What is Hinduism?

We cannot speak of the history and development of Tantra without considering the history and development of Hinduism because it is from Hinduism that Tantra emerged. That being said, the term Hinduism is not a straightforward as it may seem today. In fact, the term Hinduism did not become widely used until the !th century. "o what do we mean when we say Hinduism# To understand the term, we must travel back in time to the $th century when %uropeans began to interact with the peoples of the Indian subcontinent. &uring the course of their interactions, %uropeans were baffled by the di''ying comple(ity of the numerous religious traditions and languages they encountered. What e(isted at that time was not a coherent and unified system of beliefs and practices, but distinct religious traditions, such as Brahmanism, Saivism, Vaisnavism, Saktism, Buddhism, and Jainism. Saivas were individuals who worshipped Siva, Vaisnavas worshipped Visnu, Saktas worshipped the goddess and so on. The term Hindu derives from a )ersian word hind, which itself derived from the "anskrit word sindhu, which means ocean or river and specifically referred to the Indus *iver. This was combined with "anskrit sthan, which meant place and thus Hindustan was the place on the other side of the Indus *iver from )ersia and Hindus became the people of Hindustan. +ecause the %uropeans had difficulty making sense of seemingly disparate traditions, they gathered them all together and applied the term Hindu or Hindoo to refer to the people of Hindustan. The +ritish specifically adopted the term to designate people east of the Indus *iver who were not Islam, "ikh, ,hristian, or -ewish.

.t the time that the +ritish were using the term, the people of the Indian subcontinent would never have thought of themselves as Hindus, but rather as Saivas, Vaisnavas, Buddhists, etc. Indeed, the term was not even used by someone of Indian origin until almost two/hundred years later in the 0th century. .s the term began to gain traction among the educated elite of India, it eventually came to be defined on its own terms, denoting all the various sects, traditions, and lineages that regarded the Vedas as the pre/ eminent spiritual authority1 however, this was not without its own complications. The ma2ority of what we now call Hindu traditions regard the sacred body of literature known as the Vedas as divine revelation1 however, this e(cluded Buddhism, which did not grant the Vedas scriptural authority, even though it developed within India, while including other traditions, such as Saivism, which were not based on the Vedas per se. The term Hinduism concreti'ed in the !th century and did so more in the conte(t of nationalism and cultural identification than strictly religious ideology. Hinduism can now be seen as a cultural politic employing what 3avin 4lood calls the three pillars of

geographical unity, common race, and common culture. Hinduism is thus now more of a cultural identity than a religious one. 4lood also sees the term Hinduism reflecting a transformation of Hindu self/understanding so that we might use the term to refer not only to its modern designation, but also as a designation for the distinct traditions that led to its formation. Thus, I will use the term Hinduism as an umbrella term for the traditions that led to the formation of Saiva Tantra. The Chronology of Hinduism The following is a general timeline of ma2or development in the history of Hinduism.

The Indus 5alley ,ivili'ation 67899/ 899 +,%:. The birthplace of the roots of Hinduism. The Vedic )eriod 6 899/899 +,%:. The interplay of the .ryan culture with the indigenous &ravidian culture of the Indus 5alley. The %pic and Puranic )eriod 6899 +,% ; 899 ,%:. This is the period during which the popular and epic works of Hinduism were composed, specifically the Mahabharata and the Ramayana as well as the ma2ority of the )uranas. It is also the time period during which the traditions of Vaisnavism, Saivism, and Saktism begin to develop and during which we see the genesis of the Tantra within "aivism circa 899,%. The <edieval )eriod 6899/ 899 ,%:. Here we witness the rise of the bhakti, or devotional traditions, as well as ma2or theological shifts in the traditions of Vaisnavism, Saivism, and Saktism. This is also the period during which we will encounter the rise and spread of the Tantra. The <odern )eriod 6 899 ,% to present:. This is essentially the period of the Hindu renaissance of the !th century and the development of Hinduism into a ma2or world religion.

The Indus Valley Civilization The Indus 5alley is the birthplace of Hinduism and therefore relevant to our e(cursus into Tantra. The civili'ation is so named for its development ne(t to the basin on the Indus *iver near what is present day )akistan and northwest India. .ntecedents of this culture can be traced back as far as $999 +,%, though for our purposes we can consider the Indus 5alley civili'ation to have e(isted from 7899/ 899 +,%. It is e(tremely difficult to form a clear picture of the religion at that time, but e(cavated terra cotta figurines may suggest elements of goddess worship and there seems to have been elements of temple worship, animal sacrifice, and ritual bathing. =ne of the most interesting and controversial elements from this time period is the Pasupati "eal discovered at <ohen2o &aro, which shows a seated figure surrounded by animals and wearing a headdress of some sort. "ome scholars speculate that is an early form of Siva based on his yogic posture, three faces, and his headdress which appears as two half/moons representing the horns of a bull. The verdict is still out on whether or not the seal represents a proto/Siva.

