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Fuel cell

Direct-methanol fuel cell. The actual fuel cell stack is the layered cube shape in the center of the image

A fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device. It produces electricity from fuel (on the anode
side) and an oxidant (on the cathode side), which react in the presence of an electrolyte. The reactants
flow into the cell, and the reaction products flow out of it, while the electrolyte remains within it. Fuel
cells can operate virtually continuously as long as the necessary flows are maintained.

Fuel cells are different from electrochemical cell batteries in that they consume reactant from an
external source, which must be replenished[1] – a thermodynamically open system. By contrast,
batteries store electrical energy chemically and hence represent a thermodynamically closed system.

Many combinations of fuels and oxidants are possible. A hydrogen fuel cell uses hydrogen as its fuel
and oxygen (usually from air) as its oxidant. Other fuels include hydrocarbons and alcohols. Other
oxidants include chlorine and chlorine dioxide.[2]

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Fuel cell design


o 1.1 Proton exchange fuel cells
o 1.2 Oxygen ion exchange fuel cells
o 1.3 Proton exchange membrane fuel cell design issues
• 2 History
• 3 Types of fuel cells
• 4 Efficiency
o 4.1 Fuel cell efficiency
o 4.2 In practice
• 5 Fuel cell applications
o 5.1 Suggested applications
o 5.2 Hydrogen transportation and refueling
o 5.3 Market structure
• 6 Hydrogen economy
• 7 Research and development
• 8 See also
• 9 References
• 10 External links

• 11 Further reading

[edit] Fuel cell design


A fuel cell works by catalysis, separating the component electrons and protons of the reactant fuel, and
forcing the electrons to travel through a circuit, hence converting them to electrical power. The catalyst
typically comprises a platinum group metal or alloy. Another catalytic process puts the electrons back
in, combining them with the protons and oxidant to form waste products (typically simple compounds
like water and carbon dioxide).

A typical fuel cell produces a voltage from 0.6 V to 0.7 V at full rated load. Voltage decreases as
current increases, due to several factors:

• Activation loss
• Ohmic loss (voltage drop due to resistance of the cell components and interconnects)
• Mass transport loss (depletion of reactants at catalyst sites under high loads, causing rapid loss
of voltage)[3]

To deliver the desired amount of energy, the fuel cells can be combined in series and parallel circuits,
where series yields higher voltage, and parallel allows a stronger current to be drawn. Such a design is
called a fuel cell stack. Further, the cell surface area can be increased, to allow stronger current from
each cell.

[edit] Proton exchange fuel cells

In the archetypal hydrogen–oxygen proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) design, a proton-
conducting polymer membrane, (the electrolyte), separates the anode and cathode sides. This was
called a "solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell" (SPEFC) in the early 1970s, before the proton exchange
mechanism was well-understood. (Notice that "polymer electrolyte membrane" and "proton exchange
mechanism" result in the same acronym.)

On the anode side, hydrogen diffuses to the anode catalyst where it later dissociates into protons and
electrons. These protons often react with oxidants causing them to become what is commonly referred
to as multi-facilitated proton membranes (MFPM). The protons are conducted through the membrane
to the cathode, but the electrons are forced to travel in an external circuit (supplying power) because
the membrane is electrically insulating. On the cathode catalyst, oxygen molecules react with the
electrons (which have traveled through the external circuit) and protons to form water — in this
example, the only waste product, either liquid or vapor.

In addition to this pure hydrogen type, there are hydrocarbon fuels for fuel cells, including diesel,
methanol (see: direct-methanol fuel cells and indirect methanol fuel cells) and chemical hydrides. The
waste products with these types of fuel are carbon dioxide and water.
Construction of a high temperature PEMFC: Bipolar plate as electrode with in-milled gas channel
structure, fabricated from conductive plastics (enhanced with carbon nanotubes for more conductivity);
Porous carbon papers; reactive layer, usually on the polymer membrane applied; polymer membrane.

Condensation of water produced by a PEMFC on the air channel wall. The gold wire around the cell
ensures the collection of electric current.[4]

The materials used in fuel cells differ by type. In a typical membrane electrode assembly (MEA), the
electrode–bipolar plates are usually made of metal, nickel or carbon nanotubes, and are coated with a
catalyst (like platinum, nano iron powders or palladium) for higher efficiency. Carbon paper separates
them from the electrolyte. The electrolyte could be ceramic or a membrane.

[edit] Oxygen ion exchange fuel cells

In a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) design, the anode and cathode are separated by an electrolyte that is
conductive to oxygen ions but non-conductive to electrons. The electrolyte is typically made from
zirconia doped with yttria.

