it is necessary to deliver fire at elevations higher than permitted by the carriage design, the floor must be sloped up in the direction of fire. 1>11. ARTILLERB EMPLACEMENT SOFT GROUND IN
Fi3)'# 1>1;. D)3>i( #%40 !#%#(t /&' -#0/> 4'&4#00#$ 6# 4&(-.
. The siting of artillery positions in areas where the ground is soft requires the construction of pads to preclude differential settlement and thus the relaying of the weapon after each round is fired. *ooden pads can be built using laminated construction of radial sleepers -fig. 0#C/ and other construction techniques. The wooden pad distributes the load over a large area with no significant settlement and is flexible and strong enough to withstand the turning and movement of self0propelled weapons. The trail logs are anchored 7ust outside the pad for towed weapons. For self0 propelled weapons, the recoil spades can be set in compacted material or in a layer of crushed roc$ 7ust off the pad. Figure 0%8 shows position with pad for the :0inch or B+0mm gun and figure 0% shows another pad for these guns which has non0radial sleepers and laminated flooring. 1>15
Fi3)'# 1>1<. R $i 0 ($ 0 %i( t#$ 3)( 4 $-. Figure 0%# shows a concrete gun pad for these weapons. Figure 0%% shows light and medium artillery battery layouts. "evetments and shelters can be constructed as described in paragraph 0# . 1>18 9. Darious synthetic materials, such as fiberglass mats -also used as helicopter landing pads/, may be used as gun pads depending on the characteristics of the weapons.
Fi3)'# 1>30. P&-iti&( 6it" ;>i(!" &' 175>%% 3)( 4 $ 6it" ' $i 0 -0##4#'-. 1>17
Fi3)'# 1>31. G)( 4 $ /&' ;>i(!" &' 175>%% 6it" (&(>' $i 0 -0##4#'-. 1>1;
Fi3)'# 1>31. G)( 4 $ /&' ;>i(!" &' 175>%% 3)( 6it" (&(>' $i 0 -0##4#'-. ?C&(ti()#$@ 1>1<
Fi3)'# 1>31. C&(!'#t# 3)( 4 $ /&' ;>i(!" &' 175>%% 3)(. 1>30
Fi3)'# 1>33. Li3"t ($ %#$i)% 'ti00#'7 9 tt#'7 0 7&)t-. S#!ti&( ,II. Fi'#9 -# C&(-t')!ti&( 1>13. DESCRIPTION personnel sleeping positions. Firebases usually are surrounded by a protective berm with perimeter fighting bun$ers, two or more bands of tactical wire and a cleared buffer 5one to provide adequate fields of fire for perimeter defense. 4f a local water source is available, an airmobile engineer water supply point may be established to provide water for the firebase and units in the local area. 1>15. CONSTRUCTION
The airmobile division engineer battalion is equipped to construct artillery firebases in areas where ground transport is prohibitive. 'specially in an unsophisticated environment, such as forest and 7ungle, these firebases play an integral part in airmobile operations, both as command posts and artillery firebases. The most frequently constructed firebase houses an infantry battalion command element, two infantry companies, a 8+0mm howit5er battery and three to six ++0mm howit5ers. . firebase housing the above units consists of the following facilities: infantry tactical operations center -T&,/, artillery fire direction centers -F2,/, ammunition storage pits, garbage sump, command and control helicopter pad, logistics storage area and slingout pad artillery firing positions, helicopter mar$ing area and refuel point, and hardened
,onstruction of an airmobile firebase may be divided into three phases: combat assault and initial clearing, immediate tactical construction, and final defensive structures. . P" -# 1. !hase 4, combat assault and initial clearing, consists of securing the firebase site and clearing an area large enough to accommodate ,60(B and ,60+( helicopters. 1>31
The time required to complete this phase depends on the terrain at the firebase site. 4f the site is free of trees and undergrowth, or if these obstacles have been removed by artillery and tactical air fire preparation, combat engineers can move immediately to !hase 44 after the initial combat assault on the site. 4f the site is covered with foliage and trees, the security force and combat engineers may be required to rappel into the site from hovering helicopters. 2epending on the density of the foliage on the site, completion of the initial clearing phase by combat engineers with demolitions and chain saws may ta$e up to three hours to accomplish. 9. P" -# II. !hase 44, immediate tactical construction, commences as soon as the cleared area can accommodate either medium or heavy lift helicopters. Two light airmobile do5ers are lifted to the site and are immediately employed clearing brush and stumps to expand the perimeter and to clear and level howit5er positions. =eanwhile, the combat engineers continue to expand the perimeter with chain saws, demolitions, and bangalore torpedoes. 4f sufficient area is available, a heavy airmobile do5er usually is committed to clearing a logistic storage area and slingout pad, then to expanding the perimeter and fields of fire. The bac$hoes are committed to excavating positions for the infantry T&,, artillery F2, and, as soon as the perimeter trace is established, perimeter fighting bun$ers. The immediate tactical construction phase is characteri5ed by the coordinated effort of infantry, artillery, and engineer forces to produce a tenable tactical position by nightfall on the first day. 4t is a time of intense helicopter traffic introducing personnel, ammunition, barrier and bun$er materials, rations, fuel, water, and artillery pieces onto the site. .ircraft traffic and logistics input must be rigidly controlled to preclude nonessential supplies and aircraft from hampering engineer effort. Therefore, a coordinated site plan and list of priorities for transportation and construction must be prepared and constantly updated. !riorities and the site plan are established by the tactical commander in coordination with the pro7ect engineer. .s soon as a perimeter trace is established and the site is capable of accepting the logistics and artillery lifts, maximum effort is directed toward the defenses of the firebase. ,ombat engineers and the heavy do5er continue to push bac$ the undergrowth to permit adequate fields of fire. The two light airmobile do5ers may be committed to construction of a .# meter -( ft/ berm around the perimeter to protect against direct fire. 4nfantry troops are committed to constructing perimeter fighting bun$ers at sites previously excavated by the bac$hoes and, assisted by combat engineers, begin erection of the first band of tactical wire, usually triple standard concertina. .rtillery troops not committed immediately to fire missions prepare ammunition storage bun$ers and parapet around each howit5er. !. P" -# III. !hase 444, final defensive structures, is initiated as construction forces complete the immediate defensive structures. ,ombat engineers who are not placing the tactical wire or clearing fields of fire commence construction of the infantry T&, and artillery F2,. 4nfantry and artillery troops are committed to the second band of tactical wire and to erecting personnel sleeping positions with overhead cover. ,ulvert half sections lend themselves to rapid construction of these positions. !hase 444 is usually a continuous process, involving constant 4mprovement and maintenance< however, the ma7ority of protective structures, including sandbag protection of the T&, and personnel bun$ers, usually are completed by the end of the fourth day. The controlling parameter in construction of a firebase is time< since the firebase is the first phase of the occupation of a hostile area, the battalion command center and the artillery pieces must be operational as soon as possible and protection against direct and indirect fire requires immediate attention. Several techniques have been developed to increase the efficiency and speed with which construction can progress. .mong these are precut T&, structures and the use of culvert as molds for protective bun$ers. 6owever, the most effective technique yet adopted is a closely coordinated and controlled plan, outlining the location, priority, and construction force for each phase of the mission.
1>31
1>15. FIRE*ASE LABOUT 3. Typical battery layouts are shown in figure 0%%. 1>18. ARTILLERB POSITION REQUIREMENTS . The primary purpose of the base is to provide positions for artillery. Thus, physical layout of the fire support base -FS)/ will give best possible fields of fire to guns. 9. The base T&, will be located as near F2, as the base terrain allows. The T&, should be fairly centrally located and in a position to control base defense by visual means, if necessary. !. The helicopter logistical pad should be within the base perimeter but be situated so that incoming and outgoing aircraft do not fly through the primary or most li$ely sector of fire of the artillery. $. .n admin@D4! helipad large enough for two 160 type aircraft should be located in the vicinity of the T&,. #. 4f a helicopter rearming@refueling facility is located on the FS), it should not be so near to either the gun positions or artillery ammunition storage pits that a fire or explosion of one will damage the others. /. . landing 5one for troop lift operations may be located outside the FS) but in the immediate vicinity of the perimeter positions.
'ngineer construction requirements for an artillery position within a firebase are generally as follows: . !latforms which allow the howit5ers or guns to fire in all directions and be capable of supporting repeated firing shoc$ in any type of soil condition. 9. Shelters capable of providing adequate protection for the firing crew. !. Separate shelters large enough to contain an artillery section basic load of pro7ectiles, fu5es, and propelling charges. $. . wall or parapet around each howit5er or gun to protect the crew from fragments and small arms. The wall should be low enough to allow direct howit5er fire. #. F2,@T&, shelters large enough to contain the personnel and equipment necessary for the operation of the fire direction center and tactical operations center.
S#!ti&( ,III. H -t7 S"#0t#'1>17. *ASIC CONSIDERATIONS protection with the least amount of effort. .ctually, combat troops that have prepared defensive positions have some shelter in their foxholes or weapon emplacements. Shelters are frequently prepared by troops in support of front unit. Troops ma$ing a temporary halt in inclement weather when moving into positions prepare shelters as do units in bivouacs, assembly areas, rest areas, and static positions. 9. S)'/ !# -"#0t#'. The best observation is from this type of shelter and it is easier to enter or leave than an underground shelter. 4t also requires the least amount of labor to construct, but it is hard to conceal and
. P'&t#!ti&(. Shelters are constructed primarily to protect soldiers, equipment, and supplies from enemy action and the weather. Shelters differ from emplacements because there are usually no provisions for firing weapons from them. 6owever, they are usually constructed near or supplement the fighting positions. *hen natural shelters such as caves, mines, woods, or tunnels are available, they are used instead of constructing artificial shelters. ,aves and tunnels must be carefully inspected by competent persons to determine their suitability and safety. The best shelter is usually the one that will provide the most
1>33
requires a large amount of cover and revetting material. 4t provides the least amount of protection from nuclear weapons of the types of shelters discussed in this manual. Surface shelters are seldom used for personnel in forward combat positions unless they can be concealed in woods, on reverse slopes, or among buildings. 4t may be necessary to use surface shelters when the water level is close to the surface of the ground or when the surface is so hard that digging an underground shelter is impractical. !. U($#'3'&)($ -"#0t#'-. Shelters of this type generally provide good protection against radiation because the surrounding earth and overhead cover are effective shields against nuclear radiation. $. C)t> ($ !&2#' -"#0t#'-. These shelters are dug into the ground and bac$filled on top with as thic$ a layer as possible of roc$s, logs, sod, and excavated soil. These and cave shelters provide excellent protection from weather and enemy action. #. Siti(3. *henever possible, shelters should be sited on reverse slopes, in woods, or in some form of natural defilade as ravines, valleys, and other hollows or depressions in the terrain. They should not be in the path of natural drainage lines. .ll shelters must be camouflaged or concealed. 1>1;. CONSTRUCTION . L# (>t& -"#0t#'-. This shelter -fig. 0%(/ is made of the same material as the wigwam -natural saplings woven together and brush/. The saplings are placed against a roc$ wall, a steep hillside, a deadfall, or some other existing vertical surface, on the leeward side. The ends may be closed with shelter halves or evergreen branches. 9. T6&>% ( %&)(t i( -"#0t#'. This shelter -fig. 0%+/ is useful, particularly in winter or in inclement weather when there is frequent rain or snow. 4t is basically a hole #. meters -B feet/ long, meter -(8 inches/ wide and meter -(8 inches/ deep. This hole is covered with 9 to : inch diameter logs< then evergreen branches, a shelter half, and local material such as topsoil, leaves, snow, and twigs are added. The floor may be 1>35 fields. They conceal the glow of fires and provide fuel for coo$ing and heating. 4n heavy snow tree branches extending to the ground offer some shelter to small units. !. M t#'i 0-. ?1@ C&(-t')!ti&(. *or$ on winter shelters should start immediately after the halt so that the men will $eep warm. The relaxation and warmth offered by the shelter is usually worth the effort expended in constructing them. )eds of foliage, moss, straw, boards, s$is, par$as, or shelter halves may be used as protection against dampness and cold from the ground. Snow should be removed from clothing and equipment before entering the shelter. The entrance of the shelter is located on the side that is least exposed to the wind, is close to the ground and has an upward incline. !lastering the walls with earth and snow reduces the effect of wind. The shelter itself should be as low as possible. The fire is placed low in fire holes and coo$ing pits. ?1@ I(-)0 ti(3. Snow is windproof, so to $eep the occupant3s body heat from melting the snow, it is necessary only to place a layer of some insulating material such as a shelter half, blan$et, or other material between the body and the snow. 1>1<. . P'i(!i40#-. 6asty shelters are constructed with a minimum expenditure of time and labor using available materials. They are ordinarily built above ground or dug in deep snow. Shelters that are completely above ground offer protection against the weather and supplement or replace shelter tents which do not provide room for movement. 6asty shelters are useful in the winter when the ground is fro5en, in mountainous country where the ground is too hard for deep digging, in deep snow, and in swampy or marshy ground. 9. Sit#- /&' 6i(t#' -"#0t#'-. Shelter sites that are near wooded areas are the most desirable in winter because these areas are warmer than open TBPES
Fi3)'# 1>35. L# (>t& -"#0t#'.
1>35
covered with evergreen twigs, a shelter half, or other expedient material. 'ntrances are provided at both ends if desired. . fire pit may be dug at one end for a small fire or stove. . low parapet is built around the emplacement to provide more height for the occupants. This shelter is very similar to an enlarged, roofed, prone shelter -figure 0+/.
Fi3)'# 1>35. T6&>% ( %&)(t i( -"#0t#'. S#!ti&( IX. D#0i9#' t# S"#0t#'- ($ *)(:#'1>30. TBPES
The most effective shelters are deliberate, underground, cut0and0cover shelters. Shelters should be provided with as deep overhead cover as possible. They should be dispersed and have a maximum capacity of #8 to #+ men. Supply shelters may be of any si5e, depending on location, time, and materials available. The larger the shelter the greater the necessity for easy entrance and exit. Large shelters should have at least two well camouflaged entrances spaced widely apart. The farther away from the frontlines the larger, deeper, and more substantial shelter may be constructed because of more freedom of movement, easier access to materials and equipment, and more time to spend constructing it. 1>31. CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS
Fi3)'# 1>38. S)%4 /&' -"#0t#' $' i( 3#.
. D' i( 3#. 2rainage is an important problem particularly in cut0and0cover and cave shelters. .fter the shelter is dug, drainage wor$ usually includes $eeping the surface and rain water away from the entrance, preventing the water from seeping into the interior by ditching, and removal of water that has collected inside the shelter. The floors of shelters must have a slope of at least percent toward a sump -fig. 0%9/ near the entrance, while the entrance should be sloped more steeply toward a ditch or sump outside the shelter -fig. 0 %B/. 1>38
Fi3)'# 1>37. F0&&' ($ #(t' (!# $' i( 3#. 9. ,#(ti0 ti&(. 4t is particularly important to ventilate cave shelters, especially if it is necessary to close the entrances during an
attac$. 4n surface and cut0and0cover shelters, enough fresh air usually is obtained by $eeping entrances open. Dertical shafts bored within cave shelters are desirable if not absolutely essential. . stovepipe through a shaft assists the circulation of air. Shelters that are not provided with good ventilation should be used only by personnel who are to remain inactive while they are inside. Since an inactive man requires about .8% cubic meters cu ft/ of air per minute, unventilated shelters are limited in capacity. 4nitial airspace requirements for shelters for not over # men are 8 cubic meters -%+8 cu ft/ per man. !. E(t' (!# !&2#'i(3. 4f gasproof curtains are not available, improvised curtains made of blan$ets hung on light, sloping frames may be used. They should be nailed securely to the sides and top entrance timbers. ,urtains for cave shelters should be placed in hori5ontal entrances or hori5ontal approaches to inclines. *indows should be covered with single curtains. .ll crevices should be caul$ed with clay, old cloths or sandbags. Flooring or steps in front of gas curtains should be $ept clear of mud and refuse. Small, baffled entrances and@or right angle turns will reduce the effects of nuclear blasts and will $eep debris from being blown in. )affle walls may be constructed of sods or sandbags. =aterials which may be in7urious to the occupants should be avoided. $. S (it '7 !&(2#(i#(!#-. Sanitary con0 veniences should be provided in all but air0raid emergency shelters and surface0type shelters, where latrines are available. 2isposal is by burial or chemical treatment. *hen waterborne sewage facilities are available, disposal can be into septic tan$s or sanitary sewers. #. Li3"t -#!)'it7. )lac$out curtains should be installed in the entrance to all shelters to prevent light lea$age. To be most effective, blac$out curtains are hung in pairs so that one shields the other. )lan$ets, shelter0halves, or similar material may be used for this purpose. /. E%#'3#(!7 #Ait-. 'mergency exits in larger shelters are desirable in case the main exit is bloc$ed. 4f possible, the emergency exit should be 1>37 Fi3)'# 1>3;. L&3 /' %#$ -"#0t#'. more blast0resistant than the main entrance. This can be done by ma$ing it 7ust large enough to crawl through. ,orrugated pipe sections or ++0gallon drums with the ends removed are useful in ma$ing this type of exit. . simple emergency exit which is blast resistant can be constructed by sloping a section of corrugated pipe from the shelter up to the surface, bracing a cover against the inside, and filling the section of pipe with gravel. *hen the inside cover is removed, the gravel will fall into the shelter, and the occupants can crawl through the exit without digging. 3. I(t#'i&' % ':i(3 &/ -"#0t#'. The entrances or interior walls of shelters whose personnel capacity ma$es it desirable may be mar$ed by reflective tape or paint to facilitate the entry of troops under dar$ened conditions. There should be no sacrifice of camouflage discipline. 1>31. LOG SURFACE SHELTER
. log shelter -fig. 0%:/ can be constructed in form of a box braced in every direction. The framewor$ must be strong enough to support a minimum of (+ cm - : in./ of earth cover and to withstand the concussion of a near0miss of a shell or bomb or the shoc$ of a distant nuclear explosion. The si5e of the logs used is limited by the si5e of available
logs for the roof supports and by the difficulty of transporting large timbers. . Si=#. Shelters # to % meters -9.+ to 8 ft/ wide by (.# meters - ( ft/ long are suitable for normal use. 9. Ti%9#'-. .ll timbers should be the same si5e, if possible, approximately + to #8 cm -9 to : in./ in diameter depending on the width of the shelter -table 0(/. The uprights should be approximately 98 cm -# ft/ apart except at the entrance where they may have to be spaced farther apart. The roof supports should be spaced the same as the uprights. 6oles should be drilled for driftpins at all 7oints. T 90# 1>5. Si=# &/ R&&/ S)44&'t-
!. *' !i(3. )oards #.+ by 8 cm - in. by ( in./ in si5e for the diagonal bracing are nailed to caps, sill, and uprights. $. W 00-. The log shelters should be covered with board or saplings and bac$filled with approximately 98 cm -# ft/ of earth, or hollow wall may be constructed around the buildings and filled with dirt. #. C&2#'. . roof of plan$s, sheet metal, or other material is then laid over the roof supports and perpendicular to them to hold a minimum of (9 cm - : in./ of earth cover which is effective against fragmentation -shrapnel/ effects of mortars, artillery, and roc$ets. 1>33. SECTIONAL SHELTERS ?SURFACE OR SU*SURFACE@
Fi3)'# 1>3<. S#!ti&( 0 -"#0t#'-.
Shelters of the type in figure 0%C are designed so that the .: by #.( meters -9 by : ft/ sections may be assembled for use individually or in combinations of two or more 1>3;
. Siti(3. The shelter should be sited on a reverse slope for cut0and0cover construction. 9. EA! 2 ti&(. .ssuming that each bent or side unit -fig. 0%C and table 0+/ is sheathed before installation, the excavated area should be #. meters -B ft/ wide and % meters - 8 ft/ long for one section. The additional length of the excavated area will provide wor$ing space to install sheathing on the rear unit. The area for the shelter should be excavated to a depth of %.9 meters - # ft/ to allow for a heavy overhead cover laminated roof and %.# meters - 8 ft 9 in./ for heavy overhead cover stringer roof. !. A--#%907. The two bents or side units may be assembled and sheathed before they are placed in the excavated area. 4n this manner driftpins are installed in the sill, caps and posts before units are placed in the excavated area. )racing on the side units as well as the bracing and spreaders on the front and rear units are toenailed. $. O'3 (i= ti&( &/ 6&': !'#6-. .n engineer squad, or a squad other than engineer under engineer supervision, can be used economically at the wor$site to excavate the shelter area, assemble the roofing and cover materials, and construct the overhead cover. 1nder favorable conditions a trained engineer squad can excavate the area required for the shelter and install the shelter and overhead cover in : to #8 hours. 6owever, if a bac$hoe or buc$et loader is available for the excavation, the time can be reduced to approximately 9 hours. 1>35. USE OF STANDOFF
Fi3)'# 1>3<. S#!ti&( 0 -"#0t#'-. ?C&(ti()#$@ sections to provide the required shelter area. They may be surface or subsurface. The advantages of sectional shelters for the purpose of command post or aid stations are the flexibility of the shelter area that can be provided, the depth of cover the shelter will support, the facet that the design lends itself to prefabrication, and their airtransportability by 6uey helicopter, except for the cover. The principal disadvantage is the degree of s$ill required in constructing the sections from dimensional lumber or logs of comparable strength, necessitating engineers assistance and supervision.
. D#/i(iti&(. . standoff is a steel or wood curtain or chain lin$ fence erected approximate % meters - 8 feet/ in front of a protective structure to detonate shells and thereby reduce their subsequent penetrating effect. 4ts use is optional but desirable as additional protection of those protective structures most li$ely to sustain enemy fire.
1>3<
T 90# 1>5. *i00 &/ M t#'i 0- /&' O(# 8D A ;D S#!ti&( 0 S"#0t#' Wit" P&-tE C 4E ($ St'i(3#' C&(-t')!ti&(> Di%#(-i&( 0 Ti%9#'
9. C&(-t')!ti&( G!&($iti&(H. . construction EconditionF -fig. 0(8 and table %0%/ refers to protective structure with or without a standoff. ,ondition 4 means the protective structure has no standoff, condition 44 0 the structure has a steel standoff, and condition 444 0 the structure has a wood standoff -fig. 0( and 0(#/. . chain lin$ fence standoff is shown in figure 0(%. Table 09 shows comparison of relative thic$nesses of protective materials needed to withstand penetration of various types of ammunition 0 with and without standoffs. 1>35. SU*SURFACE SHELTERS . C)t> ($>!&2#' -"#0t#'-. The log shelter
shown in figure 0%: is suited to cut0and0cover construction or surface construction. The best location for cut0and0cover shelters is on the reverse slope of a hill, mountain, ridge, or steep ban$ as shown in figure 0((. The shelter shown provides .: to #. meters -9 to B feet/ headroom. The shelter frame is built in the excavation< the spoil is bac$filled around and over the frame to ground level, or somewhat above, and camouflaged. The protection offered depends on the type of construction -si5e of timbers/ and the thic$ness of the overhead cover. .s in the case of a surface shelter of similar construction, approximately (+ centimeters - : inches/ of earth cover can be supported.
1>50
Fi3)'# 1>50. St ($&// !&($iti&(. 1>51
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1>51
Fi3)'# 1>51. W&&$#( -t ($&//. 1>53
Fi3)'# 1>51. L&3 -t ($&//. 1>55
!. M#$i! 0 i' -t ti&(-. ,ut0and0cover shelters are especially adaptable as aid stations since they are easily cleaned and ventilated. Suitable sites may be found in pits, quarries, under ban$s, or in small buildings or ruins. $. A%%)(iti&( -"#0t#'-. .mmunition shelters should be located and constructed so that they protect ammunition against the
Fi3)'# 1>53. C" i( 0i(: /#(!# -t ($&//. 9. C 2# -"#0t#'-. ,aves are dug in deliberate defensive positions, usually by tunneling into hillsides, cliffs, cut, or ridges or excavating into flat ground. )ecause of the undisturbed overhead cover, a cave is the least conspicuous of all types of shelters if the entrance is covered. &ne of the best locations for a supply cave entrance is shown in figure 0(+. The disadvantages of cave shelters include limited0observation, congested living conditions, small exits, and difficult drainage and ventilation. Their construction is difficult and time consuming. 'xits may be bloc$ed or shoring crushed by a direct hit from a conventional weapon or ground shoc$ from a nuclear explosion. 1>38. SPECIAL USE SHELTERS
. O9-#'2 ti&( 4&-t-. These are located on terrain features offering as good a view as possible of enemy0held areas -fig. 0(9/. The ideal observation post has at least one covered route of approach and cover as well as concealment, while offering an unobstructed view of enemy0held ground. 9. C&%% ($ 4&-t-. Small unit command posts may be located in woods, ravines, in the basements of buildings, or former enemy fortifications. *hen none of these are available, surface or cut0and0cover shelters previously described may be modified for this purpose. 1>55
Fi3)'# 1>55. C)t> ($>!&2#' -"#0t#'-.
Fi3)'# 1>55. S)4407 ! 2# i(
'& $ !)t.
Fi3)'# 1>58. O9-#'2 ti&( 4&-t. may be constructed in an emplacement parapet. 4f it is necessary to construct ammunition shelters above ground, particularly where the water level is close to the surface, a log crib built up with dirt is suitable.
weather and enemy fire. They should be well concealed, and large enough to hold the desired quantity of ammunition close to the firing position. Figure 0(B shows an ammunition shelter which
Fi3)'# 1>57. A%%)(iti&( -"#0t#'.
1>58
S#!ti&( X. O2#'"# $ C&2#' 1>37. HEA,B O,ERHEAD CO,ER . L %i( t#$ '&&/ !&(-t')!ti&(. 4n this design either five + centimeters -# inch/ or seven #.+ centimeters - inch/ layers of lumber are used for laminated roof as shown in - /, figure 0(:. ?1@ D)-t4'&&/ 0 7#'. Tar paper, canvas, or tarpaulins lapped and places above the laminated roof is used to prevent dust and dirt from sha$ing down on equipment, weapons, and personnel. ?1@ C)-"i&( 0 7#'. The cushion layer is intended to absorb the shoc$ of detonation or penetration. 1ntamped earth in the best material for this purpose and should be at least %8 centimeters - # inches/ thic$. =aterials such as loose gravel transmit excessive shoc$ to the layer below and should not be used in the cushion layer. This layer extends on all sides for a distance equal to the depth of the shelter floor below the ground surface or a minimum of .9 meters -+ feet/. ?3@ W t#'4'&&/ 0 7#'. The waterproof layer is constructed of the same material as the dustproof layer or similar materials. 4t is intended to $eep moisture from the cushion layer in order to retain the cushioning effect of the soft dry earth, and minimi5e the dead load the structure must carry. ?5@ *)'-t#' 0 7#'. The burster layer is intended to cause detonation of the pro7ectile before it can penetrate into the lower protective layers. This layer is made of + to #8 cm -90 to :0in./ roc$s placed in two layers with the 7oints bro$en. This layer should be at least %8 cm -- # in./ thic$. 4rregular0shaped roc$s are more effective for this purpose than flat roc$s. 4f roc$s are not available, #8 cm -:0in/ logs may be used. They must be wired tightly together in two layers. The burster layer should extend on each side of the shelter a minimum of .+ meters -9 ft/. Fi3)'# 1>5;. H# 27 &2#'"# $ !&2#'. ?5@ C %&)/0 3# 0 7#'. The burster layer is covered with about + cm -# in./ of untamped earth or sod, as a camouflage layer. . greater thic$ness of camouflage
To provide adequate protection against both penetration and detonation of artillery shells and bombs, a structure would require overhead earth cover so thic$ as to be impracticable. )y combining materials and using them in layers in a logical sequence, the required protection is provided with less excavation and construction effort. Two designs of overhead cover in functional layers which protect against the penetration and explosion from a hit by a ++0mm artillery round are shown in figure 0(: and described, below.
1>57 material will tend to increase the explosive effect.
9. St'i(3#' '##/ !&(-t')!ti&(. Figure -#/, 0 (: illustrates stringer roof construction of heavy overhead cover. The construction is similar to laminated roof construction with the addition of 00 ?1@ . lower cushion layer %8 cm - # in./ thic$ on top of the dustproof layer. This layer of untamped earth does not extend beyond the sides of the shelter. ?1@ . distribution layer consisting of #8 cm -: in./ timbers. This layer extends beyond each side of the shelter a minimum of .+ meters -+ ft/ and rests on undisturbed earth to transmit part of the load of the top layers to the undisturbed earth on each side of the shelter. !. O2#'"# $ !&2#' /&' /i3"t 9)(:#'. Figure 0(C shows the details for the construction of a fighting bun$er with heavy overhead cover. The material requirements
Fi3)'# 1>5<. Fi3"ti(3 9)(:#' 6it" "# 27 &2#'"# $ !&2#'. 1>5;
for the construction of this bun$er are found in table 0B. $. H# 27 &2#'"# $ !&2#' 4'&t#!ti&(. 6eavy overhead cover protects against the following Soviet weapons: +#0mm gun0howit5er ##0mm howit5er :+0mm gun #80mm mortar :#0mm mortar (80mm roc$et ##0mm roc$et 1>3;. ENTRENCHMENT CO,ER SUPPORT
. &verhead cover is normally supported on the roof of the structure and the resultant load is transmitted through the cape and posts to the foundation on which the structure rests. 4t may be necessary, in some instances, to support the roof directly on the earth outside a revetted position. *hen this must be done, the roof timber should not bear directly on the earth outside the excavation. The added load may use the wall to buc$le or cave in. 4nstead, the roof structure is carried on timber sills or foundation logs bedded uniformly in the surface at
T 90# 1>7. *i00 &/ M t#'i 0-E Fi3"ti(3 *)(:#'E ?L %i( t#$ C&(-t')!ti&(@
a safe distance from the cut. This distance should be at least one0fourth the depth of the cut and in no case less than %8 cm - # in./ to the nearest edge of the sill. "ound logs used for this purpose are embedded to at least half their diameter to provide maximum bearing area of log to soil. These principles are illustrated in figure 0+8. 9. Laminated plan$s or stringers are used to support the roof cover. ?1@ Table 0: shows the thic$ness of laminated plan$ roof required to support various thic$nesses of earth cover. The plan$s should extend from support to support in all layers, and ad7oining edged should be staggered from one layer to the next. 1>5<
Fi3)'# 1>50. S)44&'t &/ &2#'"# $ !&2#' &( # 't" 9 (:-.
T 90# 1>;. T"i!:(#-- &/ L %i( t#$ W&&$ R#.)i'#$ t& S)44&'t , 'i&)- T"i!:(#--#- &/ E 't" C&2#' O2#' , 'i&)- S4 (-
?1@ Table 0C shows the spacing of stringers required to support #.+ cm - 0in./ plan$ roof under various thic$nesses of earth over various spans. Stringers are + cm x 8 cm -# in. x ( in./ unless otherwise indicated. ?3@ The roofs shown with the cover indicated are fragment proofs and will give substantial radiation protection, if properly designed entrances are provided. !. Sandbags overhead cover. are never used to support
1>3<.
FIGHTING *UNFER WITH LIGHT O,ERHEAD CO,ER
*hen establishing positions in wooded areas, it is very important to provide overhead cover to protect personnel from the shrapnel of tree bursts. . fighting bun$er with light overhead cover is shown and described in figure 0+ . The overhead cover will stop fragments from trees and airburst artillery, and it is strong enough to withstand the effects of a direct hit by an : 0mm
T 90# 1><. C#(t#' t& C#(t#' S4 !i(3 i( I(!"#- &/ W&&$#( St'i(3#'- R#.)i'#$ t& S)44&'t W&&$ R&&/ 6it" , 'i&)- T"i!:(#--#- &/ E 't" !&2#' &2#' , 'i&)- S4 (-
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1>50
Fi3)'# 1>51. Fi3"ti(3 9)(:#' 6it" 0i3"t &2#'"# $ !&2#'. 1>51
mortar. 4f the side openings are closed with sandbags to prevent the entry of grenades, the fields of fire and observation are limited to the front only. This is a serious disadvantage with this type of position. ,hic$en wire can be placed over the firing apertures to prevent grenades from entering the bun$er. The chic$en wire should be sloped with a ditch dug at the base to catch grenades as they roll off the wire.
S#!ti&( XI. P'#/ 9'i! t#$ S"#0t#'- ($ *)(:#'?S#%i4#'% (#(t C&(-t')!ti&(@ 1>50. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ?7@ =ust be a buried structure composed of modular units of %.9 meters - # feet/ in width that can provide shelter lengths of least %.9, B.# and 8.: meters - #, #( and %9 feet/. ?;@ Facility, with earth cover and add0on0 features, must provide protection from the Soviet +#0mm rounds detonating close by. "einforced concrete structures must provide protection from ++0mm artillery shell detonated from a distance of C meters -%8 ft/ from the bare concrete without earth bac$fill. 9. Fi3"ti(3 9)(:#'-. 2esign considerations for the fighting bun$er design are set forth in the following guideline criteria: ?1@ =ust use only those construction materials that are available in the theater of operations or of components readily procured and fabricated. ?1@ =ust be capable of being prefabricated by combat engineers, transported to forward areas by means of #+0ton tractor0trailers or equal, and emplacement by combat engineers using #80ton crane or equal. ?3@ Should be capable of being transported by ,60(B helicopter and be erectable by normally available materiel0handling equipment such as motori5ed crane or ,'D. ?5@ =ust have uniform design and be comprised of multi0use modular units. ?5@ Should be capable of being assembled in forward area -less site preparation, entrances, and cover/ by six men in hour.
2esigns presented are applicable to all levels of operations and geographic areas. They are especially applicable to operations requiring rapid construction of semipermanent emplacements and shelters that provide protection against mortar and artillery fire in forward areas. . S"#0t#'-. 2esign considerations for the shelter design are set forth in the following guideline criteria: ?1@ =ust be constructed from materials available in the theater of operations or constructed of components readily procured and fabricated. ?1@ =ust be capable of prefabrication by combat engineer units in rear areas, transportation to forward areas by #+0ton tractor traders, and erection by #80ton crane and combat engineers. ?3@ Should be capable of being transported by ,60(B helicopter and be erectable by normally available materiel handling equipment such as motori5ed crane or combat engineer vehicle -,'D/. ?5@ =ust provide a large reduction in erection time in0forward areas as compared with previous in0place construction of shelters. ?5@ Should be capable of forward area assembly -less site preparations, entrances, cover, and antispall/ by six men in hour. ?8@ =ust permit addition of cover with available combat engineer equipment.
1>51
?8@ )un$er roof must be capable of supporting .# meters -( feet/ of saturated earth cover. ?7@ =ust accommodate at least four fighting men with sleeping space for two. ?;@ =ust provide protection from +#0mm rounds detonating close by the completed bun$er. ?<@ =ust provide protection from :#0mm mortar round detonating on the surface of the earth cover. 1>51. WES CONCRETE ARCH SHELTER ?FIG 1>51@ ?1@ Safety factor is .+. ?3@ =aterial properties: ? @ ,oncrete compressive strength of %,888 psi after #:0day cure. (8,888 psi. ?9@ "einforcing steel tensile strength of ?!@ Soil unit weight -wet/ of 8 pcf.
