CHAPTER

CHAPTER NAME
Plastics History Composition Polymerization process Composition Properties of plastics Common plastics & uses Different manufacturing processes for Plastics: Moulding Types Injection Moulding. Compression Moulding. Blow Moulding. Compression Moulding. Plastics Extrusion. Thermoforming. Slush Moulding. Transfer moulding. Calendaring. Gate type Design Rules For Plastic Parts: Maximum wall thickness Corners Draft Ribs Bosses Undercuts Threads TYPICAL NOMINAL THICKNESS FOR VARIOUS CLASSES OF THERMOPLASTICS DEFECTS of PLASTICS Welding Techniques Hot gas welding Heat seal Freehand welding Speed tip welding Extrusion welding Contact welding Hot plate welding High frequency welding

1.

 Injection welding Ultrasonic welding Friction welding Spin welding Laser welding Transparent Laser Plastic Welding Solvent welding Welding rod PLASTICS Growing demand in the automotive sector Plastics In Automotive Markets Today Abbreviations

PLASTICS:
A plastic material is any of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids that are mouldable. Plastics are typically organic polymers of high molecular mass, but they often contain other substances. They are usually synthetic, most commonly derived from petrochemicals, but many are partially natural.

History Early plastics were bio-derived materials such as egg and blood proteins, which are organic polymers. Treated cattle horns were used as windows for lanterns in the Middle Ages. Materials that mimicked the properties of horns were developed by treating milkproteins (casein) with lye. In the 1800s the development of plastics accelerated with Charles Goodyear's discovery of vulcanization as a route to thermoset materials derived from natural rubber. Many storied materials were reported as industrial chemistry was developed in the 1800s. In the early 1900s, Bakelite, the first fully synthetic thermoset was reported by Belgian chemist Leo Baekeland. After the First World War, improvements in chemical technology led to an explosion in new forms of plastics. Among the earliest examples in the wave of new polymers were polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The development of plastics has come from the use of natural plastic materials (e.g., chewing

gum, shellac) to the use of chemically modified natural materials (e.g., rubber, nitrocellulose, collagen, galalite) and finally to completely synthetic molecules (e.g., bakelite, epoxy, polyvinyl chloride).

Bakelite

The first so called plastic based on a synthetic polymer was made from phenol and formaldehyde, with the first viable and cheap synthesis methods invented in 1907, by Leo Hendrik Baekeland, a Belgian-born American living in New York state. Baekeland was looking for an insulating shellac to coat wires in electric motors and generators. He found that combining phenol (C6H5OH) and formaldehyde (HCOH) formed a sticky mass and later found that the material could be mixed with wood flour, asbestos, or slate dust to create strong and fire resistant "composite" materials. The new material tended to foam during synthesis, requiring that Baekeland build pressure vessels to force out the bubbles and provide a smooth, uniform product, as he announced in 1909, in a meeting of the American Chemical Society.[12] Bakelite was originally used for electrical and mechanical parts, coming into widespread use in consumer goods and jewelry in the 1920s. Bakelite was a purely synthetic material, not derived from living matter. It was also an early thermosetting plastic. ASTM: American Standard Test Methods; is a scientific organisation defining standards on physical and mechanical testing of materials to obtain objective characteristics used for comparison purposes and for design of articles. The standards are partly used to formulate ISO (International Standards Organisation) ones. Composition Most plastics contain organic polymers. The vast majority of these polymers are based on chains of carbon atoms alone or with oxygen, sulphur, or nitrogen as well. The backbone is that part of the chain on the main "path" linking a large number of repeat units together. To customize the properties of a plastic, different molecular groups "hang" from the backbone (usually they are "hung" as part of the monomers before linking monomers together to form the polymer chain). The structure of these "side chains" influence the

properties of the polymer. This fine tuning of the properties of the polymer by repeating unit's molecular structure has allowed plastics to become an indispensable part of the twenty-first century world. Additives Additives: these are in general low molecular weight chemicals added to plastics and rubbers to improve certain characteristics such as ultraviolet absorbers, antioxidants and heat stabilisers, lubricants, plasticisers, flame retardants, cross-linking and blowing agents, pigments and dyes. Impact modifiers are polymeric materials added to improve the impact resistance of e.g. PVC, PP, PBT, PA. A separate class of additives are the fillers such as talcum, wood flour, and reinforcing agents like glass and carbon fibres. Alloys: strictly speaking, alloys refer to metals and do not exist in plastics. The term is used interchangeably with blends for mixtures of two or more polymers. Examples are alloys or blends of polycarbonate (PC) with ABS or with polybutylene terephthalate (PBT). Blend" an intimate mixture of two or more polymers to obtain the good properties of each, for example semi-crystalline polypropylene (PP) mixed with 10 to 30% rubbery EPDM results in a blend with good heat resistance and extraordinary impact resistance. Also the mix of polycarbonate (PC) with ABS terpolymer results in a blend with the good heat resistance of the PC part and the low temperature impact resistance of the ABS. Instead of the term blend, trade literature and producers also use alloy. Blends are made passing the components in powder or pellet form in a dry blender followed by a heated twin screw extruder to obtain an intimate blend.

Polymerization process
Plastics are one group of polymers that are built from relatively simple units called monomers (or mers) through a chemical polymerization process. This process is illustrated below. Processing polymers into end products mainly involves physical phase change such as melting and solidification (for Thermoplastics) or a chemical reaction (for Thermosets). Structure of polymers The basic structure of a polymer molecule can be visualized as a long chain of repeating units, with additional chemical groups forming pendant branches along the primary "backbone" of the molecule. Although the term plastics has been used loosely as a synonym for polymer and resin, plastics generally represent polymeric compounds that are formulated with plasticizers, stabilizers, fillers, and other additives for purposes of processability and performance. Other polymeric systems include rubbers, fibers, adhesives, and surface coatings. A variety of processes have been employed to produce the final plastic parts,

Polymer family, the formation of plastics, and the polymerization process Classification Plastics are usually classified by their chemical structure of the polymer's backbone and side chains. Some important groups in these classifications are the acrylics, polyesters, silicones, polyurethanes, and halogenated plastics. Plastics can also be classified by the chemical process used in their synthesis, such as condensation, polyaddition, and cross-linking. There are two types of plastics: thermoplastics and thermosetting polymers. Thermoplastics are the plastics that do not undergo chemical change in their composition when heated and can be molded again and again. Thermoplastics A Thermoplastic, also known as a thermosoftening plastic, is a polymer that becomes pliable or moldable above a specific temperature, and returns to a solid state upon cooling. Most thermoplastics have a high molecular weight, whose chains associate through intermolecular forces; this property allows thermoplastics to be remolded because the intermolecular interactions spontaneously reform upon cooling. In this way, thermoplastics differ from thermosetting polymers, which form irreversible chemical bonds during the curing process; thermoset bonds break down upon melting and do not reform upon cooling. Thermoplastic materials can be formed into desired shapes under heat and pressure and become solids on cooling. If they are subjected to the same conditions of heat and pressure, they can be reprocessed into new shapes. Thermoplastics based on their crystallization are classified into

 Amorphous Thermoplastics Some thermoplastics donot crystallise on heating and are termed as amorphous plastics Used in applications where clarity is important. They are frequently used in applications where Clarity is important and are subjected to stress cracking and less chemically resistant. Ex: PMMA, PS and PC. Semi crystalline Thermoplastics. Thermoplastics which crystallises to some extent are known as Semi crystalline Thermoplastics.. They are resistent to Solvents and other Chemicals. Ex:PE,PBT, PP and PET. Examples include polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl-chloride, and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE). Common thermoplastics range from 20,000 to 500,000 amu, while thermosets are assumed to have infinite molecular weight. These chains are made up of many repeating molecular units, known as repeat units, derived from monomers; each polymer chain will have several thousand repeating units. THERMOSETTING PLASTIC A thermosetting plastic, also known as a thermoset, is polymer material that irreversibly cures. The cure may be done through heat (generally above 200 C (392 F)), through a chemical reaction (two-partepoxy, for example), or irradiation such as electron beam processing. Thermoset materials are usually liquid or malleable prior to curing and designed to be molded into their final form, or used as adhesives. Others are solids like that of the molding compound used insemiconductors and integrated circuits (IC). Once hardened a thermoset resin cannot be reheated and melted back to a liquid form. According to IUPAC recommendation: A thermosetting polymer is a prepolymer in a soft solid or viscous state that changes irreversibly into an infusible, insoluble polymer network by curing. Curing can be induced by the action of heat or suitable radiation, or both. A cured thermosetting polymer is called a thermoset. Thermosets can melt and take shape once; after they have solidified, they stay solid. In the thermosetting process, a chemical reaction occurs that is irreversible. The vulcanization of rubber is a thermosetting process. Before heating with sulphur, the polyisoprene is a tacky, slightly runny material, but after vulcanization the product is rigid and non-tacky.

TABLE 1. Effects of additives, fillers, and reinforcements on polymer properties Additive / Filler / Common materials Effects on polymer properties Reinforcement

Reinforcing fibers

Conductive fillers

Baron, carbon, fibrous Increases tensile minerals, strength. glass, Kevlar Increases flexural modulus. Increases heatdeflection temperature (HDT). Resists shrinkage and warpage. Aluminum powders, Improves electrical carbon and fiber, graphite thermal conductivity. Silanes, titanates Improves interface bonding between polymer matrix and the fibers. Reduces the occurrence and spread of combustion. Reduces material cost. Improves melt flow properties. Enhances flexibility. Provides colorfastness. Protects from thermal and UV degradation (with carbon blacks). Generates a cellular form to obtain a lowdensity material.

Coupling agents

Flame retardants

Extender fillers Plasticizers

Colorants (pigments and dyes)

Chlorine, bromine, phosphorous, metallic salts Calcium carbonate, silica, clay Monomeric liquids, lowmolecularweight materials Metal oxides, chromates, carbon blacks

Blowing agents

Gas, azo compounds, hydrazine derivatives

Other classifications Other classifications are based on qualities that are relevant for manufacturing or product design. Examples of such classes are the thermoplastic and thermoset, elastomer, structural, biodegradable, and electrically conductive. Plastics can also

be classified by various physical properties, such as density, tensile strength, glass transition temperature, and resistance to various chemical products. Biodegradable plastic Biodegradable plastics break down (degrade) upon exposure to sunlight (e.g., ultraviolet radiation), water or dampness, bacteria, enzymes, wind abrasion, and in some instances, rodent, pest, or insect attack are also included as forms of biodegradation or environmental degradation. Some modes of degradation require that the plastic be exposed at the surface, whereas other modes will only be effective if certain conditions exist in landfill or composting systems. Starch powder has been mixed with plastic as a filler to allow it to degrade more easily, but it still does not lead to complete breakdown of the plastic. Some researchers have actually genetically engineered bacteria that synthesize a completely biodegradable plastic, but this material, such as Biopol, is expensive at present. The German chemical company BASF makes Ecoflex, a fully biodegradable polyester for food packaging applications. Natural vs synthetic Main article: Bioplastic Most plastics are produced from petrochemicals. Motivated by the finiteness of petrochemical reserves and possibility of global warming, bioplastics are being developed. Bioplastics are made substantially from renewable plant materials such as cellulose and starch. In comparison to the global consumption of all flexible packaging, estimated at 12.3 million tonnes/year, estimates put global production capacity at 327,000 tonnes/year for related bio-derived materials. Amorphous: used for polymers lacking crystalline structures like acrylics (PMMA), polystyrene (PS), polycarbonate (PC) and polyvinylchloride (PVC). Amorphous plastics are usually hard, glassy and transparent in appearance and exhibit a wide melting or softening temperature range.

PMMA

PS

PC

Crystalline: Many plastics are semi-crystalline, which means that some 30 to 70% of crystallites are present in the structure surrounded by an amorphous polymer. These polymers are non transparent because they exist in two distinct phases. Examples are polypropylene (PP), polyacetal (POM), polyamides (PA), polybutylene terephtalate (PBT) and they exhibit a rather sharp softening or melting temperature.

PE

PP
Crystalline vs amorphous Some plastics are partially crystalline and partially amorphous in molecular structure, giving them both a melting point (the temperature at which the attractive intermolecular forces are overcome) and one or more glass transitions (temperatures above which the extent of localized molecular flexibility is substantially increased). The so-called semicrystalline plastics include polyethylene, polypropylene, poly (vinyl chloride), polyamides (nylons), polyesters and some polyurethanes. Many plastics are completely amorphous, such as polystyrene and its copolymers, poly (methyl methacrylate), and all thermosets.

Molded plastic food replicas on display outside a restaurant in Japan

The properties of amorphous and crystalline polymers: General properties

Soften over a wide range of temperatures Lower specific gravity Distinct and sharp melting point Higher specific gravity due to better packing Higher tensile strength and tensile

Lower tensile strength and tensile

modulus Higher ductility and impact strength Lower creep resistance Tend to be transparent Higher dimensional stability Lower fatigue resistance Bond well using adhesives and solvents

modulus Lower ductility and impact strength Higher creep resistance Tend to be translucent or opaque Lower dimensional stability Higher fatigue resistance Difficult to bond using adhesives and solvents Higher chemical resistance and resistance to stress cracking Good for bearing and wear, as well as for structural applications

Lower chemical resistance and resistance to stress cracking Structural applications only (not for bearing and wear)

Effects of Fillers/Reinforcements Functions

Traditionally, fillers were considered as additives, which, due to their unfavorable geometrical features, surface area or surface chemical composition, could only moderately increase the modulus of the polymer, while strength (tensile, f lexural) remained unchanged or even decreased. Their major contribution was in lowering the cost of materials by replacing the more expensive polymer; other possible economic advantages were faster molding cycles as a result of increased thermal conductivity and fewer rejected parts due to warpage. Depending on the type of filler, other polymer properties could be affected; for example, melt viscosity could be significantly increased through the incorporation of fibrous materials. On the other hand, mould shrinkage and thermal expansion would be reduced, a common effect of most inorganic fillers. The term reinforcing filler has been coined to describe discontinuous additives, the form, shape, and/or surface chemistry of which have been suitably modified with the objective of improving the mechanical properties of the polymer, particularly strength. Inorganic reinforcing fillers are stiffer than the matrix and deform less, causing an overall reduction in the matrix strain, especially in the vicinity of the particle as a result of the particle/matrix interface. As shown in Figure 1-3, the fiber pinches the polymer in its vicinity, reducing strain and increasing stiffness . Reinforcing fillers are characterized by relatively high aspect ratio, , defined as the ratio of length to diameter for a fiber, or the ratio of diameter to thickness for platelets and f lakes. For spheres, which have minimal reinforcing capacity, the aspect ratio is unity. A useful parameter for characterizing the effectiveness of a filler is the ratio of its surface area, A, to its volume, V, which needs to be as high as possible for effective reinforcement.

