National Communism

University of Utah Western Political Science Association
Eastern Europe's Ten Years of National Communism: 1948-1958 Author(s): Richard C. Gripp Source: The Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Dec., 1960), pp. 934-949 Published by: University of Utah on behalf of the Western Political Science Association Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/443739 . Accessed: 23/12/2013 07:25
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EASTERN EUROPE'S TEN YEARS OF NATIONAL COMMUNISM: 1948-1958

RICHARD
C.
GRIPP*
San DiegoState College theCominform was expelled from in ROM THE TIME whenYugoslavia to the of the councils in naenfeeblement Polish workers' 1948, mid-1958, in Eastern vacillated between tional communism Europe outright rejection ofSoviet and capitulation before The ten-year domination Soviet control. period ofrevisionism in several witnessed varied outbreaks Eastern European countries; but as a moreor less consistent, national communism took guidedmovement, form andmadean apparent in and impression only Yugoslavia, Poland, Hungary. The Yugoslav modelof national communism had itsorigins in Tito'sdiswith Stalin World War The culmination of thedispute II. agreements during of was the separation Yugoslavia from the Sovietbloc,thereby the initiating movement of national communism in the Eastern Events countries. Europeari in Polandand Hungary since1952 suggest a trend in some occurring which, in Yugoslavia.A construct parallels developments taking place earlier respects, of the Yugoslav of appropriate eventsin by an examination model,followed several of national Polandand Hungary, features communism which highlight of fitting a pattern. givetheappearance
THE YUGOSLAV MODEL OF NATIONAL COMMUNISM
in the theory of communism did not appear until after Yugoslav variations thatcountry was expelled fromthe Cominform.Of the severalcontributions to communist nationalcommunism. Yugoslav is mostnoted fordeveloping theory, the concept, dealt withthe probAlthoughnotinventing perhaps(Mao Tse-tung lem earlier), the Yugoslavs receive creditforpopularizing it and forreshaping theirtheory to matchit.' In discussing the subject,Kardelj has noted: "We do not believe,in a word,thatthereexistuniversalpoliticalblueprints valid forall conditions call fordifferent countries.... Different lines of social development 2 as well as forvariousforms of economicand politicalorganization." The Communistpartyof Yugoslavia (now the League of Communistsof on thesurface, its Yugoslavia) also was to undergo change.The party, relinquished as thesoleinterpreter ofMarx,although a one-party was political monopoly system retained. theYugoslavsclaim theyhave givento their subordinate Moreover, party in the republicsthe right of each to determine its own politicalline.3 congresses
*This articleis a revision of the author's forthe TEMPO series(Technical study prepared ofGeneral Electric Military Planning Operation) Company. 1 In another thatStalin, in his socialism-in-one-country invented vein,Hammond argues doctrine, See T. Hammond, national communism. ofNational "The Origins Communism," Virginia XXXIV (Spring, Review, Quarterly 1958), 279. Neal arguesthatYugoslavCommunist eschews "national" communism as beingbourgeois, and in contrast to theory isolationist, theworld communist F. Neal,"Yugoslav Communist The American community. Theory," Slavicand East European XIX (February, Review. 1960),46. "Evolution inJugoslavia," XXXIV (July, 582. Affairs, Foreign 1956), 2 E. Kardelj, ' F. in Action: The Reforms in Yugoslavia 1948(Berkeley and Los Angeles: Neal, Titoism After of California University Press, 1958),pp. 52,236-37. 934
TEN YEARS OF NATIONAL COMMUNISM
935
Therehavebeen,also,relaxations in theYugoslav suchas the dictatorship, of a more liberal and criminal code for adoption independence provision greater to thecourts. ofelectoral A measure reform has beenintroduced (forexample, useofa secret ballot andintroducing ofmore thanonecandidate a choice making for an elective freedom ofexpression and excesses ofthe greater position), exists, security policehave beencurbed.4 more for leaders Apartfrom autonomy Republic party Yugoslav congresses, haveattempted to invigorate and local government overto regional by turning these levelsmore governing people's powers.By thelaw of 1952whichcreated committees of 1953,a (to govern by the constitution locally),implemented measure of local autonomy are came to Yugoslavia.The people'scommittees administrative oftowns anddistricts areelective andwhich which organs perform all functions of the statewithin of reminiscent Somewhat theirjurisdiction. American thepeople'scommittees are holders and nonof residual federalism, delegated powers." The Yugoslavs too.Probably havemadealterations incommunist economics, themost feature and oftheir is themerger ofpublic original economy ownership a centrally themawiththatofa distribution ofgoodsthrough planned output ofthemarket. The national thedesired chinery goalbut, planremains production from Sovietpractice, it does not have the force of law. Insteadof departing detailed from thecenter, of theplan are planning onlythe"basicproportions" established the Soviet In a further from bythenational government. departure all non-rationed to inYugoslavia aresoldat prices pattern goods "corresponding" market conditions.6 A highpoint in theYugoslav has beenan attempt to decentralize the system economic were After 1950 of federal controls the economic apparatus. many The concentrated lifted. was offederal ministries which directed group industry abolished and was replaced of "associations" called of Chambers by Industry, and of The bodies of associations are comTrade. these governing Agriculture, electedby (1) the workers' posedof representatives councils;(2) a technical and members of the The of thedecentralization staff; (3) government. purpose was to bring as well as more local control intothemanagerial greater efficiency of the apparatus economy. The best-known contribution of theYugoslav version of communism is the of workers' introduction to theory, councilsin which,according employees thefactories In function, theworkers' councils of the facthemselves. manage tories aresimilar ofdirectors totheboard ofan American make they corporation; the entrepreneurial The functions. policyand theyperform decision-making elected determine are to be whichcommodities byfactory councils, employees, which oneswillbe discontinued, and methods of selling, produced, pricing production scheduling, and disposal of capital funds. The councils have become
Communal in Yugoslavia System "Kultura," (Beograd: 1958),p. 20; Neal,Titoism 2. KovaEevid, in Action, pp. 214-38. in Action, pp. 163,235. 5Neal,Titoism "Economic and Retreat in Jugoslavia," Reforms XXXVII (January, 'J. Montias, Foreign Affairs, Communist 1959),296. See also Neal, "Yugoslav Theory," p. 54.
936
THE WESTERN POLITICAL QUARTERLY
