General Geology Lab

GEOL L100-04

Anne Argast
Spring, 2012
W 12:00-1:50

GENERAL GEOLOGY LAB GEOL L100-04 Spring, 2012

Course Name: G100L - General Geology Lab Lab Meets: W 12:00 - 1:50 Meeting Room: SB 225 Instructor: Anne Argast (SB 238) email: Argast@ipfw.edu* Web: http://geo.ipfw.edu/argast/Spring2012 Lab Assistant: TBA Textbook: Rutford, R.H. and Carter, J.L., 2011, Zumberge's Laboratory Manual for Physical Geology, 15th edition, McGraw Hill, 290 pp. This manual (which should be copied and prepared before class). Required Materials: Spiral Bound Notebook for Lab Work (as specified in class) Ruler Hand lens or magnifying glass Calculator

SCORING
Quiz 1 Quiz 2 Quiz 3 Attendance Labs 20 % 20 % 20 % 20 % 20 % 100 %

Labs should be kept in a lab notebook. These will be graded for organization and completeness. The required type of lab book, and the style for completing the labs, will be discussed in class. Scruffy work and sloppy presentation will lead to substantial penalties. Completed lab books must typically be handed-in by Thursday at noon following the labs introduction. Late labs will probably not be accepted and will probably earn a score of zero. You may enter the lab anytime it is not in use by other classes. The materials will be kept intact until Thursday, and will usually be stored in the Mineralogy Lab (which is adjacent to the General Geology Lab). Feel free to ask me, the secretary, the technician, one of the other faculty, or one of the upperclass geology majors to let you in if the door is locked. You may need to work on these labs outside the assigned 2 hours for our class. Cheating will not be tolerated. Penalties may include receiving an 'F' in the course.

FORMAT FOR LAB BOOKS The lab notebook must conform to a specific style. These rules help you keep your labs organized, and help me review the work youve done. 1. All work goes into a standard, spiral bound book as demonstrated in class. Do not use loose-leaf binders or composition books. Do use a book with standard 8 1/2" x 11" pages. 2. Avoid use, if possible, of notebooks with microperfed pages. These tend to rip out. It may not be possible to find such a notebook, and thats OK too. 3. Write your name prominently on the front side of the front cover of your book. Be sure to indicate the section # (L100-04). 4. The only work that goes into the labbook is the finished exercise. You are encouraged to keep a second notebook with notes. 5. You should answer all questions in spaces indicated in the lab exercise. 6. You should include the entire lab exercise in your labbook. Do this by trimming the edges of the pages to fit neatly, and then tape them into the book. 7. Photocopy the pages from Zumberge when the exercise is on opposite sides of the same page. You should not include background material from Zumberge et al. in your labbook.

GENERAL GEOLOGY LAB GEOL L100-04 Spring, 2012

1. W Jan 11 2. W 18 W 25 3. W Feb 1 4. W 8 5. W 15 6. W 22 W 29 7. W Mar 7 8. W 14 9. W 21 10. W 28 11. W Apr 4 12. W 11 13. W 18 14. W 25 Acidity, Rain and Weathering (Complete in lab.) Mineral Properties Sedimentary Rock Properties Igneous Rock Properties/Meteorites (Due 9/23) Quiz 1/Metamorphic Rock Properties Geologic Column/Geologic Time Maps, Scales and Metric Conversions Ground Water Flow NO CLASS - SPRING HOLIDAY Quiz 2/Walking Tour of Geogarden (No Write-up) Glaciers and Glacial Rebound Field Trip To Rock Quarry (Meet in Parking Garage; No Write-Up) Geologic Maps Geologic Maps with Fault Problems Deep Sea Sediments Quiz 3

All labs with write-ups will be due before noon the Thursday after its introduction. Labs may be placed in the box in the Mineralogy Lab (SB 227). After-hours submissions may be made by slipping your book under my door (SB238). Late labs receive zero credit.