In developing reinforcing fillers, the aims of process or material modifications are to increase the aspect ratio of the particles and to improve their compatibility and interfacial adhesion with the chemically dissimilar polymer matrix. Such modifications may enhance and optimize not only the primary function of the filler (in this case its use as a mechanical property modifier), but may also introduce or enhance additional functions. New functions

A cylindrical reinforcing fiber in a polymer matrix: a) in the undeformed state; b) under a tensile load (reprinted with permission of Oxford University

Surface area-to-volume ratio, A/V, of a cylindrical particle plotted versus aspect ratio, a = l/d (reprinted with permission of Oxford University

fillers, thus broadening their range of applications, are illustrated by the examples below.

As described by Heinold ,the first generation of fillers soon after the commercialization of polypropylene included talc platelets and asbestos fibers for their beneficial effects on stiffness and heat resistance. The search for a replacement for asbestos due to health issues led to calcium carbonate particles and mica f lakes as the second-generation fillers. Mica was found to be more effective than talc for increasing stiffness and heat resistance, while calcium carbonate proved to be less effective in increasing stiffness, but increased the impact resistance of PP homopolymers. Surface modification of mica with coupling agents to enhance adhesion and stearate modification of calcium carbonate to assist dispersion were found to enhance these functions and introduced other benefits such as improved processability, a means of imparting color, and reduced long term heat ageing. Other fillers imparted entirely different functions. For example, barium sulfate enhances sound absorption, wollastonite enhances scratch resistance, solid glass spheres add dimensional stability and increase hardness, hollow glass spheres lower density, and combinations of glass fibers with particulate fillers provide unique properties that cannot be attained with single fillers. An additional example of a family of fillers imparting distinct new properties is given by the pearlescent pigments produced by platelet core-shell technologies . These comprise platelets of mica, silica, alumina or glass substrates coated with films of oxide nanoparticles, e.g. TiO2, Fe2O3, Fe3O4, Cr2O3 . In addition to conventional decorative applications, new functional applications such as solar heat re f lection, laser marking of plastics, and electrical conductivity are possible through selection of the appropriate substrate/coating combinations.

Properties of plastics
The properties of plastics are defined chiefly by the organic chemistry of the polymer such as hardness, density, and resistance to heat, organic solvents, oxidation, and ionizing radiation. In particular, most plastics will melt upon heating to a few hundred degrees celsius. While plastics can be made electrically conductive, with the conductivity of up to 80 kS/cm in stretch-orientedpolyacetylene, they are still no match for most metals like copper which have conductivities of several hundreds kS/cm. PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS In order to make proper designs with any material, including plastics, it is necessary to know certain physical, chemical, electrical and mechanical properties of the material. The following are the terms that are important in specifying the properties of a plastic.

Mechanical Properties

Plastics have the characteristics of both a viscous liquid and a spring-like elastomer, traits known as a viscoelasticity. These characteristics are responsible for many of the characteristic material properties displayed by plastics. Under mild loading conditions, such as short-term loading with low deflection and small loads at room temperature, plastics usually react like springs, returning to their original shape after the load is removed. Under long-term heavy loads or elevated temperatures many plastics deform and flow similar to high viscous liquids, although still solid. Creep is the deformation that occurs over time when a material is subjected to constant stress at constant temperature. This is the result of the viscoelastic behavior of plastics. Stress relaxation is another viscoelastic phenomenon. It is defined as a gradual decrease in stress at constant temperature. Recovery is the degree to which a plastic returns to its original shape after a load is removed. Specific gravity is the ratio of the weight of any volume to the weight of an equal volume of some other substance taken as the standard at a stated temperature. For plastics, the standard is water. Water absorption is the ratio of the weight of water absorbed by a material to the weight of the dry material. Many plastics are hygroscopic, meaning that over time they absorb water. Tensile strength at break is a measure of the stress required to deform a material prior to breakage. It is calculated by dividing the maximum load applied to the material before its breaking point by the original cross-sectional area of the test piece. Tensile modulus (modulus of elasticity) is the slope of the line that represents the elastic portion of the stress-strain graph. Elongation at break is the increase in the length of a tension specimen, usually expressed as a percentage of the original length of the specimen. Compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress a material is capable of sustaining. For materials that do not fail by a shattering fracture, the value depends on the maximum allowed distortion.

Flexural strength is the strength of a material in bending expressed as the tensile stress of the outermost fibers of a bent test sample at the instant of failure. Flexural modulus is the ratio, within the elastic limit, of stress to the corresponding strain. Izod Impact is one of the most common ASTM tests for testing the impact strength of plastic materials. It gives data to compare the relative ability of materials to resist brittle fracture as the service temperature decreases. For finding hardness, Rockwell Number is the net increase in depth of impression as the load on a penetrator is increased from a fixed minimum load to a high load and then returned to a minimum load. Coefficient of thermal expansion is the change in unit length or volume resulting from a unit change in temperature. Commonly used unit is 10-6 cm/cm/C. Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat; a physical constant for the quantity of heat that passes through a unit cube of a material in a unit of time when the difference in temperature of two faces is 1C. Heat Deflection temperature (HDT) test is one in which a bar of the polymer is heated uniformly in a closed chamber while a load of 66psi or 264psi is placed at the center of the horizontal bar. The HDT is the temperature at which a deflection of 0.25mm is noted at the center. The HDT indicated how much mass the object must be constructed of to maintain the desired form. It also provides a measure of the rigidity of the polymer under a load as well as temperature. limiting oxygen index is a measure of the minimum oxygen level required to support combustion of the polymer. Absorption. Polymers have a potential to absorb various corrodents the come to contact with, particularly organic liquids. This can result in swelling, cracking and penetration to the substrate of the component. Toxicity Due to their insolubility in water and relative chemical inertness, pure plastics generally have low toxicity. Some plastic products contain a variety of additives, some of which can be toxic. For example, plasticizers like adipates and phthalates are often added to brittle plastics like polyvinyl chloride to make them pliable enough for use in food packaging, toys, and many other items. Traces of these compounds can leach out of the product. Owing to concerns over the effects of such leachates, the European Union has restricted the use of DEHP (di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate) and other phthalates in some applications. Some compounds leaching from polystyrene food containers have been proposed to interfere with hormone functions and are suspected human carcinogens. Whereas the finished plastic may be non-toxic, the monomers used in the manufacture of the parent polymers may be toxic. In some cases, small amounts of those chemicals can remain trapped in the product unless suitable processing is employed. For example, the World Health Organization's International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has recognized that vinyl chloride, the precursor to PVC, as a human carcinogen.

Environmental issues Plastics are durable and degrade very slowly; the chemical bonds that make plastic so durable make it equally resistant to natural processes of degradation. Since the 1950s, one billion tons of plastic have been discarded and may persist for hundreds or even thousands of years. Perhaps the biggest environmental threat from plastic comes from nurdles, which are the raw material from which all plastics are made. They are tiny pre-plastic pellets that kill large numbers of fish and birds that mistake them for food. Prior to the ban on the use of CFCs in extrusion of polystyrene (and general use, except in life-critical fire suppression systems; see Montreal Protocol), the production of polystyrene contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer; however, non-CFCs are currently used in the extrusion process. Incineration of plastics Plastics can be converted into a fuel since they are usually hydrocarbon-based and can be broken down into liquid hydrocarbon. One kilogram of waste plastic produces a liter of hydrocarbon. In some cases, burning plastic can release toxic fumes. Burning the plastic polyvinyl chloride (PVC) may create dioxin.

Recycling Thermoplastics can be remelted and reused, and thermoset plastics can be ground up and used as filler, although the purity of the material tends to degrade with each reuse cycle. There are methods by which plastics can be broken back down to a feedstock state. The greatest challenge to the recycling of plastics is the difficulty of automating the sorting of plastic wastes, making it labor intensive. Typically, workers sort the plastic by looking at the resin identification code, although common containers like soda bottles can be sorted from memory. Typically, the caps for PETE bottles are made from a different kind of plastic which is not recyclable, which presents additional problems to the automated sorting process. Other recyclable materials such as metals are easier to process mechanically. However, new processes of mechanical sorting are being developed to increase capacity and efficiency of plastic recycling. While containers are usually made from a single type and color of plastic, making them relatively easy to be sorted, a consumer product like a cellular phone may have many small parts consisting of over a dozen different types and colors of plastics. In such cases, the resources it would take to separate the plastics far exceed their value and the item is discarded. However, developments are taking place in the field of active disassembly, which may result in more consumer product components being re-used or recycled. Recycling certain types of plastics can be unprofitable, as well. For example, polystyrene is rarely recycled because it is usually not cost effective. These unrecycled wastes are typically disposed of in landfills, incinerated or used to produce electricity at waste-to-energy plants. A first success in recycling of plastics is Vinyloop, a recycling process and an approach of the industry to separate PVC from other materials through a process of

dissolution, filtration and separation of contaminations. A solvent is used in a closed loop to elute PVC from the waste. This makes it possible to recycle composite structure PVC waste which normally is being incinerated or put in a landfill. Vinyloop-based recycled PVC's primary energy demand is 46 percent lower than conventional produced PVC. The global warming potential is 39 percent lower. This is why the use of recycled material leads to a significant better ecological footprint. In 1988, to assist recycling of disposable items, the Plastic Bottle Institute of the Society of the Plastics Industry devised a now-familiar scheme to mark plastic bottles by plastic type. A plastic container using this scheme is marked with a triangle of three "chasing arrows", which encloses a number giving the plastic type:

Plastics type marks: the resin identification code[31] 1. PET (PETE), polyethylene terephthalate 2. HDPE, high-density polyethylene 3. PVC, polyvinyl chloride 4. LDPE, low-density polyethylene, 5. PP, polypropylene 6. PS, polystyrene 7. Other types of plastics (see list, below) Common plastics and uses Due to their relatively low cost, ease of manufacture, versatility, and imperviousness to water, plastics are used in an enormous and expanding range of products, from paper clips to spaceships. They have already displaced many traditional materials, such as wood, stone, horn and bone, leather, paper, metal, glass, and ceramic, in most of their former uses. A chair made with a polypropylene seat ABS (Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene) Typical Applications Automotive (instrument and interior trim panels, glove compartment doors, wheel covers, mirror housings, etc.) Refrigerators, small appliance housings and power tools applications (hair dryers, blenders, food processors, lawnmowers, etc.) Telephone h ousings, typewriter housings, typewriter keys Recreational vehicles such as golf carts and jet skis. PA 6 (Polyamide 6, Nylon 6, or Polycaprolactam) Applications

Used in many structural applications because of its good mechanical strength and rigidity. It is used in bearings because of its good wear resistance. PA 12 (Polyamide 12 or Nylon 12) Typical Applications Gear wheels for water meters and business machines Cable ties Cams Slides Bearings PA 66 (Polyamide 66, Nylon 66, or Poly (hexamethylene adipamide)) Applications Competes with PA 6 for most applications. PA 66 is heavily used in the following: The automotive industry Appliance housings Where impact resistance and strength are required PBT (Polybutylene Terephthalates) Typical Applications Household appliances (e.g., food processor blades, vacuum cleaner parts, fans, hair dryer housings, coffee makers) Electronics (e.g., switches, motor housings, fuse cases, key caps for computer keyboards, connectors, fiber optic buffer tubing) Automotive (e.g., grilles, body panels, wheel covers, and components for doors and windows) PC (Polycarbonate) Typical Applications Electronic and business equipment (e.g., computer parts, connectors) Appliances (e.g., food processors, refrigeratordrawers) Transportation (e.g., head lights, tail lights, instrument panels) PC|ABS (Polycarbonate-AcrylonitrileButadiene-Styrene Blend) Typical Applications Computer and business machine housings Electrical applications Cellular phones Lawn andgarden equipment Automotive components (instrument panels, interior trim, and wheel covers) PC|PBT (Polycarbonate | Polybutyleneterephthalate Blend) Typical Applications Gear cases and automotive (bumpers) Applications that require chemical and corr osion resistance, high heat resistance, high impact strength over wide temperature ranges, and high dimensional stability

PE-HD (High Density Polyethylene) Typical Applications Major use is in blow-molding (packaging) applications such as: Containers inrefrigeration units Storage vessels Household goods (kitchenware) Seal caps Bases for PET bottles PEI (Polyetherimide) Typical Applications Automotive (engine components: temperature sensors, fuel and air handling devices Electrical/electronics(connector materials, printed circuit boards, circuit chip carriers, explosion proof boxes) Packaging applications Aircraft (interior materials) Medical (surgical staplers, tool housings, non -implant devices) PE-LD (Low Density Polyethylene) Typical Applications Closures Bowls Bins Pipe couplings PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate) Typical Applications Automotive (structural components such as mirror backs, and grille supports, electrical parts such as head lamp reflectors and alternator housings) Electrical applications (motor housings, electrical connectors, relays, and switches, microwave oven interiors) Industrial applications (furniture chair arms, pump housings, hand tools) PETG (Glycol-modified PET; Copolyesters) Typical Applications PETGs offer a desirable combination of properties such as clarity, toughness, and stiffness. Applications include: Medical devices (test tubes and bottles) Toys Displays Lighting fixtures Face shields Refrigerator crisper pans PMMA (Polymethyl Methacrylate) Typical Applications Automotive (signal light devices, instrument panels) Medical (blood cuvettes) Industrial (video discs, lighting diffusers, display shelving) Consumer (drinking tumblers, stationery accessories)

POM (Polyacetal or Polyoxymethylene) Applications Acetals have a low coefficient of friction and good dimensional stability. This makes it ideal for use in gears and bearings. Due to its high temperature resistance, it is used in plumbing (valve and pump housings) and lawn equipment. PP (Polypropylene) Typical Applications Automotive (mostly mineral -filled PP is used: dashboard components, ductwork, fans, and some under-hood components) Appliances (doorliners for dishwashers, ductwork for dryers, wash racks and lids for clothes washers, refrigerator liners) Consumer pr oducts (lawn/garden furniture, components of lawn mowers, sprinklers) PPE|PPO (Polypropylene Ether Blends) Typical Applications Household appliances (dishwasher, washing machine) Electrical applications, such as control housings, fiber -optic connectors PS (Polystyrene) Typical Applications Packaging Housewares (tableware, trays) Electrical (transparent housings, light diffusers, insulating film) PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) Typical Applications Water distribution piping Home plumbing House sidin g Business machine housings Electronics packaging Medical apparatus Packaging for foodstuffs SAN (Styrene Acrylonitrile) Typical Applications Electrical (receptacles, mixer bowls, housings, etc. for kitchen appliances, refrigerator fittings, chassis for television sets, cassette boxes) Automotive (head lamp bodies, reflectors, glove compartments, instrument panel covers) Household appliances (tableware, cutlery, beakers) Cosmetic packs

Polyester (PES) Fibers, textiles. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) Detergent bottles, milk jugs, and molded plastic cases. Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC) (Saran) Food packaging. Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) Outdoor furniture, siding, floor tiles, shower curtains, clamshell packaging.