On the cathode side, oxygen catalytically reacts with a supply of electrons to become oxygen ions,
which diffuse through the electrolyte to the anode side. On the anode side, the oxygen ions react with
hydrogen to form water and free electrons. A load connected externally between the anode and cathode
completes the electrical circuit.

Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) operate in a similar manner, except the electrolyte consists of
liquid (molten) carbonate, which is a negative ion and an oxidizing agent. Because the electrolyte loses
carbonate in the oxidation reaction, the carbonate must be replenished through some means. This is
often performed by recirculating the carbon dioxide from the oxidation products into the cathode
where it reacts with the incoming air and reforms carbonate.

Unlike proton exchange fuel cells, the catalysts in SOFCs and MCFCs are not poisoned by carbon
monoxide, due to much higher operating temperatures. Because the oxidation reaction occurs in the
anode, direct utilization of the carbon monoxide is possible. Also, steam produced by the oxidation
reaction can shift carbon monoxide and steam reform hydrocarbon fuels inside the anode. These
reactions can use the same catalysts used for the electrochemical reaction, eliminating the need for an
external fuel reformer.

[edit] Proton exchange membrane fuel cell design issues

• Costs. In 2002, typical fuel cell systems cost US$1000 per kilowatt of electric power output. In
2008, the Department of Energy reported that fuel cell system costs in volume production are
$73 per kilowatt.[citation needed] The goal is $35 per kilowatt. In 2008 UTC Power has 400 kW
stationary fuel cells for $1,000,000 per 400 kW installed costs. The goal is to reduce the cost in
order to compete with current market technologies including gasoline internal combustion
engines. Many companies are working on techniques to reduce cost in a variety of ways
including reducing the amount of platinum needed in each individual cell. Ballard Power
Systems have experiments with a catalyst enhanced with carbon silk which allows a 30%
reduction (1 mg/cm² to 0.7 mg/cm²) in platinum usage without reduction in performance.[5].
Monash University, Melbourne uses PEDOT instead of platinum.[6]
• The production costs of the PEM (proton exchange membrane). The Nafion membrane
currently costs $565.92/m². In 2005 Ballard Power Systems announced that its fuel cells will
use Solupor, a porous polyethylene film patented by DSM.[7][8]
• Water and air management[9] (in PEMFCs). In this type of fuel cell, the membrane must be
hydrated, requiring water to be evaporated at precisely the same rate that it is produced. If
water is evaporated too quickly, the membrane dries, resistance across it increases, and
eventually it will crack, creating a gas "short circuit" where hydrogen and oxygen combine
directly, generating heat that will damage the fuel cell. If the water is evaporated too slowly, the
electrodes will flood, preventing the reactants from reaching the catalyst and stopping the
reaction. Methods to manage water in cells are being developed like electroosmotic pumps
focusing on flow control. Just as in a combustion engine, a steady ratio between the reactant
and oxygen is necessary to keep the fuel cell operating efficiently.
• Temperature management. The same temperature must be maintained throughout the cell in
order to prevent destruction of the cell through thermal loading. This is particularly challenging
as the 2H2 + O2 -> 2H2O reaction is highly exothermic, so a large quantity of heat is generated
within the fuel cell.
• Durability, service life, and special requirements for some type of cells. Stationary fuel cell
applications typically require more than 40,000 hours of reliable operation at a temperature of
-35 °C to 40 °C (-31 °F to 104 °F), while automotive fuel cells require a 5,000 hour lifespan
(the equivalent of 150,000 miles) under extreme temperatures. Current service life is 7,300
hours under cycling conditions[10]. Automotive engines must also be able to start reliably at -30
°C (-22 °F) and have a high power to volume ratio (typically 2.5 kW per liter).
• Limited carbon monoxide tolerance of the cathode.

[edit] History
Main article: Timeline of hydrogen technologies

Sketch of William Grove's 1839 fuel cell

The principle of the fuel cell was discovered by German scientist Christian Friedrich Schönbein in
1838 and published in one of the scientific magazines of the time.[11] Based on this work, the first fuel
cell was demonstrated by Welsh scientist and barrister Sir William Robert Grove in the February 1839
edition of the Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science[12] and later sketched, in 1842, in the
same journal.[13] The fuel cell he made used similar materials to today's phosphoric-acid fuel cell.