LAB 1 Acidity, Rain and Weathering

Acidity is related to the amount of free H+ in a solution. Reactions that increase the concentration of H+ ion will make a solution more acid. Reactions that decrease the concentration of H+ will make a solution less acid (or we may say more alkaline or more basic). We measure acidity on the pH scale. (pH is an abbreviation for potential of hydrogen.) The pH is given by the expression:

pH = -log[H+]
This is read; "pH equals minus the log of hydrogen ion activity". For our purposes we can assume that activity and concentration are the same thing. There are no units with activity so we won't be rigorous about our concentration units. Notice that the relation between pH and hydrogen ion concentration is logarithmic. A 10-fold change in H+ only causes a change of one pH unit. Also notice the negative sign: An increase in H+ concentration makes the pH number get smaller. In other words, the lower the pH, the more acid the solution. Question 1 will help you see how this works. Natural, pure and clean rain water is mildly acidic. (Rain has a pH in the mid-five range where 7 is neutral). That's because CO2 from the atmosphere dissolves in atmospheric water to become carbonic acid, the same stuff that makes your soda pop fizz. Pollution like sulfur emissions from coal-fired power plants make rain even more acidic; acidic enough to eat the paint on your car and kill fish and frogs in lakes. As part of weathering, many minerals react with and remove hydrogen ions from solution, making the solution less acid as a result. These weathering reactions also release nutrients that are needed for plant growth. Without weathering our streams and lakes would be very acidic, and plants would be deprived of an important source of nutrients. (There are also a few mineral reactions that release lots of H+ which can make very acid solutions. Acid mine drainage is an example.) Today's lab is designed to familiarize you with the concept of scientific notation, logarithms, acidity and chemical weathering. The lab will also give you some practice drawing graphs and thinking about data.

1. Complete the table following the established pattern. Remember that pH=-log[H+]. H+ H+ Log H+ -Log H+ pH Acid, Base or Concentration* Concentration Concentration Concentration Neutral? -9 0.000000001 10 -9 9 9 Base 0.00000001 10-8 -8 8 8 0.0000001 Neutral 0.000001 0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 .1 1 10 101 1 -1 -1 Acid
*

pH is actually unitless, but approximates moles/liter or grams/liter (since the atomic weight of hydrogen is about 1 g/mol). 2. An experiment will be performed at the front bench. The beaker at the front bench contains 100 ml of distilled water. Because it is in equilibrium with atmospheric CO2 this water is slightly acidic, but we will ignore that. (By the way, rain water is naturally an acid solution, becoming slightly more acidic with the addition of excess atmospheric CO2. Pollution from coal burning and other sources can, at times, make rain very acidic.) Also at the front bench is a 1% HCl solution. It was made this morning by taking 10 ml of reagent HCl acid, and diluting it to 1000 ml total volume. The acid will be added to the water in measured steps. For each addition the pH will be measured with a pH meter. Complete the table as we add the acid. Acid Added (ml) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 15.0 15.0 15.0 Cumulative Acid (ml) 1.5 3.0 4.5 6.0 7.5 9.0 10.5 12.0 13.5 15.0 30.0 45.0 60.0 pH

3. Plot the data on the arithmetic axis, and semi-logarithmic axis graph papers. Draw a smooth curve that best-fits the data plotted on the arithmetic paper, and a straight-line that best-fits the data plotted on the semi-log paper. You may want to use a set of French curves and a ruler, as appropriate. Neatness counts.

80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

HCl Acid/pH Experiment

ml Acid

pH

1000

HCl Acid/pH Experiment

100

ml Acid

10

0.1 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

pH

4. Tums are made from a mineral called calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCO3). What visibly happens when calcite is added to the acid solution?

_____________________________________________________________

5. What happens to the pH after reaction with calcite?

_____________________________________________________________

Calcite in acid illustrates a way mineral reactions can affect the pH of a solution. We make use of this reaction to identify calcite; a 10% HCl solution is dropped on a sample, and if it fizzes, we have a good clue the sample is calcite (or a related minerals such as aragonite or dolomite.) The bed rock in northeast Indiana contains a large quantity of carbonate rock, mostly dolomite. Because the rock reacts rapidly with acid we tend to have little or no trouble with lake acidification due to acid rain.