High impact polystyrene (HIPS) -: Refrigerator liners, food packaging, vending cups. Polyurethanes (PU) Cushioning foams, thermal insulation foams, surface coatings, printing rollers (Currently 6th or 7th most commonly used plastic material, for instance the most commonly used plastic in cars). Special purpose plastics Melamine formaldehyde (MF) One of the aminoplasts, and used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics, for instance in moldings (e.g., break-resistance alternatives to ceramic cups, plates and bowls for children) and the decorated top surface layer of the paper laminates (e.g., Formica). Plastarch material Biodegradable and heat resistant, thermoplastic composed of modified corn starch. Phenolics (PF) or (phenol formaldehydes) High modulus, relatively heat resistant, and excellent fire resistant polymer. Used for insulating parts in electrical fixtures, paper laminated products (e.g., Formica), thermally insulation foams. It is a thermosetting plastic, with the familiar trade name Bakelite, that can be molded by heat and pressure when mixed with a filler-like wood flour or can be cast in its unfilled liquid form or cast as foam (e.g., Oasis). Problems include the probability of moldings naturally being dark colors (red, green, brown), and as thermoset it is difficult to recycle. Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) Strong, chemicaland heat-resistant thermoplastic, biocompatibility allows for use in medical implant applications, aerospace moldings. One of the most expensive commercial polymers. Polyetherimide (PEI) (Ultem) A high temperature, chemically stable polymer that does not crystallize. Polylactic acid (PLA) A biodegradable, thermoplastic found converted into a variety of aliphatic polyesters derived from lactic acid which in turn can be made by fermentation of various agricultural products such as corn starch, once made from dairy products. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) Contact lenses (of the original "hard" variety), glazing (best known in this form by its various trade names around the world; e.g., Perspex, Oroglas, Plexiglas), aglets, fluorescent light diffusers, rear light covers for vehicles. It forms the basis of artistic and commercial acrylic paints when suspended in water with the use of other agents. Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Heat-resistant, low-friction coatings, used in things like non-stick surfaces for frying pans, plumber's tape and water slides. It is more commonly known as Teflon. Urea-formaldehyde (UF) One of the aminoplasts and used as a multi-colorable alternative to phenolics. Used as a wood adhesive (for plywood, chipboard, hardboard) and electrical switch housings. Etymology

The word plastic is derived from the Greek (plastikos) meaning capable of being shaped or molded, from (plastos) meaning molded. It refers to their malleability,

orplasticity during manufacture, that allows them to be cast, pressed, or extruded into a variety of shapessuch as films, fibers, plates, tubes, bottles, boxes, and much more. The common word plastic should not be confused with the technical adjective plastic, which is applied to any material which undergoes a permanent change of shape (plastic deformation) when strained beyond a certain point. Aluminum which is stamped or forged, for instance, exhibits plasticity in this sense, but is not plastic in the common sense; in contrast, in their finished forms, some plastics will break before deforming and therefore are not plastic in the technical sense.

Types of Plastic Moulds

Plastic is a common material used to manufacture everyday objects.

Plastic is a synthetic material, known as a polymer. It is formed from a natural source such as coal, wood or gas but is manipulated during manufacturing. The carbon atoms are connected to another element, such as chlorine, oxygen or hydrogen. If the atoms set in a long chain, then the plastic becomes a thermoplastic. This means that it can be melted, then molded using different types of molds.

1. Injection Mold
o

Injection molds are commonly used for making containers and tubs such as butter tubs, yogurt pots or fittings. Plastic pellets or beads are melted in a hopper, and then the molten plastic is injected at high pressure into a closed mold. The mold is cold when it is filled with plastic. Finally, the plastic is left to set before the mold is opened to reveal the finished plastic product.

Blow Mold
o

Hollow plastic molds such as plastic piping or milk bottles, are formed using blow molds. Molten plastic is fed into a cold mold, which has a tube inserted inside it. Air

is then blown into the tube so that the plastic takes the form of the mold. It is then left to cool, before it is removed from the mold.

Inside_the_mold

Compression Mold
o

Compression molding is labor intensive, and is not used in commercial mass production. Molten plastic is put into a mold, and then a second mold is pressed into it, to shape the plastic into the required form. This type of molding can be used to make parts for boat hulls or car tires.

Rotational Mold
o

Asides from blow molds, another method for creating hollow plastics is rotational molds. Two mechanical arms hold a mold in place, and then turn it at a constant speed. Plastic is then placed inside the mold and it is heated up. While the mold turns, the plastic coats the inside of mold. Once the plastic has cooled it is removed and a new, hard plastic formation is made.

Different manufacturing processes for Plastics:

Injection Moulding. Compression Moulding. Blow Moulding.

 Compression Moulding. Plastics Extrusion. Thermoforming. Slush Moulding. Transfer moulding. Calendaring. Injection Moulding Injection Molding Design Guidelines Much has been written regarding design guidelines for injection molding. Yet, the design guidelines can be summed up in just a few design rules. 1 Use uniform wall thicknesses throughout the part. This will minimize sinking, warping, residual stresses, and improve mold fill and cycle times.

Wall Section Considerations :

Uniform Walls

Parts should be designed with a minimum wall thickness consistent with part function and mold filling considerations. The thinner the wall the faster the part cools, and the cycle times are short, resulting in the lowest possible part costs. Also, thinner parts weight less, which results in smaller amounts of the plastic used per part which also results in lower part costs.

The wall thicknesses of an injection-molded part generally range from 2 mm to 4 mm (0.080 inch to 0.160 inch). Thin wall injection molding can produce walls as thin as 0.5 mm (0.020 inch).

The need for uniform walls

Thick sections cool slower than thin sections. The thin section first solidifies, and the thick section is still not fully solidified. As the thick section cools, it shrinks and the material for the shrinkage comes only from the unsolidified areas, which are connected, to the already solidified thin section.

This builds stresses near the boundary of the thin section to thick section. Since the thin section does not yield because it is solid, the thick section (which is still liquid) must yield. Often this leads to warping or twisting. If this is severe enough, the part could even crack.

Uniform wall thicknesses reduce/eliminate this problem.

Uniform walled parts are easier to fill in the mold cavity, since the molten plastic does not face varying restrictions as it fills.

What if you cannot have uniform walls, (due to design limitations) ?

When uniform walls are not possible, then the change in section should be as gradual as possible.

Coring can help in making the wall sections uniform, and eliminate the problems associated with non-uniform walls.

Warping problems can be reduced by building supporting features such as gussets.

Voids and Shrinkage :

Voids and Shrinkage

Shrinkage is caused by intersecting walls of non-uniform wall thickness. Examples of these are ribs, bosses, and other projections of the nominal wall. If these projections have greater wall thicknesses, they will solidify slower. The region where they are attached to the nominal wall will shrink along with the projection, resulting in a sink in the nominal wall. Shrink can be minimized by maintaining rib thicknesses to 50 to 60% of the walls they are attached to. Bosses located at corners can result in very thick walls causing sinks. Bosses can be isolated using the techniques illustrated.

Warpage :

Warpage

Thick sections cool slower than thin sections. The thin section first solidifies, and the thick section is still not fully solidified. As the thick section cools, it shrinks and the material for the shrinkage comes only from the unsolidified areas, which are connected, to the already solidified thin section. This builds stresses near the boundary of the thin section to thick section. Since the thin section does not yield because it is solid, the thick section (which is still liquid) must yield. Often this leads to warping or twisting. If this is severe enough, the part could even crack.

Other causes:

Warping can also be caused due to non-uniform mold temperatures or cooling rates. Non-uniform packing or pressure in the mold.

Alignment of polymer molecules and fiber reinforcing strands during the mold fill results in preferential properties in the part. Molding process conditions--too high a injection pressure or temperature or improper temperature and cooling of the mold cavity. Generally, it is best to follow the resin manufacturer's guidelines on process conditions and only vary conditions within the limits of the guidelines. It is not good practice to go beyond the pressure and temperature recommendations to compensate for other defects in the mold. If runners need to be sized differently to allow for a proper fill, or gate sizes that need to be changed, then those changes need to happen. Otherwise the finished parts will have too much built in stresses, could crack in service or warp-leading to more severe problems such as customer returns or field service issues.

2 Use generous radius at all corners. The inside corner radius should be a minimum of one material thickness.

Radius Limitations :

Radius

Sharp corners greatly increase the stress concentration. This high amount of stress concentration can often lead to failure of plastic parts. Sharp corners can come about in non-obvious places. Examples of this are a boss attached to a surface, or a strengthening rib. These corners need to be radiused just like all other corners. The stress concentration factor varies with radius, for a given thickness.

As can be seen from the above chart, the stress concentration factor is quite high for R/T values lesss than 0.5. For values of R/T over 0.5 the stress concentration factor gets lower. The stress concentration factor is a multiplier factor, it increases the stress. Actual Stress = Stress Concentration Factor K x Stress Calculated This is why it is recommended that inside radiuses be a minimum of 1 x thickness.

In addition to reducing stresses, fillet radiuses provide streamlined flow paths for the molten plastic resulting in easier fills. Typically, at corners, the inside radius is 0.5 x material thickness and the outside radius is 1.5 x material thickness. A bigger radius should be used if part design will allow it.

3 Use the least thickness compliant with the process, material, or product design requirements. Using the least wall thickness for the process ensures rapid cooling, short cycle times, and minimum shot weight. All these result in the least possible part cost. 4 Design parts to facilitate easy withdrawal from the mold by providing draft (taper) in the direction of mold opening or closing.

Draft and Texture :

The reason for draft

Drafts (or taper) in a mold, facilitates part removal from the mold. The amount of draft angle depends on the depth of the part in the mold, and its required end use function. The draft is in the offset angle in a direction parallel to the mold opening and closing.

It is best to allow for as much draft as possible for easy release from the mold. As a nominal recommendation, it is best to allow 1 to 2 degrees of draft, with an additional 1.5 min. per 0.025 mm (0.001 inch) depth of texture. See below.

The mold parting line can be relocated to split the draft in order to minimize it. If no draft is acceptable due to design considerations, then a side-action mold (camactuated) may be required at a greater expense in tooling.

The reason for texture

Textures and Lettering can be molded on the surfaces, as an aesthetic aid or for incorporating identifying information, either for end users or factory. Texturing also helps hide surface defects such as knit lines, and other surface imperfections. The depth of texture or letters is somewhat limited, and extra draft needs to be provided to allow for mold withdrawal without marring the surface. Draft for texturing is somewhat dependant on the mold design and the specific mold texture. Guidelines are readily available from the mold texture suppliers or mold builders. As a general guideline, 1.5 min. per 0.025mm (0.001 inch) depth of texture needs

to be allowed for in addition to the normal draft. Usually for general office equipment such as lap-top computers a texture depth of 0.025 mm (0.001 inch) is used and the min. draft recommended is 1.5 . More may be needed for heavier textures surfaces such as leather texture (with a depth of 0.125 mm/0.005 inch) that requires a min. draft of 7.5. 5 Use ribs or gussets to improve part stiffness in bending. This avoids the use of thick section to achieve the same, thereby saving on part weight, material costs, and cycle time costs.

Rib Design :

The use of ribs

Ribs increase the bending stiffness of a part. Without ribs, the thickness has to be increased to increase the bending stiffness. Adding ribs increases the moment of inertia, which increases the bending stiffness. Bending stiffness = E (Young's Modulus) x I (Moment of Inertia) The rib thickness should be less than the wall thickness-to keep sinking to a minimum. The thickness ranges from 40 to 60 % of the material thickness. In addition, the rib should be attached to the base with generous radiusing at the corners.

At rib intersections, the resulting thickness will be more than the thickness of each individual rib. Coring or some other means of removing material should be used to thin down the walls to avoid excessive sinking on the opposite side.

The height of the rib should be limited to less than 3 x thickness. It is better to have multiple ribs to increase the bending stiffness than one high rib.

The rib orientation is based on providing maximum bending stiffness. Depending on orientation of the bending load, with respect to the part geometry, ribs oriented one way increase stiffness. If oriented the wrong way there is no increase in stiffness.

Draft angles for ribs should be minimum of 0.25 to 0.5 degree of draft per side. If the surface is textured, additional 1.0 degree draft per 0.025 mm (0.001 inch) depth of texture should be provided.

Injection moulding is a manufacturing process for producing parts from both thermoplastic and thermosetting plastic materials. Material is fed into a heated barrel, mixed, and forced into a mould cavity where it cools and hardens to the configuration of the cavity. After a product is designed, usually by an industrial designer or an engineer, moulds are made by a mouldmaker (or toolmaker) from metal, usually either steel or aluminum, and precision-machined to form the features of the desired part. Injection moulding is widely used for manufacturing a variety of parts, from the smallest component to entire body panels of cars. Injection Moulding: Mould Construction and Part Design : Mold

Mold or die are the common terms used to describe the tooling used to produce plastic parts in molding. Since molds have been expensive to manufacture, they were usually only used in mass production where thousands of parts were being produced. Typical molds are constructed from hardened steel, pre-hardened steel, aluminum, and/or berylliumcopper alloy. The choice of material to build a mold from is primarily one of economics; in general, steel molds cost more to construct, but their longer lifespan will offset the higher initial cost over a higher number of parts made before wearing out. Pre-hardened steel molds are less wear-resistant and are used for lower volume requirements or larger components. The typical steel hardness is 3845 on the Rockwell-C scale. Hardened steel molds are heat treated after machining. These are by far the superior in terms of wear resistance and lifespan. Typical hardness ranges between 50 and 60 Rockwell-C (HRC). Aluminum molds can cost substantially less, and, when designed and machined with modern computerized equipment, can be economical for molding tens or even hundreds of thousands of parts. Beryllium copper is used in areas of the mold that require fast heat removal or areas that see the most shear heat generated. The molds can be manufactured either by CNC machining or by using electrical discharge machining processes.

Injection molding die with side pulls

"A" side of die for 25% glass-filled acetal with 2 side pulls.

Close up of removable insert in "A" side.

"B" side of die with side pull actuators.

Insert removed from die. Mold design

Standard two plates tooling core and cavity are inserts in a mold base "family mold" of five different parts: The mold consists of two primary components, the injection mold (A plate) and the ejector mold (B plate). Plastic resin enters the mold through a sprue in the injection mold; the sprue bushing is to seal tightly against the nozzle of the injection barrel of the molding machine and to allow molten plastic to flow from the barrel into the mold, also known as the cavity. The sprue bushing directs the molten plastic to the cavity images through channels that are machined into the faces of the A and B plates. These channels allow plastic to run along them, so they are referred to as runners. The molten plastic flows through the runner and enters one or more specialized gates and into the cavity geometry to form the desired part.

Sprue, runner and gates in actual injection molding product The amount of resin required to fill the sprue, runner and cavities of a mold is a shot. Trapped air in the mold can escape through air vents that are ground into the parting line of the mold. If the trapped air is not allowed to escape, it is compressed by the pressure of the incoming material and is squeezed into the corners of the cavity, where it prevents filling and causes other defects as well. The air can become so compressed that it ignites and burns the surrounding plastic material. To allow for removal of the molded part from the mold, the mold features must not overhang one another in the direction that the mold opens, unless

parts of the mold are designed to move from between such overhangs when the mold opens (utilizing components called Lifters). Sides of the part that appear parallel with the direction of draw (The axis of the cored position (hole) or insert is parallel to the up and down movement of the mold as it opens and closes) are typically angled slightly (with draft) to ease release of the part from the mold. Insufficient draft can cause deformation or damage. The draft required for mold release is primarily dependent on the depth of the cavity: the deeper the cavity, the more draft necessary. Shrinkage must also be taken into account when determining the draft required. If the skin is too thin, then the molded part will tend to shrink onto the cores that form them while cooling, and cling to those cores or part may warp, twist, blister or crack when the cavity is pulled away. The mold is usually designed so that the molded part reliably remains on the ejector (B) side of the mold when it opens, and draws the runner and the sprue out of the (A) side along with the parts. The part then falls freely when ejected from the (B) side. Tunnel gates, also known as submarine or mold gates, are located below the parting line or mold surface. An opening is machined into the surface of the mold on the parting line. The molded part is cut (by the mold) from the runner system on ejection from the mold. Ejector pins, also known as knockout pins, are circular pins placed in either half of the mold (usually the ejector half), which push the finished molded product, or runner system out of a mold. The standard method of cooling is passing a coolant (usually water) through a series of holes drilled through the mold plates and connected by hoses to form a continuous pathway. The coolant absorbs heat from the mold (which has absorbed heat from the hot plastic) and keeps the mold at a proper temperature to solidify the plastic at the most efficient rate. To ease maintenance and venting, cavities and cores are divided into pieces, called inserts, and sub-assemblies, also called inserts, blocks, orchase blocks. By substituting interchangeable inserts, one mold may make several variations of the same part. More complex parts are formed using more complex molds. These may have sections called slides, that move into a cavity perpendicular to the draw direction, to form overhanging part features. When the mold is opened, the slides are pulled away from the plastic part by using stationary angle pins on the stationary mold half. These pins enter a slot in the slides and cause the slides to move backward when the moving half of the mold opens. The part is then ejected and the mold closes. The closing action of the mold causes the slides to move forward along the angle pins. Some molds allow previously molded parts to be reinserted to allow a new plastic layer to form around the first part. This is often referred to as overmolding. This system can allow for production of one-piece tires and wheels. Two-shot or multi-shot molds are designed to "overmold" within a single molding cycle and must be processed on specialized injection molding machines with two or more injection units. This process is actually an injection molding process performed twice. In the first step, the base color material is molded into a basic shape, which contains spaces for the second shot. Then the second material, a different color, is injection-molded into those

spaces. Pushbuttons and keys, for instance, made by this process have markings that cannot wear off, and remain legible with heavy use. A mold can produce several copies of the same parts in a single "shot". The number of "impressions" in the mold of that part is often incorrectly referred to as cavitation. A tool with one impression will often be called a single impression(cavity) mold. A mold with 2 or more cavities of the same parts will likely be referred to as multiple impression (cavity) mold. Some extremely high production volume molds (like those for bottle caps) can have over 128 cavities. In some cases multiple cavity tooling will mold a series of different parts in the same tool. Some toolmakers call these molds family molds as all the parts are related. Examples include plastic model kits. Terminology: Venting: _ Moulds must be well vented to eliminate any possibility of gas or air being trapped as the part is moulded. The entire circumference of each cavity should have venting to prevent gas or air burns at the parting lines. In some instances a minimum of 40% venting is recommended for intricately designed parts. Vents should normally be 0.05mm deep. If internal vents are necessary, ejector pins, sleeves and core pins may be utilised if they are located where the trapped gas and/ or air occur. Ejector pins and sleeves are preferred because the movement of ejection in the moulding cycles automatically cleans the vents. Sprue Bushes _ Sprue bushes may be categorised as either cold (standard) sprues or heated sprues. The cold sprue bush is low in cost, easy to install and requires very little maintenance. This type of system however, generates more material that must be reground and reprocessed than the heated sprue. Should the cavity depth require a long sprue bush to accommodate the runner system, the heated sprue bush should be considered. Since the sprue is not ejected with the part, the sprue trimming and scrap are eliminated and moulding time can be reduced by the amount of time normally allowed for cooling the sprue. Cavity: This is the half of the mould that forms the outer surfaces of the part. It is characterized by the negative impression of the part carved into the cavity block. Core: This is the half of the mould that forms the backside of a part. In general, the core material rises up from the core block and almost fills in the back of the cavity. The resulting space between the core and cavity is the wall thickness of the part that will be moulded. Parting line: This is the interface where two parts of the mould, such core and cavity or slide and mold, come together. This term refers both to the interface and the resulting witness line that is molded into the part. Runners _ For most normal injection moulding, runners with a circular (full round) section provide maximum flow. Main runners should have a cross sectional diameter of 6mm to 12.7mm. Secondary runners should have a cross sectional diameter of 4.8mm to 8mm. Normally all main runners to a given mould should be equal in diameter, and all secondary runners in the

mould should be equal in diameter, but they need not be equal in length. When the runner system is cut into only one mould face, trapezoidal runners are preferred to half-round runners of the same depth. Shutoff: This is a place where two parts of the mold shut against each other and prevent plastic from passing through. Technically speaking, the main parting line interface is a shutoff, but the term is seldom used in this instance. Usually, the term applies to a situation where one part of the mold closes against another to form a slot or hole, or it is sometimes used to refer to the interface where a slide shuts against a core or cavity. Sometimes, the shutoff surfaces are parallel to the direction that the mold opens. When this happens, draft has to be added to avoid grinding the parts of the mold against each other. This type of shutoff is sometimes referred to as a sliding shutoff or a slide-by. An example of this will be seen on the vent mold. Undercut: An overhanging feature on the part that would prevent it from being removed from the mold.

Process characteristics

Utilizes a ram or screw-type plunger to force molten plastic material into a mould cavity Produces a solid or open-ended shape that has conformed to the contour of the mould Uses thermoplastic or thermoset materials The process usually begins with a conventional production mould. These tools can be multi-cavity and produce millions of parts A parting line, sprue, gate marks, and ejector pin marks are usually present. None of these features are typically desired. They are the results of the parting of the mould for ejection of the formed part

Applications Injection molding is used to create many things such as wire spools, packaging, bottle caps, automotive dashboards, pocket combs, some musical instruments (and parts of them), one-piece chairs and small tables, storage containers, mechanical parts (including gears), and most other plastic products available today. Injection molding is the most common method of part manufacturing. It is ideal for producing high volumes of the same object. Some advantages of injection molding are high production rates, repeatable high tolerances, the ability to use a wide range of materials, low labor cost, minimal scrap losses, and little need to finish parts after molding. Some disadvantages of this process are expensive equipment investment, potentially high running costs, and the need to design moldable parts. Lifter: Lifter Action in an injection mold provides for the molding of undercuts. The undercut can be internal or external on the part. Typical parts are battery compartment covers on cell phones and calculators. The Lifter also aids the ejection process. Typical components in a lifter mold include Lifter, which forms the undercut and possibly the adjacent geometry and is attached to a blade, rod, arm etc. T-Coupling U-Coupling

There are many different configurations of lifters made by manufacturers. Exploring Catalogs and websites can generate many ideas. Unique lifters are common, and can aid in the ease of creating a design suitable for the undercut of a given part.

Lifter angles typically do not exceed 28 degrees from the vertical, as exceeding 28 degrees causes a concern for wear. Conversely, if the angle is on the small side (1-5 degrees), the travel required (if using ejection to move the lifter) to release the part is a concern. (undercut distance=(2x+35))

Slider: Slide Action requires several mechanical components to enable the molding of complex part geometry. Slides are usually used for exterior action, and typically pull a core located on the "B" side of the mould. Slide Action moulds typically contain the following components: Angle Pin (also referred to as: Cam, or Horn Pin) The function of the Angle Pin is to move (drive) the Slide attached to the "B" side of the mould. Angles are typically 5-28 degrees from the vertical. The angle and length of the pin is determined by the amount of travel is required for the "Side-Pull" of the part. Slide The slide can be a steel that forms a portion of the part, or it can retain core pin or other shape of core steel. The slide usually rests upon a wear plate and retained via a gibing system. There typically is a wear plate attached to the slide that enables the heel block to push the slide in for final locking before injection.

L-Gibs (or Gibbing) L-Gibs are used to contain the slide, and ensure that the slide moves in an accurately and smoothly without any significant misalignment of the slide to the other cavity forming steels. L-Gibs and wear plates are usually Lamina Bronze. Grease grooves are added to aid in preventing wear. Wear Plate The wear plate provides a surface that will resist wear when the slide moves over it, during the life of the mold. Slide Retainer The Slide Retainer holds the slide in the fully open position to ensure that the slide does not move until it is supposed to (otherwise, damage will result to the mold). There are many types of slide retainer mechanisms, some are standard components. A Ball-detent can be used as a retainer. Slide Lock Slide Locks are required to "Lock" the slide in place for injection. The lock takes ALL the pressure off the Angle Pin during injection (the angle pin does not touch the slide during

injection). The angle of the lock is typically 2-4 degrees greater (from the vertical) than the Angle Pin. Gate type As important as selecting the optimal gate size and location is the choice of the type of gate. Gate types can be divided between manually and automatically trimmed gates. Manually trimmed gates Manually trimmed gates are those that require an operator to separate parts from runners during a secondary operation. The reasons for using manually trimmed gates are:

The gate is too bulky to be sheared from the part as the tool is opened. Some shear-sensitive materials (e.g., PVC) should not be exposed to the high shear rates inherent to the design of automatically trimmed gates. Simultaneous flow distribution across a wide front to achieve specific orientation of fibers of molecules often precludes automatic gate trimming. Gate types trimmed from the cavity manually include:

Sprue gate Edge gate Tab gate Overlap gate Fan gate Film gate Diaphragm gate External ring Spoke or multipoint gate Automatically trimmed gates Automatically trimmed gates incorporate features in the tool to break or shear the gate as the molding tool is opened to eject the part. Automatically trimmed gates should be used to: Avoid gate removal as a secondary operation. Maintain consistent cycle times for all shots. Minimize gate scars.

Gate types trimmed from the cavity automatically include:

Pin gate Submarine (tunnel) gates Hot runner gates

Valve gates

Sprue gate Recommended for single cavity molds or for parts requiring symmetrical filling. This type of gate is suitable for thick sections because holding pressure is more effective. A short sprue is favored, enabling rapid mold filling and low-pressure losses. A cold slug well should be included opposite the gate. The disadvantage of using this type of gate is the gate mark left on the part surface after the runner (or sprue) is trimmed off. Freeze-off is controlled by the part thickness rather than determined the gate thickness. Typically, the part shrinkage near the sprue gate will be low; shrinkage in the sprue gate will be high. This results in high tensile stresses near the gate. Dimensions The starting sprue diameter is controlled by the machine nozzle. The sprue diameter here must be about 0.5 mm larger than the nozzle exit diameter. Standard sprue bushings have a taper of 2.4 degrees, opening toward the part. Therefore, the sprue length will control the diameter of the gate where it meets the part; the diameter should be at least 1.5 mm larger than or approximately twice the thickness of the part at that point. The junction of sprue and part should be radiused to prevent stress cracking

A smaller taper angle (a minimum of one degree) risks not releasing the sprue from the sprue bushing on ejection. A larger taper wastes material and extends cooling time. Non-standard sprue tapers will be more expensive, with little gain. Sprue gate

Edge gate The edge or side gate is suitable for medium and thick sections and can be used on multicavity two plate tools. The gate is located on the parting line and the part fills from the side, top or bottom. Dimensions The typical gate size is 80% to 100% of the part thickness up to 3.5 mm and 1.0 to 12 mm wide. The gate land should be no more than 1.0 mm in length, with 0.5 mm being the optimum.

Edge gate

 Tab gate A tab gate is typically employed for flat and thin parts, to reduce the shear stress in the cavity. The high shear stress generated around the gate is confined to the auxiliary tab, which is trimmed off after molding. A tab gate is often used for molding P. Dimensions The minimum tab width is 6 mm. The minimum tab thickness is 75% of the depth of the cavity. Tab gate

Overlap gate An overlap gate is similar to an edge gate, except the gate overlaps the wall or surfaces. This type of gate is typically used to eliminate jetting. Dimensions The typical gate size is 10% to 80% of the part thickness and 1.0 to 12 mm wide. The gate land should be no more than 1.0 mm in length, with 0.5 mm being the optimum.