. D#-!'i4ti&(. . basic unit of *aterways 'xperiment Station -*'S/ prefabricated concrete arch0type shelter is %.9 meters - #0feet/ wide and .# meters -(0feet/ long. . %.9 meters - #0feet/ long structure consists of three .# meter -(0foot/ long arch sections and two end wall sections, together with necessary hardware, waterproofing membrane, and earth cover. ?1@ The + centimeter -90inch/ 0thic$ arch sections have a .: meter -90foot/ inside radius with a (+ centimeter - :0inch/ vertical wall extension and 8 centimeter -(0inch/ floor. The floor is framed into the vertical wall section through a (+ centimeter - :0 inch/ 0wide by %8 centimeter - #0inch/0thic$ footing which is chambered + centimeter -9 inches/ at the top corners. =onolithically cast, each arch section weighs 8,#88 pounds. ?1@ The + cm -90in/ 0thic$ end wall section consists of a #. meter -B0ft/ radius semicircle and a 8.9 meter -#0ft/ by (.# meter - (0ft/ rectangle. . door opening 8.B meters -#0ft, (0in/, by .9: meters -+0ft, 90in/ is provided in each end wall section. =onolithically cast, each end wall weighs B,888 pounds. 9. D#-i3(. This concrete arch shelter is designed to meet the essential and desired characteristics outlined in paragraph 0(+ and is sub7ect to the following additional design factor assumptions: ?1@ 2ead load consists of the weight of the concrete shell and #.( meters -:0ft/ of saturated earth cover above the crown of the arch. 1>53
!. T' (-4&'t ti&(. =ovement of the prefabricated arch sections and end walls to the emplacement site is accomplished by truc$, trailer, or helicopter. *eight and dimensions are shown in table 0 8. $. Sit# 4'#4 ' ti&(. Location and position of the shelter can be determined by the function of the shelter, the tactical conditions, the topography and other similar considerations which are determined by the field commander. The depth of excavation is determined by the elevation of the ground water table during the wet season. . bulldo5er, scooploader, or crane0shovel with attachments is used to excavate a trench to receive the arch sections. . soft bedding or cushion layer of sand should be provided as a base upon which to set the arch sections to avoid structural stress concentrations, to absorb shoc$ blast, effects, and to minimi5e unequal settlement between the arch sections, and walls, and entrance structures. Footings for each end wall consists of fourteen timbers ( inches by # inches by % feet placed side by side and centered normal to the plane of the end wall. Typical trench excavation is shown in figure 0+%. #. E%40 !#%#(t. The shelter sections can be emplaced by six men and one truc$0mounted crane in hour after site is prepared. The rough terrain crane which is available in the combat engineer battalion can be used effectively for final excavation, lifting the shelter sections into place and bac$filling. The sections are firmly seated, aligned, and secured with five wire rope tie assemblies. The four 7oints between the arch sections and end walls are covered with any durable, flexible, waterproof material such as salvaged
Fi3)'# 1>51. WES !&(!'#t# '!" -"#0t#' $#-i3(E i-&%#t'i!. 1>55
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WES C&(!'#t# A'!" S"#0t#' ?T' (-4&'t ti&(
1>55 Fi3)'# 1>53. T74i! 0 t'#(!" #A! 2 ti&( /&' -"#0t#'.
T0 B membrane. 'ntrance structures at each end are fabricated from local or manufactured material including timber frame, concrete arch, corrugated metal pipe -,=!/, cattle pass, or landing mat. 2rainage structures are provided as required. The shelter is then bac$filled with sod material. Sandy material, if available, will offer better protection than a clay type sod. The bac$fill placement should be carried on until a minimum depth of ( feet and maximum depth of : feet insured< the depth of cover includes waterproof membrane, burster course, and camouflage. 1>51. MULTIPLATE PIPE ARCH SHELTER ?FIGURE 1>55@ prefabricated corrugated steel arch shelter consisting of one %.9 meter - #0ft/ multiplate pipe arch section and two precast reinforced concrete end walls, together with necessary hardware, waterproofing membrane, and earth cover. ?1@ The multiplate pipe arch section consists of seven %.9 meter - #0ft/ long corrugated galvani5ed steel plates of differing curvature which are bolted together along the longitudinal 7oints. The assembled pipe arch has a span of %.: meters - #0ft, :0in/ a rise of #.( meters -:0ft, 0in/, and weighs ( pounds. ?1@ The + cm -90in/ thic$ end wall sections are identical to the end wall sections for the *'S concrete arch shelter.
. D#-!'i4ti&(. The basic multiplate pipe arch shelter is a %.9 meter by %.9 meter - #0ft by #0ft/
Fi3)'# 1>55. M)0ti40 t# 4i4# '!" -"#0t#'.
1>58
9. D#-i3(. The multiplate pipe arch shelters use commercial pipe arch which is available in a range of spans, rises, and areas and are tabulated in drainage products handboo$s and manufacturer3s catalogs. This multiplate arch is designed to meet the criteria outlined in paragraph 0(+ and is sub7ect to the following design factor assumptions: ?1@ . minimum of :0gage0thic$ steel is required for the arch pipe. ?1@ 2ead load of : feet of saturated earth cover is developed at the crown. Soil unit weight -wet/ is 8 pcf. ?3@ !roperties of the :0gage corrugated steel plate are 00 ? @ !itch of corrugation is 90inches. ?9@ 2epth of corrugation is #0inches. ?!@ 1ncoated thic$ness of steel is -8. 9(( inches/. are: ?5@ !roperties of the reinforced concrete
? @ ,ompressive strength is %,888 psi after #:0day cure. ?9@ "einforcing strength of (8,888 psi. steel has tensile
!. P'#/ 9'i! ti&( &/ %)0ti40 t# 4i4# '!" -#!ti&(. The two slightly curved floor plates, the two curved - 0ft, 90in. radius/ corner plates, the two haunch plates, and the crown plate are lapped and secured with four %@(0inch0diameter by @(0inch0 long bolts per linear foot of seam. )olts are staggered in two rows per seam with one bolt in each valley and each crest of the corrugation. )olts should not be tightened until all bolts have been installed. =anufacture3 catalogs, when available, should be consulted for detailed instructions on assembly technique. $. T' (-4&'t ti&(. =ovement of the prefabricated arch sections and end walls to the emplacement site is accomplished by truc$, trifler, or helicopter. *eights and dimensions are shown in table 0 . #. Sit# 4'#4 ' ti&(. Location and position of the shelter can be determined by the
1>57
function of the shelter, the tactical conditions, the topography and other similar considerations which are determined by the field commander. The depth of excavation is determined by the elevation to which the ground water table can be expected to rise during the wet seasons. . bulldo5er, scoop loader, ,'D or crane0shovel with attachments is used to excavate a trench to receive the prefabricated pipe arch section and end walls. . soft bedding or cushion layer of sand should be provided as a base upon which to set the pipe arch section in order to avoid structural stress concentrations, absorb the shoc$ of blast effects, provide drainage, and minimi5e unequal settlement between the arch section, end walls, and entrance structures. Timber footings under the end wall sections are required where the strength of subgrade is not capable of supporting the ,888 psf load of end walls. /. E%40 !#%#(t. The shelter sections can be emplaced by six men and one truc$0mounted crane in hour after site is prepared. The rough terrain crane which is available in the combat engineer battalion can be used effectively for emplacement, to include final excavation, lifting the shelter sections into place, positioning entrances, and bac$0filling. *ire rope slings are used to aid the placement of the structure. 'ntrance structures at each end are fabricated from local or manufactured material such as timber frame, concrete arch, ,=!, cattle pass, or landing mat. .fter excavation has been completed to the proper elevation, a waterproof membrane is installed prior to placing the structure. .ll bolts should now be chec$ed for tightness and the membrane material wrapped completely around the shelter. )ac$fill material, dry coarse sand if available, is now placed and compacted. Special attention should be given to the placement and compaction of the soil material under the upturn area of the floor section. .dditional bac$fill material is placed and compacted in + cm -90in./ lifts to an elevation of at least three0fourths of the height of the structure. These procedures are necessary to provide symmetrical loading and to insure proper setting of the structure. To complete the emplacement, the bac$fill material is placed to a minimum height of ( feet or up to a maximum height of : feet over the crown of the structure including burster layers and camouflage layers. 2rainage is provided as required by the topography.
S#!ti&( XII. P'#/ 9'i! t#$ Fi3"ti(3 ($ C&%% ($ P&-t *)(:#'- ?S#%i4#'% (#(t C&(-t')!ti&(@ 1>53. CONCRETE LOG *UNFER ?/i3 1>55@ sides< the bottom of each firing port is .# meters -( ft/ above the floor level. The logs are 7oined together with steel pins, .C cm -%@( in./ in diameter, which are dropped through holes, %.: cm - @# in./ in diameter, aligned at %8 cm - ft/ intervals and cast in the logs. ;ormal entrance@exit is by means of .C meter -% ft/ and .# meter -( ft/ diameter corrugated metal pipe -,=!/, and an emergency exit is provided by means of two removable logs at the rear face firing port. 9. D#-i3( ?/i3 1>58@. This concrete log bun$er is designed to meet the characteristics outlined in paragraph 0(+.
. D#-!'i4ti&(. The concrete log bun$er is a (0man fighting bun$er, #0% meters -B ft, 9 in/ square and .: meters -9 ft/ high. The bun$er is constructed of C8 precast reinforced concrete logs + cm -9 in/ wide by #8 cm -: in/ deep of various lengths -.9, .C, .#, .:, #.( and %.8 meters -#, %, (, 9, :, and 8 ft// that weigh approximately 9( pounds per meter -+8 lb per ft/. The bottom of the bun$er is set 8# cm -% ft, ( in/ below the ground surface. The roof is made by placing % meter - 8 ft/0long concrete logs side by side and pinning them together to ma$e a #8 cm -: in/ 0thic$ roof with %8 cm - ft/ overhang on all sides. The bun$er has a #8 by (+ cm -:0 by :0in./ firing port on each of the four
1>5;
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Fi3)'# 1>58. C&(!'#t# 0&3 9)(:#' $#-i3(. 1>5<
!. F&'%i(3E -t##0 40 !#%#(tE ($ ! -ti(3. The concrete logs are precast in a staging area and transported to the emplacement site. The forms are constructed in the field on a %.9 by (.: meter - #0 by 90ft/ casting bed which permits casting of numerous logs of various lengths at one time. The concrete is mixed, poured, vibrated, and cured in accordance with standard procedures. Two to five days3 moist cure is required before the precast logs can be moved safely. $. T' (-4&'t ti&(. =ovement of the precast concrete logs to the emplacement site is accomplished by truc$, trailer, or helicopter. #. Sit# 4'#4 ' ti&(. Location of the fighting bun$er is determined by the tactical commander. The design depth of excavation is #.+( meters -: ft, ( in./, including 8# cm -% ft, ( in./< below grade for bun$er floor and .+ meters -+ ft/ below bun$er floor for the entrance< however, the elevation to which the ground water table can be expected to rise during the wet season may require a field modification of this design depth. The emergency exit, located above the normal ground level, allows siting of this bun$er in locations where the normal entrance may be sub7ect to temporary flooding. 'xcavation is accomplished by combat support earthmoving equipment or by hand digging. /. E%40 !#%#(t. The concrete log fighting bun$er can be assembled by six men in hour after the site is prepared and the ,=! entrance structure is in place. For poor soils, a footing will be required for this structure to prevent excessive settlement. ,ushion, waterproofing, and burster layers, retained with sandbags, are placed on the roof to develop capability to withstand a direct hit from the equivalent of an :#0mm mortar round. Steel mesh grenade gratings are hinged over the firing ports. Standoff screening against .T roc$ets, fields of fire, communications, camouflage, firing shelves, and bun$s should be provided as required. The modular design of the basic concrete logs permits a wide variety of original designs to suit specific requirements. This flexibility of design may be exploited by testing different arrangements using either full scale or model logs. 1>55. CONCRETE ARCH *UNFER ?/i3 1>57@
. D#-!'i4ti&(. The concrete arch bun$er is a four0man fighting bun$er, semi0circular in plan, %.9 meters - # ft/ wide at the rear by #.#+ meters -B ft, 9 in./ deep at centerline of the arch width by .: meters -9 ft./ inside height. The bun$er consists of three precast reinforced concrete components: a .: meter -9 ft./0high arch section, a rectangular bac$ wall section, and a semi0circular roof section. 'ach of the sections is + cm -9 in./ thic$ and reinforced with ;o. ( .#+ cm -8.+0in. diameter/ steel rebars. The arch section has a .: meter -90ft/ interior radius plus a (+ cm - ft, 9 in./ hori5ontal extension. The roof section overhangs the arch section providing a (+ cm - :0in./0wide shield. The bac$ wall section and the roof section each have a #8 cm -:0in./0thic$ by (+ cm - :0in./0wide bul$head beam. The arch section has four #80 by (+0cm -:0 by :0 in./ firing ports, and the bac$ wall has one #80 by (+0cm -:0 by :0in./ firing port and a #80 by B+0cm -:0 by %80in./ emergency exit which can be used for a quic$ exit or grenade throwing. 9. D#-i3(. This concrete arch bun$er is designed to meet the characteristics outlined in paragraph 0(+. 2esign is shown in figure 0+:. !. F&'%i(3E -t##0 40 !#%#(tE ($ ! -ti(3. ?1@ A'!" -#!ti&(. Steel forms for the arch section can be fabricated in the field from 90gage blac$ sheet steel, which is spot welded to + cm -# in./ angles. The form used in the arch shelter can be adapted to casting the arch bun$er by omitting the floor portion and adding 8.9 meter -# ft/ of form to the height. The same procedures are used in the steel placement and casting of the .: meter -9 ft/ bun$er arch as for the .# meter -( ft/ shelter arch, with particular care required in placement, vibrating, and adequate curing before moving to site. ?1@ * !: 6 00 -#!ti&( ($ '&&/ -#!ti&(. Forms for casting the bac$ wall and roof are
1>80
Fi3)'# 1>57. C&(!'#t# '!" /i3"ti(3 9)(:#'.
Fi3)'# 1>5;. C&(!'#t# '!" /i3"ti(3 9)(:#' $#-i3(.
1>81
built at the prefabrication site using conventional wood forms. "einforcing steel details are as described for the *'S concrete arch. The bul$head beams for the roof and bac$ wall sections are reinforced with two ;o. + bars placed with + cm -# in./ of concrete cover from the outside edges of the beam. $. T' (-4&'t ti&(. =ovement of the three precast sections is accomplished by truc$, trailer, or helicopter. #. Sit# 4'#4 ' ti&(. Location of the concrete arch fighting bun$er is determined by the tactical commander. The design depth of excavation #.+ meters -+ ft ( in./ including meter -% ft, ( in./ below0grade for the bun$er floor and .+ meters -+ ft/ below the bun$er floor for the entrance< however, the elevation to which the ground water table can be expected to rise during the wet season may require a field modification of this depth. The emergency exit, located at the firing port level, allows siting of the arch fighting bun$er where the deep entrance may be sub7ect to temporary flooding. 'xcavation is accomplished by combat support earthmoving equipment or by hand labor. /. E%40 !#%#(t. The three sections of the arch fighting bun$er can be employed by six men and one heavy crane in one hour after site is prepared and the ,=! entrance structure is in place. The rough terrain cane which is available in the combat engineer battalion can be used effectively for emplacement especially for positioning of entrance and lifting and positioning bun$er sections. The bac$ wall is bolted to the #80 by (+0cm -:0 by :0in./ bul$head beam at the rear of the roof section to secure the entire structure against displacement when under attac$. 'xcept in very good soil conditions, footings will be required under the modified arch section to prevent excessive settlement. ,ushion, waterproof, burster layers, retained with sandbags, are placed on the roof to develop capability to withstand direct hit from the equivalent of an :#0mm Soviet mortar round. Steel mesh gratings are hinged over the firing ports. Standoff screening against antitan$ -.T/ roc$ets, as well as fields of fire, communications, camouflage, firing shelves, and bun$s should be provided as required. 1>55. AIR>TRANSPORTA*LE UNDER> GROUND ASSAULT *UNFER ?P'#/ 9@
. D#-!'i4ti&(. This is a prefabricated plywood bun$er -fig 0+C/ suitable for a command
Fi3)'# 1>5<. Ai'>t' (-4&'t 90# )($#'3'&)($ -- )0t 9)(:#' ?4'#/ 9@. post or fire0direction center, which can be moved -completely assembled except for the roof/ from site to site as the tactical situation demands. 4ts sloping walls ma$e for easier pulling from the ground by helicopter for relocation. The bun$er can be erected and emplaced by means of handtools only. 9. C&(-t')!ti&(. The bun$er walls and floor may be prefabricated -fig 098/ in rear areas and then be truc$ed or flown, assembled or disassembled, to the erection site. Fasteners are provided along the edges of each wall and the floor to allow the 4ndividual members to be loc$ed together into a complete unit. The walls of the bun$er should extend below the floor section so that the floor can act as a support for the bottom edge of the walls. The longer side walls are abutted against the shorter end walls. Two large straps, completely around the structure, and placed during construction are used to attach bun$er to helicopter lifting hoo$ for bun$er pullout and transport The underground site can be excavated by means of explosives and handtools -fig 09 /. The floor
1>81
Fi3)'# 1>80. P0 (- &/ i' t' (-4&'t 90# )($#'3'&)($ -- )0t 9)(:#' ?4'#/ 9@. area of the excavation should be .9 meter -# ft./ longer and .9 meter -# ft./ wider than the area of the bun$er floor to allow wor$ing space during construction. The roof is concentric to and larger than the floor section and may be fabricated in the rear area or at the erection site. The roof overlaps the walls to be supported on firm -unexcavated/ ground 0 not on the bun$er walls. .dditional construction recommendations for the bun$ers are as follows: ?1@ .but longer side walls against shorter end walls because the longer walls must sustain the greatest load. The shorter walls then act as a support. -=iter corners if possible./ ?1@ !rovide for wall bracing at the top of the bun$er. )race from the center of each wall to the center of each ad7acent wall -diamond pattern/. ?3@ .ttach a sheet of plastic or other thin waterproof covering around the outside before bac$filling to minimi5e friction between earth and the walls and increase moisture resistance. ?5@ =a$e the bun$er no larger than necessary. 4t should be no more than 9 @# feet high and the floor area should be less than 88 ft unless special effort is made to provide adequate structural members in addition to those used in the test bun$er.
1>83
?5@ )ac$filling should be accomplished by hand labor, maintaining a uniform load around the perimeter as bac$filling progresses. ?8@ .lthough nails are satisfactory as fasteners for wood members, screws or bolts will offer greater holding strength. ?7@ 4f possible, select fasteners for connecting walls and floors that are simple and ad7ustable. ?;@ =a$e the bottom of the excavation # feet longer and # feet wider than the length and width of the structure floor to increase wor$ing room during erection and provide adequate clearance for the walls. ?<@ 1se explosives as extensively as practical during excavation to minimi5e required hand digging. ?10@ !rior to lifting the structure from the installed portion, remove some of the bac$fill with hand tools to reduce effects of wall friction. ?11@ !rovide for more than one means of employing lifting devices for removal of the structure. Two large straps completely around the structure, placed during construction, seem to be the best method. 10bolts should be used in the floor through (0 by (0inch members. To help distribute the load, a metal bearing plate should be placed where the 10bolt bears against the underside of the (0 by (0inch floor 7oists. !. D t . The bun$er weighs approximately ,988 pounds without the roof. 4t can be pulled from the ground by a lift of 8,888 pounds -,60(B helicopter/. The bun$er should be no more than .C+ meters -9 @# ft/ high and the floor space should be under C.% square meters - 88 sq ft/. 'xcavation, erection, bac$filling, and construction of roof and entrance can be completed in less than 8 hours. 1>58. PLBWOOD PERIMETER *UNFER ?/i3 1>81@
Fi3)'# 1>81. I(-t 00 ti&( &/ i't' (-4&'t 90# )($#'3'&)($ -- )0t 9)(:#' ?4'#/ 9@.
This bun$er has plywood revetment -soilbin/ walls approximately .9 meter -# ft/ thic$. The walls are topped with a plywood cap
1>85 ?1@ Small arms fire will not penetrate the walls if they are (+ cm - : in./ thic$. The walls will not usually splinter from small arms fire if they are %8 cm - # in./ thic$. .dditional protection can be obtained by building sandbag walls. 4f sandbags are used inside the building they reduce the usable space, but last longer and are not conspicuous. ,are should be exercised in using sandbags above the first floor due to the weight involved. ?3@ *indow glass should be removed since it gives no thermal protection and is dangerous when shattered. 4f it is retained as protection from the weather, it should be screened or boarded. Fi3)'# 1>81. P076&&$ 4#'i%#t#' 9)(:#'. to prevent entrance of moisture into the soil fill. The bun$er may be provided with a column foundation or be constructed directly on the ground. The bun$er soilbin revetment walls withstand small arms fire. The bun$er walls, by insertion of landing mat, offer additional cushioning effect against heavy caliber rounds that may penetrate the revetment -soilbin/. 1>57. *UILDINGS AS SHELTERS FIRING POSITIONS OR made. ?8@ )lac$out arrangements should be made, if not already provided by thermal screening of doors and windows. !. U-# &/ 6# 4&(-. 4n using a building as a firing position, there are several considerations. ?1@ The preparatory wor$ should not disclose the intended use of the building to the enemy. ?1@ *eapons must be sited well bac$ from any opening so that neither weapons nor personnel are visible from the outside. ?3@ Several firing positions should be available in order to obtain a wide field of fire. The shapes of the openings should not be changed for this purpose. ?5@ .ny openings other than the normal ones are very conspicuous unless they are close to the ground. ?5@ There are no fixed designs for weapons platforms under these circumstances. !latforms must be improvised from materials immediately available. Sandbags should be used sparingly if there is any doubt about the strength of the floor. 1>85 ?5@ Several exits are necessary. ?5@ !rovisions for fighting fire should be
. P'&t#!ti&(. Some protection from enemy fire may be achieved for occupants in a building used as a shelter by strengthening the building, by shoring up ceilings, and bracing walls. =en inside buildings are reasonably well protected against thermal effects and radiation unless they are near doors or windows. The principal danger is from falling masonry and from fire in the building. 9. * -i! !&(-i$#' ti&(-. ?1@ . ground floor or basement is more li$ely to ma$e a suitable shelter than any other floor. The ris$ of being trapped must be guarded against. 6eavy bars, pieces of pipe, or timbers, should be available in each room that is occupied, for use by the occupants in the event the building is demolished.
S#!ti&( XIII. P'&t#!ti2# S"#0t#'- /&' F'&=#( E(2i'&(%#(t 1>5;. SNOW HOLE This opening may be entirely closed, depending on the enemy situation and the temperature< the smaller the hole, the warmer the shelter. 1>5<. SNOW CA,E
The snow hole -fig 09%/ is a simple, oneman emergency shelter for protection against a snow storm in open, snowcovered terrain. 4t can be made quic$ly, even without tools. Lying down in snow at least meter -%.% ft./ deep, the soldier pushes with his feet, digs with his hands, and repeatedly turns over, forming a hole the length of his body and as wide as his shoulders. .t a depth of at least meter -%.% ft./, the soldier digs in sideways below the surface, filling the original ditch with the snow that has been dug out until only a small opening remains.
Snow caves -fig 09(/ are made by burrowing into a snowdrift and fashioning a room of desirable
Fi3)'# 1>85. S(&6 ! 2#. si5e. This type of shelter gives good protection from free5ing weather and a maximum amount of concealment. The entrance should slope upward for the best protection against the penetration of cold air. Snow caves may be built large enough for several men if the consistency of the snow is such that it will not cave in. Two entrances can be used while the snow is being ta$en out of the cave< one entrance is refilled with snow when the cave is completed. 1>50. SNOWPIT
Fi3)'# 1>83. S(&6 "&0#.
The snowpit -fig 09+/ is dug vertically into the snow with intrenching tools. 4t is large enough for two or three men. S$is, poles, stic$s, branches, shelter halves, and snow are used as roofing. The inside depth of the pit depends upon the depth of the snow, but should be deep enough for $neeling, sitting, and reclining positions. The roof should slope toward one end of the pit. 4f the snow is not 1>88
deep enough, the sides of the pit can be made higher by adding snow walls. 1>51. SNOWHOUSE
The si5e and roof of a snowhouse are similar to those of a snowpit. The walls consist of snowbloc$s and may be built to the height of a man. Snow piled on the outside seals the crac$s and camouflages the house -fig 099/.
Fi3)'# 1>85. S(&6 4it i( -" 00&6 -(&6.
Fi3)'# 1>88. S(&6"&)-# 6it" i!#90&!: 6 00-.
S#!ti&( XI,. C&(-t')!ti&( T#!"(i.)#- /&' F'&=#( E(2i'&(%#(t 1>51. GENERAL !. The relative speed of construction with snow, ice and fro5en ground, especially the solidification speed of soils exposed to free5ing. $. The simplicity and speed of repairing structures of snow, ice, and fro5en ground if damaged. #. The great strength of structures made from fro5en ground. /. The complete safety from fire. 1>55. SNOW AS MATERIAL CONSTRUCTION
.mong engineering materials that have to be handled, modified, removed, used as a base for building on or traveling over, and used as construction materials< snow, ice, and fro5en ground are unique in their appearance and disappearance. They are also unique in the rapid changes of their physical properties within short periods of time due to metamorphism, change of temperature, change of state, and of course, relatively large deformations following sub7ection to load. 1>53. MATERIAL
Fortifications constructed from snow, ice, and fro5en ground have the following merits: . The wide distribution and cheapness of the material for constructing the fortifications and the presence the materials at the building site, thus eliminating their transportation. 9. The extensive possibility of substituting snow, ice, and fro5en ground during winter for the usual building materials. 1>87
. S)it 9i0it7. 2ry fresh fluffy snow is not suitable for expedient construction. "ewor$ed snow, such as piles at road edge after clearing equipment passage, densifies and begins to harden within hours after disturbance even at very low temperatures. .rtificial compacting, wind compacting, and compacting after a brief thaw ma$e snow even more suitable for expedient shelter and protective structures. 9. C&(-t')!ti&(.
?1@ . uniform snow cover with a minimum thic$ness of #+ cm - 8 in./ in a given area is sufficient for shelter and revetment construction. )loc$s of uniform si5e, typically #8 x %8 x (8 cm -: x # x 9 in./ depending upon degree of hardness and density, can be cut from the snow pac$ with shovels or better with long $nives -machetes/ or carpenter3s saws. )est practice for constructing cold weather shelters is that adopted from natives of polar regions -fig 09B/. 4t must be remembered that thic$er walls render better protection. Systematic overlapping bloc$0over0seam insures stable construction. G,aul$ingG seams with loose snow insures snug draft0free structures. 4gloo shelters in cold regions have been $nown to survive a whole winter. .n 's$imo0style shelter easily withstands above0free5ing inside temperatures, thus providing comfortable protection for personnel against wind chill and low temperatures. ?1@ Snow fortifications can be built during either free5ing or thawing weather, if the thaw is not so long or intense that significant snow melt occurs. =ild thaw or temperatures of A or #A,. are even more favorable than free5ing weather, because the snow is then very plastic, conglomerates readily, and assumes any shape without disintegration. &f course, free5ing weather is also necessary for snow construction in order to achieve solid free5ing and strength. 4f water is available at low temperatures, expedient protective structures could be built by wetting down snow and shaping it into desired forms with shovels. 1>55. ICE AS CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL 4ce structures can be built in
. M#t"&$-. three ways:
?1@ Layer0by0layer free5ing by repeated watering.
Fi3)'# 1>87. C&(-t')!ti&( &/ E-:i%& -t70# -(&6"&)-#. 1>8;
?1@ Freeing of ice fragments into layers by adding water. ?3@ Laying of ice bloc$s. 9. C&(-t')!ti&(. ?1@ Layer0by0layer free5ing by water produces the strongest ice and is very cheap compared to other methods, but it requires much more time. The main condition for an effective free5ing of ice layers by sprin$ling is the right application of water according to the weather condition. 1nder wor$ing conditions, it can be assumed that about 8.+ cm -.# in./ of ice is fro5en per day for each degree below 8A,. Layer0by0layer free5ing by watering is effective only at air temperatures below 0+A,. .t higher temperatures, the free5ing should be discontinued. The most favorable temperature for this method is 0 8A to 0 +A,. with a moderate wind. ?1@ Free5ing of ice fragments into layers by adding water is very effective and the most frequently used method for building ice structures. The ice fragments are prepared on nearby plots or on the nearest river or water reservoir. The layer should be #8 to %8 cm -: to # in./ thic$ and pac$ed as densely as possible. The ice fragments should not be crushed as that would cause a wea$ening of the ice construction. 4f the weather is favorable -0 8A to 0 +A,. with wind/, a +8 cm -#8 in./ thic$ ice layer can be fro5en in a day. ?3@ Laying of ice bloc$s is the quic$est method but is much more expensive requiring the transportation of the ice bloc$s from the nearest river or water reservoir to the site. 4ce bloc$s are laid li$e bric$s< the bloc$s are overlapped. 4t is desirable to have the ice bloc$s uniform in si5e, especially of equal thic$ness. )efore each new layer of ice bloc$s is laid, the preceding layer must be wet to achieve good adfree5ing. 'ach layer of ice bloc$s must be allowed to free5e before placing the next. 1>58. FROIEN GROUND lower temperature. 4t has much better resistance to impact and explosion than to steadily acting load, an especially valuable feature for fortification purposes. 9. M#t"&$-. ground is done by 00 layers. ?1@ Laying prepared ground. bloc$s of fro5en ,onstruction using fro5en
?1@ Free5ing chun$s of fro5en ground in
?3@ !reparing bloc$s of fro5en ground from a mixture of water and aggregate -icecrete/. =ost suitable is a material consisting of gravel0sand0silt aggregate wetted to saturation and poured similar to !ortland cement concrete. .fter free5ing, such a material has the properties of concrete. These methods are analogous to the construction methods using ice. 1>57. PERMANANCE OF STRUCTURES FROM SNOWE ICEE AND FROIEN GROUND
. St')!t)'#- i( -)9 '!ti! '#3i&(-. 4t is obvious that with the onset of warm weather, structures made of snow, ice, and fro5en ground will disintegrate. . snow structure in early spring loses its camouflage. To extend its life, if needed, it should be covered with locally available material such as moss or forest litter. 2epending upon the weather and layer thic$ness, the useful life of such a structure may be extended for more than a wee$. 9. St')!t)'#- i( '!ti! '#3i&(-. 4n regions of shallow seasonal thaw underlined by permafrost, structures from snow, ice, and especially permafrost may be made permanent. For this purpose, the structure should be covered with the same material as the local permafrost. Typically, in tundra regions, the permafrost is covered by a shallow layer of thic$ vegetation, the so0called tundra mat which protects the permafrost from melting during the summer. The careful removal of the tundra mat and the construction of the structure on bare ground, and then covering all exposed surfaces with
. S)it 9i0it7. Fro5en ground is three to five times stronger than ice< its strength increases with 1>8<
tundra mat material, protects the structure against summer disintegration. Special measures should be ta$en to minimi5e disturbance of the area around the structure during construction. .ny disturbance of the area around the structure should be repaired. ,areful preparation of such an expedient protective structure ma$es it permanent if needed. 1>5;. RESISTANCE EXPLOSION TO IMPACT AND -1/ ,onstruction from ice, fro5en ground, and icecrete have a good resistance to the penetration of bullets and splinters. )ecause of their friability, which varies with different soils and increases with low temperatures, their resistance to explosion is less. This is especially true for ice, which should not be used for fortifications but only for obstacles. -1/ Fortifications made from fro5en ground and icecrete should have an anti0spalling cover. .dditionally, it is desirable to reinforce these materials with branches, straw, coniferous needles, and so forth. *ooden sheathing can be used as an anti0spalling cover. This sheathing is necessary during the construction and should be left as an anti0 spalling cover after finishing the wor$. The reinforcement significantly increases the resistance of ice and fro5en ground to impact and explosion. This reinforcement should be laid continuously rather than in layers. 4f reinforcement is made in layers, the impact of airburst will cause still more damage to surface targets. $. "esults of resistance tests of the impact of a bullet or explosion on samples of different fro5en soils and icecrete at H(A ,. are shown in table 0 #. &n the basis of these test results the following general conclusions can be made:
. To evaluate snow, ice, and fro5en ground as materials for fortification, it is necessary to $now the resistance of these materials to impact and explosion. 9. . rifle bullet rapidly loses its penetrating power, depending on the density of the snow. Snow pac$ed in layers deflects the bullet at each layer. Loose snow spread over a defensive position will help smother ricochets. !. Loose snow greatly reduces the explosive and fragmentation effects of shells. The depth, type of snow, and ammunition type are naturally the main consideration. The use of a delayed action fuse will generally cause the shell to penetrate the snow blan$et and explode underneath, smothering and reducing the effect of the fragmentation. &ne meter -%.% ft./ of snow will provide some protection against most light artillery fire. . superquic$ fuse setting will increase the effect of artillery fire, while
T 90# 1>11. R#-i-t (!# t& I%4 !t ($ EA40&-i&( &/ F'&=#( S&i0- ($ I!#!'#t#
1>70
explosion will split the material along the layer of reinforcement. Such reinforcement does not strengthen, but wea$ens the construction. 1>5<. NATURAL O*STACLES of the snow. &ne type of barbed wire obstacle built to overcome this problem is $nown as the Lapland fence. 9. L 40 ($ /#(!#. The Lapland fence uses a floating type of anchor point or one which is not sun$ into the ground. !oles are used to form a tripod. The tripod is mounted on a triangular base of wood. Six strands of wire are strung along the enemy side of the fence, four strands along the friendly side, and four strands along the base. .s the snow becomes deeper, the tripods are raised out of the snow with poles or by other means to rest the obstacle on top of newly fallen snow. The base of the tripod and the base wires give enough bearing surface to prevent the fence from sin$ing into the snow. !. F(i/#E '#-t-. >nife rests are portable barbed wire fences, usually constructed prior to the snowfall. The fences are constructed by tying two wood poles at their center, forming an I. . similar I is made out of two other poles and then the two I3s are lashed at each end of a % meter - 8 ft/ to %.+ meter - .B ft/ pole. This forms a framewor$ to which barbed wire is fastened on all four sides. The obstacles can be stored until needed and easily transported to the desired location. $. C&(!#'ti( 6i'#. ,oncertina wire is another quic$ way to improve on snow0 covered obstacles. The concertina comes in + meter -+8 ft./ sections which can be anchored quic$ly to the top of existing obstacles. #. A9 ti-. The abatis is similar to a windfall. Trees are felled at an angle of about (+A to the enemy3s direction of approach. The trees should be left attached to the stump to retard removal. .long trails, roads, and slopes, abatis can cause much trouble for s$iers and vehicles. /. I!#$ '& $ 3' $#-. . useful obstacle can be made by pouring water on road grades. The ice that forms will seriously hamper vehicular traffic. 3. I!# $#%&0iti&(. 4n creating water obstacles to the enemy during winter conditions
. S(&6>!&2#'#$ ($ i!7 -0&4#-. . steep slope is an obstacle to troops and vehicles even under normal conditions. *hen covered by deep snow or ice, it becomes much harder to surmount. The bogging0down action and the loss of traction caused by deep snow frequently create obstacles out of slopes which might be overcome easily, otherwise. 9. Wi($/ 00-. &ccasionally, strong winds $noc$ down many trees in a wooded area. These fallen trees are $nown as windfalls. They are very effective obstacles when covered with snow, especially to personnel wearing s$is or snowshoes. !. A2 0 (!"#-. .n avalanche ma$es an excellent obstacle for bloc$ing passes and roads. Since it occurs in mountainous country where there are few natural avenues of approach, an avalanche can have a far0reaching influence over combat operations. The problem with those avalanches which occur naturally is that, unless their timing and location are 7ust right, they may be of help to the enemy. 4t is possible to predict in advance where an avalanche can and probably will occur. Then by the use of recoilless rifle or artillery fire, bombs, or explosives, it is possible to induce the avalanche to slide at the desired time. This type of avalanche is an artificial obstacle in the technical sense. ?enerally, it will be of more value than the natural type. 1>80. ARTIFICIAL O*STACLES
. * '9#$ 6i'#. There are many types of artificial obstacles used under summer conditions which are appropriate for winter use. )arbed wire normally employed ma$es an effective obstacle in soft, shallow snow. Triple concertina is especially effective since it is easy to install in addition to being difficult to cross. .s the snow becomes deeper and more compact, a point is reached where it is possible to cross the barbed wire on top
1>71
it becomes expedient to place charges below the ice and under water. To place charges under water, ma$e boreholes in the ice with axes, chisels, ice augers, or shaped charges, then place the main charge below the ice. . charge of %9.% $g -:8 lb/ of =% demolition bloc$s, through .%B meters -( @# ft/ of ice, produces a crater # meters -(8 ft/ in diameter. To create a minefield in ice, sin$ boreholes about % meters - 8 ft/ apart in staggered rows. Suspend charge below the ice by means of cords with stic$s bridging the top of the holes. The charges should be set least 98 cm -# ft/ below the bottom of the -fig 09:/. The si5e of the charge depends on the thic$ness of ice. .ctivate the firing devices on two or three charges in each underwater minefield, one on each end and one in the middle. The rest of the charges will detonate sympathetically. )lowing a field li$e this creates an obstacle to enemy vehicles for approximately #( hours at 0#(AF.