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LAB 2 Mineral Properties

Prepare by reading pages 2-7 of your lab book, and become aware of the diagnostic tables that appear on pages 11-20. You may note that minerals are frequently characterized by distinctive properties that permit routine identification in hand samples. Today's exercise is designed to demonstrate a few of the more easily observed properties found in minerals, and to familiarize you with the appearance of some common minerals. No effort is made to demonstrate all of the important properties a mineral might possess. The specimens you have been given may be identified with the single test described in each section of the exercise. This is not always the case, and it is frequently necessary for a geologist to make many tests on a single sample before an ID can be made. Indeed, sometimes an ID cannot be made using the tests described below. These are beyond the scope of this course. You should learn to ID these minerals by applying a systematic approach to mineral identification as suggested by the identification charts and tables in your book. Do not rely on 'appearance' when learning to identify minerals (and rocks). Many mineral properties are demonstrated by samples in display cases found in the hall and in the Mineralogy Lab. You should review these displays. They will help you do your work. 1. Color and Streak Color is among the more obvious qualities of a mineral, yet the color of a mineral may vary considerably depending on slight variations in chemistry. To illustrate, examine the samples called amethyst, citrine and chrysoprase which are located in the minerals display case in the hall adjacent to the geochemistry/electron microscopy lab. All are varieties of quartz (SiO2), but amethyst and citrine contain trace amounts of ferric iron, and chrysoprase contains trace amounts of nickel. It is better to determine a mineral's streak, the color left when a specimen is rubbed on a piece of unglazed porcelain. Review in your manual the descriptions of garnet (var. almandine), pyrite, hematite, graphite and sulfur. Examine the color and streak of samples 1A-1E, and identify each. 2. Hardness The hardness of a mineral is a measure of the atomic structure's ability to resist rupture. It is estimated using a scratch test and reported in relation to the hardness of other minerals on Mohs Scale of Hardness. For example, a mineral which can scratch apatite (H=5), and is in turn scratched by quartz (H=7), probably has a hardness near 6. Review Mohs Scale and the descriptions of gypsum, sphalerite and corundum. Using the scratch test, identify samples 2A, 2B and 2C 3. Relative Density A rock from your backyard typically has a density of about 2.6 to 2.7 g/cm3. That is, 1 cubic centimeter of a 'typical' rock will 'weigh' between 2.6 and 2.7 grams. Rocks and minerals with

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densities much higher or lower than 2.7 g/cm3 will typically feel 'heavy' or 'light'. The so-called 'heft' test can sometimes be a useful diagnostic tool for identifying high or low density minerals. Many sources, including your lab book, report the Specific Gravity. Specific gravity has no units, and is numerically identical to the density if reported in g/cm3. For example: Quartz has a density of 2.65 g/cm3, and a specific gravity G = 2.65. For minerals, unusually high or low densities may be due to details of the chemical composition or of the crystal structure. A mineral comprised mostly of lead (atomic # 82), for example, may seem heavy to lift. Minerals with a large number of atoms for a given volume will also be dense. Review the descriptions of galena and quartz and identify samples 3A and 3B. Calculate the mass, in ounces, of 1 cubic inch (1 in3) of calcite. The following list will help you organize your thoughts. These will not be graded. Two decimals precision will be adequate. Specific Gravity of Calcite __________________ (from Zumberge) Density of Calcite (with units) __________________ (by your calculation) 1 g = _______________ oz (avoirdupois, from web) 1 oz = _________________g (by your calculation) 1 in = ______________ cm (from web) 1 cm = ______________ in (by your calculation) 1 in3 = _______________ cm3 (by your calculation) 1 cm3 = ______________ in3 (by your calculation)

Now consider the following equation and solve the problem.

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4. Taste Test Many water-soluble minerals have a characteristic taste. For example, realgar and orpiment, which are arsenic-bearing minerals, have a somewhat bitter taste. (The subsequent death by poisoning of the investigator provides additional confirmation.) Halite and sylvite are two common salts with distinctive tests. Halite is familiar as table salt. Sylvite is KCl and used in low sodium diets. It is sold as 'No-Salt' and under other brand names. Anyone who has had an ear of corn or a steak salted with 'No-Salt' will remember the unpleasantly bitter aftertaste. Use this information, inspect samples 4A and 4B, and identify sylvite and halite. 5. Cleavage Cleavage is the tendency for a mineral to break along well-defined planes of atomic weakness. It is distinguished from fracture, which is the tendency for a mineral to break across atomic planes, and crystal form, which is the macroscopic expression of a mineral's underlying atomic structure and symmetry. One property of cleavage is that it repeats itself across a wide range of scales. A large piece of a cleavable mass, when whacked with a hammer, will cleave into smaller pieces with recognizable shapes. These smaller pieces, if whacked, will break into still-smaller pieces with the same general shape. There are three things you must observe when you determine cleavage: a. The number of intersecting cleavage planes. b. The angle at which the planes intersect. c. Whether the planes are perfect, excellent, good or poor. Display cases at the end of the hall illustrate these properties, and you should take a look. Figure 1.4 is also critical for understanding cleavage. Review the descriptions of muscovite mica, biotite mica, calcite, fluorite, pyroxene (augite), amphibole (hornblende) and plagioclase feldspar. Identify sample 5A-5G. (You will need to use both cleavage and color to properly separate muscovite from biotite.)

