EP 225.3 WAVES, FIELDS AND OPTICS FINAL EXAMINATION April 13, 2009 Solutions 1.

A thin lens made of glass with ng = 1:5 has a focal length of 10 cm in air. If it is placed in a liquid, it becomes a divergent lens with f = 50 cm. Find the index of refraction of the liquid. Solution In air, 1 1 = = (n g f 10 1) 1 R1 1 R2 1 1 = R2 5 = 1 5 ng nl 1 = 0:5 1 R1 1 R2

1 R1 In liquid, 1 = fl 1 = 50 ng nl 1

1 1 R1 R2 ng nl == = 1:67 0:9

2. Rays from a lens converge at P: Determine the thickness of glass plate (ng = 1:5) to be inserted so that the image is moved to P 0 (3 mm from P ):

P glass 3 mm

P'

t
Assuming small angles, (sin t=
i

sin ng 1

r) t

= sin

ng

= 3 = 9 mm

Matrix method 1 a 0 = t + 0:3 1 0:333 33t 1:0 1 0 0 1:5 1 t 0 1 1 0 0 1=1:5 1 0 a 1

1:0 0:3 0

where a is the distance between the left edge of the glass plate and P: From B = 0, we nd t = 0:9 cm = 9:0 mm independent of a: 3. Half of a spherical glass surface of radius R = 5 cm and index of refraction n = 1:5 is silvered. The silvered surface acts as a mirror. An object is placed 10 cm from the glass surface. Find the location of the nal image and its nature (real or imaginary, erect or inverted).

5 cm

10 cm

Soolution First refraction: 1 n + = (n 10 i m1 = Re ection by the mirror 1 1 1 + = ! i = 2:5 cm 1 i 2:5 m2 = Second refraction: 1:5 1 + = (1 7:5 i 2:5 1 1 !i= 5 10 7:5=1:5 10 cm 1) 1 !i=1 R 1=1:5 10

n)

m3 =

Image is virtual (nal image distance is negative). Total magnication is m = m1 m2 m3 = 1 15 2:5 1 2 15 7:5 = 1 (virtual, inverted image) 3

Matrix 1 i 0 1 1 10 0 1 = 1 (1:5 1) 1
1 1:5 1 5

0 1:5
1 5

1 10 0 1 1 10 0 1

1
1 2:5

0 1

0 1=1:5 30:0 3:0i 3:0

1: 666 7 0:133 33i 0:133 33

From B = 0, the image location is i = m=A=

10 cm (at the mirror). Magnication is 0:333 = 1 3

1:666 + 1:333 =

4. A microscope consists of two convergent lenses, objective lens with fo = 2:0 cm and eyepiece with fe = 3:0 cm. The tube length is standard, L = 16 cm. The lenses are separated by 21 cm. (a) When the image is formed at innity, where is the object location from the objective lens? (b) Find the magnication. (c) When the image is formed at 25 cm, what is the new magnication? What change has to be made to the object location? Solution (a) The object distance 1 1 1 + = ! o = 2:25 cm o 18 2 (b) The magnication is m= (c) New magnication is m0 = 25 2 16 1 1 + 3 25 = 74:7 0:321 25 2 16 = 3 66:7

1 1 1 = ! i = 2:679 = 3:0 i 25 3 0 The new object location o can be found from 1 1 1 + = 0 o 18:321 2 o0 = :5 3 1 = 2:2451 1=18:321

70 cm

300 g

5 cm

500 g

5. A grandfather s clock has a uniform rod of length 70 cm and mass 300 g. At the end, there is a lumped mass of 500 g. Find the oscillation frequency for small angle.Solution The moment of inertia is I = 1 m1 (0:7)2 + m2 (0:7 + 0:025)2 3 1 = 0:3 0:49 + 0:5 (0:7 + 0:025)2 3 = 0:312 kg m2

The oscillation frequency is ! = = s m1 L + m2 (L + 0:025) 2 g I 0:3

0 :7 2

+ 0:5 (0:7 + 0:025) 9:8 0:312

= 3:83 rad /s = 0:61 Hz 6. (a) The RMS intensity of sound wave in water is I = 10 7 W/m2 : If the frequency is 1 kHz, what is the RMS amplitude of displacement wave 0 ? The mass density of water is 103 kg/m3 and the bulk modulus of water is M = 2:1 109 N/m2 : (b) (Unrelated to (a)). Explain the function of gel put on body in ultrasound imaging. (Qualitative explanation will su ce.) Solution (a) The intensity is 1 I = cs 2
v

(! 0 )2

= =

1 !

2I cs v

2 10 7 2 103 1450 103 = 5: 9 10 11 m 1 The RMS displacement is

rms

1 =p 2

= 4:2

10

11

(b) The purpose is for improving impedance matching. Sound wave incident on water is almost totally re ected. Elastic (bulk) modulus of gel is much smaller than that of water and the gel impedance is in between the air and water. 7. Unpolarized light falls on a glass surface at the Brewster s angle. The index of refraction of the glass is ng = 1:65: (a) Explain what is meant by unpolarized light wave. (b) What is the incident angle? (c) How much light power is re ected at the surface? The re ection coe cient for the electric eld tangential to the surface is r= where Solution (a) In unpolarized wave, the electric eld is randomly oriented without preferred direction. If the wave is propagating in z direction, the electric eld consists of x and y components, Ex ex + Ey ey In unpolarized wave, the elds Ex and Ey are uncorrelated but the intensities are equal, Ix = Iy : If the total intensity is I0 ; Ix = Iy = 0:5I0 : (b) The Brewster s angle is
B 1 1 0

sin ( 0 sin ( 0 +

B) B)

is the refraction angle.

= tan

(ng ) = tan

(1:65) = 58:78

(c) The re ection coe cient of the electric eld parallel to the boundary is r = sin ( 0 B) 0 sin ( + B ) sin (31:22 58:78 ) = sin (90 ) = 0:4627 5

Then power re ection is 1 2 r = 0:107 = 10:7% 2 8. (a) In double slit arrangement, the slit separation distance d is 3 times the slit opening a; d = 3a: Sketch expected interference-diraction pattern as a function of the angle : (b) (Unrelated to (a)). One of double slits is wider than the other by a factor of 1.5 The slit separation is d: Show that the interference pattern is described by I ( ) = I0 1 + 6 cos2 4 d sin

where I0 is the peak intensity due to the narrower slit. The maximum intensity is 6:25I0 : Is it reasonable? Solution (a) The interference/diraction pattern is I0 cos where =
2

d sin

sin

a sin

If d = 3a; the light intensity is proportional to cos ( x) where x=

1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
2

sin ( x=3) x=3 d sin

The third (m =

3) interference peaks are suppressed.