Overlap gate Fan gate A fan gate is a wide edge gate with variable thickness. This type is often used for thicksectioned moldings and enables slow injection without freeze-off, which is favored for low

stress moldings or where warpage and dimensional stability are main concerns. The gate should taper in both width and thickness, to maintain a constant cross sectional area. This will ensure that:

The melt velocity will be constant. The entire width is being used for the flow. The pressure is the same across the entire width. Dimensions As with other manually trimmed gates, the maximum thickness should be no more than 80% of the part thickness. The gate width varies typically from 6 mm up to 25% of the cavity length. Film or flash gate A film or flash gate consists of a straight runner and a gate land across either the entire length or a portion of the cavity. It is used for long flat thin walled parts and provides even filling. Shrinkage will be more uniform which is important especially for fiber reinforced thermoplastics and where warpage must be kept to a minimum. Dimensions The gate size is small, typically 0.25mm to 0.5mm thick. The land area (gate length) must also be kept small, approximately 0.5 to 1.0 mm long.

Film or flash gate.

Diaphragm gate A diaphragm gate is often used for gating cylindrical or round parts that have an open inside diameter. It is used for single cavity molds that have a small to medium internal diameter. It is used when concentricity is important and the presence of a weld line is not acceptable. Dimensions Typical gate thickness is 0.25 to 1.5 mm. Internal ring gate.

 External ring gate This gate is used for cylindrical or round parts in a multicavity mould or when a diaphragm gate is not practical. Material enters the external ring from one side forming a weld line on the opposite side of the runner this weld line is not typically transferred to the part. Dimensions Typical gate thickness is 0.25 to 1.5 mm.

External ring gate.

Spoke gate or multipoint gate This kind of gate is used for cylindrical parts and offers easy de-gating and material savings. Disadvantages are the possibility of weld lines and the fact that perfect roundness is unlikely. Dimensions Typical gate size ranges from 0.8 to 5 mm diameter. Multi-point gate.

 Pin gates Pin gates are only feasible with a 3-plate tool because it must be ejected separately from the part in the opposite direction The gate must be weak enough to break off without damaging the part. This type of gate is most suitable for use with thin sections. The design is particularly useful when multiple gates per part are needed to assure symmetric filling or where long flow paths must be reduced to assure packing to all areas of the part. Dimensions Gate diameters for unreinforced thermoplastics range from 0.8 up to 6 mm. Smaller gates may induce high shear and thus thermal degradation. Reinforced thermoplastics require slightly larger gates > 1 mm The maximal land length should be 1 mm. Advised gate dimensions can be found in the table below. Pin gates.

Dimensions of gates (* wall thickness larger than 5 mm should be avoided).

Submarine (tunnel) gates A submarine gate is used in two-plate mold construction. An angled, tapered tunnel is machined from the end of the runner to the cavity, just below the parting line. As the parts

and runners are ejected, the gate is sheared at the part. The tunnel can be located either in the moving mould half or in the fixed half. A sub-gate is often located into the side of an ejector pin on the non-visible side of the part when appearance is important. To degate, the tunnel requires a good taper and must be free to bend. Dimensions Typical gate sizes 0.8 mm to 1.5 mm, for glass reinforced materials sizes could be larger. Tunnel gate.

A variation of the tunnel gate design is the curved tunnel gate where the tunnel is machined in the movable mold half. This is not suitable for reinforced materials. Curved tunnel gate.

Hot runner gates Hot runner gates are also known as sprueless gating. The nozzle of a runnerless mold is extended forward to the part and the material is injected through a pinpoint gate. The face of the nozzle is part of the cavity surface; this can cause appearance problems (matt appearance and rippled surface). The nozzle diameter should therefore be kept as small as possible. Most suitable for thin walled parts with short cycle times, this avoid freezing of the nozzle. Hot runner gates.

 Valve gates The valve gate adds a valve rod to the hot runner gate. The valve can be activated to close the gate just before the material near the gate freezes. This allows a larger gate diameter and smoothes over the gate scar. Since the valve rod controls the packing cycle, better control of the packing cycle is maintained with more consistent quality. Valve gate.

COMPRESSION MOLDING Compression molding is the simplest method used for the production of elastomeric materials. The term comes from the fact that the mold cavity compresses the material as it closes, forming the part. Material is placed directly into the cavity then closed , put under pressure (compressed) forcing the material to conform exactly to the cavity. The cure occurs as the pressure and heat cause the thermoset material to crosslink. Materials that are typically manufactured : Polyester fiberglass resin systems , Poly(pphenylene sulfide) (PPS), and many grades of PEEK.

Products: FRP Nuts, Spacers, Step Blocks, Insulating Sheets,etc

Blow molding (also known as blow moulding or blow forming) is a manufacturing process by which hollow plastic parts are formed. In general, there are three main types of blow molding: extrusion blow molding, injection blow molding, and stretch blow molding. The blow molding process begins with melting down the plastic and forming it into a parison or preform. The parison is a tube-like piece of plastic with a hole in one end in which compressed air can pass through.

The parison is then clamped into a mold and air is pumped into it. The air pressure then pushes the plastic out to match the mold. Once the plastic has cooled and hardened the mold opens up and the part is ejected.

Advantages: High Production rate; Complex shapes can be obtained with uniform thickness; Little scrap is generated. Disadvantages:

Few material options; High tooling and equipment costs; Poor surface finish. Limited to hollow shapes with thin wall and low degree of asymmetry. Blow Molding Products: _Applications: Bottles, containers, ducting. _Materials used for blow moulding: Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE) High Density Polyethylene (HDPE) Polyethylene Terephtalate (PET) Polypropylene (PP) Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

Plastics extrusion is a high volume manufacturing process in which raw plastic material is melted and formed into a continuous profile. Extrusion produces items such as pipe/tubing, weather stripping, fence, deck railing, window frames, plastic films, themoplastic coatings, and wire insulation.

Plastic extrusion moulding is a process of producing a continuous work piece by forcing molten plastic through a shaped die. As the hot material exits the die the material is carried along a conveyor, cooled, and cut to the desired length _Extrusion produces items such as pipe/tubing, weather stripping, window frames, adhesive tape and wire insulation. Plastics Extrusion Products: _Typical plastic materials that are used in extrusion include but are not limited to: Polyethylene, polypropylene, acetal, acrylic, nylon(polyamides), polystyrene, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polycarbonate.

Thermoforming: _Thermoforming is a manufacturing process where a plastic sheet is heated to a pliable forming temperature, formed to a specific shape in a mold, and trimmed to create a usable product. _ A variety of thermoplastic materials can be thermoformed such as Acrylic (PMMA), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Cellulose Acetate, Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Polypropylene (PP), Polystyrene (PS), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) etc _Depending upon the different methods of forcing the thermoplastic sheet to conform to the mold, the thermoforming include the following: 1. Vacuum Forming. 2. Pressure forming. 3. Mechanical forming.

Vacuum Thermoforming: A vacuum is formed between the mold cavity and the thermoplastic sheet. The vacuum pressure (typically 14 psi) forces the sheet to conform to the mold and form the part shape.

_Pressure Thermoforming: The air pressure (typically 50 psi, but up to 100 psi) is applied on the back side of the sheet to help force it onto the mold. This additional force allows the forming of thicker sheets and creating finer details, textures, undercuts, and sharp corners.

Mechanical Thermoforming: The thermoplastic sheet is mechanically forced into or around the mold by direct contact. Typically, a core plug will push the sheet into the mold cavity and force it into the desired shape.

_Advantages: Can produce very large parts; High production rate; Low cost _Disadvantages: Limited shape complexity; Limited to thin walled parts; Scrap cannot be recycled; Trimming is required. _Applications: Packaging, open containers, panels, cups, signs

Rotational Moulding:
A pre-determined amount of powdered or liquid thermoplastic or thermoset is poured into the mould . Mould is closed, heated and rotated in two different axis planes until contents have fused to inner walls of mould. The mould is cooled then opened and part is removed. Advantages: Low mould cost. Parts obtained are isotropic in nature. Large hollow parts can be obtained in one piece. Disadvantages: Limited to Hollow parts. Production rate is slow.

 Most commonly used materials are Polyethylene, Polypropylene, Polyvinyl chloride, Nylon, Polycarbonate. Applications:Products that can be manufactured using rotational moulding include storage tanks, bins and refuse containers, airplane parts, doll parts, road cones, footballs, helmets and rowing boats. Playground slides and roofs are also generally rotomolded.

Slush Molding:

In slush moulding, a closed mold rotates around one or more axes. The powder fuses onto the hot mold surface and sinters together. After cooling, the result is a three-dimensional skin that exhibits very even wall thicknesses regardless of the design complexity of the part. Advantages: Low mold costs. Economical for small Production runs. Disadvantages: Limited to hollow parts and limited choice of materials can be used. Production rates is very low. Applications: Automotive pieces , PVC masks, Industrial Boots, Toys, Dolls

Transfer Molding: In this process, a thermosetting charge (preform) loaded into a chamber immediately ahead of the mold cavity, where heated; pressure is then applied to force the softened polymer to flow into the heated mold where curing occurs. Transfer moulding is of 2 types (1) Pot Transfer moulding (2) Plunger transfer moulding.

Pot Transfer moulding

Advantages: Good Dimensional Accuracy: Rapid production rates; Complicated parts can be produced. Disadvantages: Moulds are expensive; High material loss; In sprue and runners. Applications: Some products are utensil handles, electric appliance parts, electronic component, and connectors.

Plunger Transfer moulding

Calendering: The plastic material is hot rolled through a series of rollers to get a desired thickness of continuous flat plastic sheet. Advantages: Low cost and sheets obtained are isotropic. Disadvantages: Limited to sheet materials; Very thin films not possible.

Design Rules For Plastic Parts: Maximum wall thickness Corners Draft Ribs Bosses Undercuts Threads Wall Thickness If there was only one rule for the injection moulding process it would have to be "maintain uniform wall thickness". 10% increase in the wall thickness provides appx. 33% increase in the stiffness. But increasing wall thickness also add to part weight, cycle time and material cost. Changing the wall thickness after mold design will be too expensive. Normal range of wall thickness The vast majority of injection molded parts wall thickness range from 0.8 mm to 4.8 mm! Nominal wall thickness should not exceed 4.0 mm.

Walls thicker than 4.0 mm will result in increased cycle times (due to the longer time required for cooling), will increase the likelihood of voids and significantly decrease the physical properties of the part. A wall thickness variation of 25% is acceptable in a part made with a thermoplastic having a shrinkage rate of less than 0.01 mm/mm. If the shrinkage rate exceeds 0.01 mm/mm, then a thickness variation of 15% is permissible Maximum wall thickness: Decrease the maximum wall thickness of a part to shorten the cycle time (injection time and cooling time specifically) and reduce the part volume

Incorrect

Correct

Part designed with thick wall

. Part designed with thin wall

Uniform wall thickness will ensure uniform cooling and reduce defects

Incorrect- Non uniform wall Correct- Uniform wall thickness thickness (t1 t2) (t1 = t2) Corners : Round corners to reduce stress concentrations and fracture Inner radius should be at least the thickness of the walls

Incorrect- Sharp corners

Correct- Filleted corners.

Draft : Apply a draft angle of 1- 2to all walls parallel t o the parting direction to facilitate removing the part from the mold.

Incorrect- No Draft angle Ribs :

Correct- With Draft angle.

Ribs provide a means to economically augment stiffness and strength in moulded parts without increasing overall wall thickness. Locating and captivation components of an assembly Providing alignment in mating parts Acting as stops or guides for mechanisms Consideration for Rib Design: Thickness Height Location Quantity Moldability Add ribs for structural support, rather than increasing the wall thickness

Incorrect- Thick wall of thickness t

Correct- Thin walled ribs of thickness t

Orient ribs perpendicular to the axis about which bending may occur.

Incorrect- Rib direction under load F

Correct- Rib direction under load F

Thickness of ribs should be 50-60% of the walls to which they are attached

Height of ribs should be less than three times the wall thickness Round the corners at the point of attachment Apply a draft angle of at least 0.25. If using multiple ribs, space them unevenly or orient them to prevent resonance amplification from the impact energy Avoid boxy shapes that concentrate impact forces on rigid edges and corners Use rounded shapes to spread impact forces over larger areas.

Wall thickness of bosses should be no more than 60% of the main wall thickness. Radius at the base should be at least 25% of the main wall thickness Should be supported by ribs that connect to adjacent walls or by gussets at the base.

Incorrect- Isolated boss

Correct- Bosses with ribs

Correct- Bosses with gussets If a boss must be placed near a corner, it should be isolated using ribs

Incorrect- Ribbed Boss in corner

Correct- Ribbed Boss in corner

Undercuts : Minimize the number of external undercuts External undercuts require side-cores which add to the tooling cost. Some simple external undercuts can be molded by relocating the parting line

Simple External Cut

Mould cannot separate

New parting line allows undercut

Redesigning a feature can remove an external undercut

Part with hinge

Hinge requires side-core

Redesigned hinge

New hinge can be molded

Minimize the number of internal undercuts Internal undercuts often require internal core lifters which add to the tooling cost Designing an opening in the side of a part can allow a side-core to form an internal undercut.

Internal undercut accessible from the side

Redesigning a part can remove an internal undercut

Part with internal undercut Mold cannot separate

Part redesigned with slot

New part can be molded

Minimize number of side-action directions Additional side-action directions will limit the number of possible cavities in the mold Threads If possible, features with external threads should be oriented perpendicular to the parting direction. Threaded features that are parallel to the parting direction will require an unscrewing device, which greatly adds to the tooling cost

TYPICAL NOMINAL THICKNESS FOR VARIOUS CLASSES OF THERMOPLASTICS

Thermoplastic Resin Family
ABS,Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Acetal Acrylic Liquid Crystal Polymer Long-Fiber Reinforced Plastics Modified Polyphenylene Ether Nylon Polyarylate Polycarbonate Polyester Polyester Elastomer

Typical Thickness Ranges (mm)

1.143-3.556 0.762-3.048 0.635-3.81 0.2032-3.048 1.905-25.4 1.143-3.556 0.254-2.921 1.143-3.81 1.016-3.81 0.635-3.175 0.635-3.175

Polyethylene Polyphenylene Sulfide Polypropylene Polystyrene Polysulfone Polyurethane PVC,Polyvinyl Chloride SAN, Styrene-Acrylonitrile

0.762-5.08 0.508-4.572 0.635-3.81 0.889-3.81 1.27-3.81 2.032-19.05 1.016-3.81 0.889-3.81

DEFECTS of PLASTICS Many flaws and defects can be avoided by using good part and tool design techniques. As a part designer it is a very good Idea to be aware of your options in tooling and to consider those while designing your part. For example, have potential gate locations in mind. Try to guess where knitlines will occur and how different gate locations will affect them. How easy will it be to trim the gate? The more parts you study, the better you will get at predicting flow. Be sure to communicate your intentions to the tool designer and get his feedback to influence your future designs. Avoiding thick sections can add up to huge savings over the lifetime of a tool. Thick sections increase the cycle time of each shot, narrow the processing window, require overpacking, and cause reject parts.

BLUSH DEFINITION: Dull discolored or whitish area on the surface of the part, usually at the gate. CAUSE: Shear stress between polymer molecules during injection. The gate may be too small or injection speed too fast. LOCATION: Usually at the gate. May also occur where there is a sudden change in part thickness. CURE: Adjust injection speed and if BLUSH

necessary adjust gate dimensions. An independent water circuit in the mold that allows pinpoint temperature control at the gate can also help. BURN DEFINITION: Discoloration usually black, brown or dark yellow/brown depending upon severity. Feels rough and crunchy. Frequently accompanied by short shot in burn area. CAUSE: Usually indicates a need for more venting or heat buildup in tool. When air is trapped in the tool and cannot escape, the extreme pressure causes the air to ignite, burning the edge of the part. LOCATION: Most often seen in deep, blind ribs where a lot of air can be forced into a small space. CURE: Add more parting line vents near burn or vent pins in deep ribs. Vent pins are just ejector pins that fit a little loose. They may also have a flat ground down one side to let the air escape. COLD FLOW DEFINITION: Wavy or streaked appearance on part surface. Looks like a fingerprint or small waves like you would see on the surface of water. CAUSE: Low melt temperature, low injection speed or low injection pressure. LOCATION: Hard to fill or last to fill areas.

BURN

COLD FLOW

COLD SLUG DEFINITION: Cold piece of plastic that has been forced into the part along with the melt. CAUSE: 1.Plastic from last shot left in nozzle solidifies between shots. The tool designer usually is able to allow for a "cold slug well" in the runner to catch this piece. 2.Cold slug effects can also occur at the end of a long runner. LOCATION: If allowed to enter the part it can travel anywhere. CURE: Add a cold slug well at each intersection in the runner. Addition of a shortened ejector pin on the runner very close to the gate may divert the cold slug. For direct sprue gating try to make a feature in the part to catch the slug or use a heated nozzle. CONTAMINATION DEFINITION: Foreign embedded in the part. particles

COLD SLUG

CAUSE: 1.Burned material in the press barrel. 2.Contaminated regrind. 3.Grease or particles that have not been cleaned from the mold. LOCATION: Anywhere. DELAMINATION DEFINITION: Separation of plastic surface layer giving a flaking or onion skin effect. CAUSE: 1.Contaminated resin. May be caused by incomplete machine purging, unclean material handling equipment or impure regrind. LOCATION: Anywhere. DELAMINATION or PEELING CONTAMINATION

DISCOLORATION DEFINITION: Deviation from the original intended color of the material as compared to the manufacturers color chip. CAUSE: 1.Contaminated resin. 2.Overheated resin. 3.Incorrect regrind ratio. 4.Incorrect color mixing or blending. LOCATION: Entire part. DRAG DEFINITION: Fine, straight lines scraped in the line of draw. CAUSE: Depends upon location. 1.Cavity side happens during mold opening and is usually from insufficient draft for the texture used or from overpacking. 2.Core side drag happens during ejection and is usually from inadequate draft, rough core, or overpacking. LOCATION: May be in opening direction or side action direction. Cavity, core, slide, or lifter. CURE: Solve overpacking problem. Cavity side drag, tone down the texture by stoning then bead blast. Core side drag, polish core, add draft. FLASH DEFINITION: Excess plastic squeezing out perpendicular to the part at parting line. CAUSE: 1.Plastic injection force exceeding the clamping pressure of the press. (Overpacking.) 2.May happen at first shots while mold is being dialed in. 3.Poorly constructed or worn out mold. LOCATION: Along any parting line. CURE: Run the mold in a bigger press. Relieve areas of the parting surfaces that DISCOLORATION

DRAG

FLASH

are not immediately adjacent to the part. Leave 0.500 in. of shutoff land around the part. GLOSS DEFINITION: Smooth shiny areas on the part surface. CAUSE: 1.Underpacking 2.See section on plateout below. LOCATION: Hard to fill areas. GLOSS JETTING DEFINITION: Squiggly line in part pointing to gate. Looks like a worm in the part. CAUSE: 1.Incorrect gate placement or size. The gate is positioned in such a manner as to aim the plastic straight into an open area. The plastic launches out into the open like a piece of "silly string" and then stacks up in squiggles. LOCATION: Near gate. CURE: Aim the gate at an obstacle that interrupts the flow. Use different gate style or larger gate. KNITLINE DEFINITION: A line where the molten polymer flow fronts meet in the mold. Incomplete adhesion occurs along the knitline and causes a weak point in the plastic part. CAUSE: Cold fronts meeting in the tool where molten plastic fronts meet. LOCATION: Cold fronts meeting in the tool where plastic flows around obstacles or over raised areas in the metal. It is guaranteed that you will have a knitline as

JETTING

the plastic flows around any opening in the part. Recessed text or Icons can also cause small cosmetic knits. CURE: Frequently it is possible to place the gate in such a manner as to push the knit lines into obscure areas. If this is not possible use "flow directors" on the noncosmetic side of the part to push the knitline into a corner, crease, or shadow to hide it. Flow directors are usually just shallow raised areas in the plastic that are cut into the tool with a large ball end mill. Sometimes it is possible to add a "sump" that the cold material flows out into. This sump is then clipped off. BAD GATE TRIM DEFINITION: Either too much or too little plastic where the gate has been trimmed off. CAUSE: 1.location of the gate on a concave or convex part surface can make it difficult to accurately trim the gate. 2.Another cause can be inadequately trained or uncoordinated people doing the trimming. LOCATION: Gate. CURE: Place the gate on a straight edge if possible. A good trim job takes good eye/hand coordination. Use of a gate trimming fixture can work well for high volume gate trimming. Use self degating techniques where possible such as tunnel gates or banana gates. Of course gating to a noncosmetic area is always preferred, but not always feasible.

KNITLINE

BAD GATE TRIM

MISMATCH DEFINITION: The cavity side of the tool does not fall in perfect registry with the core side resulting in a step at parting line. It may look like flash if it is slight. If it is smooth as your finger runs across one way and feels sharp the other way it is mismatch. If you can feel it both ways it is flash. CAUSE: 1.Uneven pressure in the mold cavity can push the cavity one direction and the core the other. This usually happens in very asymmetrical parts or parts with a parting surface that slopes only one way. 2.Moldmaker did not properly position the cavity relative to the core. 3.In older tools mismatch may occur as locking faces wear. LOCATION: At parting lines. CURE: Straight locks at parting line. The best are those made by Progressive Components. PIN PUSH DEFINITION: Circular or semicircular white stress rings on the side of the part opposite an ejector pin. May even be raised circular bumps. In serious cases pins may push right through the part! CAUSE: 1.Overpacking. 2.Sticking on the core. 3.Inadequate ejection. LOCATION: On the cosmetic side of the part opposite an ejector pin. CURE: Solve overpacking problem. Polish core or increase draft on core. Add more ejector pins. More small pins are better than a few big ones.

MISMATCH

PIN PUSH

PLATEOUT DEFINITION: A change of mold texture over time that is not due to wear. CAUSE: 1.Buildup of chemical residue from out gassing. 2.Buildup of mold release. LOCATION: Anywhere CURE: Have the mold cleaned. PLATEOUT

PULLING DEFINITION: Deformed, twisted and smeared plastic in the part usually on, or adjacent to steep vertical faces. CAUSE: 1.Cavity side: A portion of the part sticking to the cavity on tool opening. Listen to the mold as it opens to see if you can hear it pop free. 2. Core side: Uneven part ejection is not pushing the part out straight. The part gets skewed as it ejects, the resulting damage is called pulling. LOCATION: Anywhere in part. CURE: Cavity side pulling, add undercuts or texture on core side so part pulls cleanly from the cavity. Core side pulling, add ejection. More small pins are better than a few big ones. PULLING

SHORT SHOT DEFINITION: Missing plastic or features that are not fully formed. Missing corners or features have a smooth, rounded appearance. CAUSE: Under packing, low injection pressure, trapped gas. LOCATION: Areas of the part farthest from the gate, thin areas or delicate features. Generally the last part of the mold to fill. CURE: Make sure the tool is adequately vented and push more plastic in. SINKS DEFINITION: Depressions or dimples in the part that are usually adjacent to thick areas. In clear parts, bubbles can be seen in thick areas. These bubbles can be the precursors of shrink. CAUSE: As the plastic cools it shrinks. If there is an area that is proportionally thicker than the rest of the part, then the plastic will shrink more in the thick spot causing it to collapse inward. LOCATION: 1. Wall perpendicular to ribs or bosses that don't conform to the 66% rule. 2. Inconsistent wall thickness. i.e. Thick areas adjacent to thin areas. CURE: Maintain constant wall thickness by coring out. If you must have thick areas lead gradually into them. Follow the 66% rule for wall thickness. Keep it down to 60% or less if you can. Frequently the solution to sink is to pack the part out tighter. Over packing can then cause other problems. The best solution is to avoid it in the first place with good part design. VOID or DEEP SINK Other problems that can be caused by

SHORT SHOT

SINK

sink include part warpage, twisting, stress, and part breakage. For more info visit the ribs bosses section of this website. and

BUBBLE SPLAY DEFINITION: Silver or whitish streaks CAUSE: 1.Moisture 2.Overheated material. in material.

LOCATION: Anywhere. predominant near gate. WARP

Most SPLAY

DEFINITION: The failure to maintain flatness of a plastic part that was intended to be flat. Distortion from the intended shape of the plastic part. CAUSE: 1.The underlying cause of most part warpage is the shape of the part itself. The pattern, shape, and thickness of ribs on the part as they undergo shrinkage have the greatest effect upon warpage. These effects can be controlled to some degree by differential cooling of the mold (a different temp on the cavity than on the core). 2. Over packing can induce warp. LOCATION: Present to some degree in most Injection molded parts but most easily detected on large flat parts. CURE: Alas there is no cure for this one, only control. Differential mold cooling can get you parts that are flatter. A WARP

cooling fixture that the part is placed into immediately after ejection can also straighten the part. However these effects are usually temporary and upon being subjected to elevated temps or time parts will return to their natural shape. Your best bet is to follow the 66% rule and minimize rib height. Flat parts are more susceptible to warpage than curved parts. Note: On long thin flat parts the gate is best placed between 60-70% down the part length to minimize warp.

Welding Techniques
A number of techniques are used for welding plastics. Hot gas welding

Hot gas welding, also known as hot air welding, is a plastic welding technique using heat. A specially designed heat gun, called a hot air welder, produces a jet of hot air that softens both the parts to be joined and a plastic filler rod, all of which must be of the same or a very similar plastic. Welding PVC to acrylic is an exception to this rule. Hot air/gas welding is a common fabrication technique for manufacturing smaller items such as chemical tanks, water tanks, heat exchangers, and plumbing fittings. In the case of webs and films a filler rod may not be used. Two sheets of plastic are heated via a hot gas (or a heating element) and then rolled together. This is a quick welding process and can be performed continuously. Heat seal

A variety of heat sealers are available to join thermoplastic materials such as plastic films: Hot bar sealer, Impulse sealer, etc. Freehand welding

With freehand welding, the jet of hot air (or inert gas) from the welder is played on the weld area and the tip of the weld rod at the same time. As the rod softens, it is pushed into the joint and fuses to the parts. This process is slower than most others, but it can be used in almost any situation. Speed tip welding With speed welding, the plastic welder, similar to a soldering iron in appearance and wattage, is fitted with a feed tube for the plastic weld rod. The speed tip heats the rod and the substrate, while at the same time it presses the molten weld rod into position.

A bead of softened plastic is laid into the joint, and the parts and weld rod fuse. With some types of plastic such as polypropylene, the melted welding rod must be "mixed" with

the semi-melted base material being fabricated or repaired. These welding techniques have been perfected over time and have been utilised for over 50 years by professional plastic fabricators and repairers internationally. Speed tip welding method is a much faster welding technique and with practice can be used in tight corners. A version of the speed tip "gun" is essentially a soldering iron with a broad, flat tip that can be used to melt the weld joint and filler materiel to create a bond. Extrusion welding

Extrusion welding allows the application of bigger welds in a single weld pass. It is the preferred technique for joining material over 6 mm thick. Welding rod is drawn into a miniature hand held plastic extruder, plasticized, and forced out of the extruder against the parts being joined, which are softened with a jet of hot air to allow bonding to take place. Contact welding

This is the same as spot welding except that heat is supplied with conduction of the pincher tips instead of electrical conduction. Two plastic parts are brought together where heated tips pinch them, melting and joining the parts in the process. Hot plate welding

Related to contact welding, this technique is used to weld larger parts, or parts that have a complex weld joint geometry. The two parts to be welded are placed in the tooling attached to the two opposing platens of a press. A hot plate, with a shape that matches the weld joint geometry of the parts to be welded, is moved in position between the two parts. The two opposing platens move the parts into contact with the hot plate until the heat softens the interfaces to the melting point of the plastic. When this condition is achieved the hot plate is removed, and the parts are pressed together and held until the weld joint cools and resolidifies to create a permanent bond. The most common form of this welding is butt heat fusion welding which welds two circular tubes end to end. High frequency welding

Certain plastics with chemical dipoles, such as PVC, polyamides (PA) and acetates can be heated with high frequency electromagnetic waves. High frequency welding uses this property to soften the plastics for joining. The heating can be localized, and the process can be continuous. Also known as Dielectric Sealing, R.F. (Radio Frequency) Heat Sealing.

In a ferromagnetic work piece, plastics can be induction-welded by formulating them with metallic or ferromagnetic compounds, called susceptors. These susceptors absorb electromagnetic energy from an induction coil, become hot, and lose their heat energy to the surrounding material by thermal conduction. Radio frequency welding is a very mature technology that has been around since the 1940s. Two pieces of material are placed on a table press that applies pressure to both surface areas. Dies are used to direct the welding process. When the press comes together, high frequency waves (usually 27.12 MHz) are passed through the small area between the die and the table where the weld takes place. This high frequency (radio frequency) field causes the molecules in certain materials to move and get hot, and the combination of this heat under pressure causes the weld to take the shape of the die. RF welding is fast. This type of welding is used to connect polymer films used in a variety of industries where a strong consistent leak-proof seal is required. In the fabrics industry, RF is most often used to weld PVC andpolyurethane (PU) coated fabrics. This is a very consistent method of welding. The most common materials used in RF welding are PVC and polyurethane. It is also possible to weld other polymers such as nylon, PET, EVA and some ABS plastics. Injection welding

Injection welding is similar/identical to extrusion welding, except, using certain tips on the handheld welder, one can insert the tip into plastic defect holes of various sizes and patch them from the inside out. The advantage is that no access is needed to the rear of the defect hole. The alternative is a patch, except that the patch can not be sanded flush with the original surrounding plastic to the same thickness. PE and PP are most suitable for this type of process. The Drader injection weld is an example of such tool. Ultrasonic welding

In ultrasonic welding, high frequency (15 kHz to 40 kHz) low amplitude vibration is used to create heat by way of friction between the materials to be joined. The interface of the two parts is specially designed to concentrate the energy for the maximum weld strength. Ultrasonic can be used on almost all plastic material. It is the fastest heat sealing technology available. Friction welding

In friction welding, the two parts to be assembled are rubbed together at a lower frequency (typically 100300 Hz) and higher amplitude (typically 1 to 2 mm (0.039 to 0.079 in)) than ultrasonic welding. The friction caused by the motion combined with the clamping pressure between the two parts creates the heat which begins to melt the contact areas between the two parts. At this point, the plasticized materials begin to form layers that intertwine with one another, which therefore results in a strong weld. At the completion of the vibration motion, the parts remain held together until the weld joint cools and the melted plastic re-solidifies. The friction movement can be linear or orbital, and the joint design of the two parts has to allow this movement.

Spin welding

Spin welding is a particular form of frictional welding. With this process, one round piece is held stationary, while a mating one is rotated at high velocity while lightly against the stationary piece. The rotatated piece is then pressed firmly against the fixed piece. This is a common way of producing low- and medium-duty plastic wheels, e.g., for toys, shopping carts, recycling bins, etc. Laser welding

This technique requires one part to be transmissive to a laser beam and either the other part absorptive or a coating at the interface to be absorptive to the beam. The two parts are put under pressure while the laser beam moves along the joining line. The beam passes through the first part and is absorbed by the other one or the coating to generate enough heat to soften the interface creating a permanent weld. Semiconductor diode lasers are typically used in plastic welding. Wavelengths in the range of 808 nm to 980 nm can be used to join various plastic material combinations. Power levels from less than 1W to 100W are needed depending on the materials, thickness and desired process speed.[1]

Diode laser systems have the following advantages in joining of plastic materials:

Cleaner than adhesive bonding No micro-nozzles to get clogged No liquid or fumes to affect surface finish No consumables Higher throughput Can access work-piece in challenging geometry High level of process control

Requirements for high strength joints include:

Adequate transmission through upper layer Absorption by lower layer Material compatibility wetting Good joint design clamping pressure, joint area Lower power density

A sample list of materials that can be joined include:

Polypropylene Polycarbonate Acrylic Nylon ABS

For a more in depth list of materials as well as weldable material combinations, please refer to the Laser Plastic Welding Material Compatibility Chart Specific applications include sealing / welding / joining of: catheter bags, medical containers, automobile remote control keys, heart pacemaker casings, syringe tamper evident joints, headlight or tail-light assemblies, pump housings, and cellular phone parts. Transparent Laser Plastic Welding

New fiber laser technology allows for the output of higher laser wavelengths, with the best results typically around 2,000nm, significantly higher than the average 808nm to

1064nm diode laser used for traditional laser plastic welding. Because these higher wavelengths are more readily absorbed by thermoplastics than the infra-red radiation of traditional plastic welding, it is possible to weld two clear polymers without any colorants or absorbing additives. Common Applications will mostly fall in the medical industry for devices like catheters and microfluidic devices. The heavy use of transparent plastics, especially flexible polymers like TPU, TPE and PVC, in the medical device industry makes transparent laser welding a natural fit. Also, the process requires no laser absorbing additives or colorants making testing and meeting biocompatibility requirements significantly easier. Solvent welding

In solvent welding, a solvent is applied which can temporarily dissolve the polymer at room temperature. When this occurs, the polymer chains are free to move in the liquid and can mingle with other similarly dissolved chains in the other component. Given sufficient time, the solvent will permeate through the polymer and out into the environment, so that the chains lose their mobility. This leaves a solid mass of entangled polymer chains which constitutes a solvent weld. This technique is commonly used for connecting PVC and ABS pipe, as in household plumbing. The "gluing" together of plastic (polycarbonate, polystyrene or ABS) models is also a solvent welding process. Dichloromethane (methylene chloride), which is obtainable in paint stripper, can solvent weld polycarbonate and polymethylmethacrylate. Dichloromethane chemically welds certain plastics; for example, it is used to seal the casing of electric meters. It is also a component - along with tetrahydrofuran - of the solvent used to weld plumbing. Plastic Welding supplies Welding rod A plastic welding rod, also known as a thermoplastic welding rod, is a rod with circular or triangular cross-section used to bind two pieces of plastic together. They are available in a wide range of colors to match the base material's color.

An important aspect of plastic welding rod design and manufacture is the porosity of the material. A high porosity will lead to air bubbles (known as voids) in the rods, which decrease the quality of the welding. The highest quality of plastic welding rods are therefore those with zero porosity, which are called voidless. OS PLASTICS Growing demand in the automotive sector Different types of polymer are used in over 1000 parts of all shapes and sizes, from all plastics ,dashboards and fuel tanks to radiator. By volume, from bumper to bumper, cars today contain more plastics than traditional materials. Yet, thanks to their light weight, they account for on average only 9.3 per cent (or 105kg) of the total weight. MATERIALS USED IN EUROPEAN AUTOMOBILE PRODUCTION 1998 Bumpers -PP, ABS, PC 10.0 Seats- PUR, PP, PVC, ABS, PA 13.0 Dashboard- PP, ABS, PA, PC, PE 15.0 Fuel systems -PE, POM, PA, PP 7.0 Body (including body panels)- PP, PPE, UP 6.0 Under the bonnet components -PA, PP, PBT 9.0 Interior trim- PP, ABS, PET, POM, PVC 20.0 Electrical components- PP, PE, PBT, PA, PVC 7.0 Exterior trim- ABS, PA, PBT, ASA, PP 4.0 Lighting- PP, PC, ABS, PMMA, UP 5.0 Upholstery- PVC, PUR, PP, PE 8.0 Other reservoirs- PP, PE, PA 1.0

Plastics In Automotive Markets Today Plastics encompass a wide variety of functional polymeric compounds that exhibit a vast range of desirable properties. They are durable, strong and lightweight. They can be made transparent, translucent or opaque; soft, flexible or hard in almost any shape, size or color. They can be heat-, chemical- and corrosion resistant. They are excellent thermal and electrical insulators and also can be made electrically and thermally conductive. Because of plastics versatility, they are extremely cost-effective in a wide variety of commercial applications including a broad range of uses in the transportation market. The use of both thermosets and thermoplastics in passenger vehicles has grown from about 30 kilograms per vehicle in 1970 to about 150 kilograms today. A midsize automobile manufactured in North America is about 10-12 percent plastics by weight. The material volume is much higher. Because plastics are versatile and lightweight, they make up approximately 50 percent of the material volume of new cars. The Need for Fuel Efficiency and Reduction in Green House Gases Leading experts say that the easiest and least expensive way to reduce the energy consumption and emissions of a vehicle is to reduce the weight of the vehicle. To achieve lightweight architectures, without compromising on rigidity, automakers have been researching the replacement of steel with plastics, composites, foams, aluminum and magnesium. The recycling and recovery of end-of-life vehicles, which involves recovery targets of 85%, are driving the auto industry to adopt lightweight materials technology to meet these recovery targets. Weight reduction also offers a potentially cost-effective means to reduce fuel consumption and greenhouse gases from the transportation sector. It has been estimated that for every 10% reduction in the weight of the total vehicle, fuel economy improves by 5-7%. Thus for every kilogram of vehicle weight reduction, there is the potential to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 20 kg. Common Themes and Top Priorities At the Technology Integration Workshop, six important themes were repeatedly cited as central to the challenge of enhancing future automotive safety using plastics. 1. Improve Characterization and Predictive Modeling of Plastics Continuous improvement in predictive modeling of the crash performance of plastic components is vital to strengthening the position of plastics as a preferred automotive material. Automotive designers also require extensive materials characterization data for new plastics as they become available. Obtaining reliable, validated constitutive data may require a coordinated, industry-wide effort. 2. Develop Material Classifications, Test Standards, and Performance Specifications To encourage design engineers and original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) to choose plastics over competing materials, designers must be confident in the materials ability to achieve required performance in the application. Because plastics are less familiar than metals to most design engineers, the plastics industry must benchmark performance and create material classifications to characterize their products. Afterward, OEM material performance

specifications and test methods must be updated and expanded to reflect the unique properties and capabilities of these new materials. 3. Enhance Crash Performance with Improved Energy Management Managing the impact energy created during a crash and protecting occupants from absorbing too much of this energy is a fundamental part of vehicle safety. Advanced plastic components and systems in the interior, body and exterior, and powertrain systems are sought to allow automakers to manage crash energy in creative, more effective ways. 4. Uncover Plastic Opportunities under Evolving Active and Passive Safety Standards and Light weighting Regulations Understanding technology needs for meeting evolving safety standards and light weighting regulations addressing both crash worthiness and crash avoidance is a necessary foundation for planning future plastics research. The industry must better define plastics performance requirements of new safety standards and use with new integrated components, alternative fuel vehicles, powertrain options, and transportation infrastructure. Once these issues are determined, new opportunities for optimizing safety and light weighting with plastics should be identified. 5. Accommodate Changing Demographics to Older Population As the population of older drivers increases, improved counter measures and crash performance systems will be needed to keep these passengers safe. Many older drivers have lower biomechanical tolerances and require special safety features to avoid injury. With targeted research, highly versatile plastics may enable important advances in safety features that are needed to protect the 65-and-older population. 6. Make Automotive Safety with Plastics Affordable Optimizing material selection for automotive safety components will require that plastics become more affordable, both as a material and as they enable efficiency gains throughout the vehicle manufacturing and assembly process. At the same time, the perception among automotive customers must be changed to appreciate the value of safety features enabled by plastics to increase their willingness to select those features. Plain steel PLASTICS Drivers for the 21st century Thanks to plastics, the cars we dream of today are quickly being developed offering high performance, cleaner driving and advanced safety and convenience features. As we enter an era of mass customisation, where products will increasingly be tailored to meet individual requirements, diversity will become the new rule. Cars will come in all shapes and sizes, metamorphosing into new part-carpart- truck combinations. Plastics versatility and flexibility will support the trend in the automotive industry to build very different cars based on the same chassis and a core set of components, thus reducing research and development time and the retail price. Plastics-based composite materials will substantially reduce the weight of the future car and, as a result, less energy will be required to propel it. In fact, the 100kg of plastics that have been added to the average car have already displaced 200 to 300kg of other materials. Thanks to lightweight plastics, driving 50 kilometres on one litre of fuel will soon be possible and the commercialisation of electric cars that need just 40kW instead of the 120kW a conventional-size vehicle requires today, could be only a few years away.

As we move into the next century, cars will be fitted with hybrid engines that draw their energy from a combination of sources including fuel, plastics-based solar panels, batteries and fuel cells which generate electricity catalytically from hydrogen thus further reducing emissions of CO2.In 20 years time, cars may even drive themselves, using satellite based Global Positioning Systems (GPS) to take their passengers safely to the nearest hotel on a cross country trip. New plastics are increasingly being tailored to meet the needs of the electronic car of the future. Looking forward to the 21st century, plastics in automotive applications will continue to contribute significantly to the drive towards building better, safer and cleaner cars. The plastics industry will continue to work closely with the automotive industry to meet this challenge by developing technologies and products to turn transport dreams into a reality. 14.2%DEFECTS MANUAL

ENGINEERING FEATURES Retainer Snap Clips Bolts Washer Welding points

Steel vs. Plastics: The Competition for Light-Vehicle Fuel Tanks

As weight and cost savings drive changes in performance criteria for automotive materials, original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) are taking a harder look at the historically ternecoated steel used for gas tanks. This article compares steel and plastic for gas tank uses according to performance attributes and a competitive analysis. Legislation issues and current OEM activity are included. INTRODUCTION Historically, terne-coated steel (an 8% tin-lead coating) has been the mainstay for automotive gas tanks; however, several issues are changing the performance criteria that must be met and, thus, threaten the application of steel products. The drivers for a material change are legislation, increased required part life to ten years/241,350 kilometers, permeability, weight, packaging, safety, and cost. In this article, the performance attributes of the plastic and steel alternatives are reviewed from an original equipment manufacturer (OEM) perspective in the critical areas of manufacturability, cost, design, weight, safety, corrosion, and recyclability. A comparative analysis of the various plastic and steel alternatives indicates that steel remains a cost-effective material that meets all of the required performance criteria. A more specific cost comparison of the new plastic tanks (i.e., multilayer or barrier coated) with the new steel tanks is still required. Many of the drivers such as lead reduction, clean fuels, permeability, and weight are a direct result of legislative and regulatory pressures

PLASTIC FUEL TANKS

Since the mid-1980s, automakers have been displacing coated-steel fuel tanks with plastic ones. During the 1993 model year, approximately 2.7-3 million cars and trucks built in North America used nonmetallic tanks. This represents 22-25% of the market, compared to 16% in 1990. By comparison, the European market uses 70-90% plastic tanks, and the Japanese market uses 5% plastic tanks4 (Figure 1). Although plastic-tank applications have experienced some reversals as a result of the stricter permeation standards, some experts believe their usage will gain momentum by the end of the decade as new plastics technology is converted to commercially feasible operations. The Delphi VII report by theUniversity of Michigan indicates that experts predict plastic tanks will capture 28% of the North American market by the end of 1996 and up to 50% of the market by 2000.5 However, this projection needs to be tempered with the higher manufacturing cost and recyclability issues of the multilayer plastic tanks that will be required to meet the stricter permeation standards. This projection is considered as the worst-case scenario for steel if the industry fails to provide the OEMs with a cost-effective steel alternative that meets all of the performance criteria. Table I indicates the production volume of vehicles built in North America;6 Table II shows the estimated number of plastic gas tank units (according to Delphi VII projections) and their impact on steel shipments. As of 1993, the steel industry lost the opportunity to ship about 34,473 tonnes of steel as a result of plastics gains in gas-tank applications. In the worst-case scenario, continued acceptance of plastic gas tanks will increase steel's loss to 71,667 tonnes in 2000 an additional 43,544 tonnes. This means that annual shipment of 125,191 tonnes of steel will be reduced by better than a third to a total of about 81,646 tonnes per year. PLASTICS TECHNOLOGY High-density polyethylene (HDPE) has been the resin of choice for plastic gas tanks, and production capacity has been on the increase. Kautex of Canada built a new plant in Avilla, Indiana, to meet anticipated increases in demand for plastic automotive fuel tanks. Production was scheduled for 400,000 tanks in 1994 and eventually will be boosted to between 600,000 and 700,000 units per year.7 These plastic tanks are currently being used on Chrysler's Jeep Cherokee and T300 trucks. Belgium-based Solvay is the exclusive supplier of plastic fuel tanks to General Motors' Saturn Division. Solvay has also expanded their Canadian subsidiary in Blenheim, Ontario, and installed two new blow-molding machines to make HDPE tanks for the Chrysler's LH series and Viper sports car. Chrysler expects to sell 300,000 LH vehicles, all with HDPE tanks that offer more volume capacity than steel tanks. Monolayer-HDPE tanks offer long-term structural integrity but will not meet future permeation requirements. Chrysler started to switch in 1995 to multilayered HDPE to meet the more stringent SHED test.