6. Crystal Form The crystal form describes the general outward appearance of a crystal, and is a macroscopic manifestation of the underlying atomic arrangement. Crystal form must not be confused with appearance resulting from cleavage. Unlike cleavage, a broken crystal will simply produce randomly fractured bits. Crystal faces in a form are reflected by symmetry operations. Crystallographers and mineralogists spend much time defining the symmetry relations among crystal faces.

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Review your text concerning the characteristics of the six crystal systems (especially figure 1.5) and consider the crystal forms associated with pyrite, zircon, apatite, corundum, orthoclase and gypsum. I've also included a twinned staurolite crystal. Identify samples 6A-6G. You may need a second property to differentiate apatite and corundum. (Please note that a particular crystal may not display every face depicted on the pictures of figure 1.5. More important are the angular relationships.) 7. Magnetism Magnetite is strongly attracted and ilmenite is weakly attracted to a bar magnet. Identify samples 7A and 7B. 8. Reaction to Acid Carbonate minerals (those with CO3 as part of their chemical composition) will effervesce (fizz) when in contact with dilute (10%) hydrochloric Acid (HCl). The fizzing is due to the release of CO2 gas from the carbonate mineral. Some minerals, like calcite, fizz vigorously. Other minerals, like dolomite, fizz very slowly and it is usually necessary to powder the sample before dolomite fizzes enough to notice. Examine samples 8A and 8B and identify calcite and dolomite. (Incidentally, calcite and dolomite are among the more common minerals in Indiana, and dolomite comprises much of the local bedrock.) The taste test is best done before the acid test. 9. Luster The way light reflects from a fresh surface of a mineral is called luster. There are many possible lusters, but three of the easier lusters to observe are vitreous (glassy), metallic and silky. Read the descriptions of olivine, chrysotile serpentine (incorrectly listed as asbestos in table 1.2) and chalcopyrite. Identify samples 9A - 9C. Please note that chrysotile serpentine is the same mineral that produces asbestos used for many industrial purposes. Asbestiform serpentine poses little hazard to your health. Health risks from asbestos are due to minor impurities due to rare minerals.

Please be sure to wash your hands at the end of this exercise. Many minerals are made from metals and it is always wise to limit your exposure.

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1A ______________________ 5E ______________________ 1B ______________________ 5F ______________________ 1C ______________________ 5G ______________________ 1D ______________________ 1E ______________________ 6A ______________________ 6B ______________________ 2A ______________________ 6C ______________________ 2B ______________________ 6D ______________________ 2C ______________________ 6E ______________________ 3A ______________________ 3B ______________________ Mass (in oz) of 1 in3 calcite ________ 6F ______________________ 6G ______________________

7A ______________________ 7B ______________________

4A ______________________ 4B ______________________ 8A ______________________ 8B ______________________ 5A ______________________ 5B ______________________ 5C ______________________ 5D ______________________ 9A ______________________ 9B ______________________ 9C ______________________

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Lab 3 Sedimentary Rock Properties

Review your lab manual (pages 34-42) concerning details of sedimentary rocks and sedimentary rock properties. There are different schemes for classifying sedimentary rocks, but all share common elements. Sediments comprised of inorganic detrital materials are derived by the weathering, erosion, transport and deposition of pre-existing mineral grains and rock fragments. Shales and sandstones are good examples of detrital (clastic) rocks. Sediments comprised of organic detrital materials contain accumulations of pre-existing animal and/or plant remains transported after death by a current Coquina is an example. Sediments originating as chemical precipitates may be associated with either organic or inorganic processes. Many limestones are derived from organisms like coral that form calcareous body parts. Rock gypsum may form when water precipitates the mineral gypsum by a set of inorganic processes. It is important to understand that sedimentary rocks start life as accumulation of sediment which are turned into rock by a process called lithification. Examine the samples of sedimentary rocks provided for you and answer the questions. Each section will acquaint you with a different aspect of sediments and sedimentary rock. 1. Grain Size. By definition, sandstone has a mean grain size between 2 mm and 0.0625 mm (62.5 m), siltstone has a mean grain size between 62.5 and 4 m, and claystone has a mean grain size <4m. We sometimes substitute the name 'mudrock' for rocks containing an unspecified mixture of clay and silt. Qualitatively, the mean grain size of sedimentary rocks can be estimated by inspection. Grains in sandstones are easily seen with the unaided eye and their size can be measured with a ruler. Grains in a siltstone are too small to see easily with the unaided eye but can be easily seen with a hand lens or microscope. Grains in claystones are too small to resolve, even with a hand lens. Muds (ie., silts and clays) can also be recognized with the chew test. A piece of siltstone will be gritty between the teeth. Chewing clay gives a smoother sensation. A shale is a special type of mudrock that is fissile due to coplanar orientation of the constituent grains. Recognize shales by their strong layering and tendency to break along parallel planes. The mean grain size is a measure of the available energy in a particular environment. Mud particles, for example, are so small that they are suspended and transported by the weakest currents, and settle and accumulate only in the quietest waters. Grain size is also the most fundamental