Fi3)'# 1>8;. M#t"&$ &/ P0 !i(3 !" '3#- )($#' i!#. SELF TEST R#.)i'#%#(t. 1pon completion of the text assignment, solve the following self test questions and exercises: N&t#J The following exercises are study aids. The figures following each question refer to the paragraph containing information related to the question. *rite your answer in the space provided below each question. *hen you have finished answering all questions for this lesson, compare your answers with those given for this lesson in the bac$ of this boo$let. "eview the lesson as necessary. 1. !lans for fortifications are usually based on what phasing of constructionJ -!ara 0 c/
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1. *hat units normally construct hasty shelters and emplacementsJ -!ara 0#/ 3. *hat are the three steps in the progressive development of the fortificationJ -!ara 0%d/ 5. 4n the development of a fortification, what is the best protection against conventional weaponsJ -!ara 0 (a/ 5. .lthough shell craters offer immediate cover and concealment and can be quic$ly made into a hasty position, they have one mar$ed advantage. *hat is the disadvantageJ -!ara 0 # - // 8. *hen immediate shelter from heavy enemy fire is required and existing defilade firing positions are not available what type of emplacement is usedJ -!ara 0 # -#// 7. 4cecrete, formed by mixing dirt and water, is effective as an arctic building material. *hat minimum thic$ness will resist penetration of small arms fireJ -!ara 0 #a -(// ;. ,raters, s$irmisher3s trenches, and prone emplacements can be developed into what basic defensive positionJ -!ara 0 #a - /-#/-%// <. *hat is the primary means of protection against a nuclear explosionJ -!ara 0 d/ 0. For the full frontal berm overhead cover rifle position, at what angle should the firing aperture be cutJ -!ara 0 #c -#// 1. *hat depth of soil will the overhead cover for foxholes -fabric/ supportJ -!ara 0 #d - // 1. *hat are the purposes of the cushion layer and the burster layer of the heavy overhead coverJ -!ara 0%Ba -#/-(//
1>73
13. *hy is a minimum depth of :F of soil cover stipulatedJ -!ara 0%#e/ 15. *hat is the purpose of a standoffJ -!ara 0%(/ 15. *hat engineer battalion is equipped to construct artillery firebases in areas where ground travel is prohibitedJ -!ara 0#%/ 18. *hat are the ma7or tas$s in !hase 4, 44 and 444 of firebase constructionJ -!ara 0#(/ 17. *hat would be the effect of moisture on the resistance of soil cover to the penetration of roundsJ -;ote #, Table 09/ 1;. *hy is a light overhead cover needed for positions in wooded areasJ -!ara 0%:/ 1<. *hat characteristic of the design of the walls of the air transportable underground assault bun$er -prefab/ ma$e it easier for the bun$er to be pulled from the ground for relocationJ -!ara 0(+a/ 10. *hat type of walls does the plywood perimeter bun$er haveJ -!ara 0(9/
1>75
LESSON 1 TRENCHES AND FIELDWORFS CREDIT HOURS.......................................................................................................... 3 TEXT ASSIGNMENT.................................................................................................. Att !"#$ %#%&' ($)%. LESSON O*+ECTI,ES 1pon completion of this lesson, you should be able, in the indicated topic areas, to 00 1. T'#(!" T74#-. 2escribe the construction of the crawl trench, the fighting trench, and the standard trench. 1. T' !#-. 2escribe the octagonal and 5ig5ag traces and $now the advantages of each type of trace in trench layout. 3. T'#(!" D' i( 3#. 2escribe construction of trenches to $eep out surface runoff, dispose of rainfall and seepage, and reroute natural drainage channels. 5. T'#(!" O2#'"# $ C&2#'. 2escribe the construction of light and heavy overhead cover. 5. T'#(!" R#2#t%#(t. 2iscuss construction of the facing type, brushwood hurdle, continuous brush, pole and dimensioned timber, and metal types of revetments. 8. R#2#t%#(t- ($ *'# -t6&':-. 2iscuss the use of sandbags, sod bloc$s, and expedients. 2escribe the construction of breastwor$s. 7. D#/#(-#- i( T'&4i! 0 A'# -. 2iscuss considerations necessary when constructing defenses in tropical areas. ;. T)((#0#$ D#/#(-#-. 2iscuss soil, terrain, timbering, entrances, and ventilation of tunneled defenses. ATTACHED MEMORANDUM S#!ti&( I. T'#(!"#1>1. PURPOSE the overall layout plan for the defense of a position. The excavation of trenches involves considerable time, effort, and materials and is only 7ustified when an area will be occupied for an extended period. Trenches are usually open excavations but sections may be covered to provide additional protection if the overhead cover does not interfere with the fire mission of the occupying personnel. Trenches
. D#/#(-i2# '# . Trenches are excavated as fighting positions and to connect individual foxholes, weapons emplacements, and shelters in the progressive development of a defensive area. They provide protection and concealment for personnel moving between fighting positions or in and out of the area. Trenches should be included in 1>1
are difficult to camouflage and are easily detected, especially from the air. 9. D#2#0&4%#(t. Trenches are developed progressively as is the case for other fighting positions. .s they are improved, they are dug deeper, from a minimum of 98 cm -# ft/ to approximately .B meters -+ l@# ft/. .s a general rule, there is a tendency to excavate deeper for other than fighting trenches to provide more protection or to allow more headroom. Some trenches may also have to be widened to accommodate more traffic, including stretchers. 4t is usually necessary to revet trenches that are more than .+ meters -+ ft/ deep in any type of soil. 4n the deeper trenches some engineer advice or assistance may be necessary in providing adequate drainage. 1>1. CONSTRUCTION
. C' 60 t'#(!". The crawl trench is used to conceal movement into or within a position, and to provide a minimum of protection. ,rawl trenches should be 98 to B+ cm -#( to %8 in./ deep and about 98 cm -#( in./ wide. This trench is the narrowest practicable for most purposes and of the least width that can be dug without difficulty. 4t should be 5ig5agged or winding. The spoil is placed on the parapets, normally on each side of the trench. 4f the trench runs across a forward slope, it is better to place all the spoil on the enemy side to ma$e a higher parapet. 9. Fi3"ti(3 t'#(!". 4n developing a trench system, the outline of the trench is mar$ed out on the ground if time permits< if the digging is to be done at night, the ground is taped. The berm line is indicated about (+ cm - : in./ from the front edge of the trench. The trench is dug by men wor$ing in the same direction -not facing each other or bac$ to bac$/, and far enough apart so that they do not interfere with each other. ?1@ Fi'-t -t#4. The trench is dug to a depth of C8 cm -% ft./ below ground level - , fig #0 /. .t this point both men are able to fire in either direction, in a $neeling or crouching position. 4n ordinary soil this step can be completed in approximately # hours. The sides of the trench are
Fi3)'# 1>1. D#2#0&4%#(t &/
/i3"ti(3 t'#(!".
$ept vertical, or as steep as possible. 4f the soil is not stable, the sides require revetting immediately. Spoil is placed on each side of the trench in alternate shovelfuls beyond the berm lines until each parapet is about %8 cm - # in./ high and at least (+ cm - : in./ wide on the bac$ parapet. The remaining spoil is placed on the front parapet until it is at least +8 cm -+ ft./ wide -fig #0 /. ?1@ S#!&($ -t#4. The second step consists of deepening the trench until it is approximately .%+ meters -( l@# ft./ deep from the level of the trench parapet -#, fig #0 /. ;ormally, the front parapets are %8 cm - # in./ high and the dirt settles + to 8 cm -# to ( in./. !arapets are then shaped and camouflaged. ?3@ F'&(t 4 ' 4#t. The front parapet must be made according to the lay of the ground and the requirements of the weapon. . front parapet is often unnecessary on a
1>1
steep forward slope. .t most sites a front parapet improves the field of fire and should be constructed as follows: ? @ H#i3"t. . convenient height for the front parapet for firing purposes is #% to %8 cm -C to # in./ when the ground is level. 4t should be higher to fire uphill and the crest should be irregular to aid concealment. The height shown in figure #0 is average. ?9@ Wi$t". . reasonably bulletproof parapet should be meter in width. Since it is sloped in front and rear, the total width on the bottom will be approximately # meters -9.+ ft./. ?!@ *#'%-. The berm on the front of the trench forms an elbow rest which is usually about (+ cm - : in./ wide. 4f an =98 machinegun on a bipod is to be fired, the firing platform should be C8 cm -%9 in./ from front to rear. ?5@ R# ' 4 ' 4#t. The rear parapet is made of spoil that is not required for the front parapet. 4f the spoil is available the rear parapet should be higher than the front parapet to prevent silhouetting of soldiers3 heads when firing. The rear parapet may be up to (+ cm - : in./ high and should be at least (+ cm - : in./ wide at the top, sloped steeply in front. !arapets may be omitted to aid concealment or when ground provides bac$ground and protection to the firer3s rear. ?5@ C&(!# 0%#(t. !arapets are finished off by replacing turf or topsoil. The trench and parapets are covered with any available camouflage material, arranged to permit firing. ?8@ D' i( 3#. . sump is dug at the lowest point to prevent the floor of the trench from becoming wet and muddy. !. St ($ '$ t'#(!". The standard trench is developed from the fighting trench by lowering it to a depth of .B meters -+ l@# ft./. 4t may be constructed with fighting bay -fig #0#/ or with a fighting step -fig #0%/. Fighting positions are constructed on both sides of the trench to provide alternate positions to fight to the rear, to provide step off areas for foot traffic in the trench, and to provide protection against enfilade fire. The trench provides
Fi3)'# 1>1. St ($ '$ t'#(!" 6it" /i3"ti(3 9 7. more protection than the fighting trench due to its depth. .dditional protection in the form of overhead cover may also be provided. This trench is primarily a fighting position, but it can also be used for communications, supply, evacuation, and troop movements. $. T' !#-. 'ach trench is constructed to the length required and follows one of the traces described below to simplify construction. Special combinations and modifications may be developed. ?1@ O!t 3&( 0 t' !#. The octagonal trace - , fig #0(/ is excellent for fighting trenches in most situations. The octagonal trace has the following advantages: ? @ 4t affords easy communication. ?9@ 4t affords against enfilade fire. front. ?$@ 4t is economical to construct, both in labor and material. excellent protection
?!@ 4t facilitates oblique fire along the
1>3
Fi3)'# 1>3. St ($ '$ t'#(!" 6it" /i3"ti(3 -t#4.
1>5
Fi3)'# 1>5. St ($ '$ t'#(!" t' !#-. ?#@ 4t can be provided with a continuous fire step. 4ts chief disadvantage is that its layout lac$s simplicity of detail. ?1@ Kig5ag trace. The 5ig5ag trace -#, fig #0 (/ can provide protection from enfilade fire and shell bursts by the employment of short tangents, and by the occupation of alternate tangents. The 5ig5ag trace has the following advantages: ? @ 4t is the simplest and easiest to trace, construct, revet, and maintain. ?9@ 4t may be readily adapted to the terrain. ?!@ 4t permits both frontal and flan$ing fire. ?$@ This trace has no specific disadvantages. #. T'#(!" 9& '$-. 4f the sumps are cho$ed with mud, they will cease to function. *hen this happens, alternatives include some forms of flooring. Trench boards -fig #0+/ are the most practical. Timber plan$s, metal mats, or saplings wired together may also be used. 1>3. DRAINAGE. . Siti(3. 'mplacements, shelters, and trenches are sited to ta$e advantage of the natural drainage 1>5 Fi3)'# 1>5. T'#(!" 9& '$ ($ -)44&'t. pattern of the ground. They are constructed to provide for00 ?1@ 'xclusion of surface runoff. ?1@ 2isposal of direct rainfall or seepage. ?3@ )ypassing or rerouting natural drainage channels if they are intersected by the emplacement or shelter. 9. S)'/ !# ')(&//. !roper siting, as illustrated in figure #09, can lessen the problem of surface runoff by locating the emplacement, shelter, or trench in an area not sub7ect to excessive runoff. Surface water may be excluded by excavating interceptor ditches upslope from the emplacement or shelter. 4t is much easier to prevent surface water from flowing in than to remove it after it is in the excavation. Fortifications should be sited so as to direct the water to natural drainage lines. 4f this is not possible, the water is conducted across the trench through open flumes developed for the purpose or under the trench using a combination of trench drains and culverts. .n application of the open flume method for use with trenches is shown in figure #0B. . typical undertrench drain is shown in figure #0:.
Fi3)'# 1>;. U-# &/ )($#'t'#(!" $' i(-. Fi3)'# 1>8. Siti(3 t& 0#--#( 4'&90#% &/ ')(&// $i-4&- 0. !. Di'#!t ' i(/ 00 &' -##4 3#. *ater collecting within an emplacement or shelter is carried to central points by providing longitudinal slopes in the bottom of the excavation. . very gradual slope of percent is desirable. 4n trenches the slope is best provided for by fitting the trench to the terrain in such a way that the original surface has a moderate slope, as shown on the contoured layout in figure #0C. *hen permitted by the tactical situation, excavation of trenches should commence at the lowest level and progress upward in order to avoid collecting water in the bottom of a partially
Fi3)'# 1>7. U-# &/ &4#( /0)%# t& $i'#!t 6 t#' !'&-- $it!".
Fi3)'# 1><. M#t"&$ &/ -iti(3 t'#(!" t& 4'&2i$# 0&(3it)$i( 0 $' i( 3#. 1>8
completed trench. The central collecting points may be either natural drainage lines or sumps below the bottom of the excavation as shown in figure #0 8. Such sumps are located at points where the water will percolate through permeable soil or can be piped, pumped, or bailed out. 1>5. O,ERHEAD CO,ER . Li3"t !&2#'. 'xpedient overhead cover may be supported as shown in figure #0 . Logs + to #8 cm -9 to : in./ in diameter should be used to support light earth cover. Saplings laid in a laminated pattern to a depth of + to #8 cm -9 to : in./ may be used as a substitute for the logs. The total thic$ness of the logs or saplings and the earth cover should be a minimum of (+ cm - : in./ 9. H# 27 !&2#'. 4f heavy overhead cover is used in the construction of trenches, it should be installed in 90 to #0meter -#8 to (8 ft./ sections and in con7unction with the cover of emplacements and shelters connected by the trenches. Support for heavy overhead cover is provided by post0cap0 stringer type structures as shown in figures #0 # and #0 %. Trenches must be widened and deepened to accommodate these structures in accordance with information contained in the above illustrations. )ills of materials are shown in tables #0 and #0#.
Fi3)'# 1>10. D' i( 3# -)%4 i( 9&tt&% &/ #A! 2 ti&(.
Fi3)'# 1>11. R#2#tt#$ /i3"ti(3 t'#(!" 6it" !&2#'.
1>7
Fi3)'# 1>11. T'#(!" !&2#' -#!ti&(E $i%#(-i&(#$ ti%9#'. 1>;
Fi3)'# 1>13. T'#(!" -#!ti&(E 0&3 !&(-t')!ti&(. 1>5. RE,ETMENT 9. F !i(3 t74# '#2#t%#(t. Facing revetment serves mainly to protect revetted surfaces from the effects of weather and damage caused by occupation. 4t is used when soils are stable enough to sustain their own weight. This revetment -fig #0 +/ consists of the revetting or facing material and the supports which hold the revetting material in place. The facing material may be much thinner than that used in a retaining wall. For this reason facing type revetments are preferable since less excavation is required. The top of the facing should be set below ground level so the revetting is not damaged by tan$s crossing the emplacement. ?1@ M t#'i 0- /&' / !i(3. The facing may be constructed of brushwood hurdles,
. W 00 -0&4i(3. The necessity for revetment may sometimes be avoided or postponed by sloping the walls of the excavation. 4n most soils a slope of :% or :( is sufficient. This method may have to be used temporarily if the soil is loose and revetting materials are not available. *all sloping can seriously reduce the protection due to the increased width of the trench at ground level. 4n any case where wall sloping is used, the walls should be dug vertical first and then sloped. =ultiply the height of the wall as in figure #0 ( by the slope to be used :( -l@(/. This gives the amount the wall must be cut bac$ at ground level. Then, cut out a section about %8 cm - # in./ wide for a guide, as shown.
1><
T 90# 1>1. *i00 &/ M t#'i 0-E T'#(!" C&2#' S#!ti&(E P&-tE C 4E ($ St'i(3#'E C&(-t')!ti&( Di%#(-i&(#$ Ti%9#'.
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1>10
and sides of the position, and hold the facing material apart over the excavated width. ?9@ Pi!:#t-. !ic$ets are driven into the ground on the position side of the facing material and held tightly against the facing as shown in figure #0 9 by bracing the pic$ets apart across the width of
Fi3)'# 1>15. M#t"&$ &/ -0&4i(3 # 't" 6 00-.
Fi3)'# 1>18. F !i(3 '#2#t%#(t -)44&'t#$ 97 4i!:#t-. the position and anchoring the tops of the pic$ets by means of sta$es driven into the ground and tiebac$s. Fi3)'# 1>15. F !i(3 '#2#t%#(t -)44&'t#$ 97 /' %#-. continuous brush, pole and dimensioned timbers, corrugated metal, or burlap and chic$en wire. The method of constructing each type is described below. ?1@ M#t"&$- &/ -)44&'t. The facing may be supported by 00 ? @ Ti%9#' /' %#-. Frames of dimensioned timber are constructed to fit the bottom ?3@ F !i(3 t74# '#2#t%#(t-. Facing type revetments may be supported either by timber frames or pic$ets. The si5e of pic$ets required, and their spacing, are determined by the soil and the type of facing materials used. *ooden pic$ets should not be smaller than B.+ cm -% in./ in diameter or in the smallest dimension. The maximum spacing between pic$ets should be about # meters -9.+ ft./. The standard pic$ets used to support barbed wire entanglements are excellent for use in revetting. !ic$ets are driven at least (+ cm - : in./ into the floor of the position.
1>11 *here the tops of the pic$ets are to be anchored, an anchor sta$e or holdfast is driven into the top of the ban$ opposite each pic$et and the top of the pic$et is rac$ed to it as shown in figure #0 B. The distance between the anchor sta$e and the facing is at least
Fi3)'# 1>1;. M :i(3
9')-"6&&$ ")'$0#.
Fi3)'# 1>17. M#t"&$ &/ (!"&'i(3 4i!:#t-. equal to the height of the revetted face, with alternate anchors staggered and at least 98 cm -#( in./ farther bac$. Several strands of wire holding the pic$ets against the emplacement walls must be straight and taut. . groove or channel is cut in the parapet to pass the wire through. !. *')-"6&&$ ")'$0#. . brushwood hurdle is a woven revetment unit usually # meters -9.+ ft./ long and of the required height. .s shown in figure #0 :, pieces of brushwood about #.+ cm - in./ in diameter are woven on a framewor$ of sharpened pic$ets driven into the ground at +8 cm -#8 in./ intervals. *hen completed, the #0meter -9.+ ft./ lengths are carried to the position, where the pic$ets are driven in place and the tops of the pic$ets are tied bac$ to sta$es or holdfasts. The ends of the hurdles are then wired together. $. C&(ti()&)- 9')-". .s shown in figure #0 C, a continuous brush revetment, which is constructed in place. Sharpened pic$ets, B.+ cm 1>11
-% in./ in diameter, are driven into the bottom of the trench at 0pace intervals and about 8 cm -( in./ from the earth face to be revetted. The space behind the pic$ets is pac$ed with small straight brushwood laid hori5ontally and the tops of the pic$ets are anchored to sta$es or holdfasts.
Fi3)'# 1>1<. C&(ti()&)- 9')-" '#2#t%#(t.
#. P&0# ($ $i%#(-i&(#$ ti%9#'. . pole revetment -fig #0#8/ is similar to the continuous brush revetment except a layer of small hori5ontal round poles, cut to the length of the wall to be revetted, is used instead of brushwood. 4nstead of poles, boards or plan$s are used if available< they have the added advantage of being more quic$ly installed. !ic$ets are held in place by holdfasts or struts.
Fi3)'# 1>10. Ti%9#' '#2#t%#(t )-i(3 -% 00 4&0#-. /. M#t 0. . revetment of corrugated metal sheets, -? @, figure #0# / or pierced steel plan$ may be installed rapidly and is strong and durable. 4t is well adapted to emplacement construction because the edges and ends of sheets or plan$s can be lapped as required to produce a revetment of a given height and length. .ll metal surfaces must be smeared with mud to eliminate possible reflection of thermal radiation and to aid in camouflage. )urlap and chic$en wire revetments are installed as shown in -?#@, figure #0# /. *hen damaged, corrugated metal forms dangerous sharp edges. !rompt attention should be given to the repair of damaged revetments to prevent in7uries to personnel or damage to equipment. 1>8. REPAIR AND MAINTENANCE OF TRENCHES . M i(t#( (!#. ?1@ D' i( 3#. 4t is important to $eep the drainage system wor$ing properly. 4f water is allowed to stand in the bottom of a trench, the revetment will eventually be undermined and
Fi3)'# 1>11. T74#- &/ %#t 0 '#2#t%#(t. become useless. Sumps and drains must be $ept clear of silt and refuse. Trench boards should be lifted periodically so that the mud can be cleaned out from beneath them. ?1@ *#'%-. )erms must be $ept clear and of sufficient width to prevent soil from the parapets falling into the trench. ?3@ R#2#tt#$ t'#(!"#-. *hen wire and pic$ets are used to support revetment material,
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the pic$ets may become loose, especially after rain. 4mprovised braces may be wedged across the trench at or near floor level, between two opposite pic$ets. .nchor wires may be tightened by further twisting. .nchor pic$ets may have to be driven in farther to hold the tightened wires. ?5@ S ($9 3 '#2#t%#(t-. !eriodic inspections must be made of sandbags. .ny bags that are split or damaged should be replaced. 9. R#4 i'. ?1@ T&4 &/ t'#(!". 4f the walls are crumbling at the top, ma$ing the trench wider at ground level, an elbow rest should be cut out of the full width of the berm and about %8 cm - # in./ deep, or until firm soil is reached. Sandbags or sods are then used to build up the damaged area -? @, figure #0##/. ?1@ *&tt&% &/ t'#(!". 4f the trench walls are wearing away at the bottom, place a plan$ on edge, or shift brushwood as shown in -?#@, figure #0##/. The plan$ is held against the trench wall with short pic$ets driven into the trench floor. 4f plan$s are used on both sides of the trench, they are held in position with a piece of timber cut to the right length and wedged between the plan$s at floor level. 'arth is placed in bac$ of the plan$s. ?3@ C&00 4-#$ 6 00. 4f an entire wall appears to be collapsing, the trench must be completely revetted or the walls sloped -fig #0 (/ so they will stand. 4f the walls are permitted to cave in, the trench usually must be widened at ground level which reduces its protective value. ,ave0ins should be prevented as far as possible by revetting the trench in time or by one of the remedial measures described above.
Fi3)'# 1>11. T'#(!" '#4 i'. 1>15
S#!ti&( II. Fi#0$6&':1>7. RE,ETMENTS
. U-# &/ - ($9 3-. *alls are built of sandbags or sod in much the same way as bric$s are used. Sandbags are also useful for temporary retaining wall type revetments, especially where silent installation is essential. The three types of sandbags in use are the cotton osnaburg, the polypropylene, and the acrylic. .ll are used in the same manner. The polypropylene bag will last approximately seven months, twice as long as the cotton osnaburg bag. The acrylic sandbag which is replacing the osnaburg and the polypropylene is rot and weather resistant. The bag under all climate conditions has a life of at least # years, with no visible deterioration. 4t is readily stac$ed to form a sandbag revetment or breastwor$ with no slippage of individual bags within the stac$. 6oles in a bag caused by a bullet or a fragment do not enlarge due to continued wea$ening or unravelling of the bag material around the hole or holes. The bag is lusterless olive drab in color. The useful life of sandbags can be prolonged by filling them with a mixture of dry earth and portland cement, normally in the ratio of part of cement to 8 parts of dry earth. The cement sets as the bags ta$e on moisture. . ratio of to 9 should be used for a sand0gravel mixture. The filled bags may be dipped in a cement0 water slurry as an alternative method. 'ach sandbag should be pounded with a flat ob7ect, such as a + by 8 cm -# by ( in./ board, to ma$e the wall more stable. ?1@ C&(-t')!ti&(. .s a rule sandbags are used for revetting only when the soil is very loose and requires a retaining wall to support it or for the repair of damaged trenches. . sandbag revetment will not stand with a vertical face. The face must have a slope of :( and the base must be on firm ground and dug at a slope of (: . The sandbag wall should lean against the earth if it is to hold in place -fig. #0#%/. ? @ The bags are uniformly filled about three0fourths full with earth or with a dry soil0 cement mixture and the cho$e cords are tied.
Fi3)'# 1>13. R#t i(i(3 6 00 '#2#t%#(t. ?9@ The bottom corners of the bags are tuc$ed in after filling. ?!@ .s the revetment is built, the revetted face is made to conform to this slope by bac$filling or additional excavation. ?$@ Sandbags are laid so that the planes between the layers have the same pitch as the foundation, i.e., at right angels to the slope of the revetment. ?#@ The bottom row of the revetment is constructed with all bags placed as headers -fig #0 #%/. The wall is then constructed using alternate rows of stretchers and headers with the 7oints bro$en between courses. The top row of the revetment wall consists of headers. ?/@ .ll bags are placed so that side seams on stretchers and cho$ed ends on headers are turned toward the revetted face. ?1@ C&%%&( / )0t-. The common faults in sandbag revetments are illustrated in figure #0#%.
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?3@ EA4#$i#(t %# (- &/ /i00i(3 - ($9 3-. &ften the requirement for filled sandbags far exceeds the capabilities of men using shovels to fill sandbags. . high speed combat intrenching machine can be used to fill sandbags if local soil is to be used as the filler. The bag is filled by holding it under the discharge conveyor as the intrenching machine is run forward at a slow speed -fig. #0#(/. Sod bloc$s cut into sections about #% by (9 cm -C by : in./ are laid flat, using the alternate stretcher0 header method described above for use with sandbags. Sod is laid grass0to0grass and soil0to0soil, except for the top layer which should be laid with the grass upward, to provide natural camouflage. .s each layer of sod is completed, wooden pegs are driven through the layers to prevent sliding until the roots grow from layer to layer. Two pegs are driven through each #% by (9 cm -C by : in./ sod. Sod revetment is laid at a slope of about hori5ontal to % vertical. !. EA4#$i#(t-. 4n cold weather bloc$s of ice may be used to construct retaining wall type revetments. They are stac$ed in the same manner as sandbags or sod. *ater is applied to bind them together by free5ing. &ther expedients include earth0filled pac$ing cases or ammunition boxes. 'mpty boxes or pac$ing cases are placed in position and nailed to the lids of the layer below< the boxes and filled with earth or roc$ and the lids fastened in place. This procedure is repeated for each row. The tops of the revetment are tied to pic$ets to prevent overturning. 1>;. *REASTWORFS
Fi3)'# 1>15. U-# &/ !&%9 t i(t'#(!"#' t& /i00 - ($9 3-. This method will produce filled sandbags at a rate of one every four to five seconds. The spillage can be used to fill sandbags also since it is often loose and easily shoveled. 4f the sandbags are to be filled from a stoc$pile of sand or other material, the wor$ can be made easier and the bags filled faster by using the funnel as shown in figure #0#+. The funnel can be constructed using either lumber or steel. 9. S&$ 90&!:-. Thic$ sod with good root systems provides a satisfactory revetting material.
)reastwor$s may be substituted for trenches, weapons emplacements, etc., when soil conditions or a high water table ma$es excavation to the required depth impossible. 1nder these circumstances earth must be built up above ground level to form protective walls. This wor$ requires more time and effort than digging trenches of comparable depth. )reastwor$ defenses are not as good protection against airbursts as excavated positions. They also have serious disadvantages against blast and nuclear radiation. . C&(-t')!ti&(. *hen breastwor$s are constructed for fire positions and weapons emplacements their dimensions should conform to the excavated positions. . front breastwor$ should be bulletproof, i.e., of approximately meter -%.% ft./ minimum thic$ness. The outer face should be sloped gently< not steeper than :# -fig #0#9/. The inner face
Fi3)'# 1>15. EA4#$i#(t /)((#0 /&' /i00i(3 - ($9 3-. 1>18
Firmly fro5en snow .t least #.+0% meters -:0 8 ft./ !ac$ed snow...................t least # meters -9 l@# ft./ 4ce.................................. .t least %8 cm - # in./ 9. T'#(!"#-. 4n deep snow, trenches and weapons emplacements may be excavated in the snow to approximately normal dimensions. 1nless the snow is well pac$ed and fro5en, revetment will be required, -?(@, figure #0#9/. 4n shallow snow, not deep enough to permit excavation to the required depth, snow breastwor$s must be constructed. These should be of compacted snow, at least # meters -9 l@# ft./ thic$ and revetted. 1>10. DEFENSES IN TROPICAL AREAS . A$2 (t 3#-. ?1@ ,oncealment is comparatively easy. ?1@ Timber is readily available. 9. T&&0-. required to 00 . variety of cutting tools are
?1@ ,lear fields of fire. Fi3)'# 1>18. , 'i#$ t74#- &/ 9'# -t6&':-. should be sloped :( and revetted. breastwor$ may be similar to the front. . rear ?1@ ,ut tree roots during excavation. ?3@ ,ut timber for overhead cover. !. E.)i4%#(t. *hen large cleared areas are necessary bulldo5ers with winches or do5ers with land clearing blades are required for grubbing trees. )ulldo5ers can clear from 8,888 to #,888 square meters - ,C98 to (,%+8 sq. yd./ of heavy 7ungle is : hours. 2o5ers with land clearing blades can clear +,888 to #+,888 square meters - B,C(8 to #C,C88 sq. yd./ of heavy 7ungle in the same length of time. $. D' i( 3#. ?ood drainage is required for all excavations and should be considered in the initial siting of the position. Trenches, shelters, and emplacements are floored as soon as possible. Stone, brushwood covered with bamboo matting may be used. #. O2#'"# $ !&2#'. *aterproof material such as building paper should be included in the overhead cover for shelters or trenches and should overlap the sides of the structure 1>17
9. S(&6 9'# -t6&':-. Snow breastwor$s can be constructed as shown in -?(@, figure #0#9/. 1><. SNOW DEFENSES
. S(&6 - 4'&t#!ti2# % t#'i 0. Snow must be pac$ed to be effective against small arms fire. 2rifted snow is usually well compacted by the wind. Loose snow has only about half the value of pac$ed snow in resisting penetration, but shells and grenades bursting on impact are largely ineffective in loose snow because the fragmentation is blan$eted. The thic$ness of snow required for protection against small arms and shell splinters is as follows: ;ewly fallen snow........ .t least ( meters - % ft/
about 98 cm -# ft./. =aterial used as overhead cover must be well supported and sloped so water will run off. 1>11. DUMMB EARTHWORFS 1>11. TUNNELED DEFENSES . C&(-i$#' ti&(-. Tunnels are not used frequently in the defense of an area due to the time, effort, and technicalities involved< however, they have been used to good advantage. Tunneled defenses can be used when the length of time an area must be defended 7ustifies the effort and the ground lends itself to this purpose. 9. S&i0. The possibility of tunneling also depends to a great extent on the nature of the soil, which can be determined by borings or similar means. Tunneling in hard roc$ is so slow that it is generally impractical. Tunnels in clay or other soft soils are also impractical since they must be lined throughout or they will soon collapse. ,onstruction of tunneled defenses is usually limited to H ?1@ 6illy terrain 0 steep hillsides. ?1@ Favorable soil, including hard chal$, soft sandstone, and other types of hard soil or soft roc$. !. T)((#0 #A %40#-. . s$etch of tunnels is shown in figure #0#:. 4n this tunnel system, the soil was generally very hard and only the entrances were timbered. The speed of excavation, using handtools, varied according to the soil, seldom exceeding B.+ meters
. D)%%7 t'#(!"#-. 2ummy trenches are dug to conceal the true extent of a defended area or locality. 2ummy trenches should be dug about (+ cm - : in./ deep, with brushwood laid in the bottom, -? @, fig #0#B/. The brushwood has the effect of
Fi3)'# 1>17. D)%%7 # 't"6&':-. producing an internal shadow similar to that cast by a deep trench. !arapets must be similar to those of other trenches in the position. False parapets should also be concealed. 9. D)%%7 #%40 !#%#(t-. The most noticeable feature of a roofed emplacement is the deep internal show of its embrasure. This appears to the enemy from the ground as a blac$ patch of regular shape. 1sually, it will appear rectangular if the roof is flat. . rectangular embrasure can be simulated by means of a box placed in the ground, with open end to the front, and covered with earth -?#@, fig #0#B/. Some attempt at concealment and occasional signs of occupation will add realism.
Fi3)'# 1>1;. T)((#0#$ $#/#(-#-. 1>1;
-#+ ft./ per day. 4n patches of hard roc$, as little as meter -%.% ft./ was excavated in a day -#( hr./. The use of powertools did not alter the speed of excavation significantly. The wor$ was done by engineer units assisted by infantry personnel. $. C&(-t')!ti&(. Tunnels of the type shown -fig #0#:/ are excavated about C meters -%8 ft./ below ground level. They may be hori5ontal or nearly so. ?1@ E(t' (!#-. The entrances must be strengthened against collapse under shell fire and ground shoc$ from nuclear weapons. The first + meters - 9.+ ft./ from each entrance should be framed with timber supports using 8 cm x 8 cm -( in. x ( in./ or comparable timbers. ?1@ Si=#. 1ntimbered tunnels should be about meter -%.% ft./ wide and .+ to # meters -+ to 9.+ ft./ high. ?3@ C" %9#'-. ,hambers may be constructed in roc$ or extremely hard soil without timber supports. 4f timber is not used the chamber -fig #0#:/ should not be more than # meters -9.+ ft./ wide. 4f timbers are used the width may be increased to % meters - 8 ft./. The chamber should be the same height as the tunnel and up to ( meters - % ft./ long. ?5@ G'#( $# t' 4. ?renade traps should be constructed at the bottom of straight lengths where they slope. 4t can be done by cutting a recess about meter -%.% ft./ deep in the wall facing the inclining floor of the tunnel. ?5@ Di-4&- 0 &/ -&i0. . considerable quantity of spoil from the excavated area must be disposed of and concealed. The volume of spoil is usually estimated as one0third greater than the volume of the tunnel. .pproximately 88 tons of spoil were removed from the tunnel system shown in figure #0#:. ?8@ C&(!# 0%#(t. Tunnel entrances must be concealed from enemy observation and it may be necessary to transport spoil by hand through a trench. ,old air rising from a tunnel entrance may give away the position. #. P'#! )ti&(-. ?1@ Pi!:- ($ -"&2#0-. There is always danger that tunnel entrances will be bloc$ed, trapping the occupants. !ic$s and shovels must be $ept in each tunnel so men trapped can dig their way out. ?1@ E(t' (!#-. .t least two entrances are necessary for ventilation purposes< whenever possible one or more emergency exits should be provided. These may be small tunnels whose entrances are normally closed and concealed< a tunnel may be dug from inside the system to within a few feet of the surface so a brea$through can be made if necessary.