of witha membership and byAugust, 10,593 1958,numbered quitewidespread the claimed for them the the Despite success by 201,683 Yugoslavs, employees.7 in overthefactories. The councils are limited councils do nothavefullcontrol their actions representabytheBasicLaw,theannualplan,and bygovernmental and republics. tives from thetowns, have apparently districts, Also,thecouncils and by thetrade-union beendominated organizations. bytheCommunist party were sold by the In 1950 all tractors and otheragricultural machinery collectivizaMachineTractor to the collective Stations farms.In 1951further was eased. In tionwas haltedand tax discrimination against private peasants deliveries of agricultural farms was aban1952compulsory products bypeasant and and credit, was endedaltogether doned. In 1953-54collectivization price, taxpolicies wereadjusted to favor private peasants.8 formal UniontheYugothemselves from control After freeing bytheSoviet outa more to carry slavsbegan foreign signed independent policy.In 1953they a Treaty ofFriendship withGreeceand Turkey. Laterin the and Co-operation theBalkanPact,with these a twenty-year sameyear defense they signed alliance, The objectives to one ofYugoslav samecountries. foreign policy according then, to theusual goals of itschief include ninemainpoints.In addition architects, theestablishment of economic and peace,thesepoints include of independence aid to underdeveloped with withall countries, relations co-operation peoples, nanations on an equal and democratic coexistence other socialist among basis, ofdiffering from either ofthetwogreat tions socialsystems, independence power of activeand friendly withthe United co-operation blocs,and maintenance stated that do the latter Tito has States.9 two Reiterating Yugoslavs objectives, theWestern blocoranyother notintend to joineither bloc. And,he continues, we withtheSoviet whileestablishing Unionand Eastern goodrelations Europe, of endangering our relations withtheWest.1o the have no intention Although shunsuse of the term renational communism Yugoslav leadership (the term seems describe visionism hasbeenemployed, this most to Yugoaptly however), for theYugoslavs is stilltheir since1948. Communism stated slavforeign policy but within a national framework. objective, only Has a reorganization of Marxist whichplaysdownthe roleof the theory relaxation ofa fewofthemore Communist which has achieved a general party, odiousaspects ofdictatorship, and local government, and strengthened regional economic amounted of comdecentralized to a merger partially management theforms ofpolitical munist economics with this is what democracy? Apparently the Yugoslav leaders believethey are achieving. less restrictive Although governmental methods haveno doubt to and the brought greater popularity regime it would to the be to claim the perhaps higher efficiency premature system, a No now have matter how of Yugoslavs democracy. manytechniques demo.
VIII (January, 'From Borba,citedin East Europe, discussion of the 1959),4. Foran extended in Yugoslav workers' see W. Loucks, "Workers' Self-Government World councils, Industry," X (October, 1958),69-72. Politics, in Action, op. cit.,p. 298; Neal, Titoism pp. 210-12. sMontias, pp.595-600. op. cit., 9 Kardelj, "On Certain International XXXVI (October, Questions," Affairs, Foreign 1957),77. 10J.Broz-Tito,
TEN YEARSOF NATIONAL COMMUNISM
937
cratic have been introduced intothe system, government theydo not appear to rest on anyinherent belief in thedemocratic on thepartofthecounprocess leaders.Titohas stated thathe doesnotwantWestern-type for try's democracy Theseleaders, itwouldbe fair tosay,areexperimenting with new Yugoslavia.11 of olderforms of administration. is thatthey Theirexpectation combinations willdiscover for a workable method willmeetboththeir which Yugoslavia capabilities and their somefeatures needs.Titoand hiscolleagues haveborrowed of which do notimpair thestability of their stillclaimto be democracy rule;they Marxists and have not abandoned their What theydo goal of communism. believe is thatthey aremore advanced thananyother communist The country. ofcourse, thatjustthereverse is true. argue Russians,
TITOISMIN YUGOSLAVIA
Titoism can be viewed as the sum of the practicalYugoslav innovations whichhave been grafted on to the structure of theoretical communsim.Titoism is communism modified to accomodatea fewof the lesserfeatures of democratic No doubtmanyin the West consider it to be the leastobjectionable government. form of communism now extant. It is also an experimental process. Even Yugoslav leaders concede that theyhave not yet evolved theirfinal,most workable model. They are still searching, still modeling, still hopingto evolve a system whichwill both insuretheircontinuance in power,yetbe fullyagreeableto the majorityof Yugoslavs, and which will solve the country'smajor economic problems. Mostsignificantly, Titoismis communism ofSovietcontrol. This independent is the most noteworthy contribution to Marxist theoryas developed by the Yugoslavs. Whatever communismhas meant to the West since 1917, it has a system and controlled fromMoscow. Communism signified guided,directed, since the 1920's has meant Soviet communism.The second concept has been fromthe first both in theory and in practice, with the one exception inseparable of China sincethe 1930's. Considering the severalmostfundamental alterations of Marxismsince 1917, the establishment of a communist which government decidesforitself the direction it will takeirrespective of the ordersand wishesof Moscow will no doubt go down as the most striking featureof Titoism. It, in fact,is Titoism.
POLAND AND THE INDEPENDENT ROAD TO SOCIALISM
Of theseveral causesof thePolishrevolt in October, be 1956,a fewmight noted.The Polisheconomy was thrown out of balancebyattempts since1949 to industrialize at the expense of othersectors of the economy. The rapidly defection of a Polishsecurity official in 1953,withsubsequent of revelations
was followed by a gradual relaxationof police controlsin police brutalities, Poland. A greater and artiststhroughout the Soviet independencefor writers bloc since Stalin's death createdpressures formore liberalizations, especiallyin Poland and Hungary. At the 20th Congressof the Soviet Communistpartyin
in Action, n Neal,Titoism p. 238.
938
theright of every to follow its proclaimed February, 1956,Khrushchev country own road to socialism. If Tito's national was earlier communism branded by Moscow as heresy, theprophet ofcommunism wasnowacknowledging thatcommunist at their countries common means.What mayarrive goalbyindependent all thismeantforthePolishpeoplewas thatby mid-1956 felt morefree they thanat anytime since WorldWar II. Moreover, thePolesfully greater expected freedoms and a continued in the dictatorial controls overtheir ecolessening and socialsystem. The Polish October was theovert nomic, political, expression ofthese and demands. expectations, hopes, The relaxation of governmental controls in Polandhas includedcurbing the activities of thesecurity of the police (by August, employees 1957,11,000 of theInterior werereleased), and assuring accusedpersons the right Ministry to an adequatedefense.In addition, the statehas assumedresponsibility for and has eased restrictions in the fields of damagecausedby stateemployees, and thearts. literature, communications, In the new regime the national over legislature (Sejm) is now supreme otherstateorgans in Poland,at leastin theory, and citizens are expected to exert direct overnational influence led themovement administration. Gomulka to grant to the Sejm additional control overthe government, the establishing BoardofControl oftheSejmfor this In addition, theCouncil Supreme purpose. of State,theinterim to pass lawswhenthe Sejm was notin bodyempowered session ofcommunists hasbeenvirtually eliminated. Most (typical governments), to one Polish are amended before Government-sponsored according bills, source,