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aspect of sedimentary rock identification. Examine samples 1A-D and identify sandstone, siltstone, claystone and shale. Consider three sedimentary environment: a beach with lots of wave action, the channel of a swiftly moving stream, and the center of a quiet marine basin. Which of these do you think is most likely to accumulate the mud that will turn into shale? 2 and 3. Sorting Sorting measures the uniformity of grain size in a sedimentary rock. All the grains in a very well sorted rock are about the same size. A very poorly sorted rock has a wide range of grain sizes. The sorting may also be further described by the number of modes in the grain size distribution. A unimodal distribution would have only one 'most-common' size value. A bimodal distribution would have two 'most-common' values. Note that a unimodal grain size distribution does not preclude the possibility of poor sorting.

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The images on the previous page show grain-size frequency distributions from hole 1071A, drilled in the Atlantic Ocean as part of the Ocean Drilling Program (http://www-odp.tamu.edu/publications/174A_SR/chap_04/images/59_f02.gif). Some are well sorted and unimodal (e.g., row 1, left side image). Some are unimodal and poorly sorted (e.g., row 4, right side image). Some are bimodal (e.g., row 1, center image).

2A. Complete the table which was produced by a grain size analysis of a detrital sedimentary rock informally called the Rensselaer Greywacke. Grain Class Grain Size Name Range (mm) Pebble, Cobble, >4 Boulder Very Fine Gravel 2-4 Very Coarse Sand 1-2 Coarse Sand 0.5-1 Medium Sand 0.25-0.5 Fine Sand 0.125-0.25 Very Fine Sand 0.063-0.125 Coarse Silt 0.032-0.063 Medium Silt 0.016-0.032 Fine Silt 0.008-0.016 Very Fine Silt 0.004-0.008 Clay 0.002-0.004 Clay 0.001-0.002 Clay 0.0005-0.001 TOTAL

Wt. (g) 0.0 0.2 2.9 42.3 63.5 43.2 22.8 45.4 79.6 61.1 18.5 15.0 3.8 0.0 398.3

% in interval 0.0
(0.2/398.3)100 = 0.1 (2.9/398.3) 100 = 0.7 (42.3/398.3)100 = 10.6

100.0

2B. Show the grain size distribution as a histogram. Use the ODP histograms as a guide. (Please note that the histogram makes use of a type of logarithmic axis!) Be careful, neat and properly ornament your histogram. This is a bimodal distribution as expected for a greywacke. In what two class intervals do the modes occur? 3. Carefully examine samples 3A-3C and identify a well-sorted quartz sandstone, a greywacke and a conglomerate. (Your book uses the term wacke/lithic arenite for greywacke.) Look at both the hand samples and the thin sections. Pay attention to the sorting and to the overall grain size.

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4. Grain Roundness The impact between particles during sediment transport results in abrasion and rounding of sedimentary grains. Compare samples 4A and 4B and identify a conglomerate and a breccia. 5. Mineralogical Maturity The mineralogy of a detrital rock depends upon the mineralogy of the source area (provenance) and the effects of differential abrasion and dissolution during the sediment transport process. Some minerals, such as quartz, are chemically resistant and, due to their hardness and lack of cleavage, are physically 'tough'. We call them resistant minerals. Some minerals, such as plagioclase feldspars, amphiboles and pyroxenes, are susceptible to chemical attack, and/or easily cleaved, and/or soft. These minerals can be destroyed by sedimentation processes and are nonresistant. See figure 1.47 in your lab book. During extended episodes of sediment transport the ratio of resistant to nonresistant minerals will increase, the sediment will become better sorted and grains will become more rounded. Such a rock moves from being immature, to mature to supermature. The rock that results therefore carries clues about its history prior to accumulation and lithification. Examine and identify samples 5A and 5B. One is a piece of the very mature Potsdam Sandstone and one is apiece of the very immature Rensselaer Greywacke. Potsdam Sandstone is from just North of Watertown, NY, and the Rensselaer Greywacke is from Grafton, VT, just across the New York border. Both formed at about the same time in the early Paleozoic, and both have similar source compositions. The difference is in the amount of physical transport each sediment suffered before it finally accumulated and ultimately became a rock. Be sure to check both the hand sample and the thin section. 6. Limestones, Cherts and Coal. Limestones occur frequently in Indiana. Indeed, Silurian reefs in Indiana are critical to our understanding of Paleozoic conditions in this part of the world, and the Salem Limestone from southern Indiana is famous as a building material throughout North America. Cherts are less frequently encountered in Indiana, but there are some local cherts and they have significance as a material for making primitive tools. Coal is not too important in the northern half of the state, but is of economic importance to our southern neighbors. Identify samples 6A-6D which include a piece of Salem Limestone, Wabash Formation (a dolostone), coal and chert.