In 1955, W. Thomas Grubb, a chemist working for the General Electric Company (GE), further
modified the original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as
the electrolyte. Three years later another GE chemist, Leonard Niedrach, devised a way of depositing
platinum onto the membrane, which served as catalyst for the necessary hydrogen oxidation and
oxygen reduction reactions. This became known as the 'Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell'. GE went on to
develop this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft, leading to its use during Project Gemini.
This was the first commercial use of a fuel cell. It wasn't until 1959 that British engineer Francis
Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW stationary fuel cell. In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig
built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers which was demonstrated across the US at state fairs.
This system used potassium hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the
reactants. Later in 1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable
of powering a welding machine. In the 1960s, Pratt and Whitney licensed Bacon's U.S. patents for use
in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and oxygen being readily
available from the spacecraft tanks).

United Technologies Corporation's UTC Power subsidiary was the first company to manufacture and
commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell system for use as a co-generation power plant in hospitals,
universities and large office buildings. UTC Power continues to market this fuel cell as the PureCell
200, a 200 kW system (although soon to be replaced by a 400 kW version, expected for sale in late
2009).[14] UTC Power continues to be the sole supplier of fuel cells to NASA for use in space vehicles,
having supplied the Apollo missions,[15] and currently the Space Shuttle program, and is developing
fuel cells for automobiles, buses, and cell phone towers; the company has demonstrated the first fuel
cell capable of starting under freezing conditions with its proton exchange membrane automotive fuel
cell.

[edit] Types of fuel cells

Working Cost
Fuel Cell Qualified Electrical
Electrolyte Temperature Status per
Name Power (W) efficiency
(°C) Watt

Aqueous alkaline
Metal above -20
solution
hydride fuel (50% Ppeak @ Commercial/Research
(e.g.potassium
cell 0°C)
hydroxide)

Aqueous alkaline
Electro-
solution (e.g.,
galvanic fuel under 40 Commercial/Research
potassium
cell
hydroxide)
Direct formic Polymer
acid fuel cell membrane to 50 W under 40 Commercial/Research
(DFAFC) (ionomer)

Aqueous alkaline
Zinc-air solution (e.g.,
under 40 Mass production
battery potassium
hydroxide)

Polymer
Microbial
membrane or under 40 Research
fuel cell
humic acid

Upflow
microbial fuel under 40 Research
cell (UMFC)

Polymer
Regenerative
membrane under 50 Commercial/Research
fuel cell
(ionomer)

Direct Aqueous alkaline


borohydride solution (e.g., 70 Commercial
fuel cell sodium hydroxide)

Aqueous alkaline Cell: 60–


Alkaline fuel solution (e.g., 10 kW to 70%
under 80 Commercial/Research
cell potassium 100 kW System:
hydroxide) 62%

Cell: 20–
Direct Polymer
100 mW to 30%
methanol fuel membrane 90–120 Commercial/Research
1 kW System:
cell (ionomer)
10–20%

Cell: 50–
Reformed Polymer (Reformer)250–
5 W to 60%
methanol fuel membrane 300 Commercial/Research
100 kW System:
cell (ionomer) (PBI)125–200
25–40%

Direct- Polymer up to above 25 Research


ethanol fuel membrane 140 mW/c
? 90–120
cell (ionomer) m²

Polymer
Proton membrane Cell: 50– $30–
exchange (ionomer) (e.g., 100 W to (Nafion)50–120 70% 35
Commercial/Research
membrane Nafion or 500 kW (PBI)125–220 System: per
fuel cell Polybenzimidazole 30–50% watt
fiber)

Liquid electrolytes
with redox shuttle
1 kW to 10
RFC - Redox & polymer Research
MW
membrane
(Ionomer)

Cell: 55%
$4–
System:
Phosphoric Molten phosphoric up to 10 $4.50
150-200 40% Commercial/Research
acid fuel cell acid (H3PO4) MW per
Co-Gen:
watt
90%

Molten alkaline
Molten carbonate (e.g., Cell: 55%
carbonate sodium 100 MW 600-650 System: Commercial/Research
fuel cell bicarbonate 47%
NaHCO3)

O2--conducting Cell: 60–


Tubular solid
ceramic oxide up to 100 65%
oxide fuel cell 850-1100 Commercial/Research
(e.g., zirconium MW System:
(TSOFC)
dioxide, ZrO2) 55–60%

Protonic
H+-conducting
ceramic fuel 700 Research
ceramic oxide
cell

Cell: 80%
Direct carbon
Several different 700-850 System: Commercial/Research
fuel cell
70%

Planar Solid O2--conducting up to 100 850-1100 Cell: 60– Commercial/Research


ceramic oxide
(e.g., zirconium
65%
dioxide, ZrO2
oxide fuel cell MW System:
Lanthanum Nickel
55–60%
Oxide La2XO4,X=
Ni,Co, Cu.)