(b) The electric elds due to the unequal slits are E0 and 1:5E0 : The phase dierence 2 d sin is still given by = : The total eld is Et = = q q
2 + (1:5E0 )2 + 2 E0 2 2 cos + 3E0 3:25E0 2 cos 1:5E0

and the light intensity is proportional to I = I0 (3:25 + 3 cos ) = I0 3:25 + 3 2 cos2 ( =2) = I0 0:25 + 6 cos2 ( =2) 1 d sin = I0 + 6 cos2 4 2 The peak intensity is (2:5)2 I0 = 6:25I0 as expected. 9. (a) Monochromatic light of = 600 nm falls normal on a nonuniform plastic lm of index of refraction n = 1:4:When 10 stripes of constructive interference are observed in re ected light, what is the dierence = b a between the thickness at both edges?
light

n = 1.4

The condition for constructive interference is 2nf d = Then 2nf = 10 600 10

9

m+

1 2

= 2:14 m (b) (Unrelated to (a)) Lake with cleat water appears dark blue but lake with contaminated water appears whitish. Explain in terms of Rayleigh and Mie scattering. Blue water color is due to Rayleigh scattering by water molecules much smaller than wavelengths in visible range. The intensity of Rayleigh scattering is proportional to 1= 4 : Blue color is dominant. Whitish color is caused by Mie scattering by larger molecules. In this case, scattered power is insensitive to , all colors scattered evenly. 10. A nonrelativistic electron having an initial energy 10 keV undergoes cyclotron motion in a magnetic eld of 1.5 T. 7

(a) What is the initial electron acceleration? (b) Show that the radiation power at time t is given by P = e2 ! 2 1 2 c mv (t) 3 3 "0 mc 2

eB where ! c = is the electron cyclotron frequency and v (t) is the electron velocm ity. (c) Derive a dierential equation for the electron energy and nd the time by which 99% of the initial electron energy is lost to radiation. Solution (a) The initial electron velocity is from 1 2 mv = 104 1:6 10 19 J 2 v = 5:93 107 m/s and the initial acceleration is a= (b) The radiation power is P = (c) The dierential equation is dE = dt Solution is E (t) = E0 e where E0 is the initial energy (10 keV) and = e2 ! 2 c 3 "0 mc3 (1:6 = 3 8:85 = 0:869=s Time by which 99% energy is lost e = 0:01 t = ln (0:01) = 4:505 4:505 t = = 5:18 s. 0:869
t t

evB = 1:56 m

1019 m/s2

e2 a2 e2 ! 2 1 2 c = mv 6 "0 c3 3 "0 mc3 2 e2 ! 2 c E= 3 "0 mc3

P =

10 10
12

19 2

1:6 10 19 1:5 9:1 10 31

9:1

10

31

(3

108 )3

Solution EP225 Final Exam April 2008 1. (a) What is the focal length of a convergent lens of f = 15 cm in air if it is placed in water? Assume ng = 1:5 and nw = 1:33: (b) Explain why goggles help viewing in water. Solution (a) The focal length in air is 1 = (n g fa and the focal length in water is 1 = fw From (1), 1 R1 Then 1 = fw 1:5 1:33 1 1) 1 R1 1 7:5 1 R2 1 1 1 1 = = R2 0:5 15 7:5 ng nw 1 1 R1 1 R2 1) 1 R1 1 R2 = 1 15 (1)

= (1:128

fw = 58:68 cm (b) The liquid in human eye lens has an index of refraction close to that of water and in water lens action of human eye is weakened (no focusing). Goggle restores air medium in front of the eye as in usual viewing. 2. A microscope has an objective lens with fo = 15 mm and eyepiece with fe = 20 mm. The tube length of microscope (the distance between the inner focal points F1 and F2 as shown) is 16 cm. (a) Determine the magnication when the nal image is formed at 25 cm. (b) For the image to be projected on a screen 5 cm from the eyepiece, what adjustment has to be made?

L F1 F1 objective F2 F2 eyepiece

Solution 1

(a) The magnication when the image is formed at innity is m= When formed at 25 cm, m= 16 1:5 1+ 25 2 = 144 16 25 = 1:5 2 133:3

(b) For viewing, the object distance should be 1 1 1 + = ; ov = 17:60 mm ov 16 + 160 fo The object distance for the eyepiece can be found from 1 o 1 1 = ; o = 18:52 mm 250 20

For projection (real image at 50 mm), the object distance for the eyepiece is 1 1 1 + = ; o0 = 33:33 mm 0 o 50 20 The object distance is to be found from 1 1 + op 16 + 160 13:33 = 1 ; op = 17:745 16

Therefore, the objective lens has to be moved away from the object by 17:745 17:60 = 0:145 mm. 3. A Galileo type telescope has an objective lens of fo = 50 cm and eyepiece fe = 8 cm. When used to view an object 5 m away with image formed at innity, what is the distance between the two lenses? What is the magnication? Solution The objective forms image at i 1 1 1 + = ; i = 55:56 cm 500 i 50 To form nal image at innity the eye piece should be at 55:56 the objective. The magnication is m=+ 55:56 = 6:94 8 8 = 47:56 cm from

4. An object is placed 15 cm in front of the surface of the lens shown. Find the location, magnication, and nature of the nal image. 2

n = 1.5

10 cm 5 cm

Solution First refraction Second refraction Magnication is m= The image is virtual and erect. The matrix is 1 i0 0 1 = 1 (1:5 0 1) =5 1:5 1 5 0 1 1 (1=1:5 0 1) =10 1=1:5 1 15 0 1 90=1:5 15 8:636 95=1:5 = 0:545 1 1:5 + = (1:5 15 i 1:5 1 + 0 = 95 i 1) 1 ; i= 10 90:0 cm

1 0:5 ; i0 = 5

8:636 cm

0:833 33 + 3: 333 3 3: 333 3 10

10 2 i0 15: 833 + 1: 833 3i0 2 1: 833 3 i0 = 8:636 cm

From B = 0; The magnication is m = A = 0:833 33 + 3: 333 3 = 0:545 10 2 i0

5. A rod of length l = 0:5 m and mass m = 0:3 kg is freely pivoted at one end. The other end is attached to a mass-less spring (spring constant ks = 20 N/m) as shown.