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1A. __________________ 1B. __________________ 1C. __________________ 1D. __________________ Common Mud Environment __________________________ 2A and 2B. Complete the table and the histogram. Modes: _________________________ and __________________________

3A. __________________ 3B. __________________ 3C. __________________

4A. __________________ 4B. __________________

5A. __________________ 5B. __________________

6A. __________________ 6B. __________________ 6C. __________________ 6D. __________________

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Lab 4 Igneous Rock Properties and Meteorites

Review the text (pages 21-31) and familiarize yourself with igneous rock properties. 1. Texture is a term used to describe the grain size (and the grain size distribution) of an igneous rock.. Very rapid cooling (e.g., a lava flow pouring out and quenching in ocean water) may produce a rock without minerals, ie., a glass. Such rapid cooling implies an extrusive rock erupted as a volcanic at the Earth's surface. Rapid cooling (imagine the same lava flow solidifying on the land) will produce minerals, but of grain sizes generally too small to see with the unaided eye. A rock with mineral grains too small to see with the unaided eye is said to be aphanitic, and also implies a volcanic/extrusive rock. Slow cooling (possibly on the order of 105 to 106 years) allows the atoms of the melt to form a relatively few, large mineral grains. This is a phaneritic texture. Slow cooling requires the insulating effects of surrounding rock. Phaneritic rocks are therefore an indication of plutonic rock formed as an intrusive body deep inside the Earth. (By 'deep' I mean several kms to several tens of kms below the surface. This is still the outermost skin of our planet.) Cooling of a melt can also start at depth and be followed by an eruptive episode which finishes the crystallization process. The resulting texture is a combination of aphanitic and phaneritic. Such a rock is said to have a porphyritic texture. Examine samples 1A-1D and identify an obsidian, a basalt, a granite and an andesite porphyry. For each, indicate if the rock formed as an intrusive, an extrusive or as a combination of intrusive and extrusive. 2. Igneous rocks formed in different geological environments, by different geological processes, can have different chemical compositions. Igneous rocks almost always have substantial concentrations of silica (SiO2). A 'low' silica (mafic) igneous rock may have around 50% SiO2. A 'high' silica (sialic) igneous rock may contain 75% or more SiO2. Mafic rocks tend to have little quartz, lots of pyroxenes and tend to be dark in color. Felsic rocks tend to have lots of quartz, little pyroxene, lots of K-feldspar and tend to be light in color. Plagioclase feldspar occurs in both mafic and felsic igneous rocks but the type of plagioclase changes. In mafic rocks the plagioclase is a calcium-rich variety. In sialic rocks the plagioclase is a sodium-rich variety. Examine table 1.7 and take the time to give it careful consideration. Examine samples 2A, 2B and 2C. Identify a basalt, an andesite and a rhyolite. Examine samples 2D, 2E, 2F and 2G. Identify a peridotite, a gabbro, a diorite and a granite. After identifying these 7 samples, please take a few minutes to consider Bowen's Reaction Series discussed on page 22 of your text.

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 Was the lava that produced the basalt higher or lower in temperature than the lava that produced
the rhyolite?

Are the basalt, gabbro and peridotite made from early-crystallized minerals, or late-crystallized
minerals?

Which has more quartz and K-feldspar: granite or gabbro? Which has more pyroxene: granite or gabbro? Are the rhyolite and granite made from early-crystallized minerals, or late-crystallized minerals? Was the lava that produced the basalt and peridotite low in SiO2 or high in SiO2? Did crystallizing minerals like pyroxene (a low silica mineral) while forming the basalt leave a
residual melt with a higher or lower SiO2 concentration?

