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FUNDAMENTALCONCEPTSOFLINEFOLLOWINGROBOTS

Tobeginwithalinefollowingisanautonomousbotthatcanfollowaspecificcoloredline paintedonasurfaceofdifferentcontrast,suchaswhiteonblack. FirstofallitsfunctioningisbasedonthefollowingBLOCKDIAGRAM:

Therobotsprogramwillrequirethefourmainingredientsofeverycomputer,microprocessor, microcontrollerandtheprogramsthatruninthem: Input:Readthewhite/blackonthefloorandconditiontheinputsignal(s)fortransmissioninto the"brain"orcomputer/MPU/CPUinawaythatquestionscanbeaskedanddecisionsmade. Process:Basedontheinputsreceived,decidewhatchange(ifany)needstobemadetothe robotsspeedanddirection.Converttheresultsofanydecisionsmadeintosomethingthatcanbesentto motorspeedcontroland/orsteering. Output:Sendtheoldorthenewlyadjustedcontrolsignalstospeedand/or steeringdevices. Storage:Thefirstthingneededisaplacetostorethecomputerprogramtodothe"process"

above.Wewillneedtostoresensorreadings,speedordirectioninformationoranumberofother things,buttheywillbecomeclearerastheprojectprogresses. SENSORS Sensors are required to detect position of the line to be followed with respect to the robots position. Most widely used sensors for the line followerrobotarePHOTOSENSERS.Theyarebased on the reflection and absorption coefficient of light that depend upon material, color of platform and other factors. In simple words the blacksurfaceabsorbsthelightandthewhitesurfacereflectsit,thisis thebasicconceptbehindmakingalinefollower. There are many sensors one can use for line following IR LED and a Photodiode, LED and LDR (photoresistor), etc. When selecting the typeofsensortherearethreethingsthereisneededtobe keptinmindresponsetime,sensitivityandambientlightprotection. PHOTOSENSORS IRorVISIBLElightisemittedfromtheemitter.IRlightismostlypreferredtoavoidinterference from the visible lightwhichisgenerallyaroundtherobot.HoweverIRlightisalsopresentinatmosphere but its intensity is much lessthanthatofvisiblelight,soIRlightcangivemuchreliableoutput.Forbetter accuracyofthesensors,theymustbecoveredproperlyfortheisolationfromthesurrounding. This emitted light strikes the surface and gets reflected back. If the surface is white, more intensityoflightgetsreflectedandforblacksurfaceverylessintensityoflightisreflected. Photo detector is used to detect the intensity of light reflected. The corresponding analog voltage is induced based on the intensity of reflected light. This voltage is compared with the fixed reference voltage in comparator circuit and hence it is converted into logic 0 or logic 1 which can be usedbythecontroller. Thecomparatorcircuitmaybedesignedintwoways. Case1 Blackarea=1 Whitearea=0 Case2 Blackarea=0 Whitearea=1

Regarding the placement of sensors, it depends on the route that the robot should take. As these being said, for a route with tight curves it is best to place the sensors in front so that the robot

should quickly respond. Of course, it depends on the speed of the robot. If we want to complete a route in any time but safely, we can also place the sensors in the back of the robot. Furthermore, the shape and the numberofthesensorscandifferfromalinefollowerto another . Forexample,aVshape ofthesensorscanbeusefulinanarrowercurvewithlessspeed. As for the process some decissions have to be made regarding the processor we use,the programminglanguageandthealgorithmthatisneededtobeimplemented. Microcontroller(MCU)Processor A popular family of microcontroller is AVR seriesfromAtmel.Amemberofthepopularfamily is ATmega8. ATmega8 is chosen because it has just the required amount of resources andisvery low cost. The Microcontroller is one of the mostimportantpiecesofaLineFollower.Wecanconsiderit asthebrainoftheentierrobot.Inthispointaremadeallthedecissionsthatthemachinehastomake. All the input is transferred to thisprocessor,hethinkswhattheLineFollowershoulddo,then hetransmitsthecommandtotheMotorsinordertosteerornot,ortorisespeedorslowdown. It is very important to use a fast Microcontroller because the speed of the processes can influence the behavior of the Robot on its route. In addition, the Flash Memory that it is provided is important for the programmer oftherobotbecauseforabiggerMemory spaceitisnolongernecessary towriteacompactcodewheretheerrorscanbehardlydetected. TheprogramforLineFollowingRobot: needshelpfromthreelibraries: 1. LEDlib(toturnon/offfiveindicatorLEDs) 2. Motorlib(tocontrolthespeedanddirectionofrotationofmotor) 3. ADClib(toconfigureandusetheanalogtodigitalconverterofATmega8) ThecodeiswrittenusingtheClanguagewithalittleassemblerpredeterminedsoyouneedtobe comfortablewiththefollowing. SyntaxofClanguage. Conceptoflibraries. SourceFile,HeaderFileetc. Preprocessor,CompilerandLinker,whattheyareandwhattheydoandhowtousethem. Motorcontrol TheMCUcannotdrivethemotors(usedtoactuallymaketherobotrun)directly,soamotor driverisused.Ithastodrive2DCmotors.ThrtechniquethatisusediscalledPWMtovarythespeed

ofmotordigitallyfromtheMCU.Thedrivemechanismisadifferentialdriveinwhichwedonotrequire toturnthefrontwheelforchangingdirectionofheading.Onlytworearpoweredwheelisenoughfor motionandturning.Thisisdifferentfromthewaycarsandbikesareturned,inthesethefrontwheelis turnedtoturnthevehicle InconclusionaLineFollowingRobotconsistsinanarrayofsensorusedtodetecttheline. Basedonthestatusofsensors,thecontrollerdecidesthepositionofthelineandalsotherequired directiontotakeinordertofollowtheline.MotordrivercircuitisusedtoturnONorOFFtheLEFTor theRIGHTmotoroftherobottoprovidethedesiredmovement.Italsoneedsabatterytopowerthe wholesystem.

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