(a) If the spring elongates vertically a distance y; what is the total potential energy in the system, one due to the spring elasticity and another due to gravity? 3

(b) What is the kinetic energy of the rod if the displacement y is varying with time? (c) Then, using the energy conservation principle, show that the oscillation frequency is given by r 3ks != ; m independent of both l and g: Solution The potential energy is 1 2 1 ks y + mgy 2 2 The kinetic energy is 1 I 2 Energy conservation is 1 1 2 1 ks y + mgy + m 2 2 6 Dierentiate dy dt
2

1 dy l dt

11 = m 23

dy dt

= const.

dy 1 dy 1 dy d2 y m + ks y + mg =0 2 3 dt dt dt 2 dt d2 y 3ks 3 + y + g=0 dt2 m 2 y ~=y+ mg 2ks

Let (Notice that y=

mg 2ks

is the equilibrium position when the rod is attached.) y ~ satises d2 y ~ 3ks + y ~=0 2 dt m The oscillation frequency is r r 3ks 1 3 20 != = = 14:1 rad/sec, f = 2:25 Hz m 2 0:3 6. Analyze how the voltage wave develops after the switch S is closed. Assume V = 5 V, Rg = Z1 = RL = 50 ; and Z2 = 30 : Check whether the nal voltage is consistent with that expected from dc theory.

Solution
1 Initially 2 V = 2.5 V voltage pulse propagates in the 50 line. Re ection at the joint is 30 50 1 = 30 + 50 4 and 3 2:5 V 4 pulse propagates on the 30 line. Re ection at the load is

50 30 1 =+ 50 + 30 4
1 After multiple re ections with re ection coe cient 4 , the voltage on the 30 evolves as 3 1 1 3 1 2:5 1+ + 2 + = 2:5 = 2:5 V 4 4 4 4 1 1=4

line

This is consistent with the dc theory. 7. (a) A lens is made of glass having a permittivity 2:2"0 :In order to minimize re ection of red light ( = 680 nm), nonre ective coating is applied. Determine the permittivity and minimum thickness of the coating lm. (b) A dielectric lm has a permittivity 2:0"0 : Light of = 550 nm falls normal to the lm. What is the minimum thickness of the lm to maximize light re ection? Find the fraction of power re ection. Solution (a) From
2 Za Z g = Zf

we nd "f =

"2 f = " g "0 2:2"0 = 1: 48"0 and the wavelength is the lm is

f

=p

1:48 1 4

680 = 558:9 1:2166 = 140 nm

Thickness is t=

(b) The maximum re ection occurs when the lm is f =4 because both re ected waves are additive. The eective impedance of the quarter wavelength thick lm is
2 Zf Z= = Za 1 p 2 2

377 377 =

1 2

377

Then the power re ection is

2

188:5 377 188:5 + 377

= 11:1%

8. (a) A grating in a spectrometer has 30000 grooves equally spaced over a width of a = 8 cm. Red light of = 650 nm is incident normal to the grating. Determine the angular locations of intensity maxima. What is the maximum number of order m? (b) A distant binary star consists of two stars with an angular separation of = 0:200 . 1 00 (1 = 3600 degrees.) What should the mirror diameter be in order for a telescope to recognize the two stars as separate objects? Assume = 550 nm. Solution (a) 0:08 m = 2:67 10 6 m 30000 d sin = m = m 650 10 9 d= 0:65 sin = m 2:67 m m m m (b) 0:2" = 0:2 = 9:7 = 1:22 D= 1:22 9:7 10
7

10 10

6 6

= 0:2434m

= = = =

1 : sin 2 : sin 3 : sin 4 : sin

1 1

(0:2434) = 0:246 rad (2 0:2434) = 0:508 1 (3 0:2434) = 0:8186 1 (4 0:2434) = 1:3405

1 3600 180 10 7 rad = 9:7 10

7 9

D 1:22 550 10 = 9:7 10 7

= 69 cm

9. An electron is placed in an electromagnetic wave with an rms intensity of I = 10 W/m2 and frequency = 1015 Hz. 6

(a) What is the rms electric eld of the wave? (b) What is the rms acceleration of electron? (c) Find the radiation power P (W) re-emitted by the electron. (d) The ratio = P=I has dimensions of area (m2 ) and is called scattering crosssection. Show that 8 2 = r 3 e where e2 re = = 2:8 10 15 m 4 "0 mc2 is the classical radius of electron. is called Thomson scattering cross-section of electron. Solution (a) E2 = 10; E = 61:4 V/m Z (b) a= (c) P = 1 2 e2 a2 4 "0 3 c3 2 (1:6 9 109 = 3 = 6: 630 6 = 10
28

1:6 10 19 eE = m 9:1 10

61:4
31

= 1: 079 6

1013 m/sec2

10 W

19 2

) (1: 079 6 (3 108 )3

1013 )

6: 630 6 10 P = 2 E =Z 10 =

28

= 6: 63

10

29

m2

Thomson

8 2 r 3 e 8 = 2:8 10 15 3 = 6: 6 10 29 m2

10. The electron beam energy in CLS is 2.9 GeV. (a) What is the relativity factor ? (b) In bending magnet synchrotron radiation, what is the magnetic eld required for creation of 100 eV photon?