Which was cooled slowly, deep inside the earth, the rhyolite or the granite?

3. Gases are also an important part of igneous systems. These gases can be sulfurous, water-rich or any of several other compositions. Gas bubbles may leave void spaces called vesicles, which can later be filled with secondary minerals, becoming amygdules. Pumice is also characterized by pore spaces. It forms when a volcanic glass cools rapidly with much trapped air. Pumice can be so low in density that it will float in water. Examine samples 3A-3C and identify a vesicular basalt, an amygdular basalt (both from Michigan) and a pumice. 4. Igneous rocks are derived from melts that form in the crust, at most 100 km below the Earth's surface. We have never drilled below the crust into the mantle, and with a very few exceptions, we do not observe rocks that formed deeper than about this depth. We believe meteorites can give us insight into the composition of the deeper Earth, as well as insight to the composition of the other inner planets of our solar system. Meteorites come in several varieties. Metals are nickel-iron mixtures probably similar in composition to Earth's core. Stones are rocky meteorites, made from silicate minerals, and probably have a composition like our mantle. Some stones have undergone secondary melting and recrystallization like the igneous rocks we've looked at today. Others are more primitive in nature. These most-primitive meteorites contain

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chondrules; roughly spherical blobs, 0.5-2 mm in diameter, containing olivine and pyroxene. Chondrules are among the oldest things in the solar system. They do not form on Earth, and probably developed during or shortly after the disk-forming stage of the solar system. These materials are about 4.5 billion years old! Examine samples 4A and 4B. Identify a metal meteorite and a chondritic meteorite. Is Bowen's Reaction Series consistent with the composition/origin of chondrules? Briefly explain.

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1A. ________________________ 1B. ________________________ 1C. ________________________ 1D. ________________________

__________________ __________________ __________________ __________________

2A. ________________________ 2B. ________________________ 2C. ________________________ 2D. ________________________ 2E. ________________________ 2 F. ________________________ 2G. ________________________ Higher or Lower Temp? ________________________________________________________ Early/Late Crystallization? ________________________________________________________ Granite or Gabbro? _____________________________________________________________ Granite or Gabbro? _____________________________________________________________ Early/Late Crystallization? ________________________________________________________ Lava low/high silica? ________________________________________________________ Residual melt high or low in silica? ______________________________________________ Rhyolite or Granite? ____________________________________________________________

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3A. ________________________ 3B. ________________________ 3C. ________________________

4A. ________________________ 4B. ________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________

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Lab 5 Metamorphic Rock Properties

Review your book (pages 45-51) and become familiar with the general concepts associated with metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic rocks are developed when a source rock (protolith) is altered by the effects of heat and/or pressure, due either to burial deep below the Earth's surface (regional metamorphism) or to the high temperatures associated with a nearby igneous intrusion (contact metamorphism). Metamorphic rocks are also produced when a protolith is crushed or smeared in a fault zone (dynamic metamorphism). Metamorphism can produce a wide of changes in a rock; including changes in grain size, grain type, grain orientation and/or chemical composition. 1. Some metamorphic rocks are recognized by their foliation. Read the text's description of Slaty, Phyllitic, Schistose, Gneissic (pronounced nice-ic), and Granulitic Textures. Also read the description of nonfoliated textures. Examine samples 1A-1H and identify a Slate, Phyllite, Schist, Gneiss, Granulite, Hornfels, Marble and Quartzite. For the case of marble and quartzite, you may want to consider the facts that marble is made from calcite or dolomite, and that quartzite is made of quartz. Think about what it takes to identify the minerals that dominate these nonfoliated rocks.

2. A metamorphic petrologist may want to associate a metamorphic rock with its protolith. Arrange metamorphic rock samples 2A (marble), 2B (quartzite), 2C (schist), 2D (gneiss) and 2E (amphibolite) in a column or row in front of you on the bench. Consider the information about protoliths in table 1.14 of your text. Examine the box containing possible sedimentary/igneous protoliths: 2V (shale), 2W (granite), 2X (limestone), 2Y (sandstone) and 2Z (basalt). Correctly pair each metamorphic rock with its protolith. (I want you to actually arrange the 10 rocks on your bench so you can compare protolith with its metamorphic equivalent.) Consider for a few minutes how one type of rock is changed into the other by the effects of temperature and pressure. Complete the table in your lab book by writing 2V-2Z and a rock name, as appropriate, in the blank spaces. 3. Metamorphic rocks hold clues to the conditions that form them. For example, the types of mineral produced by metamorphism give evidence about the temperatures and pressures to which the rocks were exposed. With this information a petrologist can estimate burial depth; one clue in the reconstruction of a region's geologic history. Samples 3A-3E include a garnet schist, a staurolite gneiss, a biotite gneiss, a chlorite schist, and a hornblende amphibolite. Each contains an index mineral that can be found on figure 1.57. Complete the first column of the table by associating the appropriate index mineral with samples 3A-3E.