Any that will not


Enzymatic denature the
under 40 Research
Biofuel Cells enzyme (usually
aqueous buffer).

[edit] Efficiency
[edit] Fuel cell efficiency

The efficiency of a fuel cell is dependent on the amount of power drawn from it. Drawing more power
means drawing more current, which increases the losses in the fuel cell. As a general rule, the more
power (current) drawn, the lower the efficiency. Most losses manifest themselves as a voltage drop in
the cell, so the efficiency of a cell is almost proportional to its voltage. For this reason, it is common to
show graphs of voltage versus current (so-called polarization curves) for fuel cells. A typical cell
running at 0.7 V has an efficiency of about 50%, meaning that 50% of the energy content of the
hydrogen is converted into electrical energy; the remaining 50% will be converted into heat.
(Depending on the fuel cell system design, some fuel might leave the system unreacted, constituting an
additional loss.)

For a hydrogen cell operating at standard conditions with no reactant leaks, the efficiency is equal to
the cell voltage divided by 1.48 V, based on the enthalpy, or heating value, of the reaction. For the
same cell, the second law efficiency is equal to cell voltage divided by 1.23 V. (This voltage varies
with fuel used, and quality and temperature of the cell.) The difference between these numbers
represents the difference between the reaction's enthalpy and Gibbs free energy. This difference always
appears as heat, along with any losses in electrical conversion efficiency.

Fuel cells do not operate on a thermal cycle. As such, they are not constrained, as combustion engines
are, in the same way by thermodynamic limits, such as Carnot cycle efficiency. At times this is
misrepresented by saying that fuel cells are exempt from the laws of thermodynamics, because most
people think of thermodynamics in terms of combustion processes (enthalpy of formation). The laws of
thermodynamics also hold for chemical processes (Gibbs free energy) like fuel cells, but the maximum
theoretical efficiency is higher (83% efficient at 298K [16]) than the Otto cycle thermal efficiency (60%
for compression ratio of 10 and specific heat ratio of 1.4). Comparing limits imposed by
thermodynamics is not a good predictor of practically achievable efficiencies. Also, if propulsion is the
goal, electrical output of the fuel cell has to still be converted into mechanical power with the
corresponding inefficiency. In reference to the exemption claim, the correct claim is that the
"limitations imposed by the second law of thermodynamics on the operation of fuel cells are much less
severe than the limitations imposed on conventional energy conversion systems".[17] Consequently, they
can have very high efficiencies in converting chemical energy to electrical energy, especially when
they are operated at low power density, and using pure hydrogen and oxygen as reactants.
[edit] In practice

For a fuel cell operating on air (rather than bottled oxygen), losses due to the air supply system must
also be taken into account. This refers to the pressurization of the air and dehumidifying it. This
reduces the efficiency significantly and brings it near to that of a compression ignition engine.
Furthermore fuel cell efficiency decreases as load increases.

The tank-to-wheel efficiency of a fuel cell vehicle is about 45% at low loads and shows average values
of about 36% when a driving cycle like the NEDC (New European Driving Cycle) is used as test
procedure.[18] The comparable NEDC value for a Diesel vehicle is 22%. In 2008 Honda released a car
(the Honda FCX Clarity) with fuel stack claiming a 60% tank-to-wheel efficiency [19].

It is also important to take losses due to fuel production, transportation, and storage into account. Fuel
cell vehicles running on compressed hydrogen may have a power-plant-to-wheel efficiency of 22% if
the hydrogen is stored as high-pressure gas, and 17% if it is stored as liquid hydrogen.[20] In addition to
the production losses, over 70% of US' electricity used for hydrogen production comes from thermal
power, which only has an efficiency of 33% to 48%, resulting in a net increase in carbon dioxide
production by using hydrogen in vehicles[citation needed].

Fuel cells cannot store energy like a battery, but in some applications, such as stand-alone power plants
based on discontinuous sources such as solar or wind power, they are combined with electrolyzers and
storage systems to form an energy storage system. The overall efficiency (electricity to hydrogen and
back to electricity) of such plants (known as round-trip efficiency) is between 30 and 50%, depending
on conditions.[21] While a much cheaper lead-acid battery might return about 90%, the electrolyzer/fuel
cell system can store indefinite quantities of hydrogen, and is therefore better suited for long-term
storage.