fromthe passage, and occasionallya bill which is passed differs considerably versionsubmitted in the electionsto original by the government.12 Furthermore, the Sejm in 1957,therewere a larger number of candidatesthan therewereseats to be filled.'3 EconomicCouncil set forth severaltheses Earlyin 1957 a newlyestablished which were to highlight the Polish economic model. Hereafter, the national was to determine to longitself government only major investments, confining termplanningand discontinuing the practiceof setting detailed indices in the were to enjoy expanded fiscalautonomy, theirown plan. Enterprises perform and assume wider in and theirown responsibility planning marketing accounting, In were 1958 drawn to to shifta production.14 plans being up permitfactories measureof theirproduction more towardmeetingthe demands of the market; the factories also are to have some freedom in finding on suppliesand customers theirown. In addition, workers were to be givenan added share of the factory's
"The Sejm: Two Years of Work,"PolishPerspectives (Warsaw),No. 5 (May, 1 A. Gwizdz, theorganization andfunction oftheSejm,Rozmaryn, ofWarsaw 1959),42-43. In discussing - occathatthestanding states are to examine committees University, legislative proposals evenproposed orders andregulations in advance oftheir enactment. sionally departmental In addition, a newBudgetary Procedures Act of 1958enjoins thegovernment to speedup its submission of theannualpublicaccounts to theSejm. S. Rozmaryn, report "Parliamentary Control ofAdministrative in thePolishPeople'sRepublic," Activities Political VII Studies, 1959),75-76. (February, "New Coursein Communist XX (February, Journal Poland," of Politics, 1958),70. laR. Staar, "The System of StateControl," PolishPerspectives, No. 7-8 (November-Decem4 L. Kurowski, ber,1958),46 ff.
939
economic model wastoreshape theprice Another ofGomulka's objective profits. of a market The cenmorein accordance withtheprinciples economy. system of industrial "outlived its purtralized in Polishwords, system administration, because ofa risein theoutput ofindustry and theincreased qualpose,"chiefly sectorof the ifications and ambitions of industrial managers.15The private thethird of 1957,more was granted too. During economy quarter concessions, in a measurable in Polandwereopened, increase than8,000newshops resulting in availability ofconsumer werea reported goods.By early1958there 135,000 smallbusiness In thefirst insix months of 1958,2,430new private concerns. dustrial wereorganized.16 The expansion of private was workshops production in thismanner were in theservices sector.Goodsproduced encouraged chiefly to fillgapsin notto compete withthesocialist butwereintended merely sector, themarket. manuWithcertain smallshopscan purchase privately limitations, factured at a market in turn, goodsand can sell thesegoods, price.Also,the limits of private are notset,the onlyrequirement beingthatproducers profit must abidebythelaw. As inYugoslavia in recent so inPoland, oneofthenotable accomplishments to aid in thegeneral ecohas beentheestablishment ofworkers' councils years a stronger state nomic decentralization voicein managing and to giveemployees in Poland just priorto the OctoberRevolt, industry. Although originating workers' councils becamewidespread and immediately afterOctober. during to theDraft of March,1957,thecouncils Statute (electedby secret According ballotin theenterprise) wereto operate their own enterprises, decidewhatto and how to produce to be forthe comdetermine charged produce it, prices and were work the of and The councils out distribution wages profits. modities, toelectthedirector with himtheduties ofmanageoftheenterprise and toshare ment. By the end of 1957 there in operation." were4,647workers' councils in agriculture in September, Reforms werebegunwhenthe government, the announced the of of Machine Tractor Stations (a hallmark closing 1956, modern the sale of the MTS administration under agricultural communism), to thepeasants, in thecoland theending ofcompulsory machinery membership lective farms."'In October, Gomulka membership supported voluntary 1956, and self-government in theremaining farms collectives. Of the10,600 collective in thefallof 1956 (Polandwas theleastcollectivized in the country bloc),more than8,000had beenabolished within theyear.19 deBy thistimecompulsory liveries ofmilk wereabolished as weredeliveries ofcertain comother quotasfor modities. In addition, deliveries wereinprices paid forremaining compulsory creased.Smallpieces ofland couldbe soldprivately (butnotover15 hectares,
"New Formsof Industrial Polish Perspectives, No. 2 (June, 15S. Jakubowicz, Management," VIII (February, 1959),28. 16EastEurope, " E. Lipinski, "Reform of the Economic Model,"Polish 1958),15. No. 5 (September, 1958), Perspectives, "Worker PolishPerspectives, No. 3-4 (July-August, 13-14;J.Kofman, Self-Government," 1958),16;Staar, op. cit., p. 72. 1 M. Dziewanowski, "Limitsand Problems The Case of Poland,"Annals, of Decompression: CCCXVII (May,1958),92. ownedonly12 percentofthecountry's arableland.Rozmaryn, op. cit.,p. 70. '9 By 1959thestate
940
or 20 hectaresin the case of a cattle farm) and nationalization of agriculture, in and of itself, end of the government. ceased to be an immediate Anticipating to a collectivization eventual return drive,however,the partyleadershipresurrecteda prewarsystem of "agricultural circles" (placed under a National Union of Agricultural and collectiveattitudes Circles) to encouragemore co-operative Polish farmers.Numbering amongthe reluctant 16,500circleswith almosthalf a millionmembers are to educate farmers in modern functions bylate 1958,their loan agricultural and to lay the groundwork agricultural techniques, machinery, for a mass organization among the peasants.20 in foreign Althoughindependence policyhas not been reachedin Poland to a degreesimilarto thatin Yugoslavia,Poland is stillthe least restricted, internationally,of the Eastern European countries. Gomulka has resistedcomplete his returnto Soviet dominationin foreign following policy and, immediately thenarrow extricated itself somewhat of from confines powerin 1956,his country bloc-wide the integrated of CEMA. Insteadof exporting system greatamountsof coal to the SovietUnion and to otherEasternEuropeanmembers of CEMA at a reducedprice,the customin the past,Poland announcedits intention to sell its coal whereit would mostbenefit Poland - even if thismeant shipping it to the West. In addition,presentPolish leaders miss few opportunities to reiterate Poland's sovereignty and equal statuswithall othermembers of the bloc and to as mid-1959,that thereare no superiorand inferior compointout, as recently munistparties.21 of some liberalizations which have resultedin political, Despite the gaining and administrative has communism notbeen abandonedin Poland. legal, reforms, A reorganization and limited decentralization of industrialand agricultural freeand greaterliterary partialrelaxationof dictatorial management, controls, doms have not produced eithera free citizenry or a democraticgovernment. In the economicsphere,the chiefdilemmaof Polish economists is thatof trying to graftdecentralizedplanning and managementon to what is basically a centralized system.To introducea new order of prices and wages requiresa not The government is trying higher, lesserdegreeof centralization. apparently achieve ends to certain itself of the neces(evolve a new system)while depriving workers' councilshave not provento be sarymeans."2Even the much-heralded in practice. Gomulka has statedthat the councils paragonsof worker autonomy would be led and directed thattheywould not followthe Yugoslav by the party,
the state in otherproductswere reduced so that deliveriesof grain,as a proportion of total state purchases,fell from91 per cent in 1956 to roughly60 per cent in 1958. For livestock, are 49 per cent in 1956,to 22 per cent in 1958. E. comparablefigures Pszczolkowski,"Peasants Co-operative Organizations,Polish Perspectives,No. 4 (April, 1959), 18-20. 1 For example, during Khrushchev'svisit to Warsaw in July,1959, Gomulka, in a welcoming to equalityand brotherly of the socialistcountries. Khrushchev speech, referred friendship replied by mentioningthe free developmentof each socialist countryand by statingthat each countryshould build socialism and work toward communismin accordance with its own national, cultural,and economic peculiarities. For these statements, Khrushchevwas roundlyapplauded in Warsaw. Pravda, July22, 1959. "2See the extended discussion by W. Stantiewicz,"Gomulka's Economic Model," Canadian Forum,XXXVIII (July, 1958), 82.
20Compulsorydeliveriesto
941
and thatthey wouldnotpossess must pattern, political power.23The councils function the of thenational to thelaws within framework plan and be subject anddirections oftherespective The only thecouncils do have, enterprise. power it might be argued, is to improve theoperating of theenterprises, recefficiency ommend for determine of bonuses, and thedistribution procedures production, the dismissal of the director of the enterprise.24 As of mid-1958 the suggest councils tohavebeenmerged were a Workers' into Self-Government Conference; thiswouldbe an organization in whichparty and trade-union representatives wouldhave a vetooveranyproposals thecouncils. This seemsto be the from blowwhichkilledPolishhopesof evolving an independent of worker system control in factory management. all gainsof thePolishOctober have notbeenerased.It has Nevertheless, been suggested of publicopinion, in by Polesthatin themorefreeexpression and in the"democratic" division ofpower and authority, positive legalreforms, havemoved farther from thanhas Yugoslavia.25 Stalinism Moreautonomy they has been granted to Peoples'Councils(territorial of local government organs
can distribute theirown numbering approximately 10,000) which, supposedly,
investment means.The new Sejm has beenrevitalized, it is stillsomethough ofa compromise between a parliamentary and one ofauthoritarian thing system siderable offree still The retreat from has obtains. collectivization degree speech not been reversed, and the working the and the between arrangement party To whatextent havethereforms in Polandbeensimilar to thosein Yugoslavia?In bothcountries a limited relaxation ofdictatorial is apparent. controls
churchcontinues in force. rule. The police are excluded frompolitical activitiesand a concommunist
Restrictions of citizens have been imposedby the security police on the freedom
easedand moreindividual is permitted in bothcountries. expression Legal rehave beenadopted, forms suchas a moreliberal criminal code whichprovides
citizens additionalprotection fromarbitrary actionsof governmental and police
officials. In the economy, bothYugoslav and Polishleaders have decentralized their industrial and of administration. National has parts agricultural planning thebasicproportions of theplan. In Poland, as in Yugoslavia, have enterprises been granted additional and bothcountries have attempted to in. autonomy, tablished in Polandin 1956theorganizational to theytookwas similar pattern oftheYugoslav that model.In agricultural both and Poland reform, Yugoslavia to the collective or to peasants, further collectivization was halted, and farms,
troducecertainfeatures of a marketeconomy.When workers' councilswere esbeen simplified so that the centralgovernment in each country now sets only
a measureof independence to peasants. The MTS sold theirmachinery granted deliveries of certaincommodities were abolished. In foreign compulsory policy, of the Soviet Union. Poland, thoughnot Yugoslavia has become independent
23Staar,op. cit.,p. 73.
24
East Europe,VIII (January, 1959), 7; VIII (March, 1959), 28. ' From Zycie Warszawy (November 29, 1956), quoted in A. Haven, "Tito and Gomulka: Some Contrasts and Comparisons," Problemsof Comunism,VI (July-August, 1957), 14.
942
has declared itsintention to chooseitsownpathway toward comindependent, munism and has renewed someofitsformer contacts with theWest. Similar to in 1956that desires coexistence statement nations of Kardelj's Yugoslavia among socialsystems, inlate1957Gomulka that contended Polandshould work differing for ofvarying socialsystems. Thisslight with states measure ofindeco-operation for Polandis theclosest of anyEastern communist pendence parallel European nation totheYugoslav at leastin itsobjective ifnotin itsattainment. model, The Polishroadis not the Yugoslav roadin all details, however. Poland has proceeded further thanYugoslavia in relaxing dictatorial controls overits is stillmoreof a Stalinist an state. Moreover, citizens; internally, Yugoslavia, element of democratic has beenintroduced method intothe Polishlegislature. In itseconomic hasgonemuchfurther in decentralization and Yugoslavia model, in theintroduction for ofautonomy workers thanhas Poland. In mostof these thedifferences the twosystems between appearto be ones however, instances, more ofdegree thanofkind. 1953-1955 In Hungary theperiod from to as the 1953,to March,1955,referred July, New Course, constituted thefirst liberalization of thecommunist in that regime This period theriseand fallof thegovernment marked of ImreNagy. country. At thetime ofhisaccession to thepremiership in 1953, thebank. Nagycriticized of the economy whichhad adoptedthe Sovietpattern without ruptcy making allowances forthe capabilities and needsof Hungary. he stated Furthermore, thatthepeoplecannot be free if thenation is notindependent and ifit lacks The proper evolution ofa socialist for stems complete sovereignty. society, Nagy, frompeacefulcoexistence "different roads under amongcountries traveling national butindependent, free and equal."26 particular patterns, The essence oftheNewCourse wasoutlined in an inaugural byNagy speech ofJuly as Premier. Therewas to be lessemphasis 4, 1953, uponhisappointment on heavyindustry and moreon the light and foodindustries; the new regime would support individual and collectivization would be a peasantholdings thegeneral standard of living wouldbe raised; theLabor association; voluntary Code wouldbe liberalized and thelaw wouldprovide additional for protection there be would more freedom for intellectuals and there workers; considerably wouldbe greater forreligious tolerance slave-labor practices; campswould be abolished and there wouldbe a marked reduction in thepowers ofthepolice; for wouldbe deniedjudicialpowers.27 they example, A relaxation of thedictatorship in Hungary was a definite of the objective New Course. In a statement whichis reminiscent of thosepreviously made in
THE HUNGARIAN NEW COURSE:
fora people's democratic stateis in the Yugoslavia,Nagy arguesthata safeguard broad participation of the working massesin the exerciseof powerand adminis26 I. Nagy, Imre In Defense on Communism: Nagy oftheNew Course(New York:Praeger, 1957),
27
pp. 28, 31, 83. Summarized in F. Fejto, Behind the Rape of Hungary (New York: David McKay Co., 1957), pp. 97-101.
943
tration and in their control overthegovernment.2" In a passage written in 1955 madebyDjilasand Gerikovid inYugoslavia, observations stated resembling Nagy that the Hungarian was beingreplacedby a personal People's Democracy and that ofthefunctions ofstate dictatorship expropriations organs bytheparty is incorrect and harmful.29 At theinsistence ofNagy, a devoted and long-time theformal control ofthegovernment was bytheCommunist party Communist, moderated the three by forming largest political groups Peasant, (Communist, calledtheNationalUnity Front.Henceforth, Democrat)intoa popular front, theworking masses wereto influence and control thegovernment. An emphasis on developing a heavy in Hungary, at theurging of industry the SovietUnion and CEMA, resulted in a partial of productivity stagnation after of a largesteelindustry, 1949. Hungary forexample, begandevelopment an adequateresource base. To remedy thisunrealistic although lacking policy, a reconversion ofindustry, on consumer moreemphasis Nagyadvocated placing - including and on an expansion of foreign trade moretrade goodsproduction with theWest.30 twoprice reductions werecarried outwhich Shortly thereafter, affected some10,000 items ofconsumer workers received goods.Industrial wage wereenlarged, construction was stepped pensions increases, housing up, food and 100,000 licenses weregranted to smallshopkeepers and supplies increased, artisans to reopen their shops. In agriculture, leftthe collectives in droves in the fall of 1953. peasants Peasant debts to thestate in theform of compulsory wereeither deliveries canceledor reduced, taxation arrears werelowered or ended,and theblacklistof Kulakswas suppressed. The number fell from of collective a highin farms 1952of5,315(24.6 percentof theland) to a figure in 1955of 4,816(18.9 per centoftheland).31 these theNew Course wasonly a partial success. The Despite achievements, economic situation was not markedly and consumer improved. Agricultural increased costs went to the goods only production slightly, up, and whileincome statedropped, administrative did not. In addition to the limited expenditures effect of the economic of the New Course,Nagyneverhad the full reforms of the while he was Premier. Moscowforced support party apparatus Although Rakosito relinquish theoffice of Premier in thesummer of 1953,he remained as party chief to harass thereform The twofactions in theHungarian programs. thereformist led byNagyand theStalinist led byRakosi, werefreleadership, in conflict, neither able tosubdue theother.Finally, theRussians, quently being in certain critical thetwenty months after periods during 1953,supported July, Rakosi and theStalinists overNagy.Inheriting a very ifnotimpossible, difficult, economic overtheparty and Nagywas neverable to achievecontrol malaise, an to extent to outhispolicies. he failed to government necessary carry Finally,
Nagy, op. cit., pp. 215,221. pp. 50,252. 9Ibid., Ibid., pp. 82, 92. 3o nIn this oftime, and Hungary oftheEastern countries showed period only Yugoslavia European a measurable declinein the number of collective farms. See J.Tomasevich, "Agriculture in Eastern CCCXVII (May,1958),47. Europe," Annals,
28
944
gain the requiredsupportfromthe Russians. The downfallof Nagy and his removal from office in March,1955,consequently, wereforeordained.
HUNGARYAFTER 1956
The temporary successesof the New Course were not forgotten by the HunTheir desire for more liberalizations of the garianpeople. Nagy type,coupled with theirloweredstandardof livingsince 1949 and theirhate of the Russians meantthatby the beginning of 1956 communism in the eyesof most in Hungary, was completely discredited.More important, for purposesof the Hungarians, revoltin thefall,the populace was rapidly leadlosingitsfearof the Communist ers- both Hungarianand Russian. It is difficult to overestimate the effect of the Soviet 20th PartyCongresson the Hungariansituation.At this CongressStalin was ridiculed,national communismwas givenlukewarm was promised. approval,and moredemocratization In Hungarythese statements were interpreted as a condemnation of Rakosi, a of Nagy,and an encouragement to clean up public lifeand make it justification moredemocratic.32 on the partof Rakosi at self-criticism, Despite a feebleeffort a reorganization of thePopularFront, and large-scale the 20th amnesties following in July,1956-Party Congress,popular pressurecaused Rakosi's resignation of the New Course. just threeyearsafter inauguration The reforms and comingduringand afterthe revoltof 1956 were extensive with directdemocracy(workers'councils runningfacrangedfroma flirtation toriesand even some cities) to a modification of severalnormalfeatures of communism. Followinga relaxation of controls, Hungariansenjoyedsome improvementsin theirelectoralsystem.More candidatesappeared on the ballots than therewere offices to be filled. There was greater secrecyin ballotingand there existedan elementofpopularchoicein the pre-election of selecting candiprocess dates. General legal reforms, at least on paper, were realized throughgovernmentalprovisions the operating restricting police and spheresof the statesecurity of the military tribunals.These provisions also called for the independenceof to accused persons of freedom from judgesand fortheguarantee custody pending for all but cases." "exceptional investigation, 33 In July, to 1956, the party'sCentral Committeemade note of the necessity the of the to broaden the and expand rights legislature(National Assembly) of local governments so that the people would be able to "settletheir authority affairs" at thislevel.34 Afterthe Revoltthistrendtowardgreater local autonomy increased. A new law of January, additionalfiscal 1958,gave local governments and moresupervision overtheir authority economic, social,and culturallife.One Hungarianofficial said, of the new electorallaw, it is not ideal, but it represents as much democratic as we can afford at thistime.35 progress