SELF TEST R#.)i'#%#(t. 1pon completion of the text assignment, solve the following self test questions and exercises. N&t#J The following exercises are study aids. The figures following each question refer to the paragraph containing information related to the question. *rite your answer in the space provided below each question. *hen you have finished answering all questions for this lesson, compare your answers with those given for this lesson in the bac$ of this boo$let. "eview the lesson as necessary. 1. *hat are the two purposes for the construction of trenchesJ -!ara #0 a/
1>1<
1. *ould you say that trenches are easy or difficult to camouflageJ -!ara #0 a/ 3. *hat is the purpose of the crawl trenchJ -!ara (0#a/ 5. *hat depth and width should a crawl trench beJ -!ara #0#a/ 5. 6ow far is the berm line located in front of the fighting trenchJ -!ara #0#b/ 8. To what initial depth is the fighting trench dugJ -!ara #0#b- // 7. 6ow is the front parapet of a fighting trench constructed in order to help prevent its detectionJ -!ara #0#b -%/-a// ;. 4f spoil is available, why should the rear parapet of a fighting trench be higher than the front parapetJ -!ara #0#b-(// <. *hen can parapets of fighting trenches be omittedJ -!ara #0#b-(// 10. 6ow is the floor of the fighting trench prevented from becoming wet and muddyJ -!ara #0#b-9// 11. The necessity for revetment of walls may sometimes be avoided by what procedureJ -!ara #0+a/ 11. 4n most soils, what slope is sufficient to avoid revetmentJ -!ara #0+a/ 13. *hat is a serious disadvantage of having sloping walls of trenchesJ -!ara #0+a/
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15. *hat is the purpose of facing type revetment of trenchesJ -!ara #0+b/ 15. *hat condition or type of soil permits the use of facing revetmentJ -!ara #0+b/ 18. *hat methods of support are used to $eep the revetment in placeJ -!ara #0+b-#// 17. Sandbags can be used for revetting and the repair of trenches. 6ow full must the sandbags beJ -!ara #0Ba - /-a// 1;. 6ow should sandbags be placed with reference to side seams or stretchers and cho$ed ends on headersJ -!ara #0Ba- /-f// 1<. *hat two pieces of equipment can be used to expedite the filling of sandbagsJ -!ara #0Ba-%// 10. 2ummy trenches are dug to conceal from the air or ground, the true extent of the defended area. 6ow deep should they be dug and what means ta$en to ma$e them effectiveJ -!ara #0 a//
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LESSON 3 O*STACLE EMPLOBMENT CREDIT HOURS.......................................................................................................... 3 TEXT ASSIGNMENT.................................................................................................. Att !"#$ %#%&' ($)%. MATERIALS REQUIRED.......................................................................................... N&(#. LESSON O*+ECTI,ES 1pon completion of this lesson you should be able, in the indicated topic areas, to: 1. N t)' 0 O9-t !0#-. 2escribe the four characteristics of a well situated natural obstacle to include capability of improvement, defilade from enemy observation, and best location for defensive fires. 1. T !ti! 0 O9-t !0#-. 2escribe the four types of tactical obstacles 0 antitan$, antivehicle, antipersonnel, and beach and river line. 3. P'i(!i40#- &/ E%40&7%#(t. 2iscuss the principles of employment of obstacles to include coordination with the tactical plan, covering by observation and fire, employment with natural and other artificial obstacles, and employment in depth. 5. Dit!"#-. 2escribe the types of ditches, their characteristics, and construction. 5. L&3 H)'$0#- ($ C'i9-. 2escribe purposes and construction of log hurdles and cribs. 8. St##0 ($ C&(!'#t# O9-t !0#-. 2escribe the purposes and construction of steel and concrete obstacles. 7. EA4#$i#(t-. 2iscuss types of expedient roadbloc$s and their construction. ;. *# !" ($ Ri2#' Li(# O9-t !0#-. 2iscuss purposes and construction of obstacles to include beach obstacles, antiboat obstacles, and antipersonnel obstacles. ATTACHED MEMORANDUM S#!ti&( I. P'i(!i40#3>1. *ASIC CONSIDERATIONS 9. P)'4&-#-. &bstacles should be included in the overall defense plan to restrict the movement of enemy forces, delay them, or require them to regroup.
. D#/i(iti&(. .n obstacle is any terrain feature, condition of soil, climate, or man0made ob7ect other than firepower, that is used to stop, delay, or divert enemy movement.
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!. T !ti! 0 &9-t !0#-. The following obstacles are commonly referred to as tactical types: ?1@ .ntitan$ obstacles intended to impede or stop the movement of trac$ed vehicles across country or on roads< ?1@ .ntipersonnel obstacles constructed to slow up, confuse or divert enemy foot troops when they attempt to overrun or infiltrate a defended position or locality< ?3@ .ntivehicle obstacles including roadbloc$s, crates and other means that are used to stop or delay enemy wheeled vehicles so they can be brought under aimed fire. ?5@ )each and river line obstacles that delay, obstruct or divert enemy amphibious operations. $. O9-#'2 ti&(. Tactical obstacles must be under observation and covered by fire for maximum benefit. .n obstacle which is not covered by observed fire may be ineffective or at best lead to a false sense of security. #. O//#(-i2# )-# &/ t !ti! 0 &9-t !0#-. &bstacles are used to anchor a flan$ or flan$s of an advancing unit. They may also be used behind enemy lines to delay, disorgani5e, and harass troop movements and communications, especially when an enemy force is withdrawing. The wide intervals between dispersed units of company si5e or larger should be bloc$ed by a combination of obstacles and firepower. /. N&(t !ti! 0 &9-t !0#-. &bstacles falling in this category may be of the same general design as obstacles constructed under tactical conditions, but the same considerations of siting and concealment do not apply. ;ontactical obstacles may be used 00 ?1@ For the protection of important installations against infiltration or sabotage. ?1@ 4n civil policing operations to chec$ the movement of rioters or to isolate a section of a town or city. ?3@ For administrative purposes. 3>1. CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL O*STACLES 3>1 2esirable characteristics of a natural obstacle are ease of conversion into a more effective obstacle with a minimum of effort, materials, and time< defilade from enemy observation< location where observation and defensive fires can prevent enemy breaching< and difficulty of bypassing. The most effective natural obstacles against tan$s are steep slopes, unfro5en swamps, and broad, deep streams. "ice paddies, lava fields, and similar areas can also be formidable obstacles. 1sually time labor, and materials can be saved by improving natural obstacles rather than constructing artificial ones to serve the same purpose. . St##4 -0&4#-. Darying degrees of steepness are required to stop different types of vehicles. Tan$s can negotiate slopes as steep as 98 percent. 6owever, trees, unfavorable soil conditions, large roc$s and boulders can ma$e slopes of less than 98 percent impassable, even though this would not be true if the same natural features were encountered on level ground. The movement of infantry is also slowed down by steep slopes since movement is slower and the troops tire more rapidly. 9. E-! '4%#(t-. . steep face of roc$ is a formidable obstacle to both vehicles and personnel if it is over @# meters -+ ft/ in height. !. R 2i(#-E 3)00i#-E ($ $it!"#-. "avines, gullies, and ditches are generally obstacles to wheeled vehicles. 4f they are over + meters - 9 @# ft/ in width, and approximately # meters -9 @# ft/ in depth and the ban$s are nearly vertical, they are usually effective against trac$ed vehicles. $. Ri2#'-E -t'# %-E ($ ! ( 0-. The ma7or obstacle value of rivers, streams, and canals is that they must be crossed by special means, either deepwater fording, surface or aerial. The width, depth, velocity of the water, and ban$ and bottom conditions determine the ease of crossing a water obstacle by deepwater fording and floating equipment. 6owever, a river over +8 meters -+88 ft/ wide and over @# meters -+ ft/ deep is a ma7or obstacle, limited only by the presence of bridges, favorable sites for amphibious vehicles, and fording sites. The obstacle
value of fordable rivers, streams, and canals is significant when the stability of the ban$s and bottoms is considered. .lthough a few vehicles may be able to ford a water obstacle, the poor condition of the ban$s and bottom may prevent further use of the ford without time0consuming improvement of the crossing site. Stream velocity may li$ewise limit the use of a ford and enhance its value as an obstacle. !. F'&=#( -t'# %-. .ntitan$ obstacles -fig %0 / can be improved in fro5en streams by cutting an opening about % to ( meters - 8 to % ft/ wide in the ice and forcing the cut bloc$s of ice under the solid surface so the bloc$s will be carried downstream by the current. The openings are then closed with a light frame covered with cloth, brush, or tar paper with about 8 cm -( in./ covering of snow. The effectiveness of this type of obstacle depends on $eeping the water in the channel from free5ing. . well made trap will be effective for an extended period of time if it is inspected frequently to maintain the snow cover. 4f the ice free5es solid in the area of the trap, the procedure outlined above must be repeated. /. L :#-. La$es are usually unfordable and if unbridged, must be bypassed unless they are fro5en solid enough to support vehicles and personnel. 3. S6 %4- ($ % '-"#-. The principal obstacle value of swamps and marshes is the canali5ation of vehicular movement onto causeways thereby exposing the columns to air or artillery attac$s. Swamps and marshes over meter -%.% ft/ in depth may be better obstacles than rivers, since causeways are usually more difficult to construct than bridges. The physical effort required for foot troops to cross swamps and marshes is an important factor in their usefulness as an obstacle. .ll roads and causeways through swamps and marshes should be extensively cratered, mined, or bloc$ed by abatis. ". F&'#-t-. Forests have the effect of canali5ing movement, since the roads, trails, and fire brea$s through them provide the only means for rapid movement. The obstacle value of a forest is dependent on tree si5e and density, soil condition, slope, and depth. 4f the trees are at least #8 cm -: in./ in diameter and sufficiently close together, they will seriously obstruct or stop the movement of tan$s. 'ven though the trees are seldom close enough together to stop tan$s, they may prevent tan$ movement when they are pushed over and tangled. =uch smaller trees - 8 cm -( in./ in diameter/ will slow and sometimes stop tan$s on #8 percent slopes. Tree stumps that are (+ cm - : in./ in diameter or larger are obstacles to tan$ movement. Forest undergrowth in the temperate 5one is not usually dense enough to seriously obstruct foot movement, but such movement will be slowed significantly by steep slopes, adverse soil conditions, and fallen trees and branches. The most effective way of increasing the obstacle value of forests is to: Fi3)'# 3>1. A(tit (: t' 4 i( i!#.
3>3
?1@ ,onstruct abatis or craters. ?1@ !lace mines along the roads, trails, and firebrea$s. ?3@ ,onstruct log cribs, hurdles, and post obstacles if the necessary materials are available. i. +)(30# &9-t !0#-. Tropical 7ungles are important obstacles to the movement of vehicles and personnel. The ground between the trees is usually covered by interwoven vines, bushes, plants, or rotting vegetation. The ground is often swampy or marsh. The tangled undergrowth and overhead foliage limits the visibility and there are few if any paths or trails except those that permit limited foot traffic. Dehicles can seldom operate satisfactorily unless routes are prepared or extensively improved. Foot troops are required to cut trails through the dense undergrowth or move with extreme difficulty. Since the 7ungle is an effective obstacle to movement, any road or trails that exists should be bloc$ed and the stream fords and amphibian vehicle entry and exit sites should be mined. 4f the streams and rivers provide the best routes, obstacles should be constructed to slow up or prevent the use of floating equipment. The following obstacles are effective against foot movement in the 7ungle: ?1@ P)(Ki K)(30# t' 4. !un7i traps -fig %0#/ are most effective when they merge with or resemble natural 7ungle obstacles. 4n the defense, they may be used either as barricades around camps or as barriers to impede the advance of an assault. 4n the offense, they may be constructed behind enemy lines to stop or hinder any retreat. 'nemy patrols can be disbanded by s$illful use of these traps in connection with covering snipers. . pit .+ to # meters -+ to 9 @# ft/ deep, about the same length and one meter -%.% ft/ wide is dug in the middle of a 7ungle trail or at a stream crossing. . number of long, sharp pun7is -bamboo spi$es sharpened to a needle point/ are placed upright in this pit, with the fire0hardened points slightly below ground level -fig %0#/. The pit is concealed by a flimsy lid consisting of a bamboo lattice covered with a few bamboo creepers and camouflaged with mud or leaves to blend with the surrounding area. .nyone falling into the pit is instantly impelled on the spi$es. ?1@ S0it t'#(!". . slit trench can be so placed that enemy troops will be li$ely to use it. Li$e the cover of the pun7i pit, the bottom of this trench is false, and underneath it are sharp pun7is, which will impale anyone 7umping into the trench. K. S(&6. Snow is considered deep for purposes of foot or vehicle movement when the average depth above ground elevation is meter -%.% ft/. Snow at this depth and even deeper is not unusual in the .rctic and the northernmost regions of the temperate 5one. 4t is found at these depths also in mountainous regions. 2eep snow and the accompanying ice and intense cold combine to ma$e obstacles to movement of both foot troops and vehicles. 4t also blan$ets terrain features such as boulders, roc$y areas, ditches, small streams and fallen trees so as to effectively impede movement. The obstacle value of snow can be increased by0 ?1@ 'recting snow fences or brea$s so that the prevailing winds will accelerate the accumulation of snow into drifts to form obstacles of pac$ed snow. ?1@ )uilding snow walls -fig %0%/ as obstacles against armor. The snow must be pac$ed hard for this purpose. *alls of this type are most effective when they are sited on an upgrade. Fi3)'# 3>1. P)(Ki K)(30# t' 4.
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environment. =inefields are comparatively easy to install and relocate in the desert and the prevalent winds quic$ly cover up the usual signs of mine installation. 0. *)i0t>)4 '# -. The natural obstacle of built0up areas can be increased by cratering streets, demolishing walls, overturning or derailing street or railroad cars, and constructing roadbloc$s from steel rails, beams, and rubble. *hen combined with mines and barbed wire, such obstacles are effective against vehicles and personnel.
Fi3)'# 3>3. A(ti2#"i!)0 ' &9-t !0# &/ 4 !:#$ -(&6. :. D#-#'t-. The obstacle value of deserts is that specially equipped vehicles and specially trained personnel are required to operate successfully in this
S#!ti&( II. A'ti/i!i 0 L ($ O9-t !0#3>3. *ASIC CONSIDERATIONS ma$ing a surprise assault from areas close to a position. ?1@ D#/#(-i2#. 2efensive obstacles are obstacles used to delay the enemy force in areas where it can be engaged with heavy, intense defensive fire. They may be either natural or artificial. . defended roadbloc$ or an obstacle in front of a defensive position which stops or delays the enemy force once it is in range of defensive weapons are examples of this type. 2efensive obstacles should be covered by appropriate fire, $ept under observation, and should be employed in con7unction with protective obstacles. ?3@ T !ti! 0. Tactical obstacles are obstacles used to brea$ up enemy attac$ formations and canali5e the enemy force into areas where it is bloc$ed by defensive obstacles or can be brought under intensive defensive fires. Tactical obstacles delay, harass, or demorali5e the enemy by forcing him to employ dangerous to exhaustive breaching measures. 3>5. ?1@ P'&t#!ti2#. !rotective obstacles are those obstacles used to provide security. &bstacles of this type are usually artificial and include such items as wire, minefields, and various warning devices. They are intended primarily to prevent the enemy from PRINCIPLES OF EMPLOBMENT
. D#/i(iti&(. .n artificial obstacle is any ob7ect constructed to hinder movement. .rtificial obstacles include minefields, antitan$ ditches, contaminated areas, hedgehogs, road craters, demolished bridges, and barbed wire. They may be constructed entirely on land or partially under water as in the case of beach and river line obstacles. 9. U-#. =a7or types of artificial obstacles are discussed separately in subsequent chapters< however, they are normally used in con7unction with natural obstacles and in combinations of two or more types of artificial obstacles. *hen artificial obstacles are used in barriers, a variety of them should be used, when practicable, to increase effectiveness and as an aid to surprise and deception. &bstacles can be divided into three groups according to their uses. Seldom does an obstacle fall clearly into one of these three groups. =ore often than not an obstacle may be used for two or three purposes. The arbitrary classification of obstacles merely clarifies their primary uses.
. C&&'$i( ti&( 6it" t !ti! 0 40 (. &bstacles should be coordinated with the tactical plan. .ll obstacles should contribute to the success of this plan, and all units concerned should $now the location of and understand the purpose and type of obstacles employed.
3>5
4n addition, all concerned should $now when the obstacles are to be executed, and how long they are to be defended. &nly by coordination with all elements can an integrated plan be prepared that will use all defensive measures to their best advantage against the enemy. 9. C&2#'i(3 97 &9-#'2 ti&( ($ /i'#. ?1@ O9-#'2 ti&(. 4f accurate fire is to be delivered on an obstacle or obstacle system, it must be under observation. The observation and defense of obstacles for close0in defense is the responsibility of the unit occupying the ground. 6owever, when an obstacle system covers a large area, observation is normally the responsibility of roving patrols, an outpost system, aerial observation, of tactical air. Their final defense is a mission for mobile forces that can be brought quic$ly to any point of the system. .t times it is not feasible to have an obstacle under direct observation. *hen this is the case, warning devices or alarm systems such as tripflares, boobytraps, or electronic sensors in connection with noisema$ers should be used. ?1@ Fi'#. ,overing an obstacle by fire usually means the difference between causing the enemy only small delay and annoyance and forcing him into a costly engagement. ? @ )oth antivehicular and antipersonnel obstacles should be covered by both antivehicular and antipersonnel fire. Fire that covers antipersonnel obstacles should not only be capable of discouraging breaching, bypass, or capture by personnel but should also be capable of stopping any vehicles that may be used in the assault. .lso, antivehicular obstacles must be covered by fire that will not only destroy vehicles but will prevent troops from breaching the obstacles and clearing a path for the vehicles. ?9@ &bstacles are best covered by direct0fire weapons, but when this is not feasible, observed artillery fire and tactical air should be used. .rtillery covering obstacles should be prepared to deliver fire that is effective against both personnel and vehicles. *hen it is impossible to cover obstacles by fire, they should be contaminated or heavily boobytrapped to cause the enemy to employ dangerous and exhaustive breaching measures. !. E%40&7%#(t i( !&(K)(!ti&( 6it" ( t)' 0 ($ &t"#' 'ti/i!i 0 &9-t !0#-. 4t is fundamental that an obstacle system should usually be as difficult to bypass as it is to breach except when the obstacle is intended to divert or deflect the enemy rather than to delay or stop him. .rtificial obstacles must be sited to ta$e full advantage of natural and other artificial obstacles, so as to $eep logistic and construction requirements to a minimum. ;atural obstacles are improved and exploited to the fullest extent. $. E%40&7%#(t i( $#4t". &bstacles do not seriously hamper the enemyLs movement until they overload or heavily tax his breaching capabilities. This cannot be accomplished unless obstacles are employed in depth. *ith the exception of contaminated areas it is usually prohibitive in time and materials to construct a large deep area of continuous obstacles. The same end is accomplished by constructing successive lines of obstacles, one behind the other, as time and conditions permit. These successive lines require the enemy force to continually deploy and regroup, thus dissipating, canali5ing, and dividing its effort until friendly forces can destroy it or force its withdrawal. #. C %&)/0 3# ($ !&(!# 0%#(t. ?1@ C %&)/0 3#. &bstacles should be camouflaged or employed in such a way that they come as a surprise to the enemy. *hen the enemy has no prior $nowledge of an obstacle, he has to reduce it without benefit or prior planning. 4f the obstacle is defended the defender has the advantage of the enemyLs first reaction, which is usually confusion, and the enemy may be caught without the men and material to breach the obstacle. ?1@ Siti(3. !roper siting is often the easiest solution to obstacle camouflage problem. Large obstacle systems cannot be concealed by siting alone, but when proper advantage is ta$en of the terrain and the obstacles are located in folds of the ground,
3>8
around blind curves in roads, or 7ust over the tops of hills, they can be made inconspicuous from the enemy3s ground observation. To help camouflage obstacles from aerial observation, regular geometric layouts of obstacles and barrier systems should be avoided and phony obstacles used to confuse the enemy as to the exact location and extent of the system. ?3@ C&(!# 0%#(t. The best way to conceal an obstacle usually is to postpone its execution or construction as long as possible, without interfering with its readiness when needed. This cannot be done when large barrier systems are involved but is possible when preparing obstacles to bloc$ narrow avenues of approach, such as roads or bridges. &bstacles created by demolitions lend themselves readily to this procedure. *hen their use is contemplated they should be completely prepared for firing at the last minute. /. P'&2i-i&( /&' 0 (#- ($ 3 4-. *hen obstacles are employed around a defensive position or area, lanes or gaps through the system are left and concealed. These lanes are provided so patrols, counter attac$s, and friendly troops on other missions may move through the system without difficulty. 1nder normal circumstances the lanes or gaps necessary to mount a general offensive through the obstacle system are not provided during construction, but prepared later when the need for them arises. 4t is important there be a sufficient number of lanes to allow for alternate use and that they be concealed and changed periodically to insure they are not discovered by the enemy. !rior plans must exist to insure all lanes or gaps can be bloc$ed quic$ly when enemy action is expected. Lanes and gaps should be covered by fire to preclude the possibility of the enemy rushing through them before they can be closed. 3. A//&'$i(3 (& $2 (t 3#- t& t"# #(#%7. 'nemy forces may use certain obstacles to an advantage as they are breached or assaulted. .ntitan$ ditches should be constructed so they are useless to the enemy as fighting trenches. Log cribs should be located so the enemy cannot deliver effective fire on defending weapons while using the crib as a breastwor$. &bstacles should be located so the enemy cannot use hand grenades against the defenders from cover or concealment provided by the obstacles. )arbed wire, mines, and boobytraps should be used extensively to deny use of any cover or concealment that might be provided to the enemy by natural or reinforcing obstacles. ,are should be ta$en to guard against the inadvertent placing of an obstacle which might later hinder friendly maneuver. 3>5. MINEFIELDS
=inefields are not only an obstacle to the advance of the enemy, but unli$e obstacles of a passive nature, they can also inflict significant casualties< therefore minefields are considered the best form of artificial obstacle. The installation of minefields changes favorable terrain to unfavorable terrain and materially enhances the strength of the defense. 3>8. CALTROPS
. D#-!'i4ti&(. . caltrop -fig %0(/ has four sharpened prongs oriented so that one prong will always be vertical regardless of how the caltrop lands. The prongs are .#+ cm -%@%# in./ in diameter and %.: cm - .+ in./ long. 9. U-#-. ,altrops are employed as antipersonnel obstacles either by themselves or in con7unction with barbed wire. *hen emplaced with a density of %: per meter -%.% ft/ of barrier front, an effectiveness equivalent to triple standard concertina is achieved. ,altrops are designed to cause in7ury by penetrating the footgear of a man who steps
Fi3)'# 3>5. C 0t'&4.
3>7
on one. Serious in7ury will result if a man quic$ly falls to the ground to avoid small arms or artillery fire. ,altrops can be dispensed by hand, from the rear of a truc$, or from fixed and rotary winged aircraft. 3>7. *AR*ED WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS 3>;. ANTI,EHICULAR O*STACLES 4n defensive positions, antivehicular obstacles are used to obstruct gaps between natural obstacles or they can be placed in a continuous line of considerable length in open terrain. .ntivehicular obstacles are usually employed in con7unction with wire entanglements, minefields, and other obstacles. 1nder some conditions they may be continuous in areas 7ust inland of beaches.
&bstacles constructed from barbed wire are simple, flexible and effective against personnel. They may also be used to impede the movement of vehicles.
S#!ti&( III. A(ti2#"i!)0 ' O9-t !0#3><. DEFENSE
.ntivehicular obstacles should not be continuous across the front of a position, but should have gaps which can be $ept under observation and fire and at which flares and other warning devices can be $ept in operational condition. Such gaps tend to canali5e vehicular movement. *ith observation and effective covering fire placed on these gaps, an attac$ with vehicles can be stopped. 4f enemy forces are equipped with short gap bridging, the effectiveness of antivehicular obstacles under #8 meters in width is materially decreased. . narrow ditch will halt a unit so equipped only until this organic bridging can be brought into use. 3>10. SITING
.ntivehicular obstacles are sited to ta$e advantage of trees, brush, or folds in the ground for concealment and surprise effect. 4f they can be sited to permit flooding with water, the obstacle becomes more effective and helps to deny its use to the enemy as a protected firing position for infantry. 4n some situations, antivehicular obstacles may also be sited for close0in protection in front or to the rear of the main line of resistance and as ad7uncts to other obstacles. 4n such locations, vehicles may be separated from their infantry support and are vulnerable to antivehicular weapons. 3>11. DITCHES . T74#- -fig %0+/. 3>;
Fi3)'# 3>5. A(ti2#"i!)0 ' $it!"#-. ?1@ T'i (3)0 ' $it!"#-. These are relatively easy to build, but a vehicle stopped in a ditch of this type can usually bac$ out and try another route. ?1@ Si$#"i00 !)t-. Sidehill cuts are variations of the triangular ditch adapted to sidehill locations, and have the same advantages and limitations.
?3@ T' 4#=&i$ 0 $it!"#-. These require about double the construction time of triangular type ditches, but they are more effective obstacles. 4n a trape5oidal ditch, as the center of gravity of the vehicle crosses the edge, and if the ditch depth exceeds the height of the vehicle wheels or treads, vehicles are trapped. Sections of ditch longer than 88 meters -%#: ft/ are not normally camouflages. 4n winter a trape5oidal ditch may be camouflaged by snow to resemble a standard trench -fig %09/. The actual time required varies widely in different types of soils. 4f available and if it can be used at the site of the ditching, the standard @(0yard -.+B m%/ shovel is used in ditch excavation. 'stimating factors for construction time in average soil are shown in table %0 . ?1@ R#2#tti(3. The face of the ditch, or both faces in the case of a trape5oidal ditch, should be revetted as soon as possible after it has been dug. Facing type revetting is used almost exclusively, with pole type or brushwood hurdles preferred because of their durability. 4t is particularly important that the top of the revetment be about #8 cm -: in./ below the top of the ditch and that the anchor sta$es and tiebac$ wires be buried under %8 cm - # in./ of earth. 3>11. CRATERS
Fi3)'# 3>8. A(ti2#"i!)0 ' $it!" ! %&)/0 3#$ t& '#-#%90# t'#(!". 9. C&(-t')!ti&( 4'&!#$)'#-. ?1@ EA! 2 ti&(. 2itches are excavated by earthmoving equipment, by explosives as described in F= +0#+, or by handtools. To be effective, ditches made by explosives must be dressed to true surfaces by excavating equipment or handtools. Triangular and sidehill0cut ditches are constructed rapidly by a combination of explosives and motori5ed graders and angle0do5ers.
. U-#. ,rater type obstacles are used for bloc$ing roads, trails, or defiles, preferably at points where the terrain prevents bypassing the obstacle or where terrain suitable for bypassing can be mined and covered by antivehicular fire. ,raters should be improved wherever possible by steepening the sides, flooding or mining. 9. P'#4 ' ti&(. .s in the case of bridge demolitions, craters are formed by explosive charges placed in advance and prepared for later detonation. The weights of charges, depths, and arrangement are given in detail in F= +0#+. The methods normally employed include0 ?1@ !lacement of charges in a culvert
T 90# 3>1. E-ti% ti(3 D t &( Dit!" C&(-t')!ti&( ?A2#' 3# S&i0@
3><
under the road and concealed and wired for detonation from a safe distance. ?1@ 4f a culvert is not available at the point selected, charges are placed in the bottoms of holes excavated in the road. Truc$0mounted earth augers, if available, are used for digging the holes. The charges are placed and wired for detonation at a safe distance. The holes are bac$filled in such a way that they are not readily noticed. The use of .2= to produce craters is covered in F= +0#9. 3>13. LOG O*STACLES AND CRI*S speeds on reasonably level ground but are stopped by hurdles on uphill grades which approximate the critical grade of the vehicle. To stop a tan$ on such a slope, the si5e and location of the pole or log hurdle must be such that the ground line of the tan$ will be tilted to a slope of to . The poles must be firmly tied between strong sta$es at not more than .+ meter -+ ft/ intervals. To determine the height of the hurdle required, a stic$ %.+ meters - .+ ft/ long is held at an angle of (+A above hori5ontal, with one end of the ground downhill from the hurdle location. The distance between the downhill end of the stic$ and the ground is how high to construct the log hurdle. The hurdle should be sited on the steepest part of the slope and as near the top as possible. 9. C'i9-. "ectangular or triangular log cribs -fig %0: through %0 8/ are used effectively as roadbloc$s where standing timber is available and where such an obstacle cannot be bypassed readily. 1nless substantially built, obstacles of this type are not effective against heavy trac$ed vehicles. ,ribs are strengthened by filling them with earth< and preferably the earth is obtained by digging a shallow ditch in front of the obstacle. Log
. H)'$0#-. Log hurdles can be formed of #+0 to (+0cm - 80 to :0in./ logs as shown in figure %0B may be used to add to the obstacle effect of a crater, or other type of roadbloc$. The hurdles force vehicles to reduce speed as they approach the obstacles or they may act as an additional means of trapping vehicles in the vicinity of antitan$ ditches. 'ach hurdle consists of one (+ cm - : in./ or three #+ cm - 8 in./ logs firmly sta$ed in place on a roadway or on ground suitable for use as a bypass. . hurdle of this si5e stops or damages most types of wheeled vehicles. Tan$s can cross them at reduced
Fi3)'# 3>;. R#!t (3)0 ' 0&3 !'i9 )-#$ '& $90&!:. Fi3)'# 3>7. T74#- &/ 0&3 ")'$0#-. 3>10
hurdles in front of a log crib force vehicles to reduce speed and add to the effectiveness of the roadbloc$. .n engineer platoon equipped with platoon tools can build 9 meter -#8 ft/ of this obstacle in ( to : hours. 3>15. POSTS
. U-#. !osts are among the most effective antivehicular obstacles because each post presents a breaching problem to the attac$er. There is no fast method of breaching a belt of posts. ;ormally, the attac$er will see$ to bypass such an obstacle. !ost obstacle belts may be constructed using either steel, log, or concrete posts. 9. St##0 4&-t-. These posts usually are sections of rail, heavy pipe or structural members. 2ue to their small cross0sectional area, steel posts are installed over footings to prevent their being driven into the earth by the weight of a tan$. !. L&3 4&-t-. These posts should be hardwood with a minimum diameter of (8 cm - +.: in./. Footings are used under log posts only where the soil has exceptionally poor load0bearing characteristics. Figure %0 depicts a belt of log post obstacles. $. C&(!'#t# 4&-t-. !recast concrete posts may be emplaced either vertically or angled in the direction of the enemy line of approach using lengths, spacing, and arrangements
Fi3)'# 3><. D#t i0- &/ 0&3 !'i9 )-#$ '& $90&!:.
Fi3)'# 3>10. T'i (3)0 ' 0&3 !'i9 )-#$ '& $90&!:.
Fi3)'# 3>11. *#0t &/ 0&3 4&-t &9-t !0#-. 3>11
as described for wood or steel post obstacles. ?1@ ,oncrete posts should be square in cross section and % meters - 8 ft./ or more in length. They can be precast readily in hori5ontal open0top boxes with plan$ bottoms and removable sides and ends. Two lifting rings are set in the top surface at the quarter points of the length, for loading and unloading, and a similar ring is positioned at the top end for raising it into position. . chisel0shaped point can be formed easily at the bottom end if the concrete posts are to be driven in with pile0driving equipment. Lengthwise reinforcement is provided several centimeters inside the surface near each corner of the square post with a traverse wrapping of wire at each cm - # in./ of length. "ound reinforcing bars of .#+ cm -l@# in./ diameter are adequate for the longitudinal reinforcement. "einforcement can be improvised by using ( to 9 strands of barbed wire at each corner, attached to the form ends and rac$ed tightly, preferably to almost the brea$ing strength of the wire. .fter curing for wee$ or more under wet burlap, such posts are installed in the same manner as described for wood posts or steel posts. 4f pile0driving equipment is to be used, a steam or air hammer may be required for driving heavy posts of this type depending on the type of soil. ?1@ "ound concrete posts may be improvised from corrugated metal pipe of small si5es filled with concrete. )ecause of the time required to funnel concrete into pipe held vertically and because of the expenditure of the pipe, this method is less efficient than the use of square precast concrete posts. #. P0 !i(3. ?1@ .ll posts are buried .+ meters -+ ft./ in the ground either vertically or at a slight angle toward the enemy, and pro7ect above ground level between B+ and #8 cm -%8 and (: in./. The height should vary from post to post. The minimum acceptable density for posts is #88 per 88 meters -%#: ft./ of front. The spacing should be irregular, with at least meters -%.% ft./ and not more than # meters -9.9 ft./ between posts. ?1@ !osts are equally useful whether employed in long belts or in short sections as 3>11 Fi3)'# 3>11. A9 ti- )-#$ '& $90&!:. roadbloc$s. )y predigging holes, lining them with pipe, and covering them for later rapid installation of posts, the road may be $ept open for use until the roadbloc$ is needed. The rate of construction of such roadbloc$s is approximately as follows, based on a 90meter -#8 ft./ road width: ? @ 1sing pile0driving equipment, # ;,&s and 9 men: ( to 9 hours. ?9@ 1sing power earth auger or demolitions -shaped charges/, ;,& and : men: # to # l@# hours. ?!@ 1sing handtools, engineer platoon: % to + hours. one combat
?3@ U-# &/ -4i' 0- &/ 6i'# 6it" 4&-t-. The effect of post type obstacles can be improved, and the obstacles made more difficult to breach, by weaving spirals of barbed wire among the posts as shown in figure %0 . The belt illustrated is an antipersonnel as well as an antivehicular obstacle. 3>15. A*ATIS
. U-#. Tree felled as shown in figure %0 # can be used to bloc$ a road or defile. To
stop trac$ed vehicles the trees should be at least 98 cm -#( in./ or more in diameter and at least 9 meters -#8 ft/ tall. To effectively bloc$ a road through a heavily wooded area, an abatis, at least B+ meters -#+8 ft/ deep is required. 9. C&(-t')!ti&(. .batis may be constructed using handtools, by the use of explosives alone, or by a combination of notching and explosives as shown in figure %0 %. 1sing only handtools, one engineer platoon can build B+ meters -#+8 ft/ of abatis in : hours. 4nformation on the use of explosives for the construction of abatis is contained in F= +0#+. )ushy0top trees with heavy branches and thic$ foliage should be used for abatis wherever possible since the branches reduce the movement of the vehicle and the foliage sets up a screen. The trees should be felled as shown in figure %0 # so that the trun$ remains attached to the stump. To insure that the trun$ remains attached, no cut is made on the side of the tree toward which it is to fall, the tree is strained to fall in the required direction, and the butt is cut two0thirds through on the opposite side. The effectiveness of an abatis is increased by interlacing barbed wire in the branches of the trees. 3>18. STEEL O*STACLES . H#$3#"&3-. Steel hedgehogs as shown in figure %0 ( are relatively lightweight for the obstacle effect they provide, and they are quic$ly installed or removed. They are designed to revolve under wheeled vehicles and puncture them or to belly up trac$ed vehicles. 1nless $ept under observation and covered with fire, the enemy can readily move them aside. They are well adapted for use in vegetation high enough to afford complete or partial concealment. 'xposed parts should be painted to blend with the bac$ground. 6edgehogs are made up in rear areas, using three angles about 8 cm by 8 cm by cm -( in. by ( in. by ( in./, #8 cm -( ft./ long, and cm -.( in./ steel plate about +8 cm -#8 in./ square. . hedgehog of this si5e weighs about B+ $g - 98 lb./. 6edgehogs are used in rows, with at least +8 hedgehogs to each 88 meters -%#: ft./ of front which is to be protected in this manner.