(c) In wiggler radiation, what is the spatial period is to be produced? Solution (a) =

of magnets if 500 eV photon

E 2:9 109 eV = 5664 = mc2 512 keV

(b) The frequency of 100 eV photon is h = 100 eV = 100 1:6 10 19 J 100 1:6 10 19 = = 2: 413 3 1016 Hz 6:63 10 34 != !m 2 = 2 e 10
2 2 eB

From

m
31

B =

= 2: 69

2: 413 3 1016 9:1 10 1:6 10 19 (5664)2 T

(c) The frequency of 500 eV photon is = and the wavelength is = From = we nd

w

500 1:6 10 6:63 10 34

19

= 1: 21

1017 Hz

3 108 = 2: 479 3 1: 21 1017 1 2 2

10

= 2 2 = 2 (5664)2 = 0:16 m

2: 479 3

10

 Q -( $
" E J"( (

, $
( E J7
(

("
(
6D
# 
J

,? BBB J   JJ"E K  Q,

KDE E 7 K ( JE( J

 "(JJ $  B, 
J ( (7E ( J6D
(
( "(JJ $H  B   E ED"
E E J7
(

( J6D
7 J ( H  B " KDE E 7 K E JJ E"

# 
-( )E 7E ED K "(JJ K E JE(  ED EJ (D"
(66
E E 7E ED K "(JJ
J Q EDE K 
CEDE
(

 DEJ6E7
"E 
E J K M J
M  B?  " )EDEK DE? J7
(
KDE E 7
7 J7
(
J  ED  7 JED (

K-Q  7 J M  7 M 


7
J
E
7( E 7(JE K J
"6 E 6E K D J"( ("6
 E
J
K L

 D )E P
E "(JJ K J6D

O N N M

>0  ,5 D( JE7? Q,  BAB ! KDE E 7 (J

I $H " H $
Q

PEJ E J7
(

O N N M

$H

B,

B   5 D( JE7  B

(7 ( JED 7(

EK 

KD "  (  Q $H  BA? $

EDE



H $H

# 

 (   BA  B
J   B,> 
L

 B,>

B   5 D( B

JE7 

 (   BA
0.01

0.005

0 0.59

0.592

0.594

0.596

0.598

0.6

-0.005

-0.01

 -( <E  DE(D? (DE J B0B " 9K K E DE(D # 

-( )E DEJ

E
7( 6
6EJ K ( D (
( 7D7? E
KD ( ( ED
 E E ED? Q E( J (DE E(D E ED JE7  )E 6
6E E 
J E KD (DE( K E 7D7
J ( )  , ? (
J E E"6ED( DE DE
G -)E ( JED "( E 
E

<(
J E "
( ( E E  7 "6 E K J 7D D D(
(
E"
E  *E8 E E7 D J  JE D(E7 D
J E  ( "( E
7 PE K B, )G

( 7E KDE E 7 K (

6E 6
6E I 5H  AK

EE

7 JE

)E J 

J6EE

E 7D7 KD )
$

J ,  A5 "JE7

5H  )E 6
6E
E KD

 J( I

QA  0  BB >

J 

5H A5   QB0 AK A  B0

!

)E 6
6E
DE(D J  J ( QB0 Q )E J  J6EE
E DE(D
J A5  )E E E"6ED( DE
J )  QB0 Q QB0

!? 
7
J E

E"6ED( DE
CEDE 7E

 ,B Q5 D AQ0 "JE7

- ,B  BB >  B5 QA  0 - AQ0  BB > QA  0

D )  $D " EDE

- AQ0  BB >  >Q5 QA  0 A ? $  $5 

!

 Q05 

 QB>  ,0,>? B,Q  QB5

E P )E ( E E

Q5  QB Q>  B,  -,0,>  B  QBQ0 D( JE7 Q >Q  QB 

J
!

> 

 5 ,  QB

QB

"

 B5 , "   6EDJ J E  ( E"6  

E E E (J ( D(
J K , 7" ( E ( 7"  E ED"
E E EJ "JE7 E J7E"(
7(  J   )E "(
"E K  K B 7" )E E7
J 7" 
7 -
("E ED E K J  ( EJ 6D 7E  JJ"E 5H  AB

# 
9
K

( 5H 6

6  -BB,  B  Q,  QB " ?  BB "? ( (  -BBQ  QA  QB )E L QA  QB A   AB  , , D( JE7? Q,  QB  BB I  >Q, !
! ! !

"

)
J
J "7

ED (

E EJ
"( E (JE I

6E E

E !

? 
6
6E?

AB 5H  A , AK A  B

A )D( J"
JJ
K J  ( EJ D   ( (
J K 6D(7
7(
"6 D ( 7E 9K E ( 
7 EJJ
J "7 J"( ED ( E ( E E  K J  ( EJ
E ( ? E ECE7
E (
"6E ( 7E E7 "EJ 7 "6 E (
J (66D 
"( E 
E 

>

Q?

"6E ( 7E  J
ED EDE (  5H( "(
J E (
D
"6E ( 7E (   5H "
J E ( A ( J EE 6 ( E Q "" 
7 #  ( E K
E J
 QB <" ( KDE E 7 Q , !
J
7
E D"( E 6 ( E JJ"E B ? E ( " J6ED
7 6DEJJDE K D (
D # EE (J "(JJ E J
 K >  QB  " ( J  J6EE
J EE
J ,>,B "JE7
!

-( ( 7 ( E E (
D ( -

J EE
"6E ( 7EJ 7 E 7
E G

<(
J E 7 "6 E DE E7

-7 )E KD(7
K ( E E ED  D( J"
JJ

J
E  Q   $
E J  (IE
E J
 E
E J EE 6 ( E -)E "(
 E K 7 "6 E (
 (
J (  # 
-( )E
"6E ( 7E K (
D
J
(

 "( 5H(  Q  A  AQ  QB   JE7" ?

(

K J EE
J


 ,>,B  >  QB  A  QB   JE7" 

J 
( (

)E DE E7

7 E 7
E


(

>


>


!

?


EDE > >



 QB A 5  QB
!

 Q

 QB

D( 

 Q

 A  QB  5 BA   JE7" 

 (  5 BA  B >0  B Q B? 0 B 5 BA  5 BA  B>>Q 0 0 B 5 BA

-7 Q Q 1    Q Q Q  QB 
!

6E E D( E D   E J EE 6 ( E )E
E J
 E
Q  QB
!

E 6 ( E
J

<"  ! (J ( D(
(
( E K 6 $H  QB

,  J D ( E ( D(
( E E E7 D "( E
7 ( E ( I  Q B DEJ
J ( 7E K B  9
J D
E  ( DK E ED( D (
( D"J 8 (
ED (
"6E ( 7E K ,B  -( <(
J E ( E ( E G

E ED"
E E
"6E ( 7E ( E  K ( 7 (
( 7( E KEE E ( E ( " J E 7
E  $
E "(
"" D"J 6 ED D(
( E  E ( E ( )E 7( E
J P E 
 E  JE 6ED"



J   B B 

-( )E D(
(

DEJ
J ( 7E K 7E ED KE J D ( E
L   

(
J


B

>

 >B

>

>  5 I   QB0 Q B  QB5   " $D "

 

B  >B E P

 "

 B

)E 7( E
"6E ( 7E J 

E  I B  ,B  Q5 ? 

9J E

 J 

E ( (D ED ( E E

>5   I  BA " A A )E "(

"" D"J 6 ED E
EDE E ( E ( -( D(
( E  E ( E (
J QBB  B, <? "(  A  ,B J
7E E ECE7
E
"6E ( 7E JEE  E E ED( D
J ,B E
"6E ( 7E "( 7

J (7
E E  ED ( 
 K 5 -(  D(

( J6E7 D "E ED (J ,BBBB D EJ E (  J6(7E (  QB 7" M
 K >  ,,B "
J
7
E D"( E D(
 E ED"
E E (  (D 7(
J M K
E J
 "(
"( <(
J E "(
"" " ED K D ED $G 
J (
(D J (D 7 J
J J K  J (DJ 
 ( (  (D JE6(D(
K M  BQ  Q -Q  5BB E DEEJ <( J  E "
DD D
("E ED E
D ED K D ( E EJ7 6E DE7
!E E  J (DJ (J JE6(D( E E7 JG JJ"E >  ,,B "

# 
-( )E JE6(D(

J ( 7E E EE J D7
E
EDKEDE 7E 77DJ
K E D EJ
J  BQ ",BBBB  " 

J
M  $>? J
M  $ <E $  Q? $ $ $ >  $  B ,

J
MQ  B ,? MQ  Q,>5  M  A 

M  ,,5 
J E "(
"" D ED " ED
"

J M  Q >  
!

EJ 
)E ?

  Q

>  Q M 5

,,B  QB > " Q  QA " BQ  Q0B  5BB

 -( ) 
E JEJ 
 K 7( E J IQ ( I ( ( 7 ""
E K DEKD(7
(DE (
J ( 7E (6(D  #  ( E ECE7
E K 7( E  K E JJ E"
J
E  IQ I IAI I   IQ I  #  (
K  E ECE7
E K 7( E (7D "(
7  E   E7 "EJ
IQ I E ? K  -)
J (DD( E"E
J 7( E

E6E

# 
-( $ D ( JE7 ( E7 K(D ((?
J
"( E E E J? Q  IQ
P7(

J $ )E E ECE7
E K 7( E 
J IAI I  IQ $  ME IQ  EDE
Q

E PDJ Q Q  ?
I

E J
J K D"E ( IQ  $ D E

E "(

  IQ IQ

I  I 

IQ I  IQ I 

Q Q 
Q

? ?

I  
Q

Q
Q

? 

Q 

)E IAI I  $D " - Q Q

- Q

IAI I

 B?

E P
Q

 - Q Q
Q

B I 

Q

Q  -IQ

0 )E P DE J J ( 7 "6(7 E EJ7 6E (

J J

P7(  (D ED ( E E EJ7 6E E
J ( 7E K Q, 7" KD " E E
 -( E ED"
E E K 7( E J IQ B (  K

( ECE7
E K 7( E  K BB 7" 
7  K K  B 7" )E EE 6
E7E
J ( ( I - B K E "
DD DJ
P7(
K E

9K E EE 6
E7E (J ( K 7( E E EJ7 6EG

7"? (
J E "(

# 
-( $ D E JE7 "
DD D?   E ( E E7 Q IQ  B A, Q Q   A, I  -IQ  B B  A, ? IQ  B (
P7(

J

J ( 7E
J
D ( ? $

E ECE7
E K 7( E


J IAI I  A,  IQ  BB IQ  B IQ  0 7"  Q 0  B Q Q  ? A, I

K D IQ ?

$D " E P )E "(

P7(

I  QB0 7" K E E EJ7 6E

J $ IAI I BB   QBB IA 0

>  ( !E   E ( E
J 7 J
J E

( E ( E E E 6J (K ED E J
7
J 7 JE  #  ( 
 ( E6E7 E KD " 7 E D

E P (

# 
)E ( E
E JE7 6 D( J"
JJ
 ,-Q Q  , Q 
E E E 6J (J
Q Q

-Q



? Q   
Q Q

EDE
Q

,  ,B Q  ? , 6I

)E P (

( E
J

Q , Q

 , 8?


7
J 7

J
J E


 E 7 E D

QB  

P " 

E K DEKD(7
7 EDJ ( ( (JJ JDK(7E )E
E I  Q K DEKD(7
K (JJ
J  Q, 7D "(
7
 K >  ,,B "
J
7
E D"( E P " -( <(
J E "

"" P " 
7 EJJ K D 
7
 DE E7
( DE E7
E (
E E
DE G E7 "EJ "

""G E7 "EJ

<(
J E "

"" 
7 EJJ K E P " K D 
7
 DE E7
"(
""G

# 
-( <E E P " 
7 EJJ
J >I A  ,,B "-Q  A  QB5 "? E DE J E7
E7 "EJ "

"" E E7
7( E (
E 7 "6 E E  E7(JE I  ( I D I
J 
E J(
JPE  )E "

"" 
7 EJJ K D "(
"" DE E7

J 7 E 7
E
J  ( Q   ? , ( ( "(
"" 6 ED DE E7
 B 9 
J 7(JE? DE E7

J Q ,  BBA  A 1 >

 E )E ECE7
E
"6E ( 7E ( E P " JDK(7E
J
E


I

 

Q -B A Q  -B A
I I

 

EDE -B  (

Q Q, Q Q,

Q Q Q Q

 BB QA? 7 E 7
E
 

J E 
7 EJJ K E P "  ED DE E7

J 

( (

B    

BQ5AA BB QAA

Q5AA
 B QAA


)
J
J 6

E (J ( K 7

0.04

K 

0.03

0.02

0.01

00

10

E E7

J "

"" E  $>I

"" DE E7

J BBB 5

? -$
E ED (

"

"" E

 >I A

QB

# 
J , <8 #? $9 M#  )9# $9M  9)9 E7E" ED Q ? BBB

J ( J/  >0 "JE7   5B  QB   Q 0  QB = 0 = " I 

( (
7

E   I  " ED K E DEEJ K KDEE I 
D "(JJ E J
 ( B ? Q ( " Q >  " D "(JJ $4  Q5  QB  E7 D "(JJ $A  >Q  QB Q  E7 D DEJ E ED  $A 5  B,Q E8 Q 8(7" 6ED"


 B  00,  QB $" 8(7" 6ED"E(

  A  QB " B I #6EE K

(7" 5  Q J B B  B  QB0 "JE7 8(7"
"6E ( 7E 50 B  B B  A  ( 7 7 J (   55  QB = JE7 Q> E7 D 7(D E A  Q5  QB  E8 E ED  
Q E8  Q5  QB Q> =
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

*D(
(
( KDEE (77E ED(
 ( D " ED  !"( 7 J ( *(J 7 J (

"

Q  D K E  ( "(JJ $
J KDEE  6
E ( ( "(JJ EJJ J6D
-J6D
7 J ( H (J J  

EE

 

ED E

J ( (7E

-( 9K E J6D
E
E JJ E"? -7 )E ? J

J
E 

( EJ ED
7(  (
J ( 7E ? (
J E ( 6 E
( E ED  E E E J6D
E (J
7
 ( ( ED E D(
G
K E
J6 (7E"E 6D
7
6 E? J  (
L

<(
J E 
E
7 E ED  K E D E E ED  7 JED (

J (D
E J7
(



"EG KDE E 7


E6E E K  (  Q

H ? $

# 
)E 6 E
( E ED 
E J6D

J Q ( K E D
E D(
(
( PE H ?

J ? E " "E


Q $  $ ( D E 
E
7 E ED  K E D
J 7  Q $ Q ED  7 JED (

J Q Q

E (


K
ED
( (
 

E E

 $

Q  $ 5

DE 
DEJ Q H Q $ Q $ 5
 

 7

J


CEDE
( E 
 DEJ6E7 H D )E 
D 7 J( ED"

"E/ Q $ Q $  B?

EJ

H  B $ (CE7 E J7
(
 Q$ ? H H $

KDE E 7 E7(JE  E

E E (

7(

E DE 7E  B

)E ? E J7
(

KDE E 7
J
L

   J D
Q ( (
( "(JJ B, ( E  , 7" )E J D

H  $ K "(JJ E G

E  ,B 7"
J 7 E7 E ( ED J D
J (DE J E7 ( E J
K B 

-( <(
J E EJ J (
( E KDE E 7 K D 
7 E 
E7 "EJ ( -!ED
J6 (7E"E G #E 7 (
(
E  E J (
( E 6( ED  <(
J E D(
E EE E ("6
 EJ K E J (
( EJ
E(7 J D

-7 $
E ( ("  K E ED  (JJ 7
( E 
 E J ( ("6
 E
E
 ED J D

J Q ""

( EJ E

E

# 
-( )E ( E E 7

EJ (DE
L L

5Q 
L

)  "Q
L

B "JE7  Q QB
! !

"JE7?

$ D E K

) B  "JE7  05, "JE7 5  " A  QB ("E ( J (

( E? >Q  Q " ( >  B, " )E 5Q 5 ,  Q ! >Q >
( E 6D P E J
E/

)E J (

 E ( E
J6 (7E"E 7
 J ( E 
 -

 (

J ED
(
E ; ; (

E 

J 

)E D(

J / Q E7(JE K E 7


J (
( E
E
 ED J D

J Q J
- ?   ( (
E E(
ED J D

J >Q

E ED
(
E (  ?

E 
 9K E

 J
@A -  B, ? E 7


E ED
(
E (   B, DE 
DEJ  )E ( ("6
 E D(

J / Q Q  A  

Q    Q ?

-7

ED 

E J (

( E
J Q $Q - Q A


 

$Q Q

Q $-  A  Q $Q Q

$Q Q  A - Q  B,  QB  A    QB A =
!

 -QB

 E (

E E ED  E J

EJ (DE E J("E?

E E ED 

 )D( J"
JJ
K J  ( EJ D   ( (
J K 6D(7
7(
"6 D ( 7E 9K E ( 
7 EJJ
J "7 J"( ED ( E ( E E  K J  ( EJ
E ( ? E ECE7
E (
"6E ( 7E E7 "EJ 7 "6 E (
J (66D 
"( E 
E 

>

?

Q?

EDE (
J E (
D
"6E ( 7E ( 
J ( (JJ 6 ( E "" 
7 #  ( E
J
7
E D"( E 6 ( E JJ"E (J "(JJ E J
 K A  QB  " ( -( ( 7 ( E E (
D ( <(
J E 7 "6 E DE E7

E (
"6E ( 7E K D J  ( EJ  J
ED K
E J
 QB A <" ( KDE E 7 Q  ! B ? E ( " J6ED
7 6DEJJDE K D (
D * (JJ J  J6EE
(JJ
J ,Q  QB "JE7
!

(JJ
"6E ( 7EJ K D J  7 E 7
E G

( EJ

-7 )E KD(7
K ( E E ED  D( J"
JJ

J
E  Q   $
E J  ( E
E J
I  E
E (JJ 6 ( E -)E "(
 E K 7 "6 E (
 (

J (
 (  # 
-(
J

(  5H " 
-

"

QA  QB,  Q  AQB   JE7 " ?  QB   JE7 " 

  5H "  ,Q  QB  A  QB  Q
)E ECE7
E
6
"6E ( 7E
J

E E7

 AQB 7 E 7
E

>
B  QBA 

  AQB

  QB ,Q

 Q

 QB

( 
 
B  QBA ? 0 B
B  QBA (

J "(

 E
J

B  QBA  B>>>5  0 B
B  QBA
J   A  QB A 
!

-7 )E KD(7

K 6 ED D( J"
JJ
Q Q E

B  QBA 0 B
B  QBA

)E
E J
 E

(JJ 6 ( E
J 7   A  QB
!

<" 
J6EDJ
? D 6 E 7

EJ (J K 7
J K  DE (
?

A  7ED (
6 (J"( ( E
J EJ7D
E

 E K 
J


- B

5H

EDE 5H ( # 

B (DE 7

J ( J $
? -

E 6(JE (

$D " E
J6EDJ

DE (

B   -B 5H ? B -B 5H  B 5H  -B 5H ? 

-Q

   )E E 6(JE E 7
 (J ( K 7
 5H

K E KDE E 7
J
J

-B 5H B 5H

  -Q 7( E DED
E (J

Q )E  Q   5H


B 

B 5H

B -B 5H  
 !J

? 
" ,

 5H +

-B 5H B 5H

, M
 E"
JJ
KD " ( E  (
J "
( E  DE
EJ (D  >  5,B " )E D(
(

J E J 7D D D(
(
KD " E ED E
7 E E7 D J 9K E "( E
7 PE
J   E    QB 5 ) KD "
E6E E "E(JDE"E ? (
J E E ED  K E E7 D J
*E8G JJ"E ( E E  (
J DE7E
KD " E E(D  ( ( E 7
 B 5
!

# 
)E ( E E  E"
E >B  ( 7 DDEJ6
 E E7 D
L

E E  (
J
!

Q  B  5,B  QB Q B

>

 ,  QB

"

KDE E 7
J
B

5   QB0    ,,  QBQ, D( JE7 >B ,  QB

!

(


J

E

"
(

J 7D D

D(
(

KDE E 7?

A   ,,  QBQ, ? $ E P   ( J  QB,  )E E E7 D  ,,  QBQ,  ,,  QBQ, E ED 

J $ A

 QB  QBQB ?

>Q  QB Q Q5  QB Q>   QB

! !

 $5  QB,  ,Q  QB E8  ,Q *E8 5 -(  E J
J "( E K (JJ (
(
K DE
 ->  50B " ? 6ED"


 ( "

"" 
7 - 
E E7 D
7 P " (J ( 6ED"


K( J D"( E P " <(
J
 DE E7
G $
E KD(7
# 
-( )E
"6E ( 7E K E P " J  E
L

6ED"


  B  9 D ED "

"
!E DE E7 DE E7
E 7 (

J (66
E  E ED"
E E EJJ K E 7 (
P "  BB  M
 (
( ( E E  >  ,,B " E "

"" 
7 EJJ K E P " "(
"
!E K
E J
 DE E7


I
( E 7 DDEJ6

I

 QB

6ED"


 K E P "
J I I   B  QA0B  E
"
( E DE E7

J >I Q 50B  QB > I   QAB "  A A QA0
!

)
7 EJJ K E P "

(
"" DE E7

77DJ E 

E P "
J ( (D ED ( E E Q ,,B >I  I > A A "?

 
7?

E7(JE DE E7 E ( EJ (  JDK(7EJ (DE (

J > A 
7? E ECE7
E
"6E ( 7E
J


J 7(JE <E

E P "

I  (  Q00, ? AII 
( E KD(7
K 6 ED DE E7

J Q  Q
 

AII  AII

B B

Q  QQQ 1 >

 -(  D(

( J6E7 D "E ED (J ,BBBB D EJ E (  J6(7E ED ( 
 K (  0 7" E
 K >  5,B "
J
7
E D"( E D(
 E ED"
E E (  (D 7(
J M K
E J
 "(
"( <(
J E "(
"" " ED K D ED $G 
J (
(D J (D 7 J
J J K  J (DJ 
 ( (  (D JE6(D(
K M  B  Q -Q  5BB E DEEJ <( J  E "
DD D
("E ED E
D ED K D ( E EJ7 6E DE7
!E E  J (DJ (J JE6(D( E E7 JG JJ"E >  ,,B "

# 
-( )E D(
  (D
ED (
J 7(
BB0 "  Q5 " ,  QBA K
E J
 "(
"(
J  J
M  $ EDE $
J (
E ED ( $D " M"
 Q EDE E P M"
  B  > $ B,,  BAB5 $? Q5

M  B? AB ? ,A ?

E "(
"" D ED
J $   > ? 
!

Q  >  QB Q0B 5BB E "

"" E EJ7 6E
("E ED E   Q > M"
 Q  ,,B  QB >  QB
!

D( ?

>

 B5> "

0  E E7 D
J 6 (7E
( 6 ( E E E7 D "( QB <" ( KDE E 7 I  QBQ !

E
7 ( E (

( D"J
E J
 K 7 

-( $
DJ J 
( E D"J E E7 D
7 PE K E 6 ( E ( E
J P E D"J (77E ED(
E6ED
E 7E  E E E7 D  $
E D(
(
6 ED -< DE E"
E  E E E7 D  -7 )E D(
 7 (J E
"E J
J K (DE( -" ( JE7
 ( 7 ( E E D(
J K E E7 D A KD "  # 
-( $D " 7 $H 
K J
J A $

$H  5QA 8"?

J 7( E J7( ED
A

7D JJ

$H ?
B

$H 

QB 
Q>

 5QA 8"  5QA

!

)E D"J (77E ED(

( $H  )E 6 ED D(
( E

$H  Q5  QB

>Q  QB
J

 QQ  QBQ "JE7 

 E E E7 D

$H 

Q -A( $H A B 5

 >  QB>   55  QB -7  7

K
!

-Q5  QB Q>  QQ  QBQ -  QB0 < 

!

<

 55  QB

>

"? "

A
 E DE
7( ( E K D  0
J
!

 A5  QB

Q,

A  55  QB

>

" ? -) "J 

!

7D JJ JE7

EDE E D(
J K E E7 D

A
J EP E A

A  0  QB A B $5

Q,

" EJ ( E ( "E7(
7(

)
J J  J D7 DE

E (E JED
J  E7(JE E E E7 D J6E( K 0

> 9 E
( D(" J  ? ( ( !E   E ( E ( E E E 6J (K ED E J
7 %
J 7 JE  JJ"E 6  , 8?  Q  K  ,B ? (  B  E7 E ED E P ( ( E
J 7 J
J E 
 ( E6E7 E KD " E 7 E D

# 
)E


( ( E 6 JE
J , 8 )E


( E D( J"
E B  ,B  ,   B ,B A


D   E 

,  Q E E7
( E (
J ( E

)EDEK DE? E

,B  B Q   ,B B A E
E E EJ (J 6   Q Q   A A A Q ,    , 8 A Q Q A ,  Q
 

)
J
J 7

J
J E


 (
J E6E7 E KD " E 7 E D K D(
J QB 7" (J ( 7
7 7(
 K J
E QB 7" 7 7E EDE 
 E E K DEKD(7
K E (JJ
J  Q,  (DD 
 E(" 6(D( E D"( E K 7 E JDK(7EJ (J J   $
E 7(
K E P ( ( DE -DE( D
D ( ? 6D
 D
ED E 

QB  (JJ J6EDE J6EDE )E

E (
J K( J
"( E (
J

>

# 
)
E J (66D 
"(
DEKD(7
EJ Q " #E7 DEKD(7

Q  EJ Q  D ?
Q  E7(JE E   E JEJ (DE 
 $
DJ

Q

Q,  QB  B 7" B,

Q Q,   B?
 Q55 7"
,  Q 55 Q,  B?
 QB 7"

)
D DEKD(7
$
( DEKD(7

Q Q, B,   ?
A  05 7"
A , QB )E P (
"( E
J K D"E ( > 7" E D
 K E E
J6EDE JDK(7E 9
J DE( (
ED E 

QB




 
 

 





   
 
  
    
      

    
      

  

         
 


      

    

#

  $ %  


    

 
 
'
       
'
    



   



 



  
 


 

  


       



 


    

 

 


 

    
 
    ! 