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Reconsider figure 1.57 and notice how each index mineral has a range of temperatures associated with its formation. Sequence samples 3A-3E from low to high temperature. Assign a number from 1-5 to each sample indicating the relative temperature needed to form each metamorphic rock. (1 is low, 5 is high; for purposes of this exercise, key your responses to the low-T end of the ranges given in figure 1.57.) Complete the second column of the table.

4. What can you say about the burial depth during the metamorphic event that produced the chlorite as compare to the staurolite? (We will ignore the possibility of retrograde metamorphism!)

5. Many metamorphic rocks are named by combining the observed texture and mineralogy. The texture provides the root name, and the minerals provide modifiers to this root. For example, a metamorphic rock with a schistose texture containing a little staurolite, a fair amount of kyanite and a lot of biotite would be called a "staurolite-bearing kyanite-biotite schist". Note the ordering. Examine sample 5, identify the texture and three different minerals. (One of the three isn't very abundant, and you will need to search a bit for it.) Give a proper name for sample 5.

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1A _____________________________ 1B _____________________________ 1C _____________________________ 1D _____________________________ 1E _____________________________ 1F _____________________________ 1G _____________________________ 1H _____________________________

2.

Metamorphic Rock 2A - Marble

Protolith Rock

2B - Quartzite

2C - Schist

2D - Gneiss

2E-Amphibolite

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3. Sample # Index Mineral(s) Low (1) to High (5) Temperature

3A

3B

3C

3D

3E

4. ________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________

5. Texture _____________________________________________________ Least Common Mineral ________________________________________ Second Common Mineral _______________________________________ Most Common Mineral _________________________________________ Rock Name __________________________________________________

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LAB 6 Geologic Column/Geologic Time

Complete: Exercise 5, question 1 Exercise 6, questions 1, 4 and 5 Exercise 7, (as modified below) Exercise 7 in Zumberge has several subtle, yet important, flaws. I have therefore rewritten the exercise. You can refer to your labbook, but use the exercise as written below. Further note that the graph in figure 2.12 of Zumberge is also slightly flawed. Carefully consider the ways the axes are incremented, and adjust appropriately.

EXERCISE 7 The rocks from the area previously described in exercise 5 contain materials suitable for radiometric dating. Specifically: A wood fragment was dated from the alluvium using the 14C method. Pyroxene was dated from the basalt using the 235U method. Zircon was dated from the granite using the 238U method. The limestone was dated using the 87Rb method. Biotite was dated from igneous rock fragments in the arkose using the 40K method. The percent remaining of each radioactive parent is recorded in Box 1. 7A. Complete box 1, using the information contained in table 2.2 and figure 2.12 of Zumberge.

Box 1
Sample wood (alluvium) pyroxene (basalt) zircon (granite) limestone Biotite (rock fragments, arkose) % Parent Remaining 25 90 80 98 12
87

Radiometric System

# half-lives

t1/2(y)

Radiometric Age (y)

Rb

0.05

48.8 x 109 1.25 x 109

~2,400,000,000

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7B. The age determined for the biotite in the rock fragment of the arkose is almost certainly not the age of the arkose. Explain. ______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

7C. Refer to the Geologic Time Scale in table 2.1 of Zumberge. Complete the table using your radiometric ages as a basis. Be as specific as possible. It won't be possible to give a complete answer for each rock unit. Rock Unit Alluvium Basalt Granite Limestone Arkose (Maximum) Eon Era Period Epoch

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Lab 7 Maps, Scales and Metric Conversions

This exercise will familiarize you with topographic maps. Be sure to read the background material (pages 70-77) before you start the exercise. You should review the information on projections but don't get too stressed. You may safely ignore the information on township and range. This is interesting stuff (and the basis for several political subdivisions, distribution of schools, and layout of roads in our area) but won't be discussed in lab. Also read the section about making Topographic Profiles on pages 83-86. You will making topographic profiles in a few weeks. You need a ruler with metric and English scales, