Andrew Jones Kraft-1

Biochemistry & Cell Functions Notes

The 8 Characteristics of Life
All livings things are

Made up of cells Reproduce (make babies) Based off a universal genetic code (DNA and RNA) Grow and develop (from baby to adult to senior) Obtain and use materials from the environment (eat, make shelter, etc.) Respond to their environment Maintain a stable internal environment (homeostasis) Evolve (adapt to their environment over 100s to 1000s of generations)

Look at your notes for pictures/diagrams for any of the concepts in the review!

All 8 characteristics must be present for something to be considered living!

Cells and Cell Functions

Cell Organization: Cell (liver cells) Tissue (liver tissue) Organ (liver) Organ System (digestive system) Organism (human) Cells specialize in certain jobs to benefit the organism as a whole (skin cells, blood cells, neurons, muscle cells, etc.) Organelles: little self-contained parts of a cell that work together for the cells benefit 2 Different Types of Cells: o Prokaryotic Very small Small ribosomes Free-floating DNA No membrane-bound organelles o Eukaryotic Means true kernel in Greek, referring to the nucleus present Larger than prokaryotic cells Larger ribosomes DNA contained in nucleus Has membrane-bound organelles All cells have: o A cell membrane o Ribosomes o Cytoplasm o DNA

Endosymbiosis: theory of the evolution of eukaryotic cells o initially all cells were prokaryotic o Due to symbiotic relationships (relationship between 2 different animals that benefits both animals), mitochondria and chloroplasts were developed inside an old eukaryotic cell a long time ago o Eukaryotic cells today have introns (non-coding DNA) similar to very old Archaea (old primitive bacteria) o Chloroplasts and mitochondria both have: Small amount of their own DNA Contain ribosomes similar to ones in bacteria Their own small membrane as well as the regular phospholipid membrane Discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665 (dont need to know) States that: o All living things are made of cells o Cells are the basic unit of living structure and functions o All cells are created from existing cells

The Cell Theory

Cell Parts
Cell Wall o Only present in fungi and plant cells o Provides structural support o Semi-permeable, allows O2 and water to enter. Cell Membrane o Semi-permeable, controls what goes in and out of a cell o Made of a phospholipid bilayer Nucleus o Contains DNA, the genetic code (instructions) from which everything in the cell is made o Instructs enzymes to make proteins Ribosomes o Makes amino acid chains (proteins) from mRNA code Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) o Two different parts, rough ER and smooth ER o Rough ER is coated with ribosomes and surrounds the nucleus Exports proteins and made by the ribosomes Looks like a bunch of mazelike channels o Smooth ER has no ribosomes Produces lipids and steroids Contains enzymes that break down toxic stuff

Looks a network of tubes Golgi Apparatus o Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins to be shipped for other organelles to use Mitochondria o The powerhouse of the cell o Responsible for cellular respiration o Converts chemical energy (usually carbohydrates) into ATP (adenosine triphosphate) o Contains a small amount of its own DNA separate of the nucleus Chloroplasts o Only present in plants o Takes solar energy (from the sun) and turns it into chemical energy (carbs, usually glucose) by photosynthesis. Vacuole o Stores food, materials, water, and waste o Plants have a central vacuole, animals tend to make and remove them as needed Centrioles o Present only in animal cells, flowering plants, and fungi o Organizes the mitotic apparatus for division of chromosomes during meiosis Lysosomes o Responsible for cell digestion o Primarily enzyme sacks that take waste and turn it into building material

Organic Compounds
Basic Chemistry Atom: basic unit of matter, means unable to be cut in Greek Proton: a positively charged subatomic (smaller than atomic) particle Neutron: a neutrally charged subatomic particle Nucleus: in the center of atom, contains protons and neutrons bounded by the strong nuclear force (dont need to know) Electron: negatively charged subatomic particle Element: pure substance that consists entirely of one type of atom Isotopes: atoms of an element with different numbers of neutrons ex. Carbon 14 Compound: substance that is formed by the chemical composition of 2 or more element in definite proportions Ions: positively or negatively atoms created by gaining or losing electron(s) Ionic bond: bond formed by 2 ions, attracted like magnets, usually a metal & a nonmetal Covalent bond: bond formed by the sharing of 2 atoms, usually 2 nonmetals Molecule: smallest unit of a compound