   

 " 
 

 
# 

 " 


 " & 




 
 
  
   
  

 

    

 
'


   

 
 

 







 
     



     


'
   


'
 

 




  








  



 







   




'
     

    

  
   
     

    


00

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

        
    





 
 
 




 
  

       

  
   
 
       
 


 
     

 

 

  



  



 



  





 




  
  


  

    











 





 

     
 
    
  

  
'
  %   

 
  
 
 
 

 

 
   (
         
 (  
 
     



         

     


  
          


 














  




 


 



 
     


       

 
       

  

 ( 



 (  

  *

 

 



  )  

 
  )     

+ 


 

 

   

       

)  ' 
  

 
 

 
)   '  
      

 

)  




       

     +  

  

,
 
)  
 
    

 



  
)

 

)
)  
   
 


 

 
   

    

 



 



    
 


    
 
 

 
  
  ,
   
 

 

 
 
     


    

 


,
 
 
 

 

)



 !  


 

    

  

    

   % 

 

   
 
 


     
   
 
# -

 

 
 
 

   
.

     

 
 )
 

 
 
 
   
 

  


  !
   !  
         
 

    

 


    




 !

 

 

 


  
 


 



  ,



 
 
  

  

 






 


 


 

  
  
 


 !   
 

 
  
   
    -

 

   + 
   



 

       
  
   
/
   
     


     )  
)   
*
 

  +

 0
  

    
  

   

 
      
 
 0

          
  
   

   




 





     






   

   )                 
)   
 

 
  




   
 

 -

 

  
    
     
  
  
  
 
 
  
   
          1        
  


  

      
   






     

  



  


 

 
 
' 
 

    
 

   



   
 
       
 
$     )
 
 
    
 
 
 

  
           

  


 
    
  
 
       
        




   *

    
 
  



 

  


 

   
#+



   

   
   


 



          
'
  -
  

 
    
   

    


'
   
 



 






  



 

   







 


 










 








 

  


 



#   
 


*  
 




 
 

  
   

 

   



  
    
      
  


  
+  )


 

   

    
   +

   
   


 * 
      









   '  
   
     

  
0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-1

-0.5

0.5

 *


 
  

 

  

   


 

   *
     
        

  *       


 

 


     


   
  







 










 


  
    

  
   
    

  

 

 


      

       
  ,   
 ) 

   
    

        


  

*   
           
  
         
 

 
  

   

  



 

    


      

   
  
  

 


 



  +

   *

  
  


 
 
 
  

    
 

 

 
+
       

    

 0
    


       


  
 

   
$
 

 
 

  




  
  


 
  


 (  


 

 

 "  

  


 

   

 

 


 
#

  


 

 
  

    
       
 


                

        
 
                                    $                
   
   
 


  

      
       ! " 


 !!

 #   !

  $ !

 #


% $

     

              

                                  &        ' 


         

  





 


 
         


 

 


 



 

 


        '   

  

 

 



  !   
                            
              
  '           

                             

                      



 



 

 

   

 

 
 


 



  

    

    



 '                           


        



   

 
1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 -0.2 -0.4 0

 

 
     

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

  





  

   


 



 

 
  

 

 


 


             




 

         
 

    

       


   


 



  
        
 
                                     
         

             
                      
 
        




 
  

  

   

  
   












    


  




 



   '       

 

 

        


 


 #              &    

 (

              

       &          



      


  %          &    '                 &     '                           


   &             

      
             )         ) 

*   **  *  *  *
     *  * *  *          

    )    +                      

  ,   )                   )   - )       &   .      - )     &                .   

 
    )       *       )         
*  *

  
  


* *



  
 &      ! " 

      

    

       

 





   )         

 !   

! 

 

 !   

! 

  

 /   
  &  

                        

       

 $       )    +   *      


     *
   $ 

 *  *  
 
 $ 
  $  "

&     

 
     

0   

 0          &    &               !


  -     &   -         %  &      &       !


              

    !      
  

          &   

   & 







 



           
 



 



 
  

  
     

 



!       !     



!    !                !         &   
 


 ! 



   
 

      !     '              

0.1

!  

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

00

10

20

30 x

40

50

60

(                                    
   &     

                 1 $                 
 0       '   


      

 

 

    !
 


      




 

 $ 
1 $             

          $

 
     $ 

                   


                                  

              

          

         

            

   
   

      




 





  

     

  


  

  

 

          

1.5 1 0.5

-8

-6

-4

-2

0 0 -0.5 -1 -1.5

 



-2

-1

00

             &         

 -                   .        
                               !                            $
   



  


 


    $                       

  

,



   





!

 

 
   

 

!!

 



  !


         

     
 

          

 


 

 

    

       
 
               
 
              

   
      


                                            
 
           

                 
 
  

                             



 


  
  
$%        

 
! "   # 
 

 !    

 
$% 
  
%

                !                                    


     !        

                      

                               

                    &       !           '                '              !         

$ "  &                               

 

   

  

   

   "
 

" 

 !      


  






   
 "

    
 


" 

!  

   

      

 
 

 

  




  


  
        

 
            ! 

   "

   "        



                   




   




      $

    
      

  


(


   ( (



 

     $$$                !              
(

 


  $ ( (  

                  
                     $ ) !                
                    



   
( 
 *     $ 
  % 
 



  
 (

  
( 
 
 
  % 

  ( 
 
  


                            
 
 
 
   $ 

    
  
  



 % 

+&


,            ,                  !  
      '                                    







                      
     
    
  

  
 



                                           '                  
             


0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.4

-0.2

00

0.2

0.4




 ' 



 






   &      

  

  

            


  
       -  .          


                              !           "
 % 
          -  .            
   $




* 

                        
       
  
  
     

                  !   

      % 
   '


                          
      !                 !                         '             
 

                  !   $