Fi3)'# 3>15. St##0 "#$3#"&3. Fi3)'# 3>13. P'#4 'i(3 #A40&-i2# !" '3#- /&' 9 ti- !&(-t')!ti&(. 9. T#t' "#$'&(-. Steel tetrahedrons shown in figure %0 + are employed in a manner similar to that of hedgehogs. They are usually made of 8 cm by 8 cm by .+ cm -( in by ( in. by .9 in./ angles, the base and sides in the shape of equilateral triangles, .+ meters -+ ft./ on a side. Their finished height is approximately .# meters -( ft./.
3>13
Fi3)'# 3>18. C&(!'#t# !)9#-. Fi3)'# 3>15. St##0 t#t' "#$'&(. 3>17. CONCRETE O*STACLES
. C)9#-. ,ubes are concrete obstacles of approximately cubical shape, set in irregular rows. . typical si5e and arrangement is shown in figure %0 9. )ecause of the weights involved and the simplicity of erecting forms for cubes, these obstacles are best cast in place if the situation permits. . cube of the si5e shown in figure %0 9 requires about .: cubic meters -#.( cu yd./ of concrete and weighs slightly less than ( @# metric tons -+ tons/. 9. C70i($#'-. ,oncrete obstacles of cylindrical shape are usually smaller than cubes and are light enough to be precast. Their use is similar to that of cubes, and they may be preferable in situations in which precast obstacles are the type required. ,ylinders may be precast in forms made of lightweight sheet metal which need not be removed. . cylinder of the si5e shown in figure %0 B requires cubic meter - .% cu yd./ of concrete and weighs a little less than % tons. !. T#t' "#$'&(-. ,oncrete tetrahedrons are pyramids with base and sides of equilateral triangles, .+ meters -+ ft./ on a side. They are 3>15
Fi3)'# 3>17. C&(!'#t# !70i($#'. set in irregular rows as shown in figure %0 :. . tetrahedron of this si5e has a vertical height of about .# meters -( ft./, requires 8.C cubic meter - .8+ cu yd/ of concrete, and weighs about metric ton - . tons/. They may be precast in trough0 shaped forms between triangular divisions, with a
road is cut almost through and its trun$ is attached by a wire rope to a tree across the road in such a way that if a passing vehicle stri$es the rope the tree will fall and damage the vehicle or pin it in place. 3>1<. USE OF SCREENS AND DUMMB O*STACLES
. P)'4&-#. *herever possible, antivehicular obstacles, particularly roadbloc$s, should be concealed by screens for the following reasons: ?1@ To conceal the true nature of the obstacle. ?1@ To prevent fire from being directed at the most vulnerable part. ?3@ To confuse the crew of the vehicle. Screens should also be erected in front of dummy obstacles and at sites where no obstacle exists, causing delay and expenditure of valuable ammunition. The enemy force will not $now with any certainty what form of obstacle or defense opposes it or whether any real obstacle exists. 4f the force stops to investigate, the defense will have an opportunity to destroy it< if it goes ahead, it runs the ris$ of running into mines or of being held on an obstacle under fire. 9. Siti(3. Screens should be sited not more than % meters - 8 ft./ from the obstacles which they are concealing. 4f a vehicle goes through a screen at this distance, it will encounter the obstacle before it can halt. Therefore it will not be in position to fire at the obstacle. Screens must not obscure the fields of fire of the defenders. !. C&(-t')!ti&(. . form of screen suitable for concealing a roadbloc$ consists of two hori5ontal strips of canvas, garnished netting, or blan$ets, the lower part suspended from wires about #8 cm -( ft./ from the ground, and the upper part at a height of # to #.+ meters -9 @# to : ft./. The upper part should overlap the lower part by + to %% cm -9 to % in./. $. D)%%7 &9-t !0#-. 2ummy obstacles should be used extensively to confuse and delay tan$s and cause them to waste ammunition. They should be made carefully in order Fi3)'# 3>1<. Wi'#>'&4# '& $90&!:. 3>15
Fi3)'# 3>1;. C&(!'#t# t#t' "#$'&(. lifting ring embedded in the center of the top surface of each tetrahedron. 3>1;. EXPEDIENTS
. "oadbloc$s may be improvised from farm carts, automobiles, and truc$s, which are loaded with roc$, concrete, or other heavy material. *hen placed in position their wheels should be damaged or removed, and the vehicles should be anchored firmly. 9. Dehicles can be moved to close a gap that has been left to $eep the road open. !. . roadbloc$ which may be effective in some situations is constructed quic$ly by the method shown in figure %0 C. . heavy tree at one side of a
to present a realistic appearance. They can be made of plaster, wood, or asbestos sheets. *ooden obstacles can be used to represent steel obstacles. .ntitan$ and antipersonnel mines should be interspersed extensively between dummy obstacles.
S#!ti&( I,. *# !" ($ Ri2#' Li(# O9-t !0#3>10. RESPONSI*ILITB obstacle0studded beach covered by heavy defensive fire before reaching the high watermar$. .t high tide, beach and underwater obstacles should be covered by 7ust enough water so they cannot be seen by personnel in landing craft. *hen landing craft stri$e the obstacles they are disabled and the assaulting troops are forced to disembar$ in deep water. 9. A(ti9& t &9-t !0#-. .ntiboat obstacles are constructed at varying heights so they are about %8 to 98 cm -# to ( ft./ below the surface of the water at high tide, echeloned in depth in various arrangements of which those shown in figure %0#8 are typical.
4n unilateral .rmy shore0to0shore amphibious operations, .rmy forces are responsible for the installation and removal of beach and underwater obstacles. 4n 7oint .rmy0;avy amphibious operations, ;avy forces are normally responsible for removal of obstacles on a hostile shore seaward from the high waterline. The underwater demolition teams -12T/ of the ;avy have the responsibility of removing obstacles from the high waterline to the %0 fathom -+.+( meters - :.# ft.// line. )eyond that point ;avy minesweepers clear boat and shipping lanes. The responsibility for installation of beach and underwater obstacles in friendly territory is assigned by the commander of the forces involved. 3>11. OCEAN *EACH DEFENSES
.n assault across an ocean normally involves a ship0to0shore assault in which the enemy requires adequate anchorages for assault shipping and shore for beaching large landing craft. *here the overwater distance is short, however, or where the enemy can develop a nearby base in neutral or unoccupied territory, shore0to0shore operations are practicable using smaller craft capable of landing troops and vehicles at almost any point. .gainst either of these types of operation, antiboat and antipersonnel obstacles at wading depths are desirable in most situations. .ntipersonnel obstacles so located, however, are not effective against large landing craft if the latter can beach at the waterline or can sidecarry floating causeways and use them to get ashore. . *# !" &9-t !0#-. )each obstacles are designed to force landing craft to unload at low tide several hundred yards seaward of the high watermar$. Thus, on beaches with gradual slopes assaulting infantry must cross a wide expanse of
Fi3)'# 3>10. A(ti9& t &9-t !0#- i( 9# !" $#/#(-#. 3>11. RI,ER LINE DEFENSES
.ll possible means of crossing are studied, including assault boats, footbridges, fixed and floating vehicular bridges, and the use or rehabilitation of existing bridges. 4n addition to antiboat and antipersonnel obstacles, the defender considers the use of obstacles to hamper the enemy3s bridging activities and his installation of booms and other protective devices to protect bridges. 3>13. EFFECTI,E O*STACLES
. Siti(3. The basic requirements for artificial obstacles and their employment apply equally to beach and river line obstacles. &f particular importance are the requirements
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that artificial obstacles be used to exploit natural obstacles, that they be inconspicuous, be $ept under surveillance, and be capable of being covered by fire. ?aps and lanes are provided and are mar$ed or referenced for the use of friendly troops. .ntiboat obstacles selected for use should be of a type which will be effective against boats which can operate in the surf, current, and various wind conditions to be expected. They are sited for maximum obstacle effect at the tide stage at which an assault is probable and for maximum effectiveness against amphibious trac$ed and wheeled vehicles. 9. *# !" -0&4#-. 2ue to tide and current action, beaches and river lines tend to fall into two general types0those with steep slopes into deep water, and those with gradually sloping bottoms for a considerable distance offshore. 'ach type has advantages and disadvantages for the defense. The steep slope prevents debar$ation until boats reach the beach, but it renders placing underwater obstacles more difficult. The gentle slope facilitates placing obstacles but it also allows the attac$ing troops to disembar$ while still afloat. ?1@ St##4. For beaches with steeply sloping bottoms, provision should be made for stopping landing craft offshore in deep water. The obstacles may include mines of various types anchored 7ust below the waterline, floating log booms anchored or tied to shore, which may have mines attached, and heavy chains or wire rope stretched between pile dolphins. !referably such obstacles should be submerged so as to be out of sight but tide variations may ma$e this impracticable. 4n such cases a compromise must be made between minimum visibility and maximum practicable effectiveness. *here possible, provision is made for ad7usting the height of log booms and the li$e, to conform with water level fluctuations. ?1@ G' $) 0. For beaches with gradually sloping bottoms, the defense attempts to prevent landing craft from reaching the beach or from reaching wading or fording depth for personnel and vehicles. 4n addition to obstacles of the types described above, in water of wading depth the bottom is covered thoroughly with underwater wire entanglements of all types. These must be anchored in place very securely to prevent damage from surf or currents and so both enemy and friendly fire will tend to form tangles rather than to clear lanes. 4n such entanglements, channels provided for passage of friendly small boats may be closed rapidly by the use of anchored concertinas or weighted spirals. !. E%40&7%#(t i( $#4t". )each obstacles are typically established in bands in depth, as follows: ?1@ A(ti9& t &9-t !0#-. These are located from wading depth at low tide to wading depth at high tide. ?1@ * '9#$ 6i'# #(t (30#%#(t-. These are placed from wading depth at high tide, inshore across the width of the beach. ?3@ A(ti2#"i!)0 ' ($ (ti4#'-&((#0 &9-t !0#-. These are installed beginning at low waterline and extending inshore across the width of the beach. =ines or other obstacles are normally installed at the beach exit. ?5@ A(ti2#"i!)0 ' $it!"#-. These are dug beginning at the inshore edge of the beach, where concealment is possible. ?5@ Ot"#' &9-t !0#-. These are located inshore of the beach area, in the same manner as obstacles for land defense. 3>15. LOCATION
Some of the types of land obstacles described previously can be used as antiboat obstacles for some types of boats in water depths for which they are adapted and in which they can be sited and anchored. The tide range determines the water depths for which it is practicable to position obstacles on the bottom above the low waterline. &utside this line, heavy obstacles may be sun$ from boats or lowered by cranes operating from the beach or afloat in small landing craft. !osts of timber, steel, or concrete are effective antiboat obstacles, readily placed except in roc$y or coral bottoms. !osts preferably are emplaced
3>17
or driven with a slope or batter toward deep water. *ooden obstacles of other types should be filled with roc$ or otherwise anchored in position. .ntiboat obstacles may be connected with wire rope or may have barbed wire or other types of obstacles anchored between them. 4n rivers or other locations where the water level is constant or the tide range is minor or negligible, standard cased antitan$ mines tied to posts or other obstacles under the surface provide effective obstacles. 3>15. TIM*ER O*STACLES
1npeeled round logs provide the types of antiboat obstacles described and shown, but sawed timbers may be used if more readily available. 4n addition to the uses of wooden posts described in paragraph %0 (, timber obstacles of the following types are used effectively under various conditions: . R&!:>/i00#$ !'i9- ($ 4i00 '-. "oc$0filled timber cribs -fig. %0# / are normally # to % meters -9 @# to 8 ft./ long by meter -%.% ft./ wide, and have stability at heights up to # meters -9 @# ft./. The logs are driftpinned at the corners. ,ribs may be installed on a beach at low water or may be dragged or lowered into water before completing the roc$ fill. For lower heights, smaller cribs, triangular in shape and $nown as pillars -fig. %0##/, are built with less material and effort. )oth types may be connected by barbed wire, wire rope, or a combination of both. 9. T#t' "#$'&(-. Timber tetrahedrons -fig %0#%/ are pinned and wired to a triangular bottom frame which is weighted in place with roc$s.
Fi3)'# 3>11. R&!:>/i00#$ 4i00 '-. . post may be driven through the obstacle for improved anchorage. Tetrahedrons are normally spaced at intervals of + to 8 meters - 9 @# to %% ft./ and may be connected with wire rope or incorporated in a barbed wire fence.
Fi3)'# 3>13. Ti%9#' t#t' "#$'&(-. Fi3)'# 3>11. R&!:>/i00#$ !'i9-. 3>1;
!. L&3 -! //&0$i(3. 4n suitable water depths, log scaffolding, as shown in figure %0#(, is effective in impeding small boats. *ooden posts driven into the bottom are reinforced by diagonal braces extending inshore and have hori5ontal stringers attached to the offshore face.
Fi3)'# 3>15. *' !#$ 6&&$#( 4&-t-.
Fi3)'# 3>15. L&3 -! //&0$i(3. $. *' !#$ 6&&$#( 4&-t-. This obstacle -fig. %0(8/ may be built in relatively shallow water in which there is little or no tide range. The posts are driven approximately to water level in two rows. They are staggered so diagonal braces can extend from each rear post to two of the front posts to provide a structure of exceptional rigidity. The bottom ends of the braces may be fastened to the rear posts before the latter are fully driven and before the wor$ is so deep as to require diving equipment. The front posts may be connected with wire rope or barbed wire to further improve the rigidity of the structure and to add to the obstacle effect. The efficiency of this obstacle is further enhanced by the liberal use of barbed wire tangles securely fastened to and between the posts. #. L&3 t'i4&$-. )raced log tripods, constructed of logs at least #8 centimeters -: in./ in diameter, as shown in figure %0#9, are effective antiboat obstacles. The obstacle is positioned with its longest leg facing the direction of expected
Fi3)'# 3>18. L&3 t'i4&$. assault< this leg may be capped with a standard antitan$ mine or sharpened to a point. ,onstructed in varying si5es so they are covered by %8 to 98 cm - to # ft./ of water at high tide, these obstacles are placed on beaches from the low0tide mar$ bac$ to about halfway to the high0tide line. /. L&3 ' %4-. Log ramps are constructed as shown in figure %0#B. They are
3>1<
Shearpins, usually of one0half cm soft iron, hold the rail erect and prevent detonation of the mines by wave action. . landing craft stri$ing the pole will brea$ or bend the shearpin sufficiently to detonate the mines. ;utcrac$ers normally are employed in an irregular pattern interspersed with plain steel and log posts. 3>18. STEEL O*STACLES
Fi3)'# 3>17. L&3 ' %4-. used to tear the bottoms out of assault craft riding up on them, and to upset such craft. They are effective obstacles with or without mines fastened to the high end of the ramp. "amps may be placed either in an irregular pattern or in a continuous belt spaced at approximately %0meter - 80ft./ intervals. 3. N)t!' !:#'-. ;utcrac$ers are constructed as shown in figure %0#:. The .C0 by .C0 by .90meter -%0 by %0 by #0ft./ base has a center well or recess large enough to house one or two antitan$ mines, depending on whether a one0way or two0way obstacle is desired. 4t also has a built0in soc$et for the bottom end of the activating rail or pole.
Steel beams, piles, and rails provide simple and effective antiboat obstacles of the post type. Steel rails can be driven in roc$y or coral bottoms in which wood piles would be splintered. Steel obstacles of portable types are advantageous for underwater use because of the high unit weight of steel< they remain in position without anchorage against waves or currents. Steel obstacles intended for field fabrication for antiboat use are described in and 9 below. . S! //&0$i(3. &n beaches having considerable tidal range, + cm -# in./ steel pipe may be driven into the bottom and welded together to form a structure of the scaffolding type, as shown in figure %0#C. Floating mines may be attached below the normal water level, to be detonated if scraped by a vessel.
Fi3)'# 3>1<. St##0 -! //&0$i(3. 9. H#$3#"&3-. Steel hedgehogs of the type shown in figure %0 ( are fabricated in rear areas, shipped $noc$ed down, and quic$ly assembled with bolted connections. The angles used are usually about # meters -9 @# ft./ long, ma$ing the obstacle about meter -%.% ft./ high. The hedgehog is emplaced without anchorage so that it revolves under a boat or amphibious vehicle, holes it, and 3>10
Fi3)'# 3>1;. N)t!' !:#'.
anchors it as it sin$s. ;ormally hedgehogs are installed in several rows, using about +8 hedgehogs to each 88 meters -%#: ft./ of beach. 3>17. CONCRETE O*STACLES
.s with obstacles of other materials, all types of concrete obstacles previously described can be used as beach obstacles under certain conditions. ,oncrete obstacles of post type particularly are useful if heavy pile0driving equipment is available. Some types are improved for antiboat use by embedding rails in their tops to form horned scullies. The cylinder modified in this manner is shown in figures %0%8 and %0% /. )y setting the rails at an angle of about (+A with the vertical, a fast0 moving boat is holed and may be sun$ as its momentum carries it down over the length of the horn. The horns may be improved by pointing them, using oxyacetylene cutting equipment.
Fi3)'# 3>31. H&'(#$ -!)00i#- 9 -#$ &( -% 00 $' 3&(D- t##t". placed inshore of scaffolding or sun$en obstacles and, if possible, are covered by machine gun fire. 'ntanglements normally are built at low tide. They require constant maintenance, particularly if placed in surf. *ire also is erected on beaches or riverban$s, often in connection with antitan$ and antipersonnel manifolds. .lmost all of the types of wire obstacles described previously may be used in con7unction with other types of beach and underwater obstacles. 3>1<. EXPEDIENT UNDERWATER O*STACLES
The obstacles described in and 9 below are made with native materials, some supplemented with barbed wire, and are difficult to reduce. *herever possible, mines should be used with the obstacles to increase their effectiveness and to hinder removal by enemy underwater demolition teams. . R&!: %&)($-. These consist simply of mounds of roc$ about 0meter -%.% ft./ high and %.+0 meters @# ft./ square and staggered at intervals of % to + meters - 8 to 9 @# ft./ on the outer edges of reefs or li$ely landing beaches. 9. R&!:7 6 00- -fig %0%#/. "oc$y walls are about meter -%.% ft./ high and meter -%.% ft./ wide, in sections or continuous lines. They should be mined and topped with concertinas. They should be sited so the top of the wire is 7ust under the surface at high tide.
Fi3)'# 3>30. H&'(#$ -!)007 9 -#- &( !&(!'#t# !70i($#'. 3>1;. *AR*ED WIRE *EACH O*STACLES
*ire entanglements are used as antipersonnel obstacles but will stop light landing craft. They are
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Fi3)'# 3>31. R&!: 6 00-. SELF TEST 1. *hat is the purpose of employing obstaclesJ -!ara %0 a and b/
1. ?ive an example of a nontactical obstacle. -!ara %0 f/
3. *hich of the following is the more effective natural obstacle against trac$ed vehicles 00 an escarpment .9 meters high or a river 98 meters wide and . meters deepJ -!ara %0#a, b/
5. 4n what type of terrain does the pun7i pit serve most effectively as an obstacleJ -!ara %0#i- /-#//
5. *hen should trip flares be used with obstaclesJ -!ara %0(b- //
3>11
8. *hat may be used with barbed wire to ma$e it a more effective antipersonnel obstacleJ -!ara %09b/
7. *hich type of ditch is the most effective as an obstacle when it is camouflaged with snow: -!ara %0 a-%/, fig. %09//
;. *here is the best location for a cratering charge intended to impede the advancement of enemy vehicles traveling on a roadJ -!ara %0 #b/
<. From where should the earth be obtained to fill crib roadbloc$sJ -!ara %0 %b, fig. %0:/
10. 4n what position should posts be placed to serve as an antivehicular obstacleJ -!ara %0 (e/
11. *hat type of tree is most effective as an abatisJ -!ara %0 +b/
11. *hat disadvantage do steel hedgehogs have as an obstacleJ -!ara %0 9a/
13. *hich concrete obstacle is most frequently cast in placeJ -!ara %0 Ba/
15. *hat is the procedure which ma$es a truc$ a more effective roadbloc$J -!ara %0 :a/
15. *hat will ma$e dummy road obstacles more effectiveJ -!ara %0 Cd/
18. 4n ma7or amphibious assault operations, who is responsible for the removing of obstacles in boat lanes in : meters of water on ocean shorelinesJ -!ara %0#8/
17. *here should beach obstacles cause the enemy to disembar$J -!ara %0# a/
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1;. *hat obstacle is placed from wading depth at high tide to wading depth at low tideJ -!ara %0# b/
1<. *hat obstacle may have a post driven through it for better anchorageJ -!ara %0#+b, fig. %0#%/
10. The hedgehog, the log ramp, the roc$ pillar, and the roc$ wall are all obstacles. *hich is an expedient under water obstacleJ -!ara %0#Cb, fig. %0%#/
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LESSON 5 *AR*ED WIRE ENTANGLEMENTS CREDIT HOURS.......................................................................................................... 3 TEXT ASSIGNMENT.................................................................................................. Att !"#$ %#%&' ($)%. MATERIALS REQUIRED.......................................................................................... N&(#. LESSON O*+ECTI,ES 1pon completion of this lesson on )arbed *ire 'ntanglements, you should be able to accomplish the following in the indicated topic areas: 1. P)'4&-#. 2escribe the two purposes of the use of barbed wire entanglements. 1. Siti(3 ($ L 7&)t. State the + requirements for effective siting and layout of barbed wire entanglements. 3. C0 --i/i! ti&( >> 97 U-#. supplementary. 2escribe the % classes of entanglements 00 tactical, protective, and
5. C0 --i/i! ti&( >> 97 D#4t". 2escribe the % types of entanglements 00 belt, band, and 5one. 5. * '9#$ T 4#. State the advantages and disadvantages of barbed tape. 8. M t#'i 0 ($ L 9&' E-ti% t#-. 'stimate the manhours and material needed to construct tactical, protective, and supplementary entanglements of a defensive position. 7. U-#-. 2escribe the B uses of entanglements 00 outpost area, battle position, artillery area, reserve area, antipersonnel obstacles, roadbloc$s, and to strengthen material obstacles. ;. Pi!:#t- ($ Ti#-. 2escribe types and uses of pic$ets and ties. <. F#(!#-. 2escribe fences to include four strand cattle fence, double apron fence, standard concertina fence, and triple standard concertina fence. 10. P&'t 90# * '9#$ Wi'# O9-t !0#-. 2escribe the portable barbed wire obstacles and their uses. ATTACHED MEMORANDUM S#!ti&( I. M t#'i 05>1. CONCEPT and wheeled vehicles. The materials used in constructing barbed wire entanglements are relatively lightweight and inexpensive, considering the protection they afford.
. P)'4&-#. )arbed wire entanglements are artificial obstacles designed to impede the movement of foot troops and, in some cases, trac$ed
5>1
)arbed wire entanglements can be breached by fire but are built rapidly, repaired, and reinforced. 9. Siti(3 ($ 0 7&)t. To be effective, barbed wire entanglements are sited and laid out to meet the following requirements: ?1@ 1nder friendly observation, covered by fire, and where practicable, protected by antipersonnel mines, flame mines, tripflares, and warning devices. ?1@ ,oncealed from enemy observation as far as practicable by incorporating terrain features such as reverse slopes, hedges, woods, paths and fence lines. ?3@ 'rected in irregular and non0geometrical traces. ?5@ 'mployed in bands or 5ones wherever practicable. ?5@ ,oordinated with other elements of the defense. !. C0 --i/i! ti&(. 'ntanglements are classified according to their use, their depth, and whether fixed or portable. ?1@ U-#. 'ntanglements are classified by use as tactical, protective, or supplementary. The employment of these types in a defensive area is shown schematically in figure (0 . ? @ T !ti! 0. Tactical wire entangle0 ments are sited parallel to and along the friendly side of the final protective line. They are used to brea$ up enemy attac$ formations and to hold the enemy in areas covered by the most intense defensive fire. Tactical entanglements extend across the entire front of a position but are not necessarily continuous. ?9@ P'&t#!ti2#. !rotective wire entanglements are located to prevent surprise assaults from points close to the defense area. .s in the case of all antipersonnel obstacles, they are close enough to the defense area for day and night observation and far enough away to prevent the enemy from using hand grenades effectively from points 7ust beyond the obstacle, normally (8 to 88 meters - % to %#: ft./. !rotective wire surrounds the individual units of a command, usually the platoons -fig (0#/. These entanglements should be connected to entanglements around other platoons by supplementary wire to enclose the entire defensive positions. !rotective entanglements are erected around rear0area installations in the same manner and to serve the same purpose as protective
Fi3)'# 5>1. S!"#% ti! 0 7&)t &/ 9 '9#$ 6i'# #(t (30#%#(t- i(
$#/#(-i2# '# .
5>1
?9@ * ($. . band consists of two or more belts in depth, with no interval between them. The belts may be fences of the same type, or the band may be composed of two or more fences of different types. ?!@ I&(#. . 5one consists of two or more bands or belts in depth, with intervals between them. ?3@ E.)i2 0#(t #//#!ti2#(#--. 'ntanglement depths are also described or specified in terms of comparative effectiveness. Tactical wire entanglements should be equivalent in effectiveness to three belts of (0 and #0pace double apron fence whenever possible. !rotective wire may employ any type of entanglement provided its effectiveness is at least the equivalent of that of the (0 and #0pace double apron fence. Supplementary wire should have an effectiveness equivalent to that of the type of wire it supplements. 4t should be equivalent to tactical wire or equivalent to the type of protective wire being used if it connects the outer perimeters of protective wire at the flan$s and rear. Fi3)'# 5>1. P'&t#!ti2# 6i'# &( t&4 &/ &2#'"# $ !&2#'. wire around defensive positions in forward areas. !rotective wire also includes the entanglements which should be installed over the tops of installations provided with overhead cover -fig (0#/. ?!@ S)440#%#(t '7. Supplementary wire entanglements in front of the forward edge of the battle area are used to conceal the exact line of the tactical wire. To the rear of the F')., supplementary wire is used to enclose the entire defensive position by connecting the protective wire entanglements. Supplementary wire entanglements used to brea$ up the line of tactical wire should be identical to the tactical wire entanglements and constructed simultaneously with them whenever possible. ?1@ D#4t". 'ntanglements are classified by depth as belts, bands, or 5ones. ? @ *#0t. . belt is an entanglement one fence in depth. 5>3 ?5@ P&'t 9i0it7. ? @ Fixed entanglements are those types which must be erected in place and which cannot be moved unless completely disassembled. ?9@ !ortable entanglements are those types which can be moved without complete disassembly. !ortable entanglements have been developed for one of the following reasons: To permit assembly in rear areas, with ease of transportation and rapid installation in forward positions. For the temporary closing of gaps or lanes which can be reopened quic$ly for patrols or counterattac$ing forces. $. L (#- ($ 3 4-. Lanes and gaps are provided for the passage of patrols, wor$ing parties, and attac$ing or counterattac$ing forces. *hen not in use they are $ept closed by the use of portable obstacles covered by fire. 4n barbed wire 5ones, lanes and gaps are staggered in a 5ig5ag pattern.
#. U-#-. ?1@ O)t4&-t '# . ,ombat outposts should be surrounded with wire entanglements. These entanglements should be carefully sited to serve as both protective and tactical wire and must be covered by small arms fire. The wire obstacle should be supplemented by antipersonnel mines, warning devices, and booby traps. ?1@ * tt0# 4&-iti&(. 4n the battle area, each company defense position is normally surrounded by a wire entanglement which is connected laterally across the front to the entanglements surrounding the other units in the position. ?3@ A'ti00#'7 ($ '#-#'2# '# . *ire entanglements are used in the outer protection of howit5er positions. 6eavier weapons, and shelters or other installations in the reserve area, are similarly protected if 7ustified by the situation. ?5@ A(ti4#'-&((#0 &9-t !0#-. )arbed wire entanglements, tripflares, noisema$ers, and antipersonnel mines are sited to warn against enemy patrol action or infiltration at night< to prevent the enemy from delivering a surprise attac$ from positions close to the defenders< and to hold, fix or delay the enemy in the most effective $illing ground. Such obstacles should be near enough to defensive positions for adequate surveillance by the defenders by night and day and far enough away to prevent the enemy from using hand grenades against the defender from points 7ust beyond the obstacles. /. A- '& $90&!:-. . series of barbed wire concertinas as shown in figure (0% will stop wheeled vehicles. . series of these concertinas should be placed in bloc$s about 8 meters in depth. The ends of ad7acent coils are wired together and the obstacle lightly anchored at the sides of the road. The bloc$ should be sited to achieve surprise. 3. T& -t'#(3t"#( ( t)' 0 &9-t !0#-. 2eep rivers, canals, swamps, and cliffs which form effective delaying obstacles to infantry, and thic$ hedgerows, fences, and woods, which are only partial obstacles, can be improved by lacing with Fi3)'# 5>3. C&(!#'ti( '& $90&!:. 5>1. STANDARD *AR*ED WIRE barbed wire, by the addition of parts of standard fences on one or both sides, or by entangling with loose wire.
. D#-!'i4ti&(. Standard barbed wire is #0 strand twisted ;o. # steel wire with (0point barbs at 8 cm -( in./ spacing -fig (0(/. 9. H ($0i(3. 4n handling barbed wire, the standard barbed wire gauntlets shown in figure (0( heavy leather gloves are worn. They permit faster wor$ and avoid cuts and scratches. .s an added safety precaution, the wire should be grasped with the palm down. !. I--)#. )arbed wire is issued in reels -fig (0 +/ containing about (88 meters - % # ft./ of wire. The wire weighs (8.: $g -C8 lb./ and the reel 8.9 $g. 4n building a fence, two men carry one reel. $. *&99i(-. )obbins -fig (09/ holding about %8 meters -C: ft./ of wire are prepared, normally in rear areas, for use in building short lengths of fence and in repairing entanglements. 4n use, two men handle one bobbin. &ne unwinds the bobbin while the
5>5
other installs the wire. Two or more men may ma$e the bobbins as follows: ?1@ The bobbin stic$s are prepared. ?1@ The reel is rigged on a improvised trestle or other support. ?3@ &ne man unrolls and cuts %80meter -C: ft./ lengths of wire. &ne end of each piece is fastened to the trestle. ?5@ The wire is wound in figure0eight shape on the bobbin stic$s. ?5@ . piece of white tracing tape should be tied to the loose end of the wire to facilitate finding it. 5>3. *AR*ED STEEL TAPE
Fi3)'# 5>5. St ($ '$ 9 '9#$ 6i'#.
. C" ' !t#'i-ti!-. The physical characteristics of barbed tape -fig. (0B/ are as follows: *idth: %@( inch - .C cm/ Thic$ness: 8.### -.8+9 cm/ *eight: (.(%: lb@+8 meters -@ 9( Ft/ *idth of barb: B@ 9 inch - . cm/ 4nterval between barbs: l@# inch - .#+ cm/ )rea$ing load: +88 lb. $g/ 9. H ($0i(3. 4n handling barbed tape, heavy barbed tape gauntlets should be used instead of the standard gauntlets. Small metal clips on the palm and fingers prevent the barbs of the tape from cutting the leather -fig. (0:/. The light weight of the barbed tape and compactness, is much easier to handle, store, and transport than barbed wire. !. I--)#. )arbed tape is issued in +80meter - 9( ft./ reels weighing #.( $g. There are six reels to a cardboard carrying case. $. * '9#$ t 4# $i-4#(-#'. . dispenser -fig. (0:/ is required to install barbed tape. 4t consists of a frame to hold the +80meter - 9( ft./ reel of barbed tape and two sets of rollers. The reel is inserted on the spindle and the tape is threaded through the two sets of parallel rollers. The outside set of rollers are then turned C8o in a cloc$wise direction. The hinged arm of the frame is then closed and 5>5
Fi3)'# 5>5. * '9#$ 6i'# '##0.
Fi3)'# 5>8. * '9#$ 6i'# 9&99i(.
Fi3)'# 5>7. * '9#$ -t##0 t 4#. Two significant characteristics shown above which are important to field users are the weight and the brea$ing load. . comparison of pertinent characteristics of barbed tape and barbed wire is shown below.
loc$ed in place by the frame of the rotating rollers. .s the tape unwinds from the reel, the two sets of rollers oriented C8o to each other impart a twist to the tape. To be effective the barbed tape must be twisted as it is installed. #. U-#-. )arbed tape can be used in place of standard barbed wire in most all cases except when it is to be repeatedly recovered and reused. The most effective fence that can be constructed using barbed tape is the double0apron fence. ?1@ The principal advantages of barbed tape are its si5e and weight. For equal lengths, barbed tape occupies a third of the space and weighs a third as
much as standard barbed wire. . double0apron fence constructed with barbed tape is more difficult to breach by crawling through than one constructed with standard barbed wire because the barbs of the barbed tape are closer together. )ecause of the flat configuration, it is more difficult to cut barbed tape with wire cutters. ?1@ .t the present time, the ma7or disadvantage of barbed tape is the brea$ing strength. Standard barbed wire is twice as strong. 4nstallation of barbed tape requires a dispenser. . ma7or problem could arise if the dispenser is not available. The tape is not recoverable to its original condition. 6owever, it may be recovered on bobbins in the
5>8
Fi3)'# 5>;. * '9#$ t 4# #.)i4%#(t. twisted condition. )arbed tape is more easily cut by shell fragments than standard barbed wire. )arbed tape can also be cut with a bayonet. /. D&)90#> 4'&( /#(!#. The standard double0 apron fence is one of the best obstacles that can be made with barbed tape< and the effectiveness of this obstacle is increased by H ?1@ "aising the top wire to preclude crossing the 5>7 obstacle by stepping over it. ?1@ !lacing low wires ( inches above ground to prevent personnel from crawling under the obstacle. 3. T7i(3 4'&!#$)'#-. 4n tying barbed tape the wrap0around tie -fig. (0B/ should be used, since the sharp bends of other ties
wea$en the tape. Steel wire rings, crimped on, provide effective ties and may be used where available -fig. (0:/. ". S40i!#-. ,onnecting slots at each end of a +80meter - 9( ft./ reel provide a quic$ method of splicing reels of barbed tape -fig. (0C/. )arbed tape may also be spliced by interloc$ing the twisted barbs of two separate lengths, then completing the splice by affixing one steel wire ring to each end of the area where spliced -fig. (0C/.
Fi3)'# 5>10. Pi!:#t- /&' )-# 6it" 9 '9#$ 6i'#. This allows standard ties to be made easily. Screw pic$ets tend to be less rigid than other types but are desirable because they can be installed rapidly and silently. *hen silence is necessary, the driftpin used in installing the pic$ets should be wrapped with cloth. ?1@ U>-" 4#$ 4i!:#t. 10shaped pic$et is a cold0formed steel pic$et of 10shaped cross section, pointed at one end for driving. 4t is notched for wire ties and the pointed end has a punched hole for wires used in bundling the pic$ets. 10shaped pic$ets are driven with a sledge hammer. . sta$e driving cap is used on top of the pic$et to prevent a sledge from deforming it. 2riving the pic$ets is noisier than installing screw pic$ets. ;oise may be reduced by placing a piece of rubber tire over the driving face of the sledge. The pic$ets are rigid and sturdy when properly installed and are preferable to screw pic$ets in situations where noise is not a disadvantage and time is available. The pic$ets are driven with the hollow surface or concave side facing enemy fire because small arms pro7ectiles ricochet from the convex side. .n expedient pic$et driver which can be locally fabricated is shown in figure (0 . ,onstructed as shown it weighs approximately # $ilograms and is operated by two men. &ne man holds the pic$et in a vertical position while the other slides the driver over the pic$et and starts it into the
Fi3)'# 5><. S40i!i(3 9 '9#$ -t##0 t 4#. 5>5. PICFETS
*ire entanglements are supported on metal or wood pic$ets. . M#t 0 4i!:#t-. =etal pic$ets are issued in two types, screw and 10shaped. The standard lengths are short or anchor, medium, and long -fig. (0 8/. The 10shaped pic$et also comes in an extra long length. !ic$ets that are serviceable are recovered and used again. ?1@ S!'#6 4i!:#t. The screw pic$et is screwed into the ground by turning it in a cloc$wise direction using a driftpin, stic$, or another pic$et inserted in the bottom eye of the pic$et for leverage. The bottom eye is used in order to avoid twisting the pic$et. Screw pic$ets are installed so that the eye is to the right of the pic$et, as seen from the friendly side.
5>;
?1@ "ound poles 8 cm -( in./ in diameter are cut to standard pic$et lengths, sharpened on one end, and driven with a maul. The pic$ets are used without peeling the bar$ to prevent the wire from sliding on the pic$et and to simplify camouflage. Longer pic$ets are required in loose or sandy soil or when driving through a snow cover. The driving of wooden pic$ets is not as noisy as the driving of steel pic$ets, and the noise can be reduced further by fastening a section of tire tread over the face of the hammer or maul. For driving in hard earth, pic$et tops are wrapped with wire to avoid splitting. !ic$ets of hardwood, properly installed, are sturdy and rigid. ?1@ 2imension lumber ripped to a square cross section may be used instead of round poles. This is equally satisfactory except that is more difficult to camouflage. Such pic$ets may be camouflaged by painting prior to driving. ?3@ Standing trees and stumps may be used as pic$ets when their location permits. !. R#/#'#(!#. Table (0 lists information pertaining to materials used in the construction of barbed wire entanglements. 5>5. CONCERTINA FENCING
Fi3)'# 5>11. EA4#$i#(t 4i!:#t $'i2#'. ground. Then, both men wor$ the pic$et driver up and down until the required depth is reached. Short pic$ets can be driven by turning the pic$et driver upside down and using the head as a hammer. The buc$et of a front loader can be used to push 10 shaped pic$ets into the ground if the tactical situation permits the use of equipment. ?3@ A'!ti! $ 4t#'. For erecting barbed wire obstacles with 10shaped drive pic$ets under conditions where fro5en ground prevents driving the pic$ets, an .rctic adapter is available for anchoring the pic$ets. The adapter is made of steel and consists of a base plate equipped with an ad7ustable channel receptacle and two anchor pins. 4t is anchored by driving the anchor pins through holes in the base place into the ground. &ne anchor pin drive sleeve with driving pin is provided with each #8 adapters to facilitate anchor pin emplacement. *hen adapters are not available, a hole can be started with a pic$ and the pic$et can be fro5en in place by pouring water and snow into the hole. 9. W&&$#( 4i!:#t. 'xpedient wooden pic$ets of several types may be used.
. St ($ '$ 9 '9#$ 6i'# !&(!#'ti( . The standard barbed wire concertina -fig. (0 #/ is a commercially manufactured barbed wire obstacle made of a roll of single0strand, high0strength, spring0steel wire with (0point barbs attached at + cm -# in./ spacing. *ires forming the coils are clipped together at intervals so the concertina opens to a cylindrical shape + to + meters - 9.( to (C.# ft./ long -depending on structure and build of opening/ and C8 centimeters -% ft./ in diameter. The +0meter - 9.( ft./ length prevents smaller enemy personnel from crawling through the wire as the coils are closer together. Tanglefoot should also be employed in con7unction with the wire to further increase the barrier3s effectiveness. The concertina is easily opened and collapsed and can be used repeatedly because the wire returns to its original shape after a crushing force is applied and then removed. The wire
5><
T 90# 5>1. Wi'# ($ T 4# E(t (30#%#(t M t#'i 0-
to the quarter points of a coil at one end of the concertina. 4n opening the concertina, these bindings are removed and twisted around the carrying handle for use in tying the concertina when it is again collapsed. Four men open a concertina and extend it to the +0 to +0meter - 9.( to (C.# ft./ length, with one man wor$ing at each end and others spaced along its length to insure it opens and extends evenly. *hen necessary, two men can easily open a concertina by bouncing it on the ground to prevent snagging as they open it. ?9@ T& !&00 4-# !&(!#'ti( . Two men can collapse a concertina in the following manner: First all $in$s in coils are removed. Loose clips are then tightened or replaced with plain wire. To close the concertina, one man stands at each end of it and places a foot at the bottom of the coil and an arm under the top of the coil. The two men wal$ toward each other closing the concertina by feeding the wire over their arms and against their feet. *hen closed, the concertina is laid flat and compressed with the feet. The concertina is tied with plain wire bindings. ?!@ T& ! ''7 !&(!#'ti( . &ne man easily carries the collapsed concertina by stepping into it and pic$ing it up by the wire 5>10
Fi3)'# 5>11. St ($ '$ 9 '9#$ 6i'# !&(!#'ti( . is much harder to cut than standard barbed wire. The concertina weighs #+.( >? -++.: lb/. ?1@ H ($0i(3. ? @ T& &4#( !&(!#'ti( . The collapsed concertina is tied with plain wire bindings attached
handles attached to the midpoints of an end coil. ?1@ St 40#-. 4mprovised staples approximately (+ cm - : in./ long and made of l@# inch - .#+ cm/ driftpins or similar material are used to fasten the bottoms of concertina fences securely to the ground. 9. * '9#$ -t##0 t 4# !&(!#'ti( . )arbed tape concertina comes in a diameter of :+ cm -%% in./ and an expanded length of +.# meters -+8 ft./. 4t is formed of barbed tape wrapped around a high strength, spring steel, core wire. 4ts configuration, method of handling, and method of employment are similar to standard barbed wire concertina. &ne roll weighs only ( $g -% lbs./.
S#!ti&( II. C&(-t')!ti&( P'&!#$)'#5>8. ORGANIIATION OF WORF officer divides his crew into groups of approximately equal si5e, based on his $nowledge of the s$ill and speed of each man. 6e organi5es them in such a way that construction proceeds in proper order and at a uniform rate. 'ach individual must $now exactly what his group is to do and his particular 7ob in the group. 'ach
Table (0# gives the materials and manhours required for entanglements of the various types. The normal si5es of wor$ crews are given in the descriptions of the entanglements. For each construction pro7ect, the senior noncommissioned
T 90# 5>1. M t#'i 0 ($ L 9&' R#.)i'#%#(t- /&' 300 M#t#' S#!ti&(- &/ , 'i&)- Wi'# E(t (30#%#(t-.
5>11
man should have barbed wire gauntlets. The sequence of operations for each fence is given in the paragraph describing the erection of the fence. The sequence that is outlined should be followed, and as experience is gained, the si5e and composition of the groups may be varied. For each section of entanglement, all fence0building operations normally proceed from right to left, as one faces the enemy. 4t may be necessary under some circumstances to wor$ from left to right. 4f time permits, men should be taught to wor$ in either direction. 4n case of heavy casualties, the senior officer or ;,& will decide what wires, if any, are to be omitted. . C&(-t')!ti&( t (i3"t. For night construction the following additional preparations are made: ?1@ Tracing tape should be laid from the materials dump to the site of wor$ and then along the line of fence where possible. ?1@ =aterials should be tied together in man loads, and pic$ets bundled tightly to prevent rattling. ?3@ *ire fastenings of wire coils and pic$ets should be removed and replaced with string which can be bro$en easily. ?5@ . piece of tape should be tied to the ends of the wire on each reel or bobbin. 9. S)4#'2i-i&(. !roper supervision of entanglement construction includes the following: tas$s. ?1@ !roper organi5ation of the wor$ into party. ?1@ !rovision of security around the wor$ ?1@ Silence. ?3@ ;o wor$ing on enemy side of fence unless absolutely necessary. ?5@ 1se of screw pic$ets, if available. ?5@ =en not wor$ing should see$ concealment near the wor$ site until they begin wor$. ?8@ 4ndividual weapons must be $ept nearby at all times. $. Wi'# ti#-. *ires are tied to pic$ets by men wor$ing from the friendly side of the wire and pic$et< the wire is stretched with the right hand as the tie is started. The four ties used in erecting wire entanglements are shown in figure (0 %.
?1@ =a$ing sure the tas$s are carried out in the proper sequence. ?3@ !revention of overcrowding of personnel. bunching and Fi3)'# 5>13. Ti#- /&' #'#!ti(3 #(t (30#%#(t- -##( /'&% t"# /'i#($07 -i$#. ?1@ T&4>#7# ti#. The top eye is used to fasten standard barbed wire to the top eye of screw pic$ets. 4t is made in one continuous movement of the left hand -fig (0 (/ while the right hand exerts a pull on the fixed end of the wire. This is a secure tie, quic$ly made, and uses only a short piece of wire. 5>11
?5@ =a$ing sure the wires are tightened properly and spaced correctly. ?5@ ,hec$ing ties to verify that they are being made correctly and at the right points. !. C&(-t')!ti&( i( !&%9 t '# -. *hen wor$ing in close proximity to the enemy, the necessary precautions include00
wire should be wrapped tightly around the post to $eep the barbs from sliding down. *ith the 10 shaped pic$et, the wire wrapping is engaged in a notch in the pic$et. The method is essentially the same as that of the intermediate0eye tie. ?5@ A4'&( ti#. The apron tie is used whenever two wires that cross must be tied together. 4t is tied in the same manner as the post tie except a wire is substituted for the post -fig. (0 B/. ?5@ * '9#$ t 4# -40i!#-. ,onnecting slots at each end of a +80meter - 9( ft./ reel provide a quic$ method of splicing reels of barbed tape. )arbed tape may also be spliced by interloc$ing the twisted barbs of two separate lengths, then completing the splice by twisting a short piece of wire to each end of the area where spliced. #. M#t"&$ &/ i(-t 00i(3 6i'#?1@ The end of the wire is attached to the first anchor pic$et. This is the pic$et at the right end of a section of entanglement, from the friendly side. Fences are built from right to left as this ma$es it easier for a right0handed man to ma$e the ties while remaining faced toward the enemy. ?1@ . bar is inserted in the reel and the reel is carried for #% to #B meters -B+ to :: ft./, allowing the wire to unwind from the bottom of the reel. This is done on the friendly side of the row of pic$ets to which the wire is to be tied. ?3@ Slac$ is put in the wire by moving bac$ toward the starting point< the ties are then made by two men leapfrogging each other. 4f available, two men can be assigned to ma$e the ties as the reel is unwound. /. Ti3"t#(i(3 6i'#. .fter a wire is installed it can be tightened, if necessary, by rac$ing with a driftpin or short stic$ -fig. (0 :/. *ires should not be rac$ed at ties or where they intersect other wires because this ma$es salvage of the wire very difficult. Fences are similarly rac$ed to tighten them when they sag after having been installed for some time. *ires should be 7ust taut enough to prevent them from being depressed easily
Fi3)'# 5>15. T&4>#7# ti#. ?1@ I(t#'%#$i t#>#7# ti#. This tie is used to fasten standard barbed wire to eyes other than the top eye, in screw pic$ets. 4t is made as shown in figure (0 +. This tie and the other ties described below require more time to ma$e than the top0eye tie and each uses several centimeters of wire. 4n ma$ing the intermediate0eye shown in figure (0 +, the following points are especially important: ? @ The right hand reaches over the fixed wire and around the pic$et, with the palm down. The left hand holds the fixed end for tension. ?9@ The loops are removed from the free end and wrapped around the pic$et. ?!@ &ne side of the loop should pass above the eye and the other side below the eye. ?3@ P&-t ti#. Standard barbed wire is fastened to wooden pic$ets or to the steel 10shaped pic$et with the post tie shown in figure (0 9. The 5>13
Fi3)'# 5>15. I(t#'%#$i t#>#7# ti#. 5>15
by boards, mats, or similar ob7ects thrown across them. 4f wires are stretched too tightly they are more easily cut by fragments. )arbed steel tape must never be tightened by rac$ing.
Fi3)'# 5>18. P&-t ti#. 5>7. FOUR>STRAND CATTLE FENCE Fi3)'# 5>17. St ($ '$ 9 '9#$ 6i'# 4'&( ti#.
. D#-!'i4ti&(. The four0strand center section of a double apron fence can be installed rapidly to obtain obstacle effect, and aprons can be added later to develop it into a double apron fence. 4n rural areas where wire fences are used by farmers, obstacles in the form of four0strand cattle fences -fig. (0 C/ will blend with the landscape. Their design should follow as closely as possible the local custom, usually wooden pic$ets at about #0 to (0 pace intervals with four hori5ontal strands of barbed wire fixed to them. They should be sited along footpaths and edges of fields or crops, where they will not loo$ out of place. 4f conditions permit, this fence may be improved by installing guy wires in the same manner as the diagonal wires of the double apron fence. .ll longitudinal wires of this fence must start and end at an anchor pic$et. 9. C&(-t')!ti&(. 'ight men may be employed on short sections of this fence up to 9 men on %880 meter -C:( ft./ sections. The two operations are laying out and installing pic$ets, and installing wire.
Fi3)'# 5>1;. Ti3"t#(i(3 6i'# 97 ' !:i(3. ?1@ Fi'-t &4#' ti&(. The wor$ party is divided into two groups of approximately equal si5e. The first group carries 5>15
Fi3)'# 5>1<. F&)'>-t' ($ ! tt0# /#(!# - 2i#6#$ /'&% t"# #(#%7 -i$#. and lays out long pic$ets at %0meter -C.: ft./ intervals along the centerline of the fence, beginning and ending the section with an anchor pic$et, and including anchor pic$ets for guys if needed. The second group installs the pic$ets. ?1@ S#!&($ &4#' ti&(. .s the first tas$ is completed, men move individually to the head of the fence and are organi5ed into teams of two or four men to install wires. Four four0man teams, two men carry the reel and two men ma$e ties and pull the wire tight. For two0man teams, the wire must first be unrolled for +8 to 88 meters - 9( to %#: ft./, then the men come bac$ to the head of the wor$ and ma$e the ties or the wire may first be made up into bobbins to be carried and unwound by one man while the other man ma$es the ties. The first team installs the bottom fence wire, and draws it tight and close to the ground. Succeeding teams install the next wires in order. 5>;. DOU*LE>APRON FENCE
Fi3)'# 5>10. D&)90# 4'&( /#(!#. 'xcept for pic$et spacing, the (0 and #0pace and the 90 and %0pace fences are identical. &nly the (0 and #0pace fence is discussed in detail. 9. C&(-t')!ti&(. . %880meter -C:( ft./ section of either type of double0apron fence is a platoon tas$ normally requiring l@# hours, assuming %9 productive men per platoon. There are two operations in building a double apron fence: laying out and installing pic$ets, and installing wire. The first operation is nearly completed prior to starting the second. The second operation is started as men become available and the first operation has moved far enough ahead to avoid congestion. . platoon is normally assigned to build a %880meter -C:( ft./ section. ?1@ Fi'-t &4#' ti&(. The wor$ party, if not organi5ed in three squads, is divided into three groups of approximately equal si5e. &ne squad lays out the long pic$ets along the centerline of the fence at 5>18
. T74#-. There are two types of double apron fence, the (0 and #0pace fence and the 90 and %0pace fence. The (0 and #0pace fence -fig. (0#8/ is the better obstacle of the two and is the type more commonly used. 4n this fence the center pic$ets are ( paces apart and the anchor pic$ets are # paces from the line of the center pic$ets and opposite the midpoint of the space between center pic$ets. The 90 and %0pace fence follows the same pattern with pic$ets at 90 and %0pace intervals. For this fence, less material and construction time are required, but the obstacle effect is substantially reduced because with the longer wire spans ma$e it is easier to raise or lower the wires and crawl over or under them.
(0pace intervals at the spots where they are to be installed and with their points toward the enemy. .nother squad lays out the anchor pic$ets, with points toward the enemy and positioned # paces each way from the centerline and midway between the long pic$ets -fig. (0# /. The spacing is readily chec$ed with a long pic$et. The third squad installs all the pic$ets, with the help of the two other squads as the latter finish the wor$ of laying out the pic$ets. *hen installed, the lower notch or bottom eye of the long pic$ets should be approximate 8 cm -( in./ off the ground to ma$e passage difficult either over or under the bottom wires.
Fi3)'# 5>11. L 7i(3 &)t (!"&' 4i!:#t-. ?1@ S#!&($ &4#' ti&(. .s the groups complete the first operation, they return to the head of the fence and begin installing wire. The order in which the wires are installed is shown in figure (0#8 and is further illustrated in figure (0##. ,are must be ta$en to avoid having any of the men cut off between the fence and the enemy. The men are divided into two0 or four0man groups and proceed to install the wires in numerical order< that is, as soon as the men installing one wire have moved away from the beginning of the fence and are out of the way, the next wire is started. 4nstallation is as follows: ? @ The ;o. wire is the diagonal wire on the enemy side and is secured with a top0eye tie to all pic$ets. 4t is important to $eep this wire tight. ?9@ The ;o. # wire is the trip wire on the enemy side of the fence and is secured to both diagonals 7ust above the anchor pic$et with the
Fi3)'# 5>11. S#.)#(!# &/ i(-t 00i(3 6i'# i( $&)90# 4'&( /#(!#. apron tie. This wire must be tight enough and close enough to the ground to ma$e passage over or under the wire difficult. ?!@ The ;o. % wire is an apron wire on the enemy side of the fence. 4t is secured to the first diagonal wire, and thereafter to each alternate diagonal, and then to the last diagonal wire. The ;o. ( wire is also an apron wire on the enemy side of the fence. 4t is secured to the first diagonal wire -;o. /, thereafter to the diagonal wires which are not tied to the ;o. % wire, and then to the last diagonal wire. .pron wires ;os. % and ( are equally spaced along the diagonal wire. ?$@ The ;o. + wire is the first one
5>17
which is not started from the end anchor pic$et. 4t is started at the first long pic$et, and ended at the last long pic$et. 4t is secured with the intermediate0eye tie and is stretched tightly to prevent passage over or under it. ?#@ *ires ;o. 9, B, and : complete the center portion of the fence and are secured to the long pic$et ;o. 9 and B with the intermediate0eye tie. They also start at the first and end at the last long pic$et. ;o. : is secured with the top0eye ties. These wires -;o. 9, B, and :/ form the bac$bone of the fence and are drawn up tightly to hold the pic$ets in position. ?/@ ;o. C is the diagonal apron wire on the friendly side of the fence and is secured with the top0eye to all pic$ets. ;o. 8 and are apron wires and ;o. # is the tripwire on the friendly side of the fence. *ire ;o. # is installed in the same manner as wire ;o. # -9/ above/. ?3@ 4f the fence is not satisfactorily tight when installed, wires are tightened by rac$ing as described in paragraph (09/. 5><. STANDARD CONCERTINA FENCES double line of concertinas with no interval between lines. The two lines are installed with staggered 7oints. .s an obstacle, the double concertina is less effective than a well0emplaced, double apron fence. 4t is used in some situations to supplement other obstacles in a band or 5one. 5>10. TRIPLE STANDARD CONCERTINA FENCE
. D#-!'i4ti&(. This consists of two lines of concertinas serving as a base, with a third line resting on top, as shown in figure (0#%. .ll lines are installed with staggered 7oints. 'ach line is completed before the next is started so a partially completed concertina entanglement presents some obstruction. 4t is erected quic$ly and is difficult to cross, cut, or crawl through.
.s an obstacle, in most situations, the triple standard concertina fence is better than the double apron fence. The material for the standard concertina fence weighs about +8 percent more than for a triple standard concertina fence of the same length, but it is erected with about one0half the man0 hours. 'very concertina fence is secured firmly to the ground by driving staples at intervals not more than # meters -9.9 ft./. The staples are used on the single concertina fence and on the front concertina of the double and triple types. The two types of fence are as follows: . Si(30# !&(!#'ti( . This is one line of concertinas. 4t is erected quic$ly and easily but is not an effective obstacle in itself. 4t is used as emergency entanglement or for the temporary closing of gaps between other obstacles. 4t is for such purposes that one roll of concertina may be habitually carried on the front of each vehicle in combat units. 9. D&)90# !&(!#'ti( . This consists of a 5>1;
Fi3)'# 5>13. T'i40# -t ($ '$ !&(!#'ti( /#(!#. 9. D#t i0. . %880meter -C:( ft./ section of this fence is a platoon tas$ normally requiring less than hour. There are two operations: carrying and laying out pic$ets and concertina rolls and installing pic$ets, and opening and installing concertinas. !. Fi'-t &4#' ti&(. For the first operation, the wor$ party is divided into three groups of approximately equal si5e: one to lay out all pic$ets, one to install all pic$ets, and one to lay out all concertina rolls. ?1@ The first group lays out front row long pic$ets at + pace intervals on the line of fence -fig. (0#(/ with points of pic$ets on line and pointing toward the enemy. The rear row long pic$ets are laid out on a
Fi3)'# 5>15. L 7i(3 &)t 0&(3 4i!:#t- /&' t'i40# !&(!#'ti( /#(!#. line C8 cm -% ft./ to the rear and opposite the center of interval between the front row long pic$ets. .n anchor pic$et is laid out at each end of each line, .+ meters -+ ft./ from the end long pic$et. ?1@ The second group installs pic$ets beginning with the front row -fig. (0#+/. .s in other fences, eyes of screw pic$ets are to the right. ,oncave faces of 10shaped pic$ets are toward the enemy.
Fi3)'# 5>18. L 7i(3 &)t !&(!#'ti( . $. S#!&($ &4#' ti&(. .s they complete the first operation, all men are organi5ed in four0man parties -fig. (0#B/ to open and install concertinas, beginning at the head of the fence. The sequence, shown in general in figure (0#B is as follows: ?1@ &pen the front row concertinas in front of the double line of pic$ets and the other two in its rear. ?1@ Lift each front row concertina in turn and drop it over the long pic$ets, then 7oin concertina ends as shown in figure (0#:. ?3@ Fasten the bottom of the concertina to the ground by driving a staple over
Fi3)'# 5>15. I(-t 00i(3 /'&(t '&6 4i!:#t- /&' t'i40# !&(!#'ti( /#(!#. ?3@ The third group lays out concertinas along the rows of pic$ets -fig. (0#9/. 4n the front row, one roll is placed at the third pic$et and one at every fourth pic$et thereafter. Sixteen staples accompany each front row concertina. 4n the second row, two rolls are placed at the third pic$et and two at every fourth pic$et thereafter. .s each roll is placed in position, its binding wires are unfastened but are left attached to the hoop at one end of the roll. 5>1<
Fi3)'# 5>17. I(-t 00i(3 !&(!#'ti( .
5>11. LOW>WIRE ENTANGLEMENT . G#(#' 0. This is a (0 and #0pace double apron fence in which medium pic$ets replace long pic$ets in the fence centerline -fig. (0#C/. This results in omission of the ;os. 9, B, and : wires, and in bringing all the apron and diagonal wires much closer to the ground so passage underneath this fence is difficult. This fence may be used advantageously on one or both sides of the double apron fence. The low wire entanglement is used where concealment is essential. 4n tall grass or shallow water, this entanglement is almost invisible and is particularly effective as a surprise obstacle. 6owever, a man can pic$ his way through this low wire fence without much difficulty< therefore, for best results it must be employed in depth.
Fi3)'# 5>1;. +&i(i(3 !&(!#'ti( . each pair of end hoops, one over the bottom of a coil at each long pic$et, and one at the l@# and l@( points of the %.:0meter - #.+ ft./ pic$et spacing. Securing the front concertina to the ground is essential and must be done before installing another concertina in its rear unless the enemy side of the entanglement is sure to be accessible later. ?5@ Stretch a barbed wire strand along the top of each front row and fasten it to the tops of the long pic$ets, using the top eye tie for screw pic$ets. These wires are stretched as tightly as possible to improve the resistance of the fence against crushing. ?5@ 4nstall the rear row concertina as described above for the front row concertina. ?8@ 4nstall the top row concertina -fig. (0 #B/, fastening the end hoops of +0meter -+8 ft./ sections with plain steel wire ties. )egin this row at a point between the ends of the front and rear of the lower rows, thus brea$ing all end 7oints. ?7@ "ac$ the top concertina to the rear hori5ontal wire at points halfway between the long pic$ets. 4f there is safe access to the enemy side of the fence, similarly rac$ the top concertina to the forward hori5ontal wire. 5>10 Fi3)'# 5>1<. L&6 6i'# /#(!#. 9. C&(-t')!ti&(. 'xcept for the omission of three wires and the substitution of the medium pic$ets, this fence is constructed in the same manner as the double apron fence. 5>11. HIGH>WIRE ENTANGLEMENT . D#-!'i4ti&(. This obstacle consists of
two parallel (0strand fences with a third (0strand fence 5ig5agged between them to form triangular cells. *ith two rows of pic$ets as shown in figure (0%8, the entanglements is classed as a belt< with one or more additional rows of fences and triangular cells it is a band. To add to the obstacle effect, front and rear aprons may be installed and spirals of loose wire may be placed in the triangular cells. pic$ets, front row first and at %0meter - 8 ft./ intervals. Second row pic$ets are laid out in a line % meters - 8 ft./ to the rear of the front row and spaced midway between them. The first group also lays out an anchor pic$et in line with each end of each (0strand fence, % meters - 8 ft./ from the nearest long pic$et. 4f guys are needed, anchor pic$ets are also laid out in lines # paces from the lines of the front and rear fences, opposite and midpoint of spaces between the long pic$ets. The second group installs front row pic$ets, returns to the head of the fence, installs the rear row, and then installs the anchor pic$ets. *hen the first group finishes laying out pic$ets, they begin installing wire and help finish installing the pic$ets. ?1@ S#!&($ &4#' ti&(. .s the first tas$ is completed, men move individually to the head of the fence and are organi5ed into teams of two or four men to install wires in the same manner as for the (0 strand fence. The order of installation is as shown in figure (0%8, except if front guys are used they are installed before the ;o. wire< rear guys after the ;o. # wire. The lengthwise wires of each (0strand fence begin and end at an anchor pic$et. 5>13. TRESTLE APRON FENCE
Fi3)'# 5>30. Hi3" 6i'# #(t (30#%#(t. 9. C&(-t')!ti&(. . %880meter -C:( ft./ section of high entanglement with two rows of pic$ets, as shown in figure (0%8, is a platoon tas$ normally requiring about two hours, assuming %: men per platoon. The two operations are: laying out and installing pic$ets, and installing wire. ?1@ Fi'-t &4#' ti&(. For this operation the wor$ing party is divided into two groups, two0thirds of the men going to the first group and one0third to the second. The first group carries and lays out
The trestle apron fence -fig. (0% / has inclined crosspieces spaced at (.:0 to 90meter - +.B 0 C.B ft./ intervals to carry longitudinal wires on the enemy side. The rear ends of the crosspieces are carried on triangular timber frames which are $ept from spreading by tension wires on the friendly side. The crosspiece may be laid flat on the ground for tying the longitudinal wires in place and then raised into position on the triangular frames. The frames are tied securely in place and
Fi3)'# 5>31. T'#-t0# 4'&( /#(!#.
5>11
Fi3)'# 5>31. L 40 ($ /#(!#. 5>11
held by the tension wires. The fence should be sited in such a way it can be guyed longitudinally to natural anchorages and rac$ed tight. 5>15. LAPLAND FENCE mount the diamond0shaped frame on the winch of a truc$ and use the winch to coil the wire. 9. F(i/# '#-t. The $nife rest -fig. (0%%/ is a portable wooden or metal frame strung with barbed wire. 4t is used wherever a readily removable barrier is needed< for example, at lanes in wire obstacles or at roadbloc$s. *ith a metal frame it can be used as an effective underwater obstacle in beach defenses. >nife rests are normally constructed with % to ( meters -C.: to 9.( ft./ between cross members. They should be approximately meter -%.% ft./ high. The cross members must be firmly lashed to the hori5ontal member with plain wire. *hen placed in position, $nife rests must be securely fixed.
Figure (0%# shows the lapland fence which can be used equally well on fro5en or roc$y ground, and on bogs or marshlands. This fence is wired with six strands of barbed wire on the enemy side, four strands on the friendly side, and four strands on the base. 4n snow, the tripods can be lifted out of the snow with poles or other means to reset the obstacle on top of newly fallen snow. &n soft ground, the base setting of tripods and the base wires give enough bearing surface to prevent the obstacle from sin$ing. 5>15. PORTA*LE O*STACLES *AR*ED WIRE
Standard concertinas are readily moved and are well adapted for the temporary closing of gaps or lanes, or for adding rapidly to the obstacle effect of fixed barriers such as the double apron fence. &ther portable barbed wire obstacles are described below. . S4i' 0- &/ 0&&-# 6i'#. )y filling open spaces in and between wire entanglements with spirals of loose wire, the obstacle effect is substantially increased. Spirals for such use are prepared as follows: ?1@ 2rive four 0meter -%.% ft./ posts in the ground to form a diamond by l@#0meter -%.% by .9 ft./. ?1@ *ind B+ meters -#(9 ft./ of barbed wire tightly around the frame. Start winding at bottom and wind helically toward top. ?3@ "emove wire from frame and tie at quarter points for carrying or hauling to site where it is to be opened and used. &ne spiral weighs less than C. $g -#8 lbs./ and a man can carry three or more of them by stepping inside the coils and using wire handles of the type furnished with the standard concertina. ?5@ 4f spirals are needed in large quantities, 5>13 Fi3)'# 5>33. F(i/# '#-t. !. T'i4 6i'#-. 4mmediately after a defensive position is occupied and before an attempt is made to erect protective wire, trip wires should be placed 7ust outside of grenade range, usually %8 to (8 meters -C: to % ft./. These wires should stretch about #% centimeters -C in./ above the ground and be fastened to pic$ets at not more than +0meter - 9.( ft./ intervals. They should be concealed in long grass or crops on a natural line such as the side of a path or the edge of a field. The Trip wires should be placed in depth in an irregular pattern. $. T (30#/&&t. Tanglefoot -fig. (0%(/ is used where concealment is essential and to prevent the enemy from crawling between fences and in front of emplacements. The obstacle should be employed in a minimum depth of 8 meters -%#.: ft./. The pic$ets should be spaced at irregular intervals of from B+ cm to % meters -#.+ to 8 ft./, and the height of the barbed wire should vary
Fi3)'# 5>35. T (30#/&&t i( 9 ''i#' -7-t#%. 5>15
between #% to B+ cm -C to %8 in./. Tanglefoot should be sited in scrub, if possible, using bushes as supports for part of the wire. 4n open ground, short pic$ets should be used. ?rowth of grass should be controlled to help prevent the enemy from secretly cutting lanes in, or tunneling under, the entanglement. 5>18. COM*INATION *ANDS desired depth or may be made more effective by adding front and rear aprons. &ther types of fences may be combined in bands to form obstacles which are more difficult to breach than a single belt. !ortable barbed wire obstacles may be added as described in paragraph (0 +. The construction of bands of varied types is desirable because this ma$es it difficult for the enemy to develop standard methods of passage and it permits fitting the obstacles to the situation and to the time and materials available. Six different types of effective combination bands are shown in figure (0%+. &ther variations are readily developed.
.s noted in paragraph (0 #, the high wire entanglement may be built with additional rows of fences and triangular cells to form bands of any
Fi3)'# 5>35. C&%9i( ti&( 9 ($- &/ 6i'# &9-t !0#-. 5>15
S#!ti&( III. M t#'i 0 ($ L 9&' E-ti% t#5>17. *ASIC CONSIDERATIONS material, labor, and transportation requirements for various lengths and types of wire entanglements. ?1@ 2etermine the employment by use, whether Tactical, !rotective, or Supplementary wire will be constructed. ?1@ 2etermine the depth of employment by totaling the number of belts of wire. ?3@ 2etermine the effective length of the entanglement by utili5ing the appropriate rule of thumb in or 9 above. ?5@ 4n order to utili5e table (0% to determine the quantities of material and the manhours required for construction, the effective length must be divided by %88. This gives you the number of %88 meter sections you would effectively construct. ,arry this number out two decimal places and then round0off to the nearest tenth. ? @ =ultiply the number of %88 meter sections times the values in table (0% according to the type of wire to be constructed. !ay careful attention to the footnotes for this table. Mou may have more than one choice of values and various factors may be required to ad7ust the table values. ?9@ The number of %88 meter sections is multiplied by the appropriate value in each column of table (0#, except for the column entitled Fi0&3' %- &/ % t#'i 0- 4#' 0i(# ' %#t#' &/ #(t (30#%#(t. The value in this column is the average weight per meter and should be multiplied by the total effective length of the entanglement to determine the total weight of the required materials. 2ivide the total weight by the vehicle capacity to determine the number of truc$s or truc$loads required to haul the material. Footnote 9E to table (0 # states the vehicle capacity should be ##9: $gs, which equates to # l@# tons. 1se of this weight limit will enable you to ma$e an accurate estimate of the number of truc$s required, whether # l@# ton cargo or + ton dump truc$s are used. The +0ton dump has less than l@% the volume capacity of the # l@#0ton cargo truc$, and the bul$ or volume of wire entanglement materials will limit a +0ton dump truc$load to approximately # l@# tons.
)arbed wire obstacles are constructed primarily from issue materials, thus, both logistical and construction estimates are involved. Table (0 gives weights, lengths, and other data required for estimating truc$ transportation and carrying party requirements. Table (0# gives the material and labor requirements for construction of various wire entanglements. 5>1;. REQUIREMENTS FOR A DEFENSI,E POSITION
. *hen estimating materials and labor requirements for wire entanglements deployed along the F')., use the following rules of thumb to determine the effective length of the entanglement: ?1@ T !ti! 0 6i'#J Front x .#+ x number of belts. belts. ?1@ P'&t#!ti2# 6i'#J Front x + x number of ?3@ S)440#%#(t '7 6i'#J ? @ F&'6 '$ &/ FE*AJ Front x .#+ x number of belts. ?9@ R# ' &/ FE*AJ 1nit depth x #.+ x number of belts. 9. *hen estimating material and labor requirements for wire entanglements deployed around a perimeter defensive position, use the following rules of thumb to determine the effective length of the entanglements. ?1@ T !ti! 0 6i'#J =ean perimeter of the wire x .#+ x number of belts. ?1@ P'&t#!ti2# 6i'#J =ean perimeter of the wire x . 8 x number of belts. ?3@ S)440#%#(t '7 6i'#J =ean perimeter of the wire x .#+ x number of belts. !. M#t"&$ &/ #-ti% ti(3. The following step0 by0step procedure is recommended for estimating 5>18
SELF TEST 1. 4n which use of barbed wire is each series of concertinas placed about 8 meters in depthJ -!ara (0 f, fig. (0%/
1. 6ow many more meters of barbed wire are on a full reel than are put on a bobbinJ -!ara (0#c and d/
3. *hat advantage does barbed tape have over standard barbed wireJ -!ara (0%e- //
5. *hy are the 10shaped steel pic$ets used to support wire entanglements emplaced with the hollow surface -concave side/ facing enemy fireJ -!ara (0(a-#//
5. 4n which direction should fence0building operations normally proceedJ -!ara (09/
8. 6ow and why are the ends of the wire on bobbins mar$edJ -!ara (0#d-+/, (09a-(//
7. *hen a standard barbed wire concertina is being collapsed for transportation or storage, what $eeps the bottom of the wire coil from fanning outJ -!ara (0+a- /-b//
;. *hich $ind of pic$et is recommended for the construction of wire entanglement in combat areas in close proximity to the enemyJ -!ara (09a-(/, fig. (0 8/
<. 4n the construction of barbed wire entanglements, which tie is used to 7oin two wires that crossJ -!ara (09d -(/, fig. (0 %, (0 B/
10. 4n the construction of a four0strand cattle fence, which fence construction team installs the third strand from the topJ -!ara (0Bb-#//
5>17
11. *hat si5e unit is normally assigned the tas$ of constructing a %880meter section of double0apron fenceJ -!ara (0:b/
11. *hich wires -numbered in sequence of installation/ form the bac$bone of a double0apron fenceJ -!ara (0 :b-#/-e/, figs. (0#8, (0##/
13. *hat does wire ;o. # of a double0apron fence have in common with wire ;o. #J -!ara (0:b-#/-b/ and -f//
15. .fter the pic$ets for a triple concertina fence have been installed, where is the first roll of concertina placed by the personnel that lay out the wireJ -!ara (0 8c-#/, fig. (0#9/
15. *hy is a strand of barbed wire stretched tightly along the top of front row concertina sections in the construction of a triple standard concertina fenceJ -!ara (0 8d-%//
18. *hat barbed wire obstacle is used equally well in snow, roc$y ground, or marshlandJ -!ara (0 (/
17. *hich barbed wire obstacle is constructed about #% centimeters above the groundJ -!ara (0 +c/ Situation: ?iven perimeter defense: Tactical wire mean perimeter N :88 meters !rotective wire mean perimeter N 988 meters Supplementary wire mean perimeter N 888 meters -See figure (0%9/
1;. 'stimate the amount of material, the truc$loads, and the manhours required to construct one band -three belts in depth/ of tactical wire using ( and # pace double apron design. The fence will be constructed during daylight hours by inexperienced troops using 10shaped pic$ets and barbed tape. -!ara (0 B and (0 :/
5>1;
1<. 'stimate the amount of material, the truc$loads, and the manhours required to construct one belt of triple standard concertina for protective wire. The fence will be constructed during the daylight hours by experienced troops using 10shaped pic$ets and barbed wire. -!ara (0 B and (0 :/
Fi3)'# 5>38. * -# ! %4 ?4#'i%#t#'@ $#/#(-#. 5>1<
LESSON 5 CAMOUFLAGE ?P'&t#!ti&( A3 i(-t E(#%7 S)'2#i00 (!#@ CREDIT HOURS.......................................................................................................... 1 TEXT ASSIGNMENT.................................................................................................. Att !"#$ %#%&' ($)%. LESSON O*+ECTI,ES 1pon completion of this lesson on protection against enemy surveillance you should be able to accomplish the following in the indicated topic areas: 1. Di'#!t S)'2#i00 (!#. 2iscuss the advantages and disadvantages of direct methods of surveillance. 1. I($i'#!t S)'2#i00 (!#. 2iscuss the advantages and disadvantages of indirect methods of surveillance. 3. A#'i 0 P"&t&3' 4"7. 2iscuss the advantages of oblique aerial photography as a method of indirect surveillance. 5. R $ '. 2escribe how the ultra high frequency radio signals of radar are used to detect ob7ects and installations. 5. D&440#' ($ SLAR R $ '. 2iscuss the advantages and disadvantages of doppler and SL." radar in surveillance of military ob7ectives and activities. 8. I(/' '#$. 2escribe the two types of infrared detectors -active and passive/ and protective measures required by units or activities. 7. F !t&'- &/ R#!&3(iti&(. 2iscuss the factors of recognition 00 shape or pattern, color or tone, texture, shadow, position, si5e, movement, sound, and smell 00 and counter measures for protection. ;. Siti(3. 2iscuss terrain patterns and protective measures used to ta$e advantage of pattern characteristics. <. Di-!i40i(#. 2iscuss night discipline and sound discipline and the control of trac$s shine, and debris as elements in effective countersurveillance. 10. C&(!# 0%#(t P'i(!i40#-. 2iscuss the three fundamental ways of concealing installation and activities 00 hiding, blending, and disguising. 11. C&(!# 0%#(t &/ Fi#0$ F&'ti/i! ti&(-. 2iscuss the concealment consideration in the siting of field fortifications. 11. C&(!# 0%#(t &/ A'ti00#'7. 2iscuss factors which lead to detection and prevention measures required. 13. C&(!# 0%#(t &/ *i2&) !-. 2escribe the sequence of countersurveillance measures structured in four stages 00 planning, occupation, maintenance, and evacuation. 5>1
ATTACHED MEMORANDUM S#!ti&( I. I(t'&$)!ti&( 5>1. IMPORTANCE OF COUNTERSUR,EILLANCE candle flame had been seen from a distance of %8 miles on a clear dar$ night. The ears are also sensitive 00 tests indicate a tic$ing watch can be heard #8 feet away. 'ven though concealment from visual observation is complete, the sounds of voices, footfalls, or running engines easily give away a position. The sense of smell is often overloo$ed. The ability to detect and identify characteristic odors can lead to detection of the enemy. 1nder ideal conditions, cigarette smo$e can be identified from a distance of a quarter of a mile< exhaust fumes and coo$ing odors carry even farther. ?1@ A$2 (t 3#- &/ $i'#!t %#t"&$- &/ -)'2#i00 (!#. 2irect methods of surveillance have many advantages: ? @ They provide immediate information on which action may be based. ?9@ The information obtained is easily evaluated because it is natural and familiar. ?!@ The human eye, ear, and nose are normally sensitive and accurate receivers. ?$@ =ovement is usually detected by direct observation. ?1@ Di- $2 (t 3#-. There are four ma7or disadvantages to direct methods of surveillance. ? @ There is no permanent record of the information obtained. ?9@ .tmospheric conditions and time of day may hamper observation. ?!@ The observer3s experience mission may limit the information obtained. and
. Throughout history soldiers have employed techniques of camouflage to conceal themselves or their intentions from the enemy. Successful concealment adds the value of surprise in attac$ and provides security in defense. .lthough modern warfare employs increasingly complex and deadly weapon systems and highly sophisticated electronic surveillance devices, the necessity and importance of deceiving the enemy remains. 9. The essential part of any military deception is proper application of countersurveillance techniques and principles. ,orrectly used, countersurveillance can spell the difference between victory and defeat< to an individual, it can mean the difference between life and death. Small semi0 independent units must furnish their own security, reconnaissance, surveillance, and countersurveillance. They must be able to exist for long periods of time with a minimum of control and support from higher headquarters. .s a result, their success depends to a large extent upon their ability to remain undetected by the enemy. 5>1. DIRECT AND INDIRECT METHODS OF SUR,EILLANCE A,AILA*LE TO THE ENEMB
To be effective, camouflage measures must counter the detection methods available to the enemy. 4t is, therefore, necessary to understand surveillance methods: how each type of surveillance is employed, its advantages, its disadvantages, and how to achieve concealment from those detection methods the enemy is most li$ely to use. There are two broad categories of surveillance, direct and indirect. . Di'#!t. *hen methods of detection are direct, the observer uses his senses, principally sight, hearing, and smell, to gather information about the existence, identification, or scope of enemy activity. &f these, by far the most important is sight. The human eye has a remar$able range sensitivity 00 a 5>1
?$@ 6uman error may cause incomplete or incorrect information. 9. I($i'#!t. 4ndirect methods of surveillance include all of the mechanical, electrical,
and chemical devices which extend the range of the human senses. =any of these devices record the detected image on film or tape. They include both ground and aerial cameras, infrared devices, chemical -olfactory/ sensors, ground0to0ground and air0to0ground radar, and starlight scopes. .ll such devices have the effect of reducing or eliminating the protection once afforded by distance or dar$ness. To be effective, camouflage efforts must be designed to defeat these devices -table +0 / as well as direct methods of surveillance. ?1@ .dvantages of indirect methods of surveillance. .mong the advantages of indirect methods of surveillance are the following: ? @ &bservations may be conducted from points out of range of enemy fire. ?9@ .reas inaccessible to ground observers may be monitored by indirect methods. ?!@ ,ertain spectrums, such as near and far infrared, which are invisible to the unaided eye, may be detected and recorded with special sensors or film. ?$@ =ost indirect detection devices provide a permanent record on film or tape. These recorded images, such as aerial photography and side0loo$ing airborne radar as remote sensor imagery. .ll such imagery can be enlarged for more detailed study of suspect areas, can be thoroughly examined at leisure, and may be duplicated and distributed to other echelons for simultaneous use. 4magery of the same area repeated over a period of time can reveal tell0tale changes in the appearance of the terrain that would otherwise go unnoticed. ?1@ Di- $2 (t 3#-. There are several disadvantages in the use of indirect methods of surveillance. .mong these are the following:
T 90# 5>1. S)'2#i00 (!# D#2i!#- ($ C&)(t#'-)'2#i00 (!# M# (-
5>3
? @ Time is needed to process and distribute the imagery. ?9@ )ad weather may ground aircraft, obscure sub7ects, or interfere with electronics reception, especially doppler radar, and passive infrared devices. ?!@ S$illed and trained personnel are needed both to operate complex electronic equipment and to interpret the imagery obtained. ?$@ Special stereo0photography and stereoscopic viewing equipment is necessary to obtain a three0dimensional view with aerial photographs.
S#!ti&( II. I($i'#!t S)'2#i00 (!# D#2i!#5>3. AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHB detection, it should be remembered in areas of moderate to rugged relief, defilade may limit the information recorded on low altitude oblique photography. 5>5. RADAR
. D#t#!ti&( ! 4 9i0it7. )y far, the most commonly used surveillance method is photography, both ground and aerial. .erial photography is indispensable in camouflage inspection and detection, revealing and recording data often unnoticed by the unaided eye. Film sensitivity has $ept pace with the development of high resolution lens systems, ma$ing modern aerial cameras capable of recording minute detail from very high altitudes. ,amouflage measures that are aimed only at ground observers will fail if the enemy has any aerial surveillance capability. ?ood camouflage must be three0dimensional to counter aerial surveillance. 9. T74#- &/ #'i 0 4"&t&3' 4"7. There are two ma7or types of aerial photography in common use for surveillance purposes, 2#'ti! 0 and &90i.)#. !hotography from multiple camera installations combining the two types, and from scanning0type -panoramic/ cameras is also used. =ost vertical photography is planned and flown for map0ma$ing purposes. .erial photography for mapping purposes must meet very exacting requirements and must be flown under carefully controlled conditions. *hen available, such photography is invaluable to surveillance personnel. 4t is seldom obtainable, however, under combat conditions. "econnaissance and surveillance needs are more often met by various $inds of oblique photography -fig +0 /, which cover a greater area with fewer flights. =any of the factors which provide the controlled geometry of mapping photography are disregarded in reconnaissance flights. *hen necessary, even pictures ta$en with hand0held cameras from helicopters or other small aircraft can provide valuable information. For purposes of camouflage 5>5
"adar detecting devices emit radio signals, usually in the form of pulses of an ultrahigh frequency, which are reflected from the ob7ect being viewed and received bac$ at the point of transmission. )y analy5ing these minute reflected signals, the characteristics of the ob7ect under observation may be determined. Two types of radar equipment are commonly used for surveillance purposes: ground0 to0ground -doppler/ radar, and air0to0ground radar, which includes side0loo$ing airborne radar -SL."/. . 2oppler radar is a line0of0sight device used primarily to detect movement. )ecause it is line0of0 sight, maximum use of defilade is the best means of avoiding detection by doppler radar. Dery slow, controlled movement is effective against certain types of these devices. 2oppler radar is less effective when it is raining because of the resulting clutter in the reception of pulses. 9. .ir0to0ground radar is generally used with film or tape to record the reflected pulses. The resulting imagery is similar in appearance to aerial photography and has been extensively used for mapping purposes in areas of heavy cloud cover, where light sensitive film cannot be used. The radar waves penetrate fog, ha5e, or smo$e and return an accurate indication of the shape of the terrain. This penetrating quality of air0to0ground radar waves is invaluable in
Fi3)'# 5>1. L&6 &90i.)# 4"&t&3' 4". detecting hidden radar0reflectant equipment. 4t is important to remember foliage cover alone cannot be relied upon completely to defeat detection by air0 to0ground radar. ,oncealment from this form of radar depends upon reduction or scattering of the reflected pulses, achieved by digging in, defilade, or the use of special radar0scattering screening materials. 5>5. INFRARED !. ,oncealment from passive infrared depends upon reducing heat emission of sub7ects which are hotter than their surroundings. Therefore, some insulation or shield must be used. 2efilade, heavy brush, 9. .ctive infrared, li$e doppler radar, emits line0of0sight waves. 4t also detects the different reflectant qualities of natural and artificial materials. .ny of the measures which reduce or eliminate the contrast between ob7ects and their natural bac$grounds are effective countermeasures against this type of surveillance. These include tree canopy, cut green vegetation, net screening systems, and all camouflage paints used for pattern painting.
. There are two types of infrared detectors: active -near/ emits electromagnetic energy not visible to the human eyes< passive -far/ is sensitive to the longest, or thermal wavelengths of the spectrum, and detects, rather than emits energy.
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or even tree cover will at least attenuate the heat radiation< to what extent depends upon the density or thic$ness of the cover. 4t should also be noted screening nets, although they reflect active infrared waves, do not shield a hidden ob7ect which emits heat from detection by passive infrared devices. These devices are affected by rain, however, which can cause sufficient clutter in the receiver to render them ineffective. 5>8. OTHER TBPES OF SENSORS ,ountermeasures include all of the means of concealment from visual detection in daylight. 9. O0/ !t&'7 ?!"#%i! 0 -#(-&'-@. Darious $inds of sensors can detect and identify certain chemical compounds associated with military activities or equipment. 4n general, the effectiveness of such devices can be reduced by avoiding unnecessary operation of any fuel0burning engine, and by $eeping all engines in efficient operating condition to cut down on the discharge of exhaust fumes. .nother measure is the installation of converters which brea$ down detectable chemical compounds into components which do not affect the sensors.
. St '0i3"t -!&4#- are special optical devices which greatly amplify reduced light to permit visual perception under night conditions.
S#!ti&( III. F !t&'- &/ R#!&3(iti&( 5>7. GENERAL surveillance. &ne factor overloo$ed may not conclusively identify an ob7ect, but it will invite closer inspection, which often spells detection. 5>;. FACTORS
.ll ob7ects, especially those of military significance, have certain characteristics that help to determine their identities. These characteristics, called / !t&'- &/ '#!&3(iti&(, must be hidden or disguised to prevent detection by any form of enemy surveillance. ?round observers rely on six such factors of recognition related to appearance: shape, color, texture, shadow, position, and movement. 4n addition, sounds and smells provide identifying clues. These factors, with the exception of movement, sound, and smell, are also important to the aerial observer and photo interpreter, although his viewpoint differs somewhat. *hen studying blac$ and white photography, including infrared, he considers tonal values instead of color. !attern as well as shape is another factor in photo interpretation. The arrangement of certain ob7ects may be apparent to the aerial observer and reveal items hidden to the ground observer. Finally, the relative si5e of ob7ects, especially buildings, provides still another clue. The perceptive observer or interpreter relies on deductive reasoning, based on one, several, or all of these factors to detect and identify anything of military significance. Therefore, camouflage measures must be designed to eliminate everyone of these tell0tale factors, and to conceal from airborne as well as ground0based
. S" 4# &' 4 tt#'(. Shape is probably the most important single factor in recogni5ing the ob7ects around us. 4t is also of great importance in recogni5ing ob7ects from their photographic images. 4tems of military equipment, such as truc$s, tan$s, and guns, have distinctive outlines, ma$ing them easy to identify, on the ground or on photographs. Thus, it is very important to avoid any position which creates a silhouette against the s$y or a contrasting bac$ground. The characteristic shape of an ob7ect can be hidden or altered by the use of screening nets, branches of foliage, tree canopy, or digging in. &ne of the ob7ectives of pattern painting is to alter the apparent shape of ob7ects. Seen from the air, man0made features usually are regular in form, or have straight or smoothly0curved lines. 'xamples of these are buildings, highways, and railroads. ;atural features, such as streams, shorelines, or wooded areas, are generally irregular in shape. 4n addition, the way
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ob7ects are arranged on the ground sometimes creates distinctive patterns which are easy to identify by aerial observers. 'xamples of such patterns are military posts, ammunition dumps, and housing developments. The orderly rows of trees in an orchard, seen from the air, contrasts sharply with the random growth of natural vegetation. To avoid detection, avoid creating a characteristic pattern that reveals a military activity -fig +0#/ 9. C&0&' &' t&(#. Strong, bright, sharply0 contrasting colors are quic$ly noticed, and can even be seen through screening nets. ,olor is also an important factor when color or camouflage detection -,2/ aerial film is used for surveillance. ,olors which do not blend properly into the surrounding terrain are immediately apparent on color photographs. The red0blue@green color contrast on ,2 film reveals poor camouflage as well as ob7ects that are not camouflaged at all. &n blac$0and0white and infrared photos, tones of gray indicate differences in color, textures, or infrared reflectance. To counter the revealing factor of color or tonal differences, all military equipment and clothing should blend as much as possible with the surrounding terrain, and should be infrared reflectant. 2ar$er shades are usually less noticeable than lighter shades of the same color. ,amouflage materials such as paints, nets, and clothing are available in different seasonal and climate color blends to match as
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closely as possible the surrounding terrain. 4f cut foliage is used, it must be $ept fresh and replaced when necessary to retain its infrared0reflectant qualities. !. T#At)'#. ,losely related to tone, texture refers to the ability of an ob7ect to reflect, absorb, or diffuse light. 4t may be defined as the relative smoothness or roughness of the surface. . rough surface, such as a field of grass, reflects little light and casts many shadows on itself. ,onsequently, it appears very dar$ to the eye or on a photograph. . smooth surface, such as an airstrip, even though it might be painted the same color as the surrounding terrain would show up as a lighter tone on a photograph. Dery smooth, almost textureless surfaces reflect both natural and artificial light. This is $nown as shine, one of the most revealing breaches of camouflage discipline. 'very effort must be made to eliminate the shine from smooth surfaces, including windshields, headlights, lenses of glasses, boots, even s$in. ,overing these surfaces with rough0textured materials or mud will reduce or eliminate the reflection of light. Texturing materials can be applied to smooth paved surfaces to help them blend with the surrounding ground and reduce tonal contrasts. $. S" $&6. The shadow of an ob7ect often provides the only clue in determining its identity. Diewed from directly above, water towers, smo$e stac$s, power line towers, and similar tall structures appear as circles or dots. Their shadows, however, reveal their characteristic outlines, as though viewed from the side, and help to establish their identities. Sometimes it may be more important to disrupt the shadow of an ob7ect than it is to conceal the ob7ect itself. #. P&-iti&( &' -it#. The locations of certain ob7ects with relation to other features can identify many photo images not easily recogni5ed by themselves. Factories or warehouses are usually beside a railroad or railroad siding. Schools may be identified by their ad7acent athletic fields. . water tower next to a railroad station and a silo next to a barn would be difficult to distinguish from each other were it not for the nearby railroad trac$s or cultivated fields. 4n creating simulations of disguising military items, it is important to retain a logical relation to other nearby features, in a plausible and convincing site. /. Si=#. The si5e of un$nown ob7ects on a photograph as determined from the scale of the photography or a comparison with $nown ob7ects of $nown si5e aids in their identification. )oth the relative and the absolute si5es are important. For example, in a built0up area, the smaller buildings are usually dwellings and the larger buildings, commercial or community buildings. Large important structures can be easily identified by their si5e. The roof of such a structure can be painted, wal$ways added, and foliage carefully placed to create the illusion of several small insignificant buildings. 3. M&2#%#(t. .lthough the factor of movement seldom reveals the identity of an ob7ect by itself, it is the most important one for revealing existence. 'ven though the other factors of recognition have been completely eliminated, an enemy observer will be attracted to the area if movement is not controlled. 6e may even be concentrating his attention elsewhere but he will not fail to detect movement in another area through his peripheral vision. 4t should also be remembered movement can be detected by ground0to0ground radar. To reduce the chances of detection, quic$ or unnecessary movement should be avoided. =ove slowly and carefully, following the natural lines of the terrain as much as possible. ". S&)($. Sound has pitch, loudness, and tone, which can be used to identify its nature and origin, and to pinpoint its exact location. ,arelessness with regard to sound discipline can reveal the $ind and quantity of equipment and even the si5e of a unit. .ll tell0tale sounds, even whispering, should be $ept to a minimum, especially at night. *hen sound cannot be avoided, its identity can sometimes be mas$ed by so0called Gsound screensG, which are stronger sounds created by the firing of machine guns or artillery
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pieces< the running of tan$s, prime movers and tractor engines along a broad front< or by the operation of sound pro7ection stations which imitate various battle sounds. i. S%#00. The factor of smell was relatively ignored for a long time as a means of detection except by close ground observers. Met the characteristics exhaust from fuel0burning engines, coo$ing odors, and campfire and tobacco smo$e as clues which can linger long enough to lead the enemy directly to your position. The development of chemical and olfactory sensors ma$e is possible to detect traces of such odors no longer discernible by the human nose. The best defense against this factor of recognition is to avoid creating tell0tale odors if possible. ?ood maintenance of fuel0 burning engines, and strict discipline while in bivouac are measures that will reduce the creation of traceable odors.
S#!ti&( I,. M#t"&$- &/ C&)(t#'i(3 F !t&'- &/ R#!&3(iti&( 5><. THREE PRINCIPLES dispersal is necessary not only for concealment, but also to reduce losses from enemy fire. !. T#'' i( 4 tt#'(-. Terrain can be divided into four general types, each of which has a distinctive and characteristic appearance from the air. The site chosen must provide concealment without disturbing or altering the characteristic pattern of the terrain. The four terrain types are: agricultural, urban, wooded, and barren. ?1@ A3'i!)0t)' 0. The controlled lines created by cultivation, such as fence lines, hedgerows and furrows, are the most prominent characteristic of agricultural terrain. 4n flat areas, this may appear as a chec$erboard pattern resulting from different types of crops. 4n more rolling country, the curved parallel lines of contour plowing or terracing are typical. 4n any case, siting in such rural areas must conform with the existing pattern, leaving it unaltered in appearance. ?1@ U'9 (. ,ities, towns, and villages also have controlled lines, in these cases created by the regular pattern of streets, bordered on each side by buildings and carefully spaced trees. =ost urban areas provide abundant concealment with numerous shadowed areas and large warehouses, factories, or garages. ?3@ W&&$#$. *ooden terrain characteri5ed by irregular forest outlines, streams, and relief features. 4n densely is
4n the previous paragraphs you learned about the various methods of direct and indirect surveillance, and how the factors of recognition are used to detect and identify military personnel, equipment, or activity. To counter these factors, the principles of camouflage have been developed, and despite the sophistication of modern techniques, are essentially the same today as they were in ancient times. ?ood camouflage now, as then, is based on three principles: siting, discipline, and construction. 5>10. SITING
Siting for camouflage is choosing the most advantageous position in which to hide personnel, equipment, or activity. 'very type of terrain has some characteristic which may be used to aid concealment -fig. +0%/. !roper siting, ta$ing maximum advantage of these characteristics, can reduce and sometimes eliminate the need for artificial camouflage. The factors which govern site selection are as follows: . Mi--i&(. The most important consideration in the selection of a site for any military use is the mission of the unit. 6owever excellent a site may be from the concealment standpoint, if it in any way inhibits the accomplishment of the mission, it is useless. 9. Si=#. The site must be of sufficient si5e to permit proper dispersal for effective operation. Such
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Fi3)'# 5>3. EA %40# &/ 4'&4#' -iti(3 ($ $i-4#'- 0 &/ t#(t- i( -4 '-#07 2#3#t t#$ t#'' i( ?9 ''#(@. wooded areas, the tree canopy provides excellent concealment from most visual or camera surveillance. 'ven sparsely wooded areas afford some protection if proper dispersal is practiced. ?5@ * ''#(. 4rregular terrain features, without the controlled man0made lines of agricultural or urban areas are also typical of barren terrain. These features consist of washes, drifts, and other irregular folds, scattered roc$ accumulations, and scrub growth. The best siting measures for such areas are to ma$e maximum use of the shadowed parts of the terrain, and of defilade. 5>11. DISCIPLINE . T' !:-. Trac$s are especially revealing to the aerial observer. They indicate type, location, strength, and even intentions of a unit. &ften a single trac$ across an area of low vegetation is clearly visible. This is especially true in the early morning hours when there is a heavy dew. The gradual turns of wheeled vehicles are distinguishable from the s$idding turns of a trac$ laying vehicle. Trac$s should follow closely and be parallel to hedges, fences, cultivated fields, and other natural terrain lines in order to remain inconspicuous from the air -fig. +0(/. Trac$s should always continue past the position to a logical termination. &n short stretches, exposed trac$s may be erased by brushing out, or by covering with leaves and debris. 9. T' !:- i( -(&67 '# -. 4n snow covered terrain, concealment of trac$s is a ma7or problem. 'ven in light snow, trac$s ma$e strong shadow lines visible from great distances. Sharp turns should be avoided because the resulting snow ridges cast even heavier shadows. The same principles stressed throughout this discussion apply to snow covered terrain, with a bit more emphasis on following natural shadow0casting terrain lines. 4t is also important all vehicles $eep to the same trac$s. Dehicles leaving the trac$s or road may achieve short periods of trac$ concealment by driving directly into or away from the sun, as
The second basic condition for the achievement of success in any camouflage effort is the strict maintenance of camouflage discipline, by both the unit as a whole and the individual soldier. This means avoidance of any activity that changes the appearance of an area or reveals the presence of military equipment -table +0#/. ,amouflage discipline is a continuous, around0the0cloc$ necessity and applies to every individual. 4f the rigid routine of such discipline, both visual and audio, is not followed by one man, the entire camouflage effort will fail. ,arelessness and laxness will undoubtedly reveal the position to the enemy. Trac$s, spoil, and debris are the most common signs of concealed military activity or ob7ects. 5>10
T 90# 5>1. C %&)/0 3# Di-!i40i( '7 M# -)'#-
shadows cast by these trac$s will not be apparent until the sun stri$es them from an angle. Short lengths of trac$s may be obliterated if they are not too deep, by trampling them with snowshoes. !. S"i(#. Siting and trac$ discipline do much to conceal a vehicle, but shine can nullify the best site and finest trac$ discipline. Shine is always present when there is light in the s$y, sunlight, moonlight, or the light of flares. 4t is caused by the reflection of light from windshields, windows, mess $its, watch crystals, and other such smooth almost textureless surfaces. 'ven the lenses of field glasses, when used in direct sunlight, can reflect a bright shine similar to that of a mirror. These danger spots must be concealed by any means. The betraying nature of shine should never be underestimated. 'ven under heavy overhead cover, shiny ob7ects may be revealed through the smallest of gaps. They should be covered with non0 reflecting material such as blan$ets, tarpaulins, burlap, or even mud. $. Ni3"t $i-!i40i(#. ;o less important is strict observance of blac$out rules. .t night, windows, hatches, entrances, and other openings through which light can shine must be covered with shutters, screens, curtains, and other special opaque materials 5>11
to prevent enemy ground and air observers from noticing the interior illumination. Fires can be lighted only in specially designated and equipped areas. Smo$ing is forbidden near the enemy, as is the display of lights of any type. ,ombat and transport vehicles can be allowed to travel only with their lights turned off or obscured. .erial photographs ta$en at night by the light of flares or by the use of image intensification equipment can pic$ up breaches in camouflage discipline, which are more li$ely to occur at night than in the daylight hours. ,onsequently the same standard of camouflage discipline must be adhered to by night as by day. #. S&)($ $i-!i40i(#. Troops must pay special attention to sound camouflage during night movement and apply all principles of scouting and patrolling. 2uring nighttime river crossings, the noise from the paddles should be muffled. "evealing sounds from tan$ and truc$ movement or from engineering wor$ can be muffled by sound screens. /. S4&i0 ($ $#9'i-. Spoil and debris must be covered, or placed to blend with the
Fi3)'# 5>5. T' !: $i-!i40i(#. 5>11
surrounding. 'xcess dirt from digging fortifications can be dumped in streams or spread inconspicuously along roads. 1nder no circumstances should any trash or litter be left where it can be seen, even after a unit has vacated an area. 5>11. CAMOUFLAGE CONSTRUCTION. over the mines in a minefield hides the mines< the overhead canopy of trees hides the ob7ects beneath it from aerial observation< a defilade hides ob7ects from ground observation< a net hides ob7ects beneath it< a road screen hides the obstacle behind it. 4n some cases, the screen itself may be invisible to the enemy. 4n other instances, while visible to the enemy, a screen conceals the amount and type of activity behind it. !roblems of concealment have been made more difficult by the development of electronic surveillance devices. ,oncealment from visual observations is no longer enough. The detection capability of the enemy must be determined< if it includes remote sensory equipment such as near or far infrared devices or radar devices, appropriate counter measures must be employed. 9. *0#($i(3. )lending is the use of natural or artificial materials to reduce or eliminate contrast and ma$e individuals or equipment appear to be part of the bac$ground or surrounding terrain. For example, the individual can apply stic$ face paint to the exposed areas of the s$in, can add burlap and foliage to his helmet, and can stain or paint his clothing in a mottled pattern so he will blend into the bac$ground. Dehicles and other equipment are pattern painted to alter the identifying angles of their shapes and ma$e them less conspicuous. !. Di-3)i-i(3. 2isguising is the third method of camouflage. 4t consists of changing the appearance of troops, material, equipment, or installations in order to mislead the enemy as to their true identity. For example, supplies or ammunition can be stac$ed and covered with hay to resemble the haystac$s of the region. The roof and surroundings of a large military building can be altered to create the impression of several small unimportant structures. $. Si%)0 ti&(-. . simulation, sometimes called a GdummyG or GdecoyG, is a false representation of actual personnel, equipment, or material employed to give the appearance of the real item. .lthough strictly spea$ing, simulations are not camouflage measures, they are often associated with
The third and final principle on which good camouflage is based is camouflage construction. *hen the terrain and natural vegetation are such that natural concealment is not possible, artificial camouflage is added. .rtificial or natural materials are used to help blend the ob7ect or individual with the surrounding terrain. ,amouflage construction should be resorted to only when siting and discipline cannot produce the desired concealment. ;atural materials are preferred over artificial materials, since the former resembles the surrounding vegetation of terrain. 4f artificial materials are used, they must be arranged to blend with the surroundings to the greatest possible degree. They must be of sturdy construction to withstand varying weather conditions, and must be constantly chec$ed and maintained. The construction wor$ must be hidden, with the wor$ parties observing the strictest discipline. 4f possible, all engineering wor$ should be carried out at night, with all traces of the night3s activities camouflaged before morning. There should be no disruption of the terrain pattern< no destruction of plants or trampled grasses< nor should there be any new roads or open ditches visible. This is difficult to do, but unless discipline is maintained during such construction, there is little point to the camouflage effort. 5>13. *ASIC CONCEALMENT METHODS IN COUNTERSUR,EILLANCE
.fter the unit or an activity has been sited, there are three fundamental ways of concealing installations and activities: hiding, blending, and disguising. . Hi$i(3. 6iding is the complete concealment of an ob7ect from any form of enemy observation by some type of physical screen. Sod
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camouflage techniques in large0scale deceptive operations. Simulations are openly displayed to draw enemy attention away from the true military targets, which have been concealed by one or more of the camouflage techniques discussed above.
S#!ti&( ,. C&)(t#'-)'2#i00 (!# M#t"&$- /&' Fi#0$ F&'ti/i! ti&(- ($ A'ti00#'7 5>15. FIELD FORTIFICATIONS be replaced before they wilt and change color, leading to detection. .rtificial materials may be used effectively, such as those made to simulate tall grass, bushes, stumps, and roc$s, whichever the terrain calls for. They are valuable principally against aerial observation. They are light in weight and may be easily pushed out of the way. $. M !"i(# 3)( 4&-iti&(-. The machinegun receives the close attention of enemy troops and its concealment must be as perfect as possible. 1sually, machinegun emplacements are hasty, in which case camouflage means siting to best advantage and then using any materials at hand. #. M&'t '-. =ortars should always be sited in defilade. Since a mortar covering a designated target area has a wider choice of position than the other smaller weapons, such defilade can almost always be found and concealment from direct ground observation is fairly easy. !roper siting in shadow and bro$en ground pattern, ma$ing certain there is the necessary overhead clearance for firing, together with intelligent use of natural and artificial materials offer the required mortar concealment from the air. 5>15. ,EHICLES
. Siti(3. .fter the demands of the military situation and the mission have been met, siting with proper bac$ground is the first consideration given to the concealment of a fortification. From the standpoint of ground observation, the emplacement should be sited to avoid creating a silhouette against the s$y or against a bac$ground of contrasting color. To avoid air observation, the emplacement should be located under trees, bushes, or in dar$ areas of the terrain. ?1@ 4t is equally important that the concealing cover chosen is not isolated, since a lone clump of vegetation or solitary structure is a conspicuous hiding place and will draw enemy fire whether the enemy sees anything or not. ?1@ The natural loo$ of the terrain should not be disturbed. This is the best accomplished by removing or camouflaging the spoil. ?3@ ;atural terrain lines, such as edges of fields, fences, hedge0rows, and rural cultivation patterns are excellent sites for emplacements to reduce the possibility of aerial observation -fig. +0+/. "egular geometric layouts are to be avoided. 9. C&(-t')!ti&(. )efore any excavation is started, all natural materials, such as turf, leaves, forest humus, or snow are removed and placed inside to be used later for restoring the natural appearance of the terrain. ,oncealment while constructing an elaborate fortification is vital. !. C&2#'-. *hen a position cannot be sited under natural cover, camouflaged covers are valuable aids in preventing detection. =aterials native to the area are preferred, but when using materials -fig. +09/ over an emplacement they must
. R#2# 0i(3 / !t&'-. . badly concealed vehicle can lead to much more than 7ust a lost vehicle< it may mean discovery of a unit, disclosure of an important tactical plan, or complete destruction of an installation. ,amouflage of vehicles depends not only on concealing the vehicles themselves, their shine, shadow, and shape, but equally on preventing and concealing their all0 revealing trac$s. -4t must be remembered that enemy ground and aerial observation is drawn
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Fi3)'# 5>5. L 7&)t &/ 5>15
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part of any vehicle camouflage measures. .lso important are the smaller shadow areas contained within the vehicle itself, such as the shadow line of a truc$ body in and around the cab, beneath the fenders, within the wheels, and in the open bac$ of the cargo space. 9. C %&)/0 3# %# -)'#-. ?1@ Siti(3 ($ $i-4#'-i&(. .s is always the case in camouflage, the goal of good vehicle siting is to occupy the terrain without altering its appearance. To accomplish this, vehicles should be par$ed under natural cover whenever available. *hen cover is inadequate, they should be par$ed so the shape of the vehicle will disappear into the surroundings. )efore a driver can site his vehicle to ta$e advantage of the concealment possibilities of his surroundings, he must $now how the different terrains loo$ from the air. 4n combat 5ones this $nowledge is as important as $nowing how to drive the vehicles. ?1@ T' !: $i-!i40i(#. The most reliable way to eliminate trac$s as a factor revealing details about vehicles is to continually practice the principles of trac$ discipline. Dehicles should follow and parallel existing terrain lines, such as hedges, fences, and field line. Trac$s should always continue past their destination to a logical termination. *henever possible, using existing roads whenever possible prevents the creation of new, easily0spotted trac$s across fields or open country. 'ven the comparatively small amount of timber which must be cut down to clear a roadway through a wooded area leaves gaps in the overhead cover that are clearly seen from the air. !artially concealed roads do exist, however, and they are better than exposed ones. "econnaissance parties should locate them. .ny gaps in overhead cover on such a road can be concealed by erecting overhead screens of either artificial or natural materials. &n short stretches, exposed trac$s may be erased by brushing leaves and debris over them. .ll concealed routes should be mar$ed in advance of use and guards should be posted to insure minimum disturbance in the area. ?3@ T' !: 40 (. 4f possible, before a unit occupies a position, a quartering party
Fi3)'# 5>8. C %&)/0 3# )-i(3 ( t)' 0 % t#'i 0-. quic$est by anything that moves, and that nothing can be done to conceal vehicles moving through undergrowth or along exposed routes./ ?1@ T' !:-. ,ontrol of the trac$s made by vehicles of all types is one of the more critical aspects of camouflage discipline. !oorly concealed trac$s can reveal not only position, but the types and numbers of the vehicles that left them. Trac$s are sometimes more visible from the air than from the ground. ?1@ S"i(#. Shine is a revealing factor which applies especially to vehicles. The many smooth surfaces on vehicles reflect even low intensity light. *indshields, headlights, metal housings, and similar reflecting surfaces must be covered. ?3@ S" $&6. The shadow cast by a vehicle is a revealing factor which must be concealed as
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should first ma$e a reconnaissance and layout a concealed on0way trac$ plan. ;o vehicle should enter the new area until then. This plan should be laid out to fit into the terrain pattern as inconspicuously as possible by ta$ing advantage of existing roads, overhead cover, and shadow casting lines. =any factors must be considered in such a plan: duration of occupation< time allowed for entering and leaving< si5e, character, and mission of occupying unit< distance from the enemy< and weather effect on visibility. . standard trac$ plan is impossible 0 an individual solution is required for each position. 4n addition to laying out a plan on the ground itself, a plan should be s$etched on either a map overlay or a s$etch of the area. !ar$ing areas should be indicated as well as those portions of routes to be patrolled by traffic guides. ?5@ T' i(i(3. Since a unit may have to occupy a position without prior reconnaissance, unit camouflage training must insure all personnel are trained to follow terrain patterns and utili5e all overhead cover, when possible. !articular attention must be directed to training of vehicle drivers, so they will follow these rules automatically, even in the absence of ;,&3s and officers. The officers and ;,&3s must instruct all personnel that when the first vehicle enters an area, guards must be stationed at critical points to direct traffic. This prevents unnecessary vehicle slowdown, stopping, or 7amming on a roadway. ?5@ U-i(3 -" $&6-. 4n addition to the shadow cast by the vehicle itself, which must be disrupted as much as possible -fig. +0B/, there are shadows cast by larger ob7ects which, under certain circumstances, can provide concealment for limited periods. *hether or not a shadow cast by a large ob7ect is reliable enough to conceal a par$ed vehicle depends upon the geographical latitude, the time of year, and the time of day. For example, in the northern hemisphere in winter, when the sun remains fairly low in the s$y, there is usually sufficient shadow on the north side of a building or other large ob7ect to safely conceal a par$ed vehicle. 4n the summer, when the sun is high overhead, there is little or no shadow on the north side. Similarly, shadows on either the east or west side are available for half a day only. *hen these variables are completely understood, par$ing in a shadowed area can provide good short0term concealment. 4n certain instances, par$ing on the sunny side and close to a larger ob7ect throws the vehicular shadow on the ob7ect, concealing or disrupting it enough to
Fi3)'# 5>7. T"'&6 t"# -" $&6 &(t& -&%#t"i(3 i''#3)0 '.
5>17
prevent detection, against for short periods only. ?8@ U-# &/ ( t)' 0 % t#'i 0-. *hile good siting and dispersion are essential, sometimes they are not enough. ?reater concealment can be achieved by supplementing these measures with natural materials to brea$ up the shape and shadows of the vehicles. =aterials are almost always available near a par$ing site and can be erected and removed quic$ly. *hen cut foliage is used, it should be replaced as soon as it starts to wither. .ltering the color of vehicles or adding texture to them are other ways to supplement siting and dispersion. ,olor may be changed by applying mud to the body and tarpaulin. Texture may be added all over or in pattern shapes by attaching leaves, heavy grass, or coarse sand to the surface with an adhesive. ?7@ P tt#'( 4 i(ti(3. !attern painting of a vehicle is not a cure0all. 4t is, however, a valuable supplement to other camouflage measures. .dded to good siting, dispersion, discipline, and the use of nets, it increases the benefits derived from such measures. Dehicle patterns are designed to disrupt the cube shape of vehicles from all angles of view, to disrupt shadows, and to tie in with the shadow at the rear of a vehicle when it is faced into the sun, as well as the large dar$ shadow areas of windows, mudguards, wheels, and undercarriage. The standard patterns and colors described in T, +0#88 have been specifically designed both for effective concealment and ease of accomplishment. ?;@ N#t-. *hen natural materials are insufficient or unavailable, camouflage nets are used to conceal vehicles. The lightweight plastic modular screening nets are easy to use, quic$ly erected, and quic$ly removed. They provide some protection against air0to0ground radar, as well as infrared devices. 'ven if the nets themselves are detected, they still conceal the identity of the vehicle. ?<@ Di33i(3 i(. 4n a desert, or any open barren terrain, the lower an ob7ect is to the ground, the smaller is its shadow and the easier it is to conceal from aerial observation. *hen the situation permits, every effort must be made to dig in important vehicles. ;ot only are they more easily 5>1; concealed but they are also protected from fragments. .n excavation is made, with a slanting approach and the vehicle is par$ed in the pit. Sandbags are used to form a revetment for protection and the whole thing is covered with a net. The net is sloped gently out to the sides and sta$ed down. Finally, the vehicle trac$s to the position are brushed out or covered. 5>18. ARTILLERB
. R#2# 0i(3 / !t&'-. .s is the case with all other impedimenta of warfare, s$illful concealment of artillery weapons can add immeasurably to the element of surprise and thence to the defeat of the enemy. 'nemy observers are trained to search for certain definite signs which indicate the presence of artillery 0 imperfectly camouflaged weapon positions, blast areas, litter, paths or wheel trac$s, and in the case of a missile site, the excessive earthwor$ing scars in the terrain pattern necessitated by a level firing pad and fueling entrances and exits, and other necessary activities. 'ven though the weapons themselves are hidden, such signs are dead giveaways of the presence of artillery. These signs may not of themselves indicate the exact nature of the position, but they do attract enemy attention and invite more careful observation. 9. C %&)/0 3# %# -)'#-. ?1@ G&2#'(i(3 / !t&'-. ,amouflage measures vary with the situation and are affected by the following: ? @ There will be little opportunity to camouflage positions extensively when their occupancy will be of short duration. 4f it should develop that the weapons must remain longer, their locations can then be improved by better siting and hiding. ?9@ *hen the batteries are deployed for a coordinated attac$, the location of each battery and of each piece should be carefully selected. ?!@ 4n a defensive action, extensive camouflage is developed. 1tmost precaution
must be ta$en to deceive the enemy as to the location of the installation. ?1@ Siti(3. The exact position for the elements of a battery, within the assigned area, must possess several qualifications: ? @ The required field of fire. ?9@ "oom for dispersion of weapons, vehicles, and other equipment organic to the battery. ?!@ &pportunity to establish communications without creating attention getting ground scars and paths. ?$@ &pportunity for access and supply routes. 4t is desirable to have routes available to the front, flan$s, and rear. This is important in situations where it may be necessary to ma$e sudden changes in position. *hen personnel, ammunition, equipment, and other supplies are moved into position, they must follow a prepared traffic plan. ?3@ P tt#'( 4 i(ti(3. !attern painting of artillery pieces can be an effective aid to concealment and is designed for use in varying terrains -T, +0#88/. Standard patterns are available for some types of artillery, and are being developed for the others. ?5@ S!'##(i(3 -7-t#%-. *henever natural concealment is impossible or difficult, the lightweight plastic screening system provides a quic$ and effective means of concealment. The lanyards used to fasten the modules together, if more than one are needed, are designed for quic$ release when the weapons must be raised and fired. *ire netting, suitably garnished with dyed burlap strips or other material, is heavier and bul$ier, but holds its form, is durable, and is invaluable for positions of a relatively permanent nature.
S#!ti&( ,I. C&)(t#'-)'2#i00 (!# M# -)'#- /&' *i2&) !5>17. INTRODUCTION .n ideal bivouac area, for example, is a large wooded area containing many existing routes of approach. Such an ideal place is seldom found. =ilitary units should be sited, when possible, to ta$e advantage of terrain features such as shadow, terrain lines, roc$y areas, villages, farms and defilades. The individual must be ready to fit himself and his equipment inconspicuously into any type of terrain. 9. C %&)/0 3# $i-!i40i(# SOP. ;ext to siting, the standing operating procedure -S&!/ of camouflage is the most important element of the camouflage of bivouacs. The S&! is based on the principle that everyone in the unit understands camouflage discipline. This S&! provides for the following measures: ?1@ ,overed areas for drying laundry at specified times. ?1@ =easures for disposal of empty cans and other bright articles that shine. ?3@ Stri$ing of shelter tents during the day except under heavy cover or in rain or fog.
The problems of concealment of bivouacs, command posts, and field service installations are similar within the various geographic terrain areas. 'ach is an activity in which personnel and equipment are closely grouped in a particular area for more than a few hours. 'lements of the unit are concentrated in a smaller area than usual and, except for security elements, the men are less alert than when engaged in combat. The breaches in camouflage discipline which can occur when a unit has occupied an area over a period of time must be avoided. . thorough reconnaissance of the terrain to be occupied should be accomplished prior to occupation, ta$ing into consideration the tactical situation and camouflage. This eliminates confusion when moving into the area, prevents unnecessary camouflage construction, and insures an orderly occupation of the area. 5>1;. METHODS AND PROCEDURES
a. Siting. !roper siting can contribute significantly to solving the problem of concealment.
5>1<
?5@ Siting of latrines under cover with paths well mar$ed and concealed. ?5@ 'limination of latrine screens except when specifically ordered. ?8@ ,oncealment of spoil from $itchen, refuse pits, latrines, and foxholes. ?7@ *ithholding fire at enemy planes as appropriate. ?;@ =aintaining strict camouflage discipline during the night as well as during the day. !. D#2#0&4%#(t &/ 9i2&) !. There are four critical stages in the development of a bivouac. 4n the order in which they occur, they are: planning, occupation, maintenance, and evacuation. $. P0 ((i(3 -t 3#. Frequent bivouacs are characteristic of mobile warfare. 4n such warfare, there is seldom time or facilities to erect elaborate constructions for concealment. )ivouacs are usually hastily occupied and quic$ly evacuated. ,amouflage measures are hasty in nature, and dependent upon local natural materials. The most important elements in the planning stage of a bivouac are performed by the advance and quartering parties. ?1@ A$2 (!# 4 't7. The advance party should consist of a representative from the headquarters that ordered the move, a representative from each subordinate unit and, if possible, someone particularly $nowledgeable in camouflage techniques. This party should ma$e a thorough reconnaissance of the area proposed and then divide the area into subordinate unit areas. The quartering party from each subordinate unit then ma$es its reconnaissance of the assigned area, ta$ing into consideration both the tactical and camouflage capability. ?1@ Q) 't#'i(3 4 't7. )efore going into the area the quartering party should be as familiar as possible with the terrain and the ground pattern through a careful study of available maps and aerial photographs. They must be fully acquainted with both the tactical plan and the camouflage requirements. The quartering party should designate 5>10 dispersal points and concealment areas for the subordinate units, select cutting areas for natural materials, tape motor par$ and roadways, and post traffic signs and guides. ,ritical elements which the quartering party must $eep in mind are: ? @ Mi--i&( &/ t"# )(it. The tactical plan and its demands, which normally include the concealment of the bivouac, must be satisfied as completely as possible. ?9@ A!!#-- '&)t#-. 'ffectiveness of concealment depends greatly on a well0prepared and well0maintained trac$ plan. "oads within bivouac areas are normally planned with only one entrance and one exit, and for one0way traffic through the area. . simple loop or a loop with a bypass is preferable to a complex road net. ?!@ EAi-ti(3 !&(!# 0%#(t .) 0iti#- &/ t"# '# . -$@ A'# i( '#0 ti&( t& t"# -i=# &/ t"# )(it. The area should be large enough to afford natural concealment through dispersion, ta$ing advantage of terrain features and natural materials. ?#@ C&(!# 0%#(t &/ t"# 4#'i%#t#' $#/#(-# #0#%#(t &/ t"# 4&-iti&(. 'ven though other elements of a bivouac are well concealed, a conspicuous perimeter defense may betray the position. #. O!!)4 ti&( -t 3#. The occupation stage is limited to the period during which the unit is moving into the bivouac area. . carefully controlled traffic plan is mandatory during this stage. ?uides posted at route 7unctions should be fully informed of the camouflage plan. &ne of their duties is to enforce camouflage discipline. Dehicle turn0ins must be taped or wired to prevent widening of corners. Foot troops should follow selected and mar$ed paths through the area. ?1@ Di-4#'-i&(. 2ispersion should be automatic and should provide for a minimum of +8 square meters per man and no less than #8 meters between tents. Dehicles will seldom be less than +8 meters apart in ordinary terrain or less than 88 meters in desert areas. The $itchen area should be
carefully selected to provide for the various parts of the $itchen. The three main congested areas that must be dispersed are the food dispensing area, mess $it washing area, and eating area. ?1@ I%%#$i t# ! %&)/0 3# %# -)'#-. ,amouflage is not something applied as an afterthought to other activities. ,amouflage measures must be immediate and continuous. Dehicles and equipment should be concealed as soon as they are properly sited. 4mmediate steps should be ta$en to obliterate vehicle and equipment trac$s. This may be accomplished by using leaves, brush, or other natural materials to cover up trac$s. 4n sandy areas a drag or ra$e can be used to eliminate trac$s. ?3@ T' !:-. *hen it is impossible to stay on existing routes and paths, three courses are open to the unit. ? @ =a$e new paths and trac$s along existing terrain lines. ;ew trac$s ad7acent to and paralleling such lines are far less conspicuous than fresh trac$s brea$ing a GcleanG area. ?9@ 4f a new path in an open area must be made, extend it beyond its destination to a natural termination, such as a 7unction with a road. This false section must appear as well traveled as the true section. . new route must enter the concealed area some distance from its destination. Turnarounds are to be avoided. . traffic0control plan which includes a one0way system of travel must be strictly enforced. ?!@ 4n some cases, tree tops can be pulled and wired together to cover exposed areas. . more elaborate and difficult procedure -possible only in somewhat prolonged bivouacs/ is the construction of overhead screens to conceal small sections of newly created paths and roads. This is a time consuming operation and should be considered only as a last resort in such temporary operations as bivouacs. /. M i(t#( (!# -t 3#. The maintenance stage of a bivouac commences when the unit has arrived in the area and terminates when the last element departs. 4f the occupation stage has been successful from a camouflage standpoint, the maintenance stage is relatively easy. Successful maintenance involves frequent ground inspection of the bivouac area, active patrol measures for camouflage discipline, and, if possible, aerial observation and photography and the correction of defects. ?1@ Fit!"#( '# -. ,ritical activities of a unit in bivouac are those which call for the congregation of troops: water facilities, and messing. =ess facilities must be centrally located in a well0concealed area. The trac$ plan must be rigidly enforced. =ess areas should provide ample space for mess lines, wash lines, and eating. .rtificial overhead cover may be necessary to conceal mess areas. ?arbage disposal pits should be accessible, but not too close to the mess area. The spoil from the pits must be carefully concealed. 4n the $itchen, if coo$ing stoves other than issue gasoline burners are used, the problem of smo$e should be met by constructing a baffle above the stove so the smo$e is well dispersed. The baffle itself should be camouflaged and concealed from aerial view. ?1@ Ni3"t $i-!i40i(#. ,amouflage discipline at night is 7ust as important as daylight camouflage discipline. The same rigid rules as for daylight must be observed because the enemy can use infrared surveillance equipment and aerial photography to detect any breach of night camouflage discipline. ;ight photographs are surprisingly revealing. Taped paths must be followed and blac$out control must be enforced. ;o lights or fires are to be permitted except under adequate concealment such as inside lightproof tents, dugouts, and caves. 'quipment and articles of clothing are concealed at night to prevent reflection or shine from the light of aircraft photoflares. 3. E2 !) ti&( -t 3#. The camouflage of a bivouac is not terminated when the unit moves out. .n evacuated area can be left in such a state of disorder that aerial photographs ta$en by the enemy will reveal the strength of the unit which occupied it, the $ind of equipment carried, and the direction
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in which it went. 4t is part of camouflage discipline to leave the area loo$ing undisturbed because friendly advancing troops may want to use the same area. 2ecoy bivouacs may sometimes be used as part of the tactical plan, during occupation or after departure. ". G#&3' 4"i! '# ?1@ O4#( t#'' i(. ,oncealment in terrain which lac$s natural overhead cover, such as open fields or the outs$irts of villages, depends mainly on careful siting, dispersion and effective camouflage discipline. Shelter tents should be pitched along lines which are normal in the terrain pattern, such as fence and hedge lines, or beside folds in the ground or other shadow0casting irregularities in the ground surface. 2isruptive patterns made with charcoal, paint, mud, or plant stain may be applied to tents to help blend them with their environment. 2uring the daytime, tents should be struc$ and concealed with natural materials. 4f time permits, equipment should be at least partially dug in and spoil placed around it to minimi5e the shadows. Spoil lightens in color as it dries out and must be toned down with other natural materials. ?1@ S(&6>!&2#'#$ t#'' i(. .lthough camouflage in snow0covered terrain follows exactly the same principles as other camouflage, it presents several special problems. . blan$et of snow often eliminates much of the ground pattern, ma$ing blending difficult. 2ifferences in texture and color disappear or become less mar$ed. 6owever, snow0 covered terrain is rarely completely white, and by ta$ing advantage of dar$ features in the landscape, a unit on the move or in bivouac may often blend itself successfully into the terrain. ? @ ?ood route selection in snow0 covered terrain is usually more important than any other camouflage measures because exposed trac$s are difficult to conceal. 4f, in selecting a route, advantage is ta$en of the dar$ features of the landscape, trac$s will blend in very well. 6owever, this does not mean exposed trac$s in open terrain of this nature cannot be concealed or toned down. Trac$s may be concealed by using a drag to smooth out the snow or to slope the trac$s obliquely at the sides in order to minimi5e their shadows. *hen moving into a bivouac area, extreme care must be exercised to avoid leaving exposed trac$s pointing toward the site to be occupied. &ne method of eliminating this is to continue trac$s past the entrance to the bivouac area to a predetermined destination. S$is and snowshoes should not be used near the bivouac since their mar$s -trac$s/ are more sharply defined and more easily seen than foot trac$s. To help avoid detection, personnel, vehicles, and materials should be restricted from open areas. ?9@ Dehicles may be pattern painted or painted a solid white, depending on the terrain. This applies to tentage and other facilities as well as vehicles. )ivouacs which have been well concealed in snow for some length of time can be identified easily when the snow melts, unless precautions are ta$en. This is because the compacted snow on much0used paths melts more slowly than virgin snow and leaves clearly visible white lines on a dar$ bac$ground. *hen this occurs, the compacted snow must be bro$en up and spread out to speed up melting. ?!@ Tents should be dug into the snow, close to bushy trees whenever possible. The outline of the tent is bro$en by placing white camouflage par$as on the tent or by pattern painting. 4n forest areas, a bough platform supported by the nearest trees can be built above the tent. This diverts the smo$e coming from the stove pipe. &therwise the smo$e can be easily seen from long distances, especially on extremely cold mornings. Snow shoe and s$i rac$s should be located under bushy trees. ?3@ D#-#'t &' 9 ''#( '# -. 'xperience in the desert has taught much about concealment in areas that do not have large trees. .reas comparable to the desert as far as camouflage is concerned, are unplowed fields, roc$y areas, grasslands, and other sparsely cultivated areas. ,ertain $inds of predominately flat terrain have shadows which are made by folds in the
5>11
ground and which are deep enough to allow some concealment by siting. !roper use of nets will accomplish much in rendering ob7ects inconspicuous in areas where very little or no natural materials are available. This type of terrain offers few advantages for successful siting. 4n desert terrain, the identity of ob7ects is hidden by $eeping each installation as low to the ground as possible, by using nets to brea$ up characteristic form, and by creating gently sloping outlines. 'ven in essentially barren terrain, excellent concealment is possible when the configuration of the ground is irregular enough to produce a strong shadow pattern. )ivouacs should be dispersed in the shadows of underbrush and among natural terrain features such as gullies and roc$s. Tents are to be painted with canvas preservative to match the terrain color.
SELF TEST 1. There are two broad categories of surveillance 00 direct and indirect. 2efine these two methods. -!ara +0#a and b/
1. ?ive two advantages of direct surveillance. -!ara +0#a- //
3. ?ive two advantages of indirect surveillance methods. -!ara +0#b- //
5. There are two ma7or types of aerial photography in common use for surveillance purposes 00 vertical and oblique. *hich type is most commonly used and why is this soJ -!ara +0%b/
5. *hat expedient can be used to obtain oblique photography from helicopters or other small aircraftJ -!ara +0%b/
8. Low altitude oblique aerial photography provides valuable information on ground activities. *hat terrain features may limit its effectivenessJ -!ara +0%b/
7. There are several devices for indirect surveillance. *hich type of device uses radio signals or ultrahigh frequency to transmit reflected signals from which characteristics of the ob7ect under observation may be determinedJ -!ara +0(/
5>13
;. *hat means besides foliage cover should be used to prevent detection by air to ground radarJ -!ara +0(b/
<. 4nfrared devices are also used in surveillance. *hich type of infrared device detects and is sensitive to the aerial wavelengths -heat emission/J -!ara +0+a, c/
10. *hat measure of insulation can be used to attenuate the heat radiation of an ob7ect and thereby help prevent detection by passive -far/ infrared detectorsJ -!ara +0+c/
11. .gainst which type of infrared device are screening nets effectiveJ -!ara +0+c/
11. Starlight scopes are special devices which greatly amplify reduced light to permit visual detection under night conditions. *hat countermeasures can be used against detection by those devicesJ -!ara +09a/
13. 'ffective countersurveillance depends upon three principles or concepts which govern all implementary plans and activitiesJ *hat are those principlesJ -!ara +0C/
15. ,oncealment of activities and ob7ects is an ob7ective of the countersurveillance plans of a unit. *hat are the three techniques used in concealment of ob7ects or activitiesJ -!ara +0 %/
15. The site chosen must provide concealment without disturbing or altering the characteristic pattern of the terrain. *hat are the four types of terrainJ -!ara +0 8c/
18. 4n choosing a site for an activity or unit, there is one requirement -other than si5e and meeting mission requirements/ that all locations must have. *hat is this requirementJ -!ara +0 8c/
17. Trac$s of vehicles are usually easily detected. 6ow is their destination obscuredJ -!ara +0 +b-#/
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1;. . one0way trac$ plan of the site should be laid out. 6ow is this doneJ -!ara +0 :d-#/-b//
1<. 4n a desert, or any open barren terrain, the lower an ob7ect is to the ground, the smaller is its shadow and the easier it is to conceal from aerial observation. >nowing this, what would be your first step in concealing a vehicle under these conditionsJ -!ara +0 +b-C//
10. The maintenance of camouflage while a unit is in position is vital to its security. *hat actions can be ta$en periodically to determine if the camouflage is continuing to be effectiveJ -!ara +0 :f/
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ANSWERS TO SELF TESTS LESSON 1...............................................................................P)'4&-# ($ R#.)i'#%#(t- &/ Fi#0$ F&'ti/i! ti&(1. Fortification plans should provide the desired degree of protection, and ma$e provisions to bring the maximum volume of effective fire on the enemy as soon as possible. 1. 6asty shelters and emplacements are normally constructed by the combat units occupying the position. 3. 2evelopment of fortifications can be accomplished in % steps: - / 2igging in quic$ly -#/ 4mproving with available materials. -%/ "efining, using stoc$ materials. 5. !rotection against conventional weapons is best provided by constructing a thic$ness of earth and other materials. This is done by digging into the ground so personnel and equipment offer the smallest target possible to the line of sight of the weapon. 5. ,raters, even if developed, are susceptible to being overrun by trac$ed vehicles. 8. The s$irmisher3s trench is used when immediate shelter from heavy enemy fire is required and existing defiladed firing positions are not available. 7. . minimum thic$ness of %8cm - # in./ of icecrete will resist penatration of small arms fire. ;. ,raters, s$irmisher3s trenches, and prone emplacements can be developed into foxholes. <. The separation of units and individuals< dispersion is the primary means of increasing protection against nuclear weapons. 10. The firing apertures are cut at (+A to the direction of the enemy. 11. The overhead cover for foxholes -fabric/ will support (+cm - : in./ of soil over any emplacement. 11. The purposes of the cushion layer and burster layers of the heavy overhead cover are H ,ushion layer H absorb the shoc$ of detonation or penetration. )urster layer H cause detonation of the pro7ective before it can penetrate into the lower protective layers. -!ara 0(#a-#/-(// 13. . (+cm - : in./ earth cover is effective against fragmentation -shrapnel/ effects of mortars, artillery, and roc$ets. -!ara 0%Be/ 15. The purpose of a standoff in front of a protective structure is to detonate shells and thereby reduce their subsequent penetrating effect. -!ara 0%C/ 15. The airmobile division engineer battalion is equipped to construct artillery firebases in areas where ground transport is prohibitive. -!ara 0#%/ 1A>1
18. The ma7or tas$s in !hases 4, 44, and 444 of firebase construction are 00 !hase 4 Secure site and clear area for helicopters. !hase 44 ,onstruct howit5er positions, bun$ers, expand perimeter, fields of fire, etc. -Tactical construction/ !hase 444 ,onstruct final defensive structures, infantry T&,, artillery F2,, etc. 17. 4ncrease in moisture decreases the resistance of soil to the penetration of rounds. -;ote #, Table 09/ 1;. 4n wooded areas, it is necessary to provide light overhead cover to protect personnel from the shrapnel of tree bursts. -!ara 0((/ 1<. The walls of the air transportable underground assault bun$er are sloping ma$ing it easier to extract the bun$er from the ground. -!ara 0(+a/ 10. The plywood perimeter bun$er has plywood revetment -soilbin/ walls approximately 8.9 meters -# ft./ thic$ and capped to prevent moisture from seeping into the soil fill. -!ara 0(9/
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LESSON 1........................................................................................................................ T'#(!"#- ($ Fi#0$6&':1. Trenches are excavated as fighting positions and to connect individual foxholes, weapons emplacements, and shelters in the progressive development of a defensive area. 1. Trenches are difficult to camouflage and are easily detected, especially from the air. 3. The crawl trench is used to conceal movement into or within a position and to provide a minimum of protection. 5. ,rawl trenches should be #( to %8 inches in depth and about #( inches wide. 5. The berm line is located about : inches from the front edge of the trench. 8. The trench is dug to a depth of % feet below ground level. .t this point, a man can fire in a $neeling or crouching position. 7. The crest of the parapet should be irregular to aid concealment. ;. 4f spoil is available, the rear parapet should be higher than the front parapet to prevent silhouetting of soldier3s heads when firing. <. !arapets can be omitted to aid concealment or when ground provides bac$ground and protection to firer3s rear. 10. . sump is dug at the lowest point to prevent the floor of the trench from becoming wet and muddy. 11. The necessity of revetment of walls may sometimes be postponed or avoided by sloping the walls of the excavation. 11. 4n most soils a slope of :% or :( is sufficient. 13. *all sloping can seriously reduce the protection provided due to the increased width of the trench at ground level. 15. Facing type revetment serves mainly to protect revetted surfaces from the effects of weather and damage caused by occupation. 15. Facing type revetment can be used when soils are stable enough to sustain their own weight. 18. =ethods of supporting the facing revetment are timber frames and pic$ets. 17. Sandbags are uniformly filled about %@( full. 1;. Sandbags are placed so side seams on stretchers and cho$ed ends on headers are turned toward the revetted face. 1<. Two pieces of equipment that can expedite the filling of sandbags are the intrenching machine and the funnel. 10. 2ummy trenches should be dug : inches deep with brushwood laid in the bottom. 1A>1
LESSON 3..............................................................................................................................O9-t !0# E%40&7%#(t 1. .n obstacle is employed to stop, or divert enemy movement by means other than firepower. 1. .n obstacle used to protect an installation against infiltration or sabotage is classified as a nontactical obstacle. 3. .n escarpment .+ meters high is an effective obstacle for both vehicles and personnel. Slopes must be approximately a 98 percent incline to stop the movement of tan$s unless trees, roc$s, or unfavorable soil is on the slope. "ivers must be over +8 meters wide and over .+ meters deep and swamps meter deep before they become a ma7or obstacle. 5. !un7is are an antipersonnel obstacle and are effective in 7ungles where the movement of troops is limited to marching. 5. *herever it is feasible to have an obstacle under direct observation, trip flares may be used as a warning device to indicate that the enemy has encountered the obstacle. This will alert the unit prepared to supply the firepower. 8. ,altrops are used with barbed wire to ma$e a more effective antipersonnel obstacle. ,altrops are designed to cause in7ury by penetrating the footwear. 7. . trape5oidal ditch may be camouflaged with snow to ma$e it resemble a standard trench -fig %09/. The enemy vehicles that are able to cross a standard trench will fall through the camouflaged portion of the excavation and be entrapped. ;. 2emolition placed in a culvert under the road is the most satisfactory method for cratering roads. 4f a culvert is not available, a hole may be dug into the road and a charge placed at the bottom of it. !lacing a charge on the road is unsatisfactory because it can be seen. . charge placed in vegetation will ordinarily be alongside the road, which is ineffectual unless the charge is extremely large or of an atomic demolition munitions -.2=/ type. <. The earth used to fill crib obstacles should preferably be obtained by digging a shallow ditch in front of the obstacle. 10. !osts used as an antivehicular obstacle are buried .+ meters in the ground either at a slight angle toward the enemy or vertically, pro7ecting between B+ and #8 cm above ground level. 11. )ush0type trees with heavy branches and thic$ foliage should be use for abatis wherever possible because the branches reduce the momentum of the vehicle. The trees should be at least 9 meters high and 98 cm or more in diameter. 11. Steel hedgehogs can easily be moved by the enemy< therefore, these obstacles must be $ept under observation and covered by fire. 13. ,oncrete cube obstacles are usually cast in place because of the weight involved and the simplicity of ma$ing the forms in which they are made. 15. . truc$ used as a roadbloc$ should be emplaced and have the wheels damaged or removed to prevent it from being pulled out easily.
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15. .ntitan$ and antipersonnel mines should be placed between dummy road obstacles. 18. )eyond the depth of % fathoms -+.+( meters/, the ;avy minesweepers are responsible for clearing boat and shipping lanes. 17. )each obstacles should force the enemy landing craft to unload at low tide several hundred meters seaward of the high water mar$. This ma$es the enemy cross a wide expanse of obstacle0studded beach and be vulnerable to fire. 1;. .ntiboat obstacles are emplaced from wading depth at low tide to wading at high tide. 1<. Timber tetrahedronLs are pinned and wired to a triangular frame which is weighted in place with roc$s. The anchorage may be improved by driving a post through the obstacle and into the ground. 10. The roc$ wall is an expedient type of underwater obstacle made of roc$ found in the area. The roc$ pillar and the log ramp require wood and other material to construct and secure which ta$es them out of the expedient category. The hedgehog is a prefabricated obstacle.
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LESSON 5...................................................................................................................* '9#$ Wi'# E(t (30#%#(t1. . series of barbed wire concertinas should be placed about 8 meters in depth to construct a roadbloc$ to stop wheeled vehicles. 1. )arbed wire is issued in reels of (88 meters of wire. 4t is ta$en off the reels and put on bobbins with %8 meters of wire on each when used to repair entanglements or build short lengths of fence. Thus, (88 meters of wire on a reel and %8 meters on a bobbin is a difference of %B8 meters -more barbed wire on a full reel than on a bobbin/. 3. )arbed tape weighs one0third as much as equal lengths of standard barbed wire. 5. 10shaped steel pic$ets are driven with the hollow surface -concave side/ facing enemy fire because enemy small arms pro7ectiles ricochet from convex sides and may cause casualties. 5. .ll fence0building operations normally proceed from right to left, as one faces the enemy. 8. . piece of white tracing tape should be tied to the end of the wire on each bobbin or reel to facilitate finding it. 7. To close a concertina, one man at each end places a foot at the bottom of the coil to $eep it from fanning out while they wal$ toward each other to compress the concertina. ;. Screw pic$ets should be used when constructing wire entanglements in proximity to the enemy. These pic$ets can be installed with less noise. <. The apron tie is used to tie together two wires that cross. 4t is tied in the same way as the post tie, except that the apron tie is a wire0to0wire tie and the post tie is a wire0to0post tie. 10. )arbed wires of a four0strand cattle fence are installed from the bottom up. The first team which has been organi5ed for this wor$ puts on the bottom wire and team # installs the second wire from the bottom -third wire from the top/. 11. The construction of a %880meter section of either a (0 and #0pace or a 90 and %0pace double0apron is normally assigned to a platoon. 11. *ires numbers 9, B, and : -rear apron/ form the bac$bone of a double0apron fence. They hold the pic$ets in position. 13. )oth wire ;o. # and wire ;o. # are trip wires. *ire ;o. # is installed on the enemy side and wire ;o. # on the friendly side of a double0apron fence. 15. The personnel that lay out the concertinas drop the first roll at the third pic$et in the front row. The other rolls are placed at every fourth pic$et from where the first roll was dropped. 15. . strand of barbed wire is stretched tightly along the top of front row concertina sections in the construction of a triple standard concertina fence to increase the resistance of the fence against crushing.
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18. The Lapland fence can be used equally as well on fro5en or roc$y ground and in snow, bogs, or marshlands. The wire is attached to tripods -fig 90%#/ instead of pic$ets. 17. Trip wires are stretched about #% centimeters above the ground. The tanglefoot is constructed at heights varying from #% to B+ centimeters. Spirals of loose wire are wound around a form of 0meter posts on which the wire is extended from the bottom of the posts -above ground/ to the top. . $nife rest is approximately meter high. 1;. Tactical *ire: :88 m mean perimeter x .#+ % belts N %888 m effective length
1<. !rotective *ire: 988 m mean perimeter x . 8 x belt N 998 m effective length
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LESSON 5............................................................................................................................................... C %&)/0 3# 1. 2irect surveillance requires the observer to use his senses of sight, hearing, and smells to gather infractions about the existence, identification, or scopes of energy activity. 4ndirect surveillance methods include all of the mechanical, electrical, and chemical devices which extend the range of the human senses. 1. Two advantages of direct surveillance methods are: . 4mmediate information is provided. 9. The information is easily evaluated because it is natural and familiar. 3. Two advantages of indirect methods of surveillance are: . &bservation may be conducted from points out of range of enemy fire. 9. =ost indirect detection devices provide a permanent record on film or tape. Such images can be enlarged and imagery of the same area can be repeated over a period of time to reveal tell0tale changes in the appearance of the terrain that would otherwise go unnoticed. 5. "econnaissance and surveillance needs are more often met by various $inds of oblique photography, which also cover a greater area with fewer flights than does vertical photography. 5. 6and held cameras can be used in helicopter and small aircraft to get valuable information on the terrain and activities below. 8. 4n areas of moderate to rugged relief, defilade may limit information recorded on low altitude oblique photography. 7. "adar detection devices emitting radio signals, usually in the form of pulses of an ultrahigh frequency, produce minute reflected signals from which the characteristic of the ob7ect under observation may be determined. ;. .s foliage alone cannot be relied upon completely to detect air0to0ground radar, digging in, defilade, or special radar0scattering screening materials should also be used for concealment. <. !assive -far/ infrared detectors are sensitive to thermal wavelengths and concealment depends on reducing the heat emission of ob7ects which are hotter than their surroundings. 10. 2efilade, heavy brush, and tree cover will attenuate heat radiation and thus help protect from passive -far/ infrared detectors. 11. Screening nets reflect active infrared waves but do not shield a hidden ob7ect which emits heat from detection by passive infrared devices. 11. ,ountermeasures against starlight scopes include all means of concealment from visual detection in daylight. 13. .ll camouflage or countersurveillance plans and activities are effectuated through siting, discipline, and construction.
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15. ,oncealment of an ob7ect or activity can be achieved through the technique of hiding, blending, and disguising. 15. The four types of terrain are agricultural, urban, wooded, and barren. 18. The site chosen must provide concealment without disturbing or altering the characteristic pattern of the terrain. 17. Trac$s should always continue past their destination to a logical termination. 1;. 4n addition to laying out a plan on the ground itself, a plan should be s$etched on either a map overlay or a s$etch of the area. 1<. *hen the situation permits, every effort must be made to dig in important vehicles. 10. Successful maintenance involves frequent ground inspection, active patrol measures for camouflage discipline, and, if possible, aerial observation and photography and the correction of defects.
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CORRESPONDENCE COURSE PROGRAM U. S. ARMY ENGINEER SCHOOL FORT LEONARD WOOD, MO

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