The emergence of new technologies has enabled the increase of plastic gas tanks. These new technologies can be grouped into either multilayer or barrier types. Multilayer Technology Some manufacturers see multilayer tank technology as the answer to stricter emission standards. Ford uses six-layer fuel tanks made of HDPE and, at one point, considered a $110 million investment in machinery and equipment to produce the tanks (which would have been the first commercial use of coextruded tanks). However, Ford decided to increase steel-tank stamping capacity at Dearborn; the Explorer and the new F-150 truck(PN96) gas tanks have been switched back from plastic to zinc-nickel coated steel. Kautex is supplying Ford's facility in Milan, Michigan, with this six-layer technology. The tanks are designed to meet California's stricter evaporative fuel standards and consist of an inner layer of HDPE joined by an adhesive layer and barrier layer of polyamide or ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer. An additional adhesive layer is joined by a layer of "regrind" and an outer layer of HDPE. Walbro Automotive Corporation began commercial production of multilayer plastic fuel tanks for 1995 models. Annual production of these multilayer tanks is expected to reach 500,000 units by 1998. Their tank uses a barrier layer of ethylene-vinyl alcohol (EVOH) that is sandwiched between two layers of HDPE. Barrier Technology Air Products and Chemicals of Allentown, Pennsylvania, has commercialized a fluorine-based barrier technology that enables plastic fuel tank manufacturers to meet more stringent emissions standards. The SHED tests completed in 1992 on Airoguard plastic tanks produced by Kautex of Canada indicated hydrocarbon permeation rates as low as 0.1 g/24 hsignificantly lower than rates for tanks using previously available barrier technology. The performance of the Airoguard tanks compares with multilayer extrusion tanks while maintaining the long-term structural integrity of monolayer tanks.10 Solvay Automotive of Troy, Michigan, has developed technology to keep HDPE tank emissions down to 0.2 g/24 h or less, even with methanol-containing fuels.11 Using technology called Solvay-optimized fluorination, Solvay equals or exceeds the permeation performance of coextrusion with EVOH barrier resin. Solvay continues to add multilayer capacity to meet Chrysler's requirements. Aero Tec Laboratories of Ramsey, New Jersey, has developed a semiflexible safety fuel tank made from an undisclosed olefin compound of polymers and antidiffusion-barrier additives.12 The tank can be used for race cars and military vehicles as well as general automotive aftermarkets. STEEL FUEL TANKS

North American auto manufacturers are currently supplied with tanks comprising a steel substrate coated with either terne or zinc-nickel. In all, about 125,191 tonnes of steel substrate per year are applied to gas tanks.Stainless steel tanks have been tested, and although effective in flexible fuels, they are difficult to form without severe breakage occurring during stamping. Also, stainless steel is expensive, with an estimated cost ratio to terne steel exceeding 5:1.The electrocoated zinc-nickel product is painted on both sides with an aluminum-rich epoxy. Industry accelerated tests on the corrosion of painted zinc-nickel confirm that it will meet a ten-year life in current fuels and flex-fuels and resist external corrosion.Testing the characteristics of painted galvanneal (zinc-iron alloy coated steel) have found it effective for resisting corrosion on both the inside and outside surfaces of the tank. General Motors has a product undergoing testing. Hot-dipped tin has also been found to be effective for resisting all fuels, but it does require a paint coating for exterior protection from road-induced corrosion. This product welds faster than painted terne and has a better potential for good solderability than painted galvanneal and zinc-nickel coated steel substrates, permitting the attachment of fuel filler tubes and other lines. PERFORMANCE ATTRIBUTES: PLASTIC VERSUS STEEL Manufacturability Terne plate holds a materials cost advantage over HDPE: $0.66-0.79/kg vs. $0.861.08/kg.13 The cost of the material is not the only driver; consideration includes the net cost of the fabricated tank and its reliability within the total fuel system of the vehicle, including the tank, filler tube, level control, baffles, the housing reservoir for the sending unit, and other assorted tubing, fittings, and seals from the tank to the engine. All of these components must function properly with the various fuel types and for the life of the car. Unforeseen corrosion can easily contaminate the fuel delivery system and cause costly repairs. Manufacturing costs for either tank material seem conflicting, depending on the source. Nevertheless, due to the invested capital of OEMs on stamping, welding, and assembly equipment for metal tanks, their cost structure indicates a lower cost per piece on steel tanks versus plastic ones, with the latter usually being outsourced (except for some Ford models). Plastic tanks are formed by blowing a thick continuous tube of HDPE within a mold that determines the final shape of the virtually seamless part, which could include the filler neck. The blowing molds are cast from aluminum and cost considerably less than machined steel dies used to stamp steel tanks. In general, four or more molds are integrated into one rotary style blow-molding machine to achieve the desired productivity (i.e., one station blows while the other one cools). Typically, the OEMs outsource the plastic tanks to various suppliers who bid for the business. The plastic tank manufacturer also has to either chlorinate or fluorinate the plastic to retard permeation, and both processes can be highly toxic if

mishandled. This represents additional OSHA requirements, which add to the cost of the tank. Design Features and Weight Plastic tanks have the ability to meet packaging constraints with complex shapes, and design engineers have greater flexibility in the car design and styling without having to worry about fitting the gas tank. The plastic tank could virtually be made to fit whatever cavities are left by the design. Other attachments to and within the plastic tank require gasketed mechanical joints. However, plastic swells with constant exposure to organic liquids and vapor, thus making the joints very critical in the event of repairing the tank hardware. The average gas tank for a compact automobile (e.g., Nissan Altima) can boast weight savings of up to 30% versus a similar steel tank.14 However, Cadillac claims that although their plastic tanks allow design flexibility with increased safety, they do not achieve any weight savings over steel tanks.15 These two examples seem to contradict the general view that plastic's weight advantage increases with the size of the tank. On the other hand, the new permeability requirement is expected to diminish the weight advantage of plastics. Safety One critical part of the performance criteria of the tank is its ability to meet crash requirements. Generally, plastic tanks are considered safer in crashes because they are seamless and, thus, not prone to failures in the vulnerable seam areas. They are not a source of sparks. Also, plastic tanks deform and have some ability to rebound back to shape. When steel tanks absorb energy and deform, the pressure within the tank increases as the volume decreases. This makes them vulnerable at welded or clamped areas where failure can potentially occur. The thermal properties of the chosen material are also an issue, especially due to the proliferation of injector fuel delivery systems, where a portion of the unused fuel delivered by the gas pump is returned to the gas tank at "engine-hot" temperatures. At the same time, the tank must withstand extreme temperatures in North America from -40C to 79C in-tank temperatures. The 79C temperature not only exceeds the boiling point of the alcohol fuels, but also creates sagging problems for plastic (especially under the weight of a filled tank) while the extreme cold introduces potential cracking problems. As a result, OEMs resort to heavier gauge plastic, negating at least some of the weight advantage, and must also use support brackets and special shields against the heat of local sources like an inferior or perforated muffler or tailpipe. High ambient temperatures underneath the car remain a consideration. Plastic acts as an insulator to retard heat transfer to the fuel when compared to a steel tank. In the case of an under-car fire, plastic tanks will retard the rise in fuel temperature, but they will soften, sag, and eventually release the fuel. A steel tank does not sag in a fire;

however, the fuel temperature may rise rapidly, perhaps resulting in over pressurization and release of fuel through a mechanical fitting. The American Iron and Steel Institutereports16 that a series of more than 75 tests undertaken by the National Fire Prevention Research Foundation and Factory Mutual Research Corporation indicated that plastic containers storing flammable or combustible liquids in general purpose warehouses fail abruptly when exposed to a small fire. This failure results in a rapidly developing spill fire that overpowers conventional sprinkler systems. The same tests conducted with flammable and combustible liquids stored in steel containers resulted in no spill fire, no excessive temperatures, no content involvement, and no significant loss of visibility due to smoke. The fires involving the steel containers extinguished themselves. These findings have led to a return to steel containers from plastics for safety and fire insurance cost reasons. It is not known if tests have been conducted by OEMs to compare the performance of steel and plastic tanks in under-car fire situations. Corrosion Corrosion is a well-known concern on both the inside and outside surfaces of tanks. The outside surfaces and supporting structure are exposed to road chemicals, salt, mud, and gravel. The corrosion issue is critical with zinc-coated products that replace terne plate because of their sacrificial nature, which puts an even higher demand on the quality of the barrier film for both inside and outside surfaces. In contrast, the HDPE gas tanks are inert to the corrosive environments inside and outside the tank. Recyclability The Resource Conservation and Recovery Act discourages the use of materials that cannot be recycled and might end up in landfills.17 As a result, automotive-design engineers must not only meet customer, design, styling, cost, weight, and regulatory needs but also environmental criteria. All materials suppliers must show that their product is not only lighter and cost effective but also recyclable. In this respect, plastics must work the hardest to show that they are recyclable and have the ability to be recovered in vehicle disassembly in a costeffective manner. To accomplish these objectives, automotive designers must develop prototypes that can be disassembled easily into the various material groups that have a recycling infrastructure. Despite progress in recycling, the proliferation of plastics in automotive applications faces some hurdles.

The absence of a plastics recycling infrastructure. The infrastructure for recovering and recycling the ferrous content of cars is well established70-80% of a typical passenger car is recoverable steel and iron. The molding process for plastic fuel tanks. As is the case for other ap-plications, this process results in roughly 30% of plastic material ending as industrial waste.18

The necessary sorting of the various plastics types since mixing types can ruin the batch. This is not a problem with steelthe scrap industry recycles 10.8 million tonnes per year of shredded automotive iron and steel, which is used to make new steel products.19 The lack of technology that dismantlers can use to quickly collect various plastics. The current infrastructure of automobile dismantlers, shredders, and scrap-metal processors is steel dominated and relies on magnetic separation and inexpensive shredding equipment for efficient and low-cost processing. In the case of terne gas tanks, the units are removed from the car, flattened, baled, and sent either to special operators that can reclaim the lead or to the steel mill. Cost. Recycled plastics are not cost competitive with virgin plastics.

While the recycling of HDPE gas tanks is easier to tackle in terms of dismantling and avoiding type mixing, these tanks will not meet the new evaporative emissions standards. The barrier-type and multilayer tanks that will meet such standards can pose a bigger challenge to recycle in a cost-effective manner.

Table 1.1 Abbreviations

Symbol ABS APK ASA BMC BMI DMC EP EPP EPS ETFE EVOH GFR GMT HCPP HDPE HIPS LCP MF MPF PA PA-GF PAEK PAl

Plastic or composite Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene copolymer Aliphatic polyketone Acrylonitrile styrene acrylate copolymer Bulk moulding compound Bismaleimide Dough moulding compound Epoxide (epoxy) Expanded polypropylene Expanded polystyrene Tetrafluoroethylene copolymer Ethylene vinyl alcohol G lass fibre reinforced G lass mat thermoplastic Highly crystalline polypropylene High density polyethylene High impact polystyrene Liquid crystal polyester or liquid crystal polymer Melamine formaldehyde resin Melamine phenol formaldehyde moulding compound Polyamide (nylon) Glass fibre reinforced polyamide Polyarylether ketone Polyamide-imide

PAA PAS PAT PBT PC PCTFE PDAP PE PEK PEEK PEI PEN PEOX PES PET PF PI PMMA PMMI PMP POM PP PPA
PP-E PPF PPO

Polyarylamide Polyarylsulphone P olya rylterep htha late (polyarylate) Polybutylene terephthalate Polycarbonate P olyc hi orotri flu orethyle ne Poly (diallyl phthalate) Polyethylene Polyetherketone Polyetheretherketone Polyetherimide Polyethylene naphthalate Poly (ethylene oxide) Polyether sulphone Polyethylene terephthalate Phenol formaldehyde (phenolic) Polyimide Poly (methyl methacrylate) (acrylic) Poly (methyl methacrylate imide) Poly (methylpentene) Polyoxymethylene Polypropylene
Polyphthalamide Vinyl ester resin Expanded polypropylene Polyphenylene ether Polyphenylene oxide (=PPE)

PPS PS PSU PTFE PU PUR PVB PVC PVDC PVDF PVF R-RIM PUR SAN SMA SMC S-RIM PUR TPE-A TPE-E TPE-O TPE-U UF UP VP

Polyphenylene sulphide Polystyrene Polysulphone P olyeth ra fl uo roet hyle ne Polyurethane Polyurethane Polyvinyl butyrate Polyvinyl chloride Polyvinylidene chloride Polyvinylidene fluoride Polyvinyl fluoride Reinforced reaction injected moulded polyurethane Styrene acrylonitrile copolymer

Styrene maleic anhydride Sheet moulding compound Structural reaction injection moulded polyurethane Thermoplastic polyamide elastomer Thermoplastic polyester elastomer Thermoplastic polyolefin elastomer Thermoplastic polyurethane Urea formaldehyde Unsaturated polyester resin