Solid-oxide fuel cells produce exothermic heat from the recombination of the oxygen and hydrogen.
The ceramic can run as hot as 800 degrees Celsius. This heat can be captured and used to heat water in
a micro combined heat and power (m-CHP) application. When the heat is captured, total efficiency can
reach 80-90% at the unit, but does not consider production and distribution losses. CHP units are being
developed today for the European home market.

[edit] Fuel cell applications


Further information: Fuel cell vehicle, Stationary fuel cell applications, and Portable fuel cell
applications

Type 212 submarine with fuel cell propulsion of the German Navy in dry dock
The world's first certified Fuel Cell Boat (HYDRA), in Leipzig/Germany

Fuel cells are very useful as power sources in remote locations, such as spacecraft, remote weather
stations, large parks, rural locations, and in certain military applications. A fuel cell system running on
hydrogen can be compact and lightweight, and have no major moving parts. Because fuel cells have no
moving parts and do not involve combustion, in ideal conditions they can achieve up to 99.9999%
reliability.[22] This equates to around one minute of down time in a two year period.

Micro combined heat and power systems such as home fuel cells and cogeneration for office buildings
and factories are in mass production phase. The stationary fuel cell application generates constant
electric power (selling excess power back to the grid when it is not consumed), and at the same time
produces hot air and water from the waste heat. A lower fuel-to-electricity conversion efficiency is
tolerated (typically 15-20%), because most of the energy not converted into electricity is utilized as
heat. Some heat is lost with the exhaust gas just as in a normal furnace, so the combined heat and
power efficiency is still lower than 100%, typically around 80%. In terms of exergy however, the
process is inefficient, and one could do better by maximizing the electricity generated and then using
the electricity to drive a heat pump. Phosphoric-acid fuel cells (PAFC) comprise the largest segment of
existing CHP products worldwide and can provide combined efficiencies close to 90%[23] (35-50%
electric + remainder as thermal) Molten-carbonate fuel cells have also been installed in these
applications, and solid-oxide fuel cell prototypes exist.

Since electrolyzer systems do not store fuel in themselves, but rather rely on external storage units,
they can be successfully applied in large-scale energy storage, rural areas being one example. In this
application, batteries would have to be largely oversized to meet the storage demand, but fuel cells
only need a larger storage unit (typically cheaper than an electrochemical device).

One such pilot program is operating on Stuart Island in Washington State. There the Stuart Island
Energy Initiative[24] has built a complete, closed-loop system: Solar panels power an electrolyzer which
makes hydrogen. The hydrogen is stored in a 500 gallon tank at 200 PSI, and runs a ReliOn fuel cell to
provide full electric back-up to the off-the-grid residence. The SIEI website gives extensive technical
details.

The world's first Fuel Cell Boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5 kW net output.

In 2003, the world's first propeller driven airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown (the
first fuel cell powered aircraft was the Space Shuttle). The fuel cell was a unique FlatStackTM stack
design which allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the aerodynamic surfaces of the plane.[25]

[edit] Suggested applications

• Backup Power
• Base load power plants
• Electric and hybrid vehicles.
• Auxiliary power
• Off-grid power supply
• Notebook computers for applications where AC charging may not be available for weeks at a
time.
• Portable charging docks for small electronics (e.g. a belt clip that charges your cell phone or
PDA).
• Smartphones with high power consumption due to large displays and additional features like
GPS might be equipped with micro fuel cells.
[edit] Hydrogen transportation and refueling

Main articles: Hydrogen vehicle, Hydrogen station, and Hydrogen highway

Toyota FCHV PEM FC fuel cell vehicle.

Mercedes-Benz (Daimler AG) Citaro fuel cell bus on Aldwych, London.

Element One fuel cell vehicle.

Hydrogen fueling station.


Toyota's FCHV-BUS at the Expo 2005.

The GM 1966 Electrovan was the automotive industry's first attempt at an automobile powered by a
hydrogen fuel cell. The Electrovan, which weighed more than twice as much as a normal van, could
travel up to 70mph for 30 seconds.[18][26]

The 2001 Chrysler Natrium used its own on-board hydrogen processor. It produces hydrogen for the
fuel cell by reacting sodium borohydride fuel with Borax, both of which Chrysler claimed were
naturally occurring in great quantity in the United States.[27] The hydrogen produces electric power in
the fuel cell for near-silent operation and a range of 300 miles without impinging on passenger space.
Chrysler also developed vehicles which separated hydrogen from gasoline in the vehicle, the purpose
being to reduce emissions without relying on a nonexistent hydrogen infrastructure and to avoid large
storage tanks.[28]

The first public hydrogen refueling station was opened in Reykjavík, Iceland in April 2003. This
station serves three buses built by DaimlerChrysler that are in service in the public transport net of
Reykjavík. The station produces the hydrogen it needs by itself, with an electrolyzing unit (produced
by Norsk Hydro), and does not need refilling: all that enters is electricity and water. Royal Dutch Shell
is also a partner in the project. The station has no roof, in order to allow any leaked hydrogen to escape
to the atmosphere.

In 2003 President George Bush proposed the Hydrogen Fuel Initiative (HFI), which was later
implemented by legislation through the 2005 Energy Policy Act and the 2006 Advanced Energy
Initiative. These aimed at further developing hydrogen fuel cells and its infrastructure technologies
with the ultimate goal to produce commercial fuel cell vehicles by 2020. By 2008, the U.S. had
contributed 1 billion dollars to this project.[29]

In May 2009, however, the Obama Administration announced that it will "cut off funds" for the
development of fuel cell hydrogen vehicles, since other vehicle technologies will lead to quicker
reduction in emissions in a shorter time. The US Secretary of Energy explained that hydrogen vehicles
"will not be practical over the next 10 to 20 years", and also mentioned the challenges involved in the
development of the required infrastructure to distribute hydrogen fuel. Nevertheless, the U.S.
government will continue to fund research related to stationary fuel cells.[30] The National Hydrogen
Association and the U.S. Fuel Cell Council criticized this decision arguing that "...the cuts proposed in
the DOE hydrogen and fuel cell program threaten to disrupt commercialization of a family of
technologies that are showing exceptional promise and beginning to gain market traction."[31]

In 2005 the British firm Intelligent Energy produced the first ever working hydrogen run motorcycle
called the ENV (Emission Neutral Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours,
and to travel 100 miles in an urban area, at a top speed of 50 miles per hour.[32] In 2004 Honda
developed a fuel-cell motorcycle which utilized the Honda FC Stack.[33][34]

Type 212 submarines use fuel cells to remain submerged for weeks without the need to surface. Boeing
researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight tests in February
2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight batteries. The Fuel Cell
Demonstrator Airplane, as it was called, used a Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-
ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor, which was coupled to a conventional propeller.[35]

In 2007, the Revolve Eco-Rally (launched by HRH Prince of Wales) demonstrated several fuel cell
vehicles on British roads for the first time, driven by celebrities and dignitaries from Brighton to
London's Trafalgar Square.[citation needed] Fuel cell powered race vehicles, designed and built by university
students from around the world, competed in the world's first hydrogen race series called the 2008
Formula Zero Championship, which began on August 22, 2008 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. More
races are planned for 2009 and 2010. After this first race, Greenchoice Forze from the university of
Delft (The Netherlands) became leader in the competition. Other competing teams are Element One
(Detroit), HerUCLAs (LA), EUPLAtecH2 (Spain), Imperial Racing Green (London) and Zero
Emission Racing Team (Leuven).

The California Hydrogen Highway is an initiative by the California Governor to implement a series of
hydrogen refueling stations along that state. These stations are used to refuel hydrogen vehicles such as
fuel cell vehicles and hydrogen combustion vehicles. As of July 2007 California had 179 fuel cell
vehicles and twenty five stations were in operation,[36] and ten more stations have been planned for
assembly in California. However, there have already been three hydrogen fueling stations
decommissioned.[37]

Japan also has a hydrogen highway, as part of the Japan hydrogen fuel cell project. Twelve hydrogen
fueling stations have been built in 11 cities in Japan. Canada, Sweden and Norway also have hydrogen
highways implemented.

There are numerous prototype or production cars and buses based on fuel cell technology being
researched or manufactured by motor car manufacturers. In 2008, Honda released a hydrogen vehicle,
the FCX Clarity. Meanwhile there exist also other examples of bikes[38] and bicycles[39] with a hydrogen
fuel cell engine.

A few companies are conducting hydrogen fuel cell research and practical fuel cell bus trials. Daimler
AG, with thirty-six experimental units powered by Ballard Power Systems fuel cells completing a
successful three-year trial, in eleven cities, in January 2007. [40][41] There are also fuel cell powered
buses currently active or in production, such as a fleet of Thor buses with UTC Power fuel cells in
California, operated by SunLine Transit Agency.[42] The Fuel Cell Bus Club is a global cooperative
effort in trial fuel cell buses.

The first Brazilan hydrogen fuel cell bus prototype will begin operation in São Paulo during the first
semester of 2009. The hydrogen bus was manufactured in Caxias do Sul and the hydrogen fuel will be
produced in São Bernardo do Campo from water through electrolysis. The program, called "Ônibus
Brasileiro a Hidrogênio" (Brazilian Hydrogen Autobus), includes three additional buses.[43][44]

[edit] Market structure

Not all geographic markets are ready for SOFC powered m-CHP appliances. Currently, the regions that
lead the race in Distributed Generation and deployment of fuel cell m-CHP units are the EU and
Japan.[45]

[edit] Hydrogen economy


Main article: Hydrogen economy

Electrochemical extraction of energy from hydrogen via fuel cells is an especially clean method of
meeting power requirements, but not an efficient one, due to the necessity of adding large amounts of
energy to either water or hydrocarbon fuels in order to produce the hydrogen. Additionally, during the
extraction of hydrogen from hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide is released. Although this gas is
artificially converted into carbon dioxide, such a method of extracting hydrogen remains
environmentally injurious.

Also, it must be noted that regarding the concept of the hydrogen vehicle, burning/combustion of
hydrogen in an internal combustion engine (IC/ICE) is often confused with the electrochemical process
of generating electricity via fuel cells (FC) in which there is no combustion (though there is a small
byproduct of heat in the reaction). Both processes require the establishment of a hydrogen economy
before they may be considered commercially viable, and even then, the aforementioned energy costs
make a hydrogen economy of questionable environmental value. Hydrogen combustion is similar to
petroleum combustion, and like petroleum combustion, still results in nitrogen oxides as a by-product
of the combustion, which lead to smog. Hydrogen combustion, like that of petroleum, is limited by the
Carnot efficiency, and is completely different from the hydrogen fuel cell's chemical conversion
process of hydrogen to electricity and water without combustion. Hydrogen fuel cells emit only water
during use, while producing carbon dioxide emissions during the majority of hydrogen production,
which comes from natural gas. Direct methane or natural gas conversion (whether IC or FC) also
generate carbon dioxide emissions, but direct hydrocarbon conversion in high-temperature fuel cells
produces lower carbon dioxide emissions than either combustion of the same fuel (due to the higher
efficiency of the fuel cell process compared to combustion), and also lower carbon dioxide emissions
than hydrogen fuel cells, which use methane less efficiently than high-temperature fuel cells by first
converting it to high purity hydrogen by steam reforming. Although hydrogen can also be produced by
electrolysis of water using renewable energy, at present less than 3% of hydrogen is produced in this
way.

Hydrogen is an energy carrier, and not an energy source, because it must be produced by adding
energy from other energy sources, such as fossil fuels, wind power, nuclear power, or solar
photovoltaic cells. Hydrogen may be produced from subsurface reservoirs of methane and natural gas
by a combination of steam reforming with the water gas shift reaction, from coal by coal gasification,
or from oil shale by oil shale gasification.[citation needed] low pressure electrolysis of water or high pressure
electrolysis, which requires electricity, and high-temperature electrolysis/thermochemical production,
which requires high temperatures (ideal for the expected Generation IV reactors), are two primary
methods for the extraction of hydrogen from water.

As of 2006, 49.0% of the electricity produced in the United States comes from coal, 19.4% comes
from nuclear, 20.0% comes from natural gas, 7.0% from hydroelectricity, 1.6% from petroleum and
the remaining 3.1% mostly coming from geothermal, solar and biomass.[46] When hydrogen is
produced through electrolysis, the energy comes from these sources. Though the fuel cell itself will
only emit heat and water as waste, pollution is often caused when generating the electricity required to
produce the hydrogen that the fuel cell uses as its power source (for example, when fossil fuel-
generated electricity is used). This will be the case unless the hydrogen is produced using electricity
generated by hydroelectric, geothermal, solar, wind or other clean power sources (which may or may
not include nuclear power, depending on one's attitude to the nuclear waste byproducts); hydrogen is
only as clean as the energy sources used to produce it. A holistic approach has to take into
consideration the impacts of an extended hydrogen scenario, including the production, the use and the
disposal of infrastructure and energy converters.
Nowadays low temperature fuel cell stacks proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), direct
methanol fuel cell (DMFC) and phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) make extensive use of platinum
catalysts. Impurities create catalyst poisoning (reducing activity and efficiency) in these low-
temperature fuel cells, thus high hydrogen purity or higher catalyst densities are required.[47] Although
platinum is seen by some as one of the major "showstoppers" to mass market fuel cell
commercialization companies, most predictions of platinum running out and/or platinum prices soaring
do not take into account effects of thrifting (reduction in catalyst loading) and recycling. Recent
research at Brookhaven National Laboratory could lead to the replacement of platinum by a gold-
palladium coating which may be less susceptible to poisoning and thereby improve fuel cell lifetime
considerably.[48] Current targets for a transport PEM fuel cells are 0.2 g/kW Pt – which is a factor of 5
decrease over current loadings – and recent comments from major original equipment manufacturers
(OEMs) indicate that this is possible. Also it is fully anticipated that recycling of fuel cells
components, including platinum, will kick in. High-temperature fuel cells, including molten carbonate
fuel cells (MCFC's) and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC's), do not use platinum as catalysts, but instead
use cheaper materials such as nickel and nickel oxide, which are considerably more abundant (for
example, nickel is used in fairly large quantities in common stainless steel). They also do not
experience catalyst poisoning by carbon monoxide, and so they do not require high-purity hydrogen to
operate. They can use fuels with an existing and extensive infrastructure, such as natural gas, directly,
without having to first reform it externally to hydrogen and CO followed by CO removal. Instead, they
can more efficiently use the same fuels that are used to make hydrogen for low-temperature fuel cells.
This fuel flexibility, combined with new developments to make SOFCs on cheaper and more durable
metal supports, makes SOFCs increasingly important as candidates for transportation, as well as for
stationary power. SOFCs have the highest efficiency of all fuel cell types, and their ability to use
common fuels, including liquid fuels, may make them more suitable for long-distance vehicular
transportation, as well as for stationary power.

[edit] Research and development


• August 2005: Georgia Institute of Technology researchers use triazole to raise the operating
temperature of PEM fuel cells from below 100 °C to over 125 °C, claiming this will require
less carbon-monoxide purification of the hydrogen fuel.[49]
• 2006: Staxon introduced an inexpensive OEM fuel cell module for system integration. In 2006
Angstrom Power, a British Columbia based company, began commercial sales of portable
devices using proprietary hydrogen fuel cell technology, trademarked as "micro
hydrogen."[50][51]

[edit] See also


Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Fuel cell
Electronics portal
Energy portal
Sustainable development portal

• Aqueous phase reforming produces hydrogen from biomass-derived oxygenated compounds


(such as glycerol, sugars and sugar alcohols).
• Bio-nano generator
• Comparison of automobile fuel technologies
• Cryptophane
• Distributed generation
• Electrolysis
• Energy development
• Flow battery
• Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Technology Initiative (in Europe)
• Germanischer Lloyd guidelines for fuel cells on ships and boats
• Glossary of fuel cell terms
• Grid energy storage
• Hydrogen reformer
• Hydrogen storage
• Hydrogen technologies
• Kelvin probe force microscope
• Microgeneration
• Microgeneration Certification Scheme
• Paper battery
• Renewable energy
• Standard for the installation of stationary fuel cell power systems
• Water splitting

[edit] References
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[edit] External links


• Well sourced history of fuel cell
• TC 105 IEC Technical standard for Fuel Cells
• EERE: Hydrogen, Fuel Cells and Infrastructure Technologies Program
• Thermodynamics of electrolysis of water and hydrogen fuel cells

[edit] Further reading


• Vielstich, W., et al. (eds.) (2009). Handbook of fuel cells: advances in electrocatalysis,
materials, diagnostics and durability. 6 vol. Hoboken: Wiley, 2009.
[hide]

v•d•e

Galvanic cells

Alkaline battery | Aluminium battery | Bunsen cell | Chromic acid cell | Clark cell | Daniell
Non-rechargeable: cell | Dry cell | Grove cell | Leclanché cell | Lithium battery | Mercury battery | Nickel
primary cells oxyhydroxide battery | Silver-oxide battery | Weston cell | Zamboni pile | Zinc-air battery |
Zinc-carbon battery

Air-fueled lithium-ion battery | Lead-acid battery | Lithium-ion battery | Lithium-ion


polymer battery | Lithium iron phosphate battery | Lithium sulfur battery | Lithium-titanate
Rechargeable:
battery | Nickel-cadmium battery | Nickel hydrogen battery | Nickel-iron battery | Nickel-
secondary cells
metal hydride battery | Nickel-zinc battery | Rechargeable alkaline battery | Sodium-sulfur
battery | Vanadium redox battery | Zinc-bromine battery

Kinds of cells Battery | Concentration cell | Flow battery | Fuel cell | Trough battery | Voltaic pile

Anode | Catalyst | Cathode | Electrolyte | Half cell | Ions | Salt bridge | Semipermeable
Parts of cells
membrane

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