of the Hungarian Communist Central 1956. Quotedin P. Party July, 83Resolutions Committee,
32
p. 126. Fejto,op. cit.,
Zinner(ed.), NationalCommunism and PopularRevoltin Eastern Europe (New York: Columbia University Press, 1956),pp.360-61. Ibid.,pp. 358-59. 34 * East 31. VII (August, Europe, 1958),
945
In movesto decentralize of the economic the Hungarian parts apparatus, Communist calledforan end to theexaggerations of centralism and for party of industrial direcgreater including independence factory managers, ministers, and engineers. In 1956and 1957a number of central ministries tors, foremen, wereabolished one third), and there wereaccompanying reduc(approximately tions in central boards and large-scale dismissals ofadministrative (an personnel estimated 25-28 per centof the administrative in the central and employees 36 local governments wereremoved in 1957). Concessions toprivate business were madebytheKadargovernment followweregranted morefreedom to rent the ingtheRevolt.Businessmen shopsfrom stateand to hirea specified number of employees; raw material allocations to these businessmen wereincreased; weregiven in the privileges private operators construction and forthoseexporting handicrafts. As building industry quality a result of theseconcessions, therewere28,000licensedartisans in Budapest in December, to 5,000employees 1957 (compared in employing 8,500workers tradesmen in Budapest increased from in 1956 to 1956). Private 4,000 5,300in In Kadar noted that artisans and tradesmen made 1958.37 October, private 1958, a positive contribution thepost-Revolt and he assured them during consolidation, thatthey wouldenjoythe opportunity of "smallcapitalists" forsometimeto come. Laterin the year, the regime of however, beganrestricting operations A businessmen. maximum of limit 8 cent was set on of private legal per profits and it became for in state to take private artisans, illegal employees enterprises in theprivate sector. Stateretail stores werelimited in theamount employment of commodities whichthey couldbuyfrom and was enterprise artisans, private barred from credit industries." manufacturing As inYugoslavia andPoland, had itsworkers' councils Hungary, too, which, the assumeda dual role of factory and city during revolution, management Thishighpoint ofthecouncils soonpassed, however. Late in 1957 government. thecouncils wereabolished and replaced innocuous councils bythemore factory in turn, seemto be dominated which, bythetrade-unions. In agriculture, the regime declared an armistice on forced collectivization after theRevolt, increased theprices offarm abolished the products, compulsory to collective farms and to delivery system equal support and,in 1958,pledged individual farmers alike. The results ofthisprogram meant an 8 to 10 percent increase in peasant income for1957overthatfor1956,and an increase in peasantconsumption oftheir ownproducts. In 1959, some however, 350,000 peasants wereforced backintocollective farms.39 reportedly The recent of Hungary resembles thatof Polandin severalways. history Thereexisted in eachof thecountries a tradition of national battles the against the bitter of Sovieteconomic Russians, a dispostwar experience exploitation,
satisfaction with dictatorial a widespreadpopular desire for more incontrols,
1958),p. 6; (August, 1958), p. 18. Ibid.,(July, 1959),23. 3 Ibid.,VIII (February, pp. 29-30. s Ibid., "Ibid.,VII (May,1958), 46-7,58. "
946
and a schism thelocal Communist Therewas, within dividual party. freedom, a very difference which settheHungarian situation not significant apart however, had no thatof Poland,butfrom thatof Yugoslavia also. Hungary onlyfrom the manwhocouldsuccessfully moderate thecommunist to satisfy strong system not and at thesametime an established yetretain governmental order, majority, had its domineering and intoviolent reprisals. Yugoslavia goad the Russians had only forceful Titoand Polanditsstrong and resourceful Gomulka; Hungary communism. itsweak,politically ImreNagyas itsspokesman fornational inept leaderof men,nota skillful in thegameof comNagywas nota great player ableto munist Mostimportant, andnota revolutionary. Nagywas never politics, it seems, of theHungarian Communist getthemajority party.History, support had passedImreNagyby. Following thefailure oftheNew Courseand stimulated by popularreaction the oppressive whichcame after it, against regime national communism and revisionism in Hungary.Getting out spreadrapidly of handbythesummer and fallof 1956,theRevoltcaught up and consumed and even not or could moderated thesystem Tito Gomulka have Nagy.Perhaps unable to do Furtherin was so. prevented Nagy anarchy Hungary. Certainly thenational at the timeof theRevoltwereuncommunists in Hungary more, a to lacked and they wereunprepared organized; they well-thought-out program takeoverthegovernment in sucha period ofstress. The reforms of communism in Hungary to thoseof since1953are similar in several Tito's The New Course Yugoslavia independent respects. paralleled roadsunder thenecessity forcountries to travel different road;Nagydiscussed national each and equal. particular beingindependent, patterns, country free, The effort to playdownthemonopolizing was roleof the party in Yugoslavia seenin Hungary in theestablishment Front aimedat permitting of thePopular revoicesto participate in governmental non-party other, policy.The electoral forms carried out in Yugoslavia wereexpressed whenthatcountry, in Hungary after theRevolt, also began for to voters each morethanone candidate offering elective office. The curbing was ofactivities of thesecurity policein Yugoslavia reflected in thegeneral after 1956. The Yugoenacted in Hungary legalreforms on reinvigorating itmore localgovernment and granting slavinsistence autonomy had itscounterpart in Hungary and justafter theRevolt.The bothjustbefore rather extensive in Yugoslaviahad its decentralization economic-managerial in Hungary abolition of 1956and 1957,evento thesimilar parallel throughout someeconomic form of The Yugoslavexperiments witha limited ministries. worker self-rule have beendeliberately might when, copiedby theHungarians to theRevolt, several wentto Yugoslavia Communists prior leading Hungarian to studythe functioning of workers' in agricultural councils.The slow-down collectivization in Yugoslavia and theending ofcompulsory as wellas deliveries,
tax policies, had their easing the lot of the peasant throughless restrictive measuresin Hungaryboth duringthe New Course and afterthe counterpart Revolt. of the Yugoslav model,at least two other Apart fromthe possibleinfluence factors to thegrowth have contributed of nationalcommunism in Hungary. might
947
witha like new The New Coursein Hungary was carried out simultaneously Malenkov.Moreover, course in the SovietUnionunderPremier manyof the have been in the process of developing in the reforms achievedin Hungary in thelegal Soviet Union. Economic-managerial improvements decentralization, the security of slave-labor curbing system, camps,a slightly police,abolition freedom ofexpression, more for and localgovernment, greater autonomy regional in the techniques of central are all reforms which and modifications planning haveoccurred in theSoviet Unionsince1953. theYugoslavs haveno patent on nationalism, disappointment Furthermore, theextremes ofcommunism, and dislike ofSoviet Thesefeelwith domination. couldhavearisen in Polandand Hungary because ofpostwar ings developments in Eastern than from desireto mimicthe any overwhelming Europerather theYugoslav be underestimated, and cannot Yugoslavs. Nevertheless, example on thesurface. itsinfluence in Eastern thanwhatappears Europe maybe greater
CONCLUSIONS
modelof national in its essence, The Yugoslav meansindecommunism, in foreign with communist policyand a cautiousexperimentation pendence butsupported andwith economic In Poland bya firm theory forms, dictatorship. of independence national communism in foreign todaymeansa slight degree a greater of civiland political economic measure freepolicy, experimentation, domsthanexists in anyother communist butwitha continuance ofthe country, and a remaining close alliancewiththe SovietUnion. In party dictatorship national itspastachievements, is virtually dead. Hungary despite communism, Thereis no independence in foreign for someof and although policy Hungarians, thegains oftheRevolt still thecountry has quickly reverted toa full-scale obtain, satellite from Moscow. closely supervised Therehaveoccurred in Yugoslavia, and Hungary since1948certain Poland, whichhave contributed to and shapedthe patterns of paralleldevelopments national communism in thesecountries. to Moscowis subservience Complete in thethree and legalsafeguards forcitizens morein the unpopular countries, form ofthatexistent in Western societies are favored. The unchecked activities ofsecurity ofthepastin Yugoslavia and Polandand wereonly policearea thing reinstated in Hungary. Overcentralization in governmental recently operations has beenmodified in thethree thisis also thecase withforced colcountries; deliveries of agricultural and compulsory lectivization, punitive commodities, taxesdirected in all threecountries measures have against peasants.Finally, been takento improve the supply of consumer intothe goodsand to breathe at leastthesemblance ofa market system planned economy. national communism arose in and Why Yugoslavia, Poland,and Hungary
to what extentit is the same development in all threeis not readilyanswerable, but several hypotheses can be suggested to explain the phenomenon. Perhaps merecoincidence is the reasonforthe riseof similar eventsin the threecountries. There do exist some markeddifferences among the patternsof national communismin each case. The expression of national aspirations is a common oc-
948
currence in Eastern there is nothing aboutYugoslav, certainly Europe; complex to becomeindependent desires of Sovietcontrol.NaPolish,and Hungarian tionalism was a very considerable factor to theevents in Yugoslavia contributing in 1948,in Hungary in 1953,and in Polandand Hungary in 1956. Apartfrom thefactors ofcoincidence andnationalism, andeconomic reforms perhaps political under do occur, whenthey can takeonly one form. communism, Consequently, whenthe leadership to liberalize the system, such as attempts improvements individual economic and decentralization, and greater reorganization freedoms, in agricultural modifications collectivization are reforms mosteasilyachievable. In support ofthistheory is thefactthatsuchreforms haveoccurred, to though a considerably lessdegree, in theSovietUnionwhere national communism (at leastthatpartof it whichmeansdeviation from the Sovietmodel) is not at issue. Finally, it can be suggested to thatthere in a causalrelationship is, fact, national communism events which took in Yugoslavia place and,consequently, after on later 1948had direct in Polandand Hungary. bearing developments Evidence forthe causal hypothesis, at timescircumstantial, has although thequality ofsubstance. of the reforms in and Poland Many parallel Hungary so closely those which wereworked in Yugoslavia outearlier as to argue against a simpleexplanation of coincidence, or nationalism. the By Polishadmission, influenced Polish As as Communists. 1948 Yugoslav obstinacy significantly early demurred Gomulka in siding withStalinagainst theYugoslavs to and declined brandTito a deviationist. When Gomulkawas removed fromhis post as ofthePolishCommunist Polishsources conceded that Secretary-General party, thedismissal wasconnected the"disgraceful with In affair." 40 Yugoslav October, stated Gomulka thatthepathsfor in different socialism countries 1956, attaining he said,maybe thatof theSovietUnion, mayvary.The modelforsocialism, ofYugoslavia, or something stilldifferent. In 1957whenGomulka and Premier visited discussed roads to Cyrankiewicz theysupposedly separate Yugoslavia, socialism with Tito. In Hungary, earlier been had accused of "new (who Nagy referred to Titoism in as the creative of Titoism") Yugoslavia application Marxism-Leninism in building socialism underthespecific socialand economic conditions ofYugoslavia. tothe1956Revolt, a delegaton oftopHungarian prior Just Communists visited thatcountry's workers' councils.This to study Yugoslavia saidtheaccount in theHungarian Communist is of convisit, party newspaper, siderable because itwillbring backinteresting and useful importance experiences on democracy in Yugoslav and theproblem of independence "which enterprises us very interests much." 41 Most significantly, statements the by Tito and Gomulkaduring perhaps, oftheHungarian Revolt lendcredence to thecausalhypothesis height byimplyon theessence ofnational communism. Titosaid: ingagreement
The essentialpartsof the politicalplatform of the new Hungarianpoliticaland state leaderof public life,the introduction of workers'self-management and ship, such as the democratization in general,the settlement democraticself-government of relationsbetween socialistcountrieson
40H.
Titoand Goliath(New York: Macmillan, Armstrong, 1951),p. 157. * East VIII (March, Europe, 1959),20.
949
the basis of equalityand respectforsovereignty, fornegotiations on the withtakingthe initiative drawal of Soviet troops. . . are proofthat the policyof the presentstate and political leadership of the Hungarianworking and the genuine socialistaspirations people have merged."
On thesameday Gomulka added:

We know the programof the Governmentof National Unity of Hungary,the programof socialist democracy,of betterment of living standards,of creation of workers'councils, of full of the withdrawalof Soviet troops fromHungary,of the basing of friendnational sovereignty, of equality.' ship withthe Soviet Union on the Leninistprinciples
For Tito and Gomulka, several criteria are implicit in their of interpretations whatconstituted in Hungary:(1) introduction of somedemocracy in progress national ofworkers' ofSoviet life;(2) establishment councils; (3) removal troops; and (4) sovereign ofeachcountry with theSoviet the Union. Although equality ofnational communism in Eastern it patterns Europehaveseveral then, origins, wouldseemthat thecausalfactor oftheYugoslav modelgoesa longwaytoward theriseofthephenomenon in Polandand Hungary since1952. explaining As for itsfuture, national communism can be expected to flourish in counitis widely tries where accepted bytheprevailing leadership (Yugoslavia, Poland, to ferment continue and grow in other areas China). It will,in all probability, under communism where is combined there in onecountry economic dislocation, and a strong oppressive governmental populardesireto be morein, controls, of theSoviet Union. dependent
' Quotedin Zinner, op. cit.,p. 447. * was forwarded in thenameoftheCentral Committee, Ibid.,p. 445. This resolution Gomulka, and Premier Cyrankiewicz.

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University of Utah Western Political Science Association

EASTERN EUROPE'S TEN YEARS OF NATIONAL COMMUNISM: 1948-1958

TEN YEARS OF NATIONAL COMMUNISM

THE WESTERN POLITICAL QUARTERLY

TEN YEARSOF NATIONAL COMMUNISM

THE WESTERN POLITICAL QUARTERLY

TEN YEARS OF NATIONAL COMMUNISM

THE WESTERN POLITICAL QUARTERLY

TEN YEARS OF NATIONAL COMMUNISM

THE WESTERN POLITICAL QUARTERLY

TEN YEARS OF NATIONAL COMMUNISM

THE WESTERN POLITICAL QUARTERLY

p. 126. Fejto,op. cit.,

TEN YEARS OF NATIONAL COMMUNISM

THE WESTERN POLITICAL QUARTERLY

TEN YEARS OF NATIONAL COMMUNISM

THE WESTERN POLITICAL QUARTERLY

TEN YEARS OF NATIONAL COMMUNISM

On thesameday Gomulka added:

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