1

WEB Appendix WA
Statics Review
WA
The books on this website presupposes the visitors are familiar with Statics concepts reviewed briefly in this appendix. A Statics text-
book may need to be consulted for additional details.
WA.1 TYPES OF FORCES AND MOMENTS
We can classify the forces and moments as external, internal, and reaction forces and moments.
WA.1.1 External Forces and Moments
The forces and moments that are applied to the body and are often referred to as the load on the body are said to be external. These are
assumed known in an analysis, though sometimes we carry external forces and moments as variables so that we may answer such ques-
tions as How much load can a structure support? or What loads are needed to produce a given deformation?
Surface forces (also called tractions) and moments are external forces and moments that act on the surface and are
transmitted to the body by contact. Surface forces (moments) applied at a point are called concentrated forces (moments or cou-
ples). Surface forces (moments) applied along a line or over a surface are called distributed forces (moments).
Body forces are external forces that act at every point on the body. Body forces are not transmitted by contact. Gravita-
tional and electromagnetic forces are two examples of body forces. A body force has units of force per unit volume.
WA.1.2 Reaction Forces and Moments
The forces and moments that are developed at the supports of a body to resist movement due to the external forces and moments are
called reaction forces and moments. Usually these are not known and must be calculated before further analysis can be conducted. The
following principles are used to decide whether there is a reaction force or reaction moment at a support.
1. If a point cannot move in a given direction, then a reaction force opposite the direction is acting at that support
point.
2. If a line cannot rotate about an axis in a given direction, then a reaction moment opposite the direction is acting
at that support.
3. In making decisions about the movement of a point or rotation of a line at the support, we consider the support
in isolation, not the entire body. Exceptions to the rule exist in three-dimensional problems such as bodies sup-
ported by balanced hinges or balanced bearings (rollers). Three-dimensional problems of these types are not
covered in this book.
The table in Section A.7 shows several types of support that can be replaced by reaction forces and moments using the foregoing princi-
ples.
WA.1.3 Internal Forces and Moments
A body is held together by internal forces. Internal forces exist irrespective of whether we apply or do not apply external forces. A
material resists changes due to applied forces and moments by increasing the internal forces. Our interest is in the resistance a material
offers to an applied load (i.e., the internal forces). Internal forces always exist in pairs that are equal and opposite on the two surfaces
produced by an imaginary cut. The internal forces and moments are shown in Figure WA.1.
Convention: all internal forces and moments are given in bold italics.
Forces that are normal to an imaginary cut surface are called normal forces. The normal force that points
away from the surface (pulls the surface) is called atensile force. The normal force that points into the
surface (pushes the surface) is called a compressive force.
The normal force acting in the direction of the axis of the body is called the axial force (N)
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Forces that are tangent to the imaginary cut surface are called shear forces (V
y
, V
z
)
An internal moment about an axis normal to an imaginary cut surface is called a torsional moment or
torque (T).
Internal moments about an axis tangent to an imaginary cut are called bending moments (M
y
, M
z
).
WA.2 FREE BODY DIAGRAMS
Newtons laws are applicable to free bodies only. We use free to designate a body that will move if it is not in equilibrium. If there are
supports, they must be replaced by appropriate reaction forces and moments. The diagram showing all the forces acting on a free body
is called afree body diagram (FBD).
Additional free body diagrams may be created by making imaginary cuts for the calculation of internal quantities. Each
imaginary cut will produce two additional free body diagrams; either one can be used for calculating internal forces and
moments.
A body is in static equilibrium if the vector sum of all the forces acting on a free body is zero and the vector sum of all
the moments about any point in space is zero. Mathematically, this is stated as Equation (WA.1a),
(WA.1a)
where the symbol represents summation, and the overbar represents a vector quantity. In a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate
system, Equation (WA.1a) in scalar form is written as Equation (WA.2a).
(WA.2a)
Equation (WA.2a) implies that there are six independent equations in three dimensions. In other words, we can at most
solve for six unknowns from a free body diagram in three dimensions.
In two dimensions the sum of the forces in the z direction and the sum of the moments about the x and y axes are auto-
matically satisfied because all forces must lie in the x-y plane. The remaining equilibrium equations in two dimensions that have
to be satisfied are as given in Equation (WA.3a).
(WA.3a)
Equation (WA.3a) implies that there are three independent equations per free body diagram in two dimensions. In other
words, we can at most solve for three unknowns from a two-dimensional free body diagram.
The following observations can be used to reduce computational effort.
Balancing the moment at a point through which an unknown force (or forces) passes reduces the computational
effort because such forces do not appear in the moment equation.
Balancing the forces and/or moments perpendicular to the direction of an unknown force or moment reduces the
computational effort because such forces do not appear in the equation.
A body on which there are more unknown reaction forces and moments than there are equilibrium equa-
tions (6 in three dimensions, and 3 in two dimensions) is called a statically indeterminate body.
Degree of static redundancy = number of unknown reactions number of equilibrium equations.
Statically indeterminate problems arise when more supports than are needed are used to support a structure. Extra sup-
ports may be used for safety reasons or for purposes of increasing the stiffness of a structure. To solve a statically indeterminate
problem, we generate equations on the displacement and/or rotation at the support points. Sometimes it is a mistake to try to gen-
erate enough equations for the unknowns by taking moments at many points. A statically indeterminate problems cannot be
solved from equilibrium equations alone. There are only three independent equations of static equilibrium in two dimensions and
six independent equations of static equilibrium in three dimensions. Additional equations must come from the displacements
and/or rotation conditions at the support.
Figure WA.1 Internal forces and moments.
x
y
z
O
V
z
V
y
M
y
M
z
T
N
F

0 = M

0 =

F
x

0 = F
y

0 = F
z

0 =
M
x

0 = M
y

0 = M
z

0 =
F
x

0 = F
y

0 = M
z

0 =
Trusses 3
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The number of equations on the displacements and/or rotations needed to solve a statically indeter-
minate problem is equal to the degree of static redundancy.
WA.3 TRUSSES
A two-force member is a structural member on which there is no moment couple and in which the forces
act at two points only.
A truss is a structure made up of two-force members.
Two methods of calculating the internal forces in truss members are the method of joints and the method of sections. In
method of joints, a free body diagram is created by making imaginary cuts on all members joined at the pin. If a force is directed
away from the pin, the two-force member is assumed to be in tension; if it is directed into the pin, the member is assumed to be in
compression. By conducting a force balance in two (three) dimensions, two (three) equations per pin can be written.
In method of sections, an imaginary cut is made through the truss to produce a free body. The imaginary cut can be of
any shape that will permit a quick calculation of the force in a member. Three equations in two dimensions and six equations in
three dimensions can be written in accordance with the free body diagram produced from a single imaginary cut.
A zero-force member in a truss is a member that carries no internal force.
Identifying zero-force members can save significant computation time. Zero-force members can be identified by con-
ducting the method of joints mentally. Usually if two members are collinear at a joint and there is no external force, the zero-
force member is the member that is inclined to the collinear members.
WA.4 CENTROIDS
The y and z coordinates of the centroid (y
c
, z
c
) of the two-dimensional area A shown in Figure WA.2 are defined by Equation (WA.4a),
(WA.4a)
Where the numerator in each case is referred to as the first moment of the area. If there is an axis of symmetry, then the
area moment about the axis of symmetry from one part of the body is canceled by the moment from the symmetric part, and we
conclude that the centroid lies on the axis of symmetry.
Consider a coordinate system fixed to the centroid of the area. If we now consider the first moment of the area in this
coordinate system and it turns out to be nonzero, it implies that the centroid is not located at the origin, thus contradicting our
starting assumption. We therefore conclude:
The first moment of the area calculated in a coordinate system fixed to the centroid of the area is zero.
The centroid for a composite body in which the centroids of individual bodies are known can be calculated from the fol-
lowing equations,
(WA.5a)
where are the known coordinates of the centroids of the area A
i
. Appendix C.6 shows the location of centroids of some com-
mon shapes that will be useful in solving the problems in this book.
Figure WA.2 Area moments.
y
c
y dA
A

dA
A

--------------- and z
c
z dA
A

dA
A

-------------- = =
y
z
r
dA
y
c
y
c
i
A
i
i=1
n

A
i
i=1
n

------------------ = and z
c
z
c
i
A
i
i=1
n

A
i
i=1
n

------------------ =
y
c
i
and z
c
i
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WA.5 STATICALLY EQUIVALENT LOAD SYSTEMS
Two systems of forces that generate the same resultant force and moment are called statically equivalent
load systems.
If one system satisfies equilibrium, then the statically equivalent system also satisfies equilibrium, since the resultant
force and the resultant moment must be zero in both systems. The concept of statically equivalent systems can simplify analysis
significantly and is most often used in problems with distributed loads.
WA.5.1 Distributed Force on a Line
Let p(x) be a distributed force per unit length that varies with x. We can replace this distributed force by a force and moment acting at
any point or by a single force acting at point x
c
as shown in Figure WA.3.
For the two system to be statically equivalent, the resultant force and the resultant moment about any point (origin) must
be the same. This implies:
(WA.6a)
The force F is equal to the area under the curve, and x
c
represents the location of the centroid of the distribution. This
idea is used in replacing a uniform and linearly varying distribution by a statically equivalent force, as shown in Figure WA.4.
The two statically equivalent systems are not identical systems. The deformation (change of shape of bodies) in a pair
of statically equivalent systems is different. The distribution of the internal force and the internal moment of a pair of statically
equivalent system is different. The following rule must be remembered: The imaginary cut needed for calculating internal forces
and moments must be made on the original body, not on the statically equivalent body.
WA.5.2 Distributed Force on a Surface
Let (y, z) be a distributed force per unit area that varies in intensity with y and z. We would like to replace it by a single force, as shown
in Figure WA.5.
For the two systems shown in Figure WA.5 to be statically equivalent load systems, the resultant force and the resultant
moment y and z axes must be the same. This implies:
(WA.7a)
Figure WA.3 Static equivalency for a distributed force on a line.
Figure WA.4 Statically equivalent force for uniform and linear distributed forces on a line.
p(x) force/length
dF = p(x) dx
x
F
x
c
x
dx
F p x ( )dx
L

= and x
c
x p x ( )dx
L

F =
A B
q
x
L
A B
x
qL
L/2
L/2
Force
Force/Length
Force /Length
A B
x
L/3 2L/3
qL/2
Force
q
A B
x
L
Uniform
Linear
F

y z , ( )dy z d
A

= y
c
y

y z , ( )dy z d
A

F = z
c
z

y z , ( )dy z d
A

F =
Area Moments of Inertia 5
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The force F is equal to the volume under the curve, whereas y
c
and z
c
represent the location of the centroid of the distri-
bution, which can be different from the centroid of the area on which the distributed force acts. The centroid of the area depends
only on the geometry of the area. The centroid of the distribution depends upon how the intensity of distributed load (y, z) var-
ies over the area.
Figure WA.6 shows a uniform and a linearly varying distributed force that can be replaced by a single force at the cen-
troid of the distribution. Notice that for a uniform distributed force, the centroid of the distributed force is the same as the cen-
troid of the rectangular area, but for a linearly varying distributed force, the centroid of the distributed force is different from the
centroid of the area. If we were to place the equivalent force at the centroid of the area, we would also need a moment at that
point.
WA.6 AREA MOMENTS OF INERTIA
The area moments of inertia, also referred to as second area moments, are defined as
(WA.8a)
The polar moment of inertia is defined in Equation (WA.9a), with the relation to I
yy
and I
zz
deduced from Figure WA.2.
(WA.9a)
Figure WA.5 Static equivalency for a distributed force on a surface.
Figure WA.6 Statically equivalent forces for uniform and linear distributed forces on a surface.
Figure WA.7Parallel axis theorem.
dF =(y, z) dA
y
c
F
(y, z) force/area
z
c
y
z z
y
(y, z) force/area
a
b

y
z

y
z
F = ab
a/2 a/2
b/2
(y, z) force/area
a

y
z
b

F = ab/2
2a/3
a/3
Uniform
Linear
b/2
b/2
b/2
y
z
I
yy
z
2
dA
A

= I
zz
y
2
dA
A

= I
yz
yz dA
A

=
y
z
C
d
d
z
d
y y
c
z
c
J r
2
dA
A

I
yy
I
zz
+ = =
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If we know the area moment of inertia in a coordinate system fixed to the centroid, we can compute the area moments
about an axis parallel to the coordinate axis by means of the parallel axis theorem given by Equation (WA.10a),
(WA.10a)
where the subscript c refers to the axis fixed to the centroid of the body. The quantities y
2
, z
2
, r
2
, A, , , and d
2
are always positive.
Therefore, from Equation (WA.8a) through A.10, we conclude that I
yy
, I
zz
, and J are always positive and minimum about the axis pass-
ing through the centroid of the body. However, I
yz
can be positive or negative, since y, z, d
y
, and d
z
can be positive or negative in Equa-
tion (WA.8a). If either y or z is an axis of symmetry, then the integral in I
yz
on the positive side will cancel the integral on the negative
side in Equation (WA.8a), and hence I
yz
will be zero. We record the following observations.
I
yy
, I
zz
, and J are always positive and minimum about the axis passing through the centroid of the body
If either the y or the z axis is an axis of symmetry, then I
yz
will be zero.
The moment of inertia of a composite body in which we know the moment of inertia of individual bodies about the cen-
troid can be calculated from Equation W(A.11).
W(A.11)
where , , , and are the area moments of inertia about the axis passing through the centroid of the ith body. The Table
in Section A.8 shows the area moments of inertia about an axis passing through the centroid of some common shapes that will be useful
in solving problems in this book.
The radius of gyration about an axis is defined by
(WA.12a)
where I is the area moment of inertia about the same axis about which the radius of gyration is being calculated.
I
yy
I
y
c
y
c
Ad
y
2
+ = I
zz
I
z
c
z
c
Ad
z
2
+ = I
yz
I
y
c
z
c
Ad
y
d
z
+ = J J
c
Ad
2
+ =
d
y
2
d
z
2
I
yy
I
y
c
i
y
c
i
A
i
d
y
i
2
+ ( )
i=1
n

= I
zz
I
z
c
i
z
c
i
A
i
d
z
i
2
+ ( )
i=1
n

= I
yz
I
y
c
i
z
c
i
A
i
d
y
i
d
z
i
+ ( )
i=1
n

= J J
c
i
A
i
d
i
2
+ ( )
i=1
n

=
I
y
c
i
y
c
i
I
z
c
i
z
c
i
I
y
c
i
z
c
i
J
c
i
r

r
I
A
--- = or I Ar

2
=
r

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WA.7 SUPPORT REACTIONS
Type of Support Reactions Comments
Roller on smooth surface.
Only the downward translation is prevented, hence the reaction
force is upward as shown.
Smooth pin
Translation in the horizontal and vertical direction is prevented,
hence the reaction forces R
x
and R
y
can be in the direction shown
or opposite to it.
Fixed support
Beside translation in horizontal and vertical direction, the rotation
about the z-axis is prevented. Hence the reactions R
x
and R
y
and
M
z
can be in the direction shown or opposite to it.
Roller in a smooth slot.
Translation perpendicular to the slot is prevented. The reaction
force R can be in the direction shown or opposite to it.
Ball and socket
Translation in all directions is prevented. The reaction forces can
be in the direction shown or opposite to it.
Hinge
Except for rotation about the hinge axis, translation and rotation is
prevented in all directions. hence the reaction forces and moments
can be in the direction shown or opposite to it.
J ournal Bearing
Translation and rotation is prevented in all directions except in the
direction of shaft axis. Hence the reaction forces and moments can
be in the direction shown or opposite to it.
Smooth Slot
Translation in the z-direction and rotation about any axis is pre-
vented. Hence, the reaction force R
z
and reaction moments can be
in the direction shown or opposite to it. Translation in the x-direc-
tion into the slot is prevented but not out of it. Hence the reaction
forceR
x
should be in the direction shown.
R
R
y
R
x
R
x
R
y
M
z
R
R
x
R
y
R
z
R
x
R
y
R
z
M
y
M
z
R
z
R
y
M
z
M
y
M
z
R
x
M
y
M
x
R
z
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WA.8 AREAS, CENTROIDS, AND SECOND AREA MOMENTS OF INERTIA
Shape Location C of Centroid Areas Second Area Moments of Inertia
Rectangle
Circle

Ellipse
Triangle
Semicircle
Trapezoid
Quadratic curve
Cubic curve
C
a/2
h/2 z
a/2
h/2
A ah =
I
zz
1
12
------ah
3
=
r
z
C
A r
2
= I
zz
1
4
---r
4
= J
1
2
---r
4
=
b
a
y
z
a
b
C
A ab =
I
zz
1
4
---ba
3
= I
yy
1
4
---ab
3
=
J
1
4
---ab a
2
b
2
+ ( ) =
a
2h/3
h/3
C
z
A ah/2 =
I
zz
1
36
------ah
3
=
r
z C
4r
3
------
A r
2
( )/2 = I
zz
1
8
---r
4
=
a
C
z
b
h a 2b + ( )
3 a b + ( )
------------------------
h 2a b + ( )
3 a b + ( )
------------------------
A h a b + ( )/2 =
a/4 3a/4
C
1
3h/10
z
A
1
A
2
3a/8
2h/5
C
2
3h/5
7h/10
5a/8
A
1
ah/3 =
A
2
2ah/3 =
I
zz
( )
1
1
21
------ah
3
= I
zz
( )
2
2
7
---ah
3
=
a/5 4a/5
C
1
2h/7
z
A
1
A
2
2a/5
3h/7
C
2
4h/7
5h/7
3a/5
A
1
ah/4 =
A
2
3ah/4 =
I
zz
( )
1
1
30
------ah
3
= I
zz
( )
2
3
10
------ah
3
=