)asupati "eal In a similar vein, it is easy to speculate, but difficult to prove any links between the religious culture of the Indus 5alley and later Hinduism. "ome elements such as the ritual bath, fire altars, female figurines, and horned deities are suggestive, but goddess worship, sacrifice, and fertility motifs were common to the ancient world.

The Rise of the Aryans and Vedic Culture The Indus 5alley civili'ation consisted of a group of indigenous people speaking what scholars refer to as a &ravidian language, which is contrasted with the Indo/%uropean language of the .ryans, whose culture came to dominate the Indus 5alley. This Indo/ %uropean language of the .ryans eventually developed into what we know as "anskrit, the sacred language of Hinduism. .lmost everything we know of the .ryans comes from our knowledge of their sacred te(ts, the Vedas, specifically the Rg Veda Samhita. We know they worshipped a fire god, Agni, a sacred hallucinogenic plant, Soma, and a warrior god, ndra. There are two competing theories regarding the rise of .ryan culture.

The .ryan migration thesis postulates the incursion of the Indo/%uropean speaking .ryans into the Indus valley from about 899 +,%, during which time the culture and religious models of the .ryan people became the dominant and defining force in the Indus 5alley. This is the traditional view accepted amongst religious scholars. The cultural transformation thesis proposes that .ryan culture is a gradual transformation of the Indus valley culture into an early .ryan or 5edic culture.

Whichever theory is true, it is still the case that our knowledge of Hinduism, especially its social structure, mythology, and ritual stems directly from their representation in the sacred "anskrit te(ts known as the Vedas.

.ryan <igration Thesis The Vedas

The four Vedas are the oldest sacred te(ts of India and are considered to be the divine revealed word of 3od. Thus, the Vedas are considered to be a primary revelation of knowledge from 3od to man. This type of primary revelation is referred to as sruti, while the term smrti refers to something that someone has learned and not heard directly from 3od. These are e(tremely important designations in both Hinduism and Tantra.

The Vedas are primarily concerned with ritual, especially its structure, correct performance, and components. They comprise four traditions> the Rg, !a"ur, Sama, and Atharva, which are subdivided into three or four categories of te(ts> the Samhita, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas, and the #panisads.

The Samhitas are liturgical te(ts that contain the mantras used in ritual, usually e(press as hymns to the divine and nature. The Brahmanas are prose te(ts that discuss the proper performance of ritual and its theological commentary. They e(plain the secret web of ritual correspondences that are the basis of ritual efficacy. This ritual science is based on a law of cause and effect in which the microcosm 6humanity and the world: is thought to reflect the macrocosm. This speciali'ed knowledge was known only to the Brahmans, the priestly class of Vedic society, and thus ensured their necessity for they were the bearers of this secret knowledge that was the basis for ritual efficacy. The Aranyakas are wilderness te(ts, which discussed more dangerous or secret ritual, and thus were prescribed to be learned outside, away from settlement, hence their designation. The #panisads are essentially commentaries that e(plain the essence of the Veda and are therefore not strictly sruti. They contain philosophical speculation about the nature of the universe and many ?uestions considered central to religion today, such as $ho am % $hat is my purpose% $hat happens to me &hen die% The concluding te(tual portion of the Vedic period is the Sutras. These are considered smrti and are essentially prescriptive te(ts that deal with ritual procedure and the rules for proper behavior.

Vedic Ritual *itual was the primary focus of Vedic religion and there were two types of ritual> srauta ritual, which was the solemn public ritual and grhya ritual, which focused on domestic issues and rites of passage. The primary purpose of ritual was the propitiation of the gods in a kind of 'uid pro 'uo. ,entral to every ritual was the sacred fire in which milk, ghee, curds, vegetable cakes, animals, or the stalks of the soma plant itself would be offered. The fire was considered to transform the sacrificed ob2ects into a substance which the fire god, Agni, could then carry to heaven as an offering to the gods on behalf of the ritual participants. .rguably one the most important rituals was the preparation and consumption of the sacred and hallucinogenic substance known as Soma, which likely induced trance states and the generation of visions to be interpreted as messages from the gods. There is no supreme deity in the Vedas, but we know that both Agni and Soma 6the sacred drink was divini'ed: were of supreme importance. The Internalization of Ritual The #panisads continue the work of the Brahmanas and Aranyakas in interpreting the meaning of the srauta ritual. With these te(ts we see the increasing importance of knowledge of esoteric correspondences as compared to ritual action1 the sections on knowledge 6"nanakanda( take precedence over sections on ritual )karmakanda(. The earlier #panisads continue the magical speculations of the Brahmanas, which maintained that knowledge of the correspondences between ritual and cosmos is a kind of power.

The opening verses of the Brhadaranyaka #panisad, for e(ample, begin by identifying the horse sacrifice )asvamedha( with the natural world1 the horse@s head is the dawn, its eye the sun, its breath the wind and so on. Whereas the Brahmanas are concerned with establishing the hidden connections between the srauta ritual and the cosmos, connections which appear to be fairly arbitrary, the #panisads are concerned with contemplating the deeper significance of these correspondences. The emphasis moves from e(ternal performance to internal meditation1 the true sacrifice becomes the fire oblation of the breath )pranagnihotra:, a sacrifice to the self within the self. The internali'ation of the ritual means that the real purpose of the rite is not its e(ternal performance, but knowledge of its deeper meaning, a meaning which points to an underlying foundation or being, supporting the ritual and even the cosmos itself. Vedic Mythology and Theology The early Vedic universe was certainly pagan in its orientation, by which I mean that a host of benevolent and malevolent supernatural beings were thought to populate the universe, the most important of which were relegated to one@s geographical location. Hence, nature was imbued with an array of divini'ed beings such that every tree, river, and sacred location had an accompanying deity. These deities were known as devas to distinguish them from demons known as the asura. The devas were thought to accept ritual offerings while the asuras did not. .dditionally, the devas were thought to inhabit a tripartite cosmos consisting of heaven, the atmosphere, and earth with specific deities confined to each plane. The Concept of Dharma *harma is an e(tremely important topic to understand because, in many ways, Tantra directly challenged this concept with its antinomian practices. The Vedas, and therefore 3od, prescribe dharma as an obligation to perform ritual for no other reason than that the non/performance of ritual will buy you a one/way ticket to hell. -ust as in ritual itself, dharma is considered a universal principle. The noun dharma is derived from the verbal root dhr, which means to uphold, maintain, sustain, and keep in balance. Hence dharma is the way, the right way, to maintain order and balance in the universe. %very ob2ect in the universe is thought to have its own dharma and any deviation by any one ob2ect of its dharma throws the universe out of balance. 4or our purposes, dharma has two important roles, which paint the necessary historical picture to understand the emergence of Tantra+ that of caste or class 6varna: and that of the prescribed life stages 6asrama: so that together their fulfillment was called varnasrama,dharma. Class Varna! and Caste Jati!

Vedic law partitioned society into 8 classes, though A classes are traditionally mentioned. The members of the four social classes were as follows> the Bobles 6Brahmans(, the Warriors )-satriya(, the ,ommoners )Vaisya(, and the "erfs 6Sudra( each of which have different dharmas. The fifth class, which was not really a class by virtue of being considered outside of Vedic society, were the untouchables. They were not allowed to hear the Vedas, participate in society as such, and lived on the edge of society doing such menial tasks as sweeping up the human waste from the streets. The Brahmans, -satriya and Vaisyu were considered twice/born in reference to their ability to be re/born into Vedic society upon completion of their study of the sacred te(ts and were the only classes allowed to hear the Veda. %ach of these classes had dharma.s specific to them. The Brahman.s were the priestly class responsible for teaching the wisdom and law of the Vedas and performing the re?uisite sacrifices1 the -satriya 6which included the Cing: were essentially the enforcers of the law and the warrior class1 the Vaisyu were craftsmen, tradesmen, and farmers1 the Sudras only 2ob was to serve the higher three classes. The classes of Indian society were arranged within a caste/system. Dou were born into a specific class, which is arranged in a hierarchical order with the Brahmans at the top and the untouchables on the bottom. The system was based on a level of perceived purity was an inalienable part of the body that could not be changed. *harma was no laughing matter. If you did not meet your prescribed dharma and perform the necessary ritual, you were guaranteed a place in hell. The price for non/ conformity was not only social isolation, but also eternal damnation.

The Asrama "ystem

The other primary component of dharma was the life stages or asrama, which were only applicable to the twice/born classes. The first stage was that of a brahmacarin in which a child, around the age of 8, left the home to study the sacred te(ts with a guru. He took a strict vow of celibacy 6brahmacarya: and remained in this stage until he had completed his studies and was ready to become a married householder. This stage constitutes the re/birth of the individual into Vedic society, hence the adage twice/born. The second stage was that of the grhastha, or householder, in which one marries, sustains a family, and contributes to society. .fter the second stage, the grhastha may choose to become a forest/dweller or vanaprastha. Here the individual retires from active life and lives as an ascetic in the forest, devoting himself to ritual1 however, he is not yet a renunciate since he has not given up fire for cooking or the daily rituals. The final stage is that of a samnyasin or renouncer in which one goes beyond the bounds of the vedic in2unction to maintain the sacred fire and lives entirely by begging and eating raw, scavenged food. #ender Roles "e(ual desire was not frowned upon in Vedic society, but it was rigidly controlled. Three of the four asramas included celibacy with the idea being that the se(ual power contained within the e2aculate could be re/directed towards spiritual enlightenment. =nly the householder was permitted to e(press his desire, but even this was under rational control to ensure ritual purity. Women were sub2ect to male control through their entire lives. They were sub2ect to make authority as a child to a father, as a wife to a husband, and if widowed, as a mother to her sons. +y the same token, a woman@s virtuous behavior, seen in absolute obedience to the males placed over her, was rewarded in heave upon her death and many sources maintain that her place in heaven was dependent upon her husband@s conduct.

.srama Renunciation .s we continue our e(ploration of the Vedic period 6 899/899 +,%:, we not that the brahmanica/ schools are entrenched by about the $th century and from around 999/ 899 +,%, speculations about the nature and purpose of Vedic ritual began to be e(plored in the Brahamanas and then e(pounded upon in the Aranyakas and the #panisads. The main point I would like to highlight about this speculation concerns the internali'ation of ritual in which action becomes subordinate to knowledge and knowledge is thought to be attained by asceticism, renunciation, and other yogic disciplines. &uring this time period, two ideas came to the forefront of Vedic religion that began to alter the religious terrain and would have a ma2or influence on both Tantra and Hinduism> the idea of reincarnation through multiple lives 6samsara: in which one@s past actions are lived out in future lives 6karma: with the religious goal of breaking free from the whole cycle 6moksa:. The cycle of samsara is one of suffering and can only be escaped through the minimi'ation of future karma and the attainment of spiritual knowledge. .s a result of the need to minimi'e karma,producing action in the world, the idea of renunciation became very popular. The idea was that by renouncing action through asceticism and meditation, one could become free of the effects of karma, while at the same time gaining the necessary spiritual knowledge to know 3od. The ascetics in this period were known as sramanas or strivers who seek escape from samsara through various austerities. The philosophy of the sramanas can be summari'ed in three ma2or points> . .ction produces karma, which leads to rebirth for the fulfillment of that karma. Thus all action produces suffering. 7. .bstaining from action can lead to freedom from karma and suffering E. "piritual emancipation can therefore be achieved through asceticism and yogic practices that focus the concentrated mind on 3od.

Karma and Reincarnation It is very possible that karma and reincarnation entered mainstream brahmanica/ thought from the sramana or renouncer traditions. The idea that every action has an effect which must be accounted for in this or future lifetimes, and that the e(periences of the present lifetime is the conse?uences of past action, is of central importance for Hindu soteriology. "alvation or liberation 6moksa( in most Hindu traditions is freedom from the cycle of reincarnation 6samsara:, which is also to be freed from the store of action )karma( built up over innumerable lifetimes. Ascetics in the Rg Veda There are two groups of ascetics mentioned in the Rg Veda which foreshadow some of the later Tantric developments. These groups are the -esins and the Vratyas. The -esins are described as long/haired ascetics who took a vow of silence, wandered either naked or in tattered clothing, who had ecstatic e(perience reminiscent of possession or out/of/body e(periences, and who were thought to possess supernatural powers. These ecstatic states were either induced by drugs or through intense meditative concentration. The -esins are uni?ue in being one of the earliest mentioned ascetic

groups in vedic lore and because they worshipped Rudra, who was an early form of Siva, visuali'ed as a wild, long/haired ascetic. The Vratyas are worth mentioning because of their summer solstice ceremony in which they undertook the 3reat 5ow 6mahavrata:. &uring this ceremony the officiate would make reference to the three breaths that animated the body ; an early form of breath control which later became the science of pranayama. The ritual also involved elements of se(ual intercourse, which has echoes in later tantric ritual.

*udra The Sramana traditions The entire point of including this section in the book is to allow us to see how and why the renunciate traditions developed because, in many ways, they were the progenitors of the ideas that led to the formation of the Tantra. &uring this time frame a new ideology emerged in which knowledge takes precedence over ritual action and detachment from the world, and therefore action in the world, is obtained through asceticism, celibacy, poverty, and yogic disciplines of the mind. The purpose of such training is the cultivation of altered or higher states of consciousness which will culminate in the blissful mystical e(perience of final liberation from the bonds of action and rebirth. While the renouncer of sramana traditions differs on points of doctrine and method, they generally agree that life is characteri'ed by suffering )duhkha( and adhere to a teaching in which liberation 6moksa( from suffering is a form of spiritual knowledge or gnosis )"nana(. The institution of world/renunciation or Fgoing forth@ offers the renouncer 6sramana( an escape route from worldly suffering, as well as from worldly responsibilities, and a life dedicated to finding understanding and

spiritual knowledge1 a knowledge which is e(pressed and conceptuali'ed in various ways according to different systems. When they are not wandering, many renouncers, also known as Fgood men@ 6sadhus: and Fgood women@ 6sadhvis:, have chosen to live a life alone on the edges of society, by the banks of sacred rivers, or in wild places such as mountainous regions or cremation grounds. Wearing ochre robes, or naked, covered with sacred ash, with shaven heads or long, matted hair, these renouncers develop their own spiritual practice )sadhana( for the purpose of liberation while living 6"ivanmukti:. =thers have 2oined communities of renouncers and live in Fhermitages@ )asramas( or Fmonasteries@ )mathas(. "uch communities are associated with larger Hindu traditions, particularly the Saiva and Vaisnava traditions, focused on the great Hindu deities Siva and Visnu respectively. "ome renunciate orders are centrally placed within the vedic tradition, while others, such as cremation ground ascetics associated with the worship of Siva and the 3oddess, are on the edges of vedic orthodo(y and orthopra(y. Having abandoned the world, the renouncer can practice asceticism or the development of Finner heat@ )tapas: in order to attain liberation. .sceticism might take the form of a severe penance, such as vowing not to lie down or sit for twelve years but only rest leaning on a frame, or to hold aloft an arm until the muscles become atrophied. However, an ascetic is particularly encouraged to practice yoga in order to achieve a state of non/ action> to still the body, still the breath, and, finally, to still the mind. $arrative Traditions The first millennium +,% saw the development of the brahmanica/ traditions of ritual, adherence to varnasrama,dharma and the ideology of renunciation. 4rom about 899 +,% through the first millennium ,%, there was a growth of sectarian worship of particular deities, and vedic sacrifice, though never dying out, gave way to devotional worship 6pu"a:. )erforming pu"a is a way of e(pressing love or devotion 6bhakti: to a deity in some form, and became the central religious practice of Hinduism. Bhakti to a personal 3od 6Bhagavan: or 3oddess )Bhagavati:, became a central, all/pervasive movement. This growth of Hindu theism and devotionalism is reflected in the "anskrit narrative traditions of the %pics 6itihasa:, in mythological and ritual treatises known as the Puranas, and in devotional poetry in vernacular languages, particularly Tamil. Hindu narrative traditions There is no historiography in south .sia, with a few e(ceptions, of the kind which developed in the 3reek, .rabic and %uropean traditions. This lack of historiography has made the dating of "anskrit te(ts difficult and has reinforced a tendency to construct India as a/historical, mythical and irrational, in contrast to the West ; seen as historical, scientific and rational. Bevertheless, Hinduism did produce elaborate mythical narratives in which there is no clear distinction between Fhistory@ and Fmythology.@ Indeed, the "anskrit term itihasa embraces the western categories of Fhistory@ and Fmyth.@ We have te(ts written in "anskrit, and vernacular languages, which are clearly presenting what

were regarded as important ideas, stories and presentations of normative and non/ normative behavior, and the historicity of particular events is either assumed, or is simply not an issue. *ather, what seems to be important with these mythological narratives is the story being told, the sense of truth that it conveys, and the sense of communal or traditional values and identity being communicated. The two most important groups of Hindu narrative traditions embodied in oral and written te(ts are the two %pics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, and the Puranas. The tihasa Purana is even known as the Ffifth Veda,@ although it is classified as smrti, te(ts of human authorship, and not sruti, revelation, and all castes have access to it, not only the twice/born. These te(ts document the rise of the great theistic traditions of Hinduism focused on the gods, particularly Visnu, Siva and *evi, the 3oddess. Hindu traditions have been communicated through the generations in these narrative genres, which still play a vital role in contemporary Hindu life, though sometimes now mediated through the television and cinema screen. The tihasa Purana has had, and continues to have, immense impact upon Hinduism at all levels. The %pics The Mahabharata is an epic of universal proportions with appeal across centuries and across cultures. It is the longest epic poem in the world, comprising over 99,999 verses. .ccording to tradition, the author of the te(t was the sage 5yasa whose name means Fan arranger,@ though scholarship has shown that it was in fact compiled over several centuries from the first half of the first millennium +,%, reaching its established form by the first century ,%, though still being formulated by the fourth century. The Mahabharata itself ends with the death of -rishna, and the subse?uent end of his dynasty. It also marks the beginning of the Hindu age of -a/i 6-a/i !uga:, the fourth and final age of mankind, in which great values and noble ideas have crumbled, and man is heading toward the complete dissolution of right action, morality and virtue.

+esides its epic narrative the Mahabharata contains much philosophical and devotional material, such as a discussion of the four goals of life or purusharthas. The central theme of the Mahabharata, as well as the Ramayana, is respectively -rishna.s and Rama.s hidden divinity and its progressive revelation. The Ramayana is the story of a heroic king who becomes deified. Indeed, by the last books of the te(t Rama is referred to as an incarnation )avatara( of Visnu. .bove all, however, as with the Mahabharata, it is a tale about dharma. The R0mayana is the story of the triumph of good over evil, of order over chaos, of dharma over adharma. The worship of Rama became widespread in the medieval period in northern India and the name F*am@ became a synonym for F3od.@ The worship of Rama has become highly significant today as the focus of politici'ed Hindu movements in recent years. Det the R0mayana is important beyond these considerations and plays a vibrant part in contemporary Hinduism. Gike the Mah0bh1rata it is an oral tradition recited and acted out throughout the villages and towns of India.

The Puranas In contrast to the %pics, the Puranas, Fstories of the ancient past,@ are a vast body of comple( narratives which contain genealogies of deities and kings up to the 3uptas, cosmologies, law codes, and descriptions of ritual and pilgrimages to holy places. With the Puranas we are dealing with oral traditions which were written down and which have absorbed influences from the %pics, #panisads, &harma literature and ritual te(ts. The Puranas would have been recited at gatherings by specialists who were traditionally the sons of -satriya fathers and Brahman mothers, and today the te(ts are recited by special individuals known by the Hindi term bhat. The Puranas have traditionally been classified according to three ?ualities )guna( which are inherent in e(istence, namely the ?uality of light or purity 6sattva:, passion )ra"as( and darkness or inertia )tamas(. "i( Puranas belong to each category. The sattva category contains the Vaisnava Puranas 6the Visnu Bhagavata, 2aruda, 3aradiya, Padma and Varaha Puranas:1 the ra"as category contains Puranas whose central deity is the creator Brahma 6the Brahma, Brahmanda, Brahmavaivarta, Markandeya, Bhavisya and Vamana Puranas:1 while the last category contains the Saiva Puranas, those te(ts whose central deity is Siva 6the Siva, 4inga, Matsya, -urma, Skanda and Agni Puranas(. This neat classification, although interesting in terms of the tradition@s self/ understanding, does not really throw light on the nature or contents of these te(ts, which do not fall easily into this frame of reference for the te(ts themselves are not e(clusively focused upon a single deity. Bevertheless there are tendencies towards sectarian affiliation, and some te(ts, such as the Visnu and Siva Puranas, are clearly centered on a particular god. =thers such as the Agni Purana which contains material about both Visnu and Siva, are not so clearly sectarian.

The Puranas contain essential material for understanding the religions of Visnu, Siva, the 3oddess 6*evi: and other deities of the Hindu pantheon such as Agni 6the god of fire:, Skanda 6the god of war and son of Siva:, 2anesa 6Siva.s elephant/headed son: and Brahma 6the four/headed creator of the universe:. They indicate the rise in popularity of Visnu and Siva and document the brahmanica/ e(pression of their cults, showing how popular levels of religion were assimilated by the Brahmans who composed them. .lthough these te(ts are related to each other, and material in one is found in another, they nevertheless each present a view of ordering of the world from a particular perspective. They must not be seen as random collections of old tales, but as highly selective and crafted e(positions and presentations of worldviews and soteriologies, compiled by particular groups of Brahmans to propagate a particular vision, whether it be focused on Visnu, Siva or *evi, or, indeed, any number of deities.

Puranic Cosmology .lthough no one te(t strictly adheres to this pattern, the Puranas traditionally cover five topics>

the creation or manifestation of the universe destruction and re/creation of the universe the genealogies of gods and sages the reigns of the fourteen Manus or mythological progenitors of humanity the history of the solar and lunar dynasties of kings, from which all kings trace their descent.

The most important features of the Puranas are the genealogies of various royal lineages, in which history as well as mythology may be embedded, and the elaborate cosmologies occurring over vast e(panses of time. The universe is conceptuali'ed as an array of concentric circles spreading out from <ount <eru at the center, enclosed within the vast

Fworld egg.@ Immediately surrounding <eru is -ambu/dvipa, the earth or Fisland of the rose/apple tree@, though itself several thousand miles from <eru, -ambudvipa is surrounded by a salt ocean. "preading out from here are seven further lands and various kinds of ocean made of sugar/cane 2uice, wine, ghee, buttermilk, milk and sweet water, until the realm of darkness is reached by the outer shell of the egg. This is very similar to -ain cosmologies which list the oceans as containing salt, black water, clear water, rum, milk, ghee and treacle. Within -ambu/dvipa are a number of lands, including India 6+harata: which is subdivided into nine regions ruled by descendants of the culture/hero )rthu, who cultivated the earth )prthvi(. +elow and above the level of the earth in the cosmic egg are further layers. +elow the earth are the seven underworlds and below them at the base of the egg, the hell realms, whose various names, such as Fimpaling@ and Fred/ hot iron@, vividly describe their contents. .bove the earth 6bhur( are the atmosphere 6bhuvas:, sky )svar( and various other worlds up <ount <eru to the Ftrue world@ 6satya/oka: at the top. This entire cosmos is populated by all kinds of beings1 humans, animals, plants, gods, snake/beings 6naga:, nymphs 6apsaras:, heavenly musicians 6gandharva:, domestic beings )paisaca( and many more, and one can be reborn into any of these realms depending upon one@s action )karma(. Gife in all of these worlds is, of course, impermanent and one will eventually be reborn elsewhere. Beither hell nor heaven is permanent here. .longside a vast conception of the structure of the cosmos, the Puranas also have a vast conception of time. The world goes through a cycle of four ages or yugas+ the perfect krta or satya age which lasts for ,H70,999 human years1 the treta age of ,7!$,999 years1 the dvapara age of 0$A,999 years1 and the dark ka/i age of AE7,999 years which began with the Mahabharata war, traditionally dated to E 97 +,%. This makes a total of A,E79,999 years during which time the world moves from a perfect state to a progressively more morally degenerate state in which dharma is forgotten. The ka/iyuga, the present age of darkness, is characteri'ed by loss of dharma, which will be renewed by the future incarnation of Visnu, -a/ki, who will come to begin a new perfect ka/iyuga. The image used is of a cow standing on all four legs in the perfect age, standing on three legs in the treta age, on two legs in the dvapara age, but tottering on only one leg in the ka/i age. The total period of four yugas is called a manvantara, the age or life period of a Manu. .fter ,999 manvantaras, which comprise one day for Brahma, the universe will be destroyed by fire or flood and undergo a night of Brahma of the same period 6i.e. ,999 manvantaras:, until the process begins again for all eternity. . ka/pa is one such night and day of +rahma comprising 0,$A! million years. There is no end to this process1 nor purpose other than the Gord@s play )/i/5(. The Smartas With the composition of the Puranas a mainstream form of brahmanica/ religion developed which e(panded and continued into the medieval period. The Brahmans who followed the puranic religion became known as sm5rta, those whose worship was based on the Smrtis, or paur5nika, those based on the Puranas. This form of religion was

concerned with the domestic worship of five shrines and their deities, the panc5yatana, pu"5, namely Visnu, Siva, 2anesa 6Siva.s elephant/headed son:, Surya 6the "un: and the 3oddess 6*evi:. The Smartas may be seen in contrast to the Srautas who performed elaborate, public, vedic rituals ; the solemn rites ; and also in contrast to the Tantrikas, heterodo( followers of non/vedic revelation called the Tantras. .lthough the authors of the Puranas are not Tantrikas, the te(ts nevertheless contain a significant amount of tantric material, particularly on ritual. .lthough the central Smarta practice was the domestic worship of the five deities, while, of course, abiding by vedic social values and purity rules, there also arose worship of particular deities, especially Visnu and Siva, who were elevated to a supreme position. Thus with the Puranas, the normative, mainstream Smarta worship of Visnu and Siva is established, which absorbs into it e(ternal, non,brahamnica/ and sometimes non/vedic or tantric material. The late #panisads composed from the eighth to si(th centuries +,%, particularly the Svetasvatara and the Mahanarayana, bear witness to the beginnings of Hindu theism. Theism is the idea that there is a supreme, distinct 3od )Bhagavan( or 3oddess 6Bhagavati: who generates the cosmos, maintains it, and finally destroys it, and who has the power to save beings through his grace. Two deities begin to become the focus of theistic attention, Siva, who in the Rg Veda appeared as Rudra, and Visnu, who both gain in importance and become identified by their devotees as the highest god, the supreme or absolute reality. The devotees of Siva come to be referred to as Saivas1 those of Visnu and his manifestation, as Vaisnavas. &uring the last half of the last millennium +,%, devotion 6bhakti: to a personal Gord 6Bhagavan: began to develop in Hindu traditions. This devotionalism is e(pressed in the Ffifth Veda., the tradition of the %pics and Puranas ) tihasa Purana(. These te(ts reflect a brahmanica/ appropriation of popular traditions. The theistic traditions centered on Visnu and Siva particularly begin to develop during this period. Bhakti .lthough it comes to have pan/Hindu appeal, the Bhagavad 2ita originated in the north, as did the cults of Visnu and -rsna. However, there is a vast body of devotional literature, both Saiva and Vaisnava, from the south of India, composed in the &ravidian language of Tamil. While the "anskrit material is important in understanding the development of theism in India, the Tamil literature had a deep effect upon that development and, in the south1 its influence is e?ual to that of the "anskrit material. The earliest Tamil literature developed before the onset of "anskriti'ation and so is originally ?uite distinct from "anskrit literature. "anskriti'ation is the process whereby local or regional forms of culture and religion ; local deities, rituals, literary genres ; become identified with the Fgreat tradition@ of "anskrit literature and culture> namely the culture and religion of orthodo(, .ryan, +rahmans, which accepts the Veda as revelation and, generally, adheres to varnasrama,dharma. 4rom the first century +,% to the first, and

perhaps through to the si(th century ,%, a tradition of bardic poetry developed which was gathered into a number of anthologies collectively known as the 6ankam literature. The process of "anskriti'ation only began to significantly influence the south after the first few centuries ,% and Tamil deities and forms of worship became adapted to northern "anskrit forms. Det, nevertheless, a thriving Tamil culture flourished and Tamilnadu became the central region for the development of Hinduism after the <uslim <ughals established their empire in the north. %normous temple comple(es, unsurpassed by any in the north, grew up at ,idambaram, "rirangam, <adurai and Tan2avur. These became bastions of classical, orthodo( Hindu doctrines and practices associated with brahmanica/ worship of the deities and with the cult of the deified king. In the process of "anskriti'ation, indigenous Tamil deities became identified and absorbed into .ryan, vedic deities. The Tamil deities Mudva/an and Tiruma/ became identified with Visnu and Siva, -otravai the goddess of war with *urga, and the important deity Murukan, with "iva@s son, Skanda, the god of war.

Tamil poetry and culture +efore the influence of "anskritic or brahmanica/ culture, Tamil culture was itself very rich and any influences or cultural forms from the north were adapted and shaped by indigenous Tamil ways. With regard to devotional religion, there are two important factors which allowed its development in Tamil culture, namely Tamil poetry and the Tamil deity Murukan. The earliest body of the 6ankam literature comprises two main groups, the F%ight .nthologies@ and the FTen "ongs.@ These anthologies of bardic poetry have two central concerns> love and war. The class of love poetry is called akam 6Finside@ or Finternal@:, while the class of war or heroic poetry is called puram 6Foutside@ or Fe(ternal@:. The significance of this poetry is that we see within Tamil culture a strong tradition of emotional e(pression through verse and a pattern of styli'ed or culturally classified

emotional states associated with love. This allows for the wholehearted adoption of bhakti and sets the scene for the poetry of emotional devotion so characteristic of Tamil religious literature, and for the development of an emotional bhakti which was to significantly influence northern Hindu culture. The 6ankam poetry reflects an elite culture which propagated an ideology of a very this/worldly nature, depicting the ideal man living a married life, fighting, hunting and making love> a far cry from the ascetic ideal of the northern renouncer tradition. Within this culture there was little idea of transcendence, as had been developed, for e(ample, in the #panisads. *ather, there is a concept of the divine or supernatural )katavu/( which can be manifested in possession states. . god mentioned in the 6ankam anthologies is Murukan, a deity who is young, handsome and heroic, and who accepted blood sacrifice. He is a god of both war and of love. His cult may have been served by priestesses and the te(ts indicate a possession cult in which young women became possessed by the god and danced Fin fren'y.@ Murukan later became identified with Siva.s son Skanda, the god of war, and absorbed into the Hindu pantheon. Det his presence here shows, firstly, that this religion was far from the ascetic ideals of renunciation and world/transcendence propagated in the #panisads and also by the renouncer traditions of -ainism and +uddhism, and, secondly, that the Ffolk religion@ which he seems to represent was important and had official, courtly sanction. The possession cult of Murukan and a developed bardic tradition of love/poetry allowed for the easy absorption of a bhakti ideology from the north and a transformation of it into a particularly Tamil form. -rsna and the stories of Vrndavana begin to move south and infiltrate into the 6ankam literature from as early as the third century ,%. -rsna becomes Mayon and his mythical landscape of <athura becomes translated into a Tamil landscape. The narrative traditions and cult of -rsna become firmly rooted in the south, linking into patterns of culture already established. +y the seventh century ,%, bhakti, as an intense, emotional love for a personal Gord, for both Visnu7-rsna and Siva, embodied in a temple icon and e(pressed in narrative traditions, had developed in the south. This intense devotion was e(pressed in the poetry of the Vaisnava A/vars and the Saiva 3ayanars, and was to influence later bhakti traditions both in the north and the south. Their songs are still recited in Tamil homes and in temples in public occasions such as weddings. Bhakti traditions often re2ect institutionali'ed forms of religion, such as formal temple worship, yoga and theology, in favor of an immediate e(perience of the divine. &evotional forms of religion, particularly those which developed in the south during the early medieval period, tend to stress the devotee@s emotional outpouring for his or her deity and the sense of losing the limited, self/referential ego in an e(perience of self/ transcending love. This kind of devotional religion which emphasi'es personal e(perience is often centered around a charismatic founder who is deified by the later tradition. The bhakti traditions which developed in the south, both Vaisnava and Saiva, illustrate these general tendencies.

The patterns of bhakti that we see here ; such as the association of local or regional deities with the deities of the great "anskritic tradition, and the establishing of orders by saints are also followed by devotional movements within Saivism. .lthough Saivism has tended more towards the ideals of yoga and detached asceticism rather than towards emotional devotionalism, there have nevertheless been strong devotional tendencies within it, particularly in the south. References& . 4lood, 3avin. An ntroduction to 8induism. ,ambridge Iniversity )ress, BD, 7997. 7. 4lood, 3avin 6%d:. The B/ack&e// 6ompanion to 8induism. +lackwell )ublishing, <., 799E

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