Polarity: when a molecule behaves like a weak magnet with a positive and negative pole (Ex. water, Van der Waals forces: when molecules in a compound/mixture have weak positive and negative charges around the entire molecules (not just the atoms) and bond to each other Hydrogen bonds: Van der Waals that use hydrogen as the positive end of a molecule Cohesion: attractions between molecules of the same substance Adhesion: attractions between molecules of different substances Mixture: 2 or more compounds that are physically mixed, but not chemically bonded o Ex. sand, your junk drawer, pepper in water Solution: 2 or more compounds that are completely mixed, physically and chemically o Ex. Sugar and water, salt and water, ink Solute: compound that is mixed into the solution, solute is usually solid (Ex. salt) Solvent: compound that is dissolves the solute, solvent is usually liquid (Ex. water)
Elements of life: CHNOPS

4 Main Organic Compounds: Monomers combine into polymers by polymerization (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, Dehydration synthesis: monomers bond and combine together and oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur) removes a water molecule in the process Hydrolysis: a polymer breaks down into either smaller polymers or monomers and require water to do so (direct opposite of dehydration synthesis) o Both dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis apply to carbs, lipids, and proteins Carbohydrates o Are made from carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O), in the form CxH2xOx Monomer: a single o Primary source of energy for plants and animals, gives short-term energy individual organic o Also used in creating biological structures compound o Monomer: monosaccharide Also known as simple sugars, ex. glucose (plant sugar), fructose, galactose Polymer: a chain o Polymer: polysaccharide/starch (disaccharide specifically means 2 of monomers monosaccharides bonded together) Common disaccharides: sucrose (table sugar), maltose, lactose Common polysaccharides: glycogen, cellulose (what tree bark is made of) Glycogen: polysaccharide created to store excess glucose, stored in liver Lipids o Are made primarily from carbon, hydrogen and a little oxygen o Easy to discern from chemical formula, usually have tons more C and H then O Indicators: o Provides long term energy storage, cell membrane material, neural isolation, and Sugar: Benedicts hormone transport solution (heated) o Made up of glyceride/glycerol and a number of fatty acids (hydrocarbon chains) Starch: Iodine o Monomer: glyceride + 1 fatty acid Proteins: Biurets o Triglyceride: when 3 fatty acids are attached to a glycerol molecule solution Usually have an E shape to them Lipids: Paper Towel

o Are hydrophilic because they are non-polar Fats, oils, and waxes o 3 types of lipids: Saturated fatty acids: have all of its carbons single bonded with hydrogen Tends to be animal fats and oils, solid & sticky @ room temp. Monounsaturated fatty acids: have a double bond between 2 carbons, hydrogen count is not maxed out Polyunsaturated fatty acids: have >1 double bond between carbons Unsaturated fatty acids tend to be plant fats and oils, usually liquid @ room temp. Proteins o Made of carbon, nitrogen (N), hydrogen, and oxygen o Used as a major structural component in the body o Can be used as enzymes (molecules that control the speed of chemical reactions) o Are channels in the cell membrane o Some are created as peptide hormones o Monomer: amino acid/peptide o Polymer: amino acid chain/polypeptide Amino acids bond together with peptide bonds o Amino acids: amine group (NH2) + C + carboxyl group (COOH) + R group R group changes for each amino acid, defining what the amino acid is Nucleic acids o Made of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus (P) o Macromolecules (big molecules) (theyre REALLY BIG) o Stores genetic information o Helps make proteins DNA and RNA o Monomer: nucleotide o 3 parts to a nucleotide: Phosphate group (PO43-) (dont need to know chemical formula) 5-carbon sugar (deoxyribose or ribose) Nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine, or uracil) Stanley Miller and Harold Urey were studying the early conditions of Earths atmosphere They wanted to see if the conditions that they predicted were the conditions of early Earth could create life They tried to simulate early Earth using gases known to be on early Earth like carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen (N2), and water (H2O) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S), but no oxygen!! Also added electrical sparks to simulate lightning & heat Produced amino acids after a few days of experimentation Fairly important to studying how life began on Earth

The Miller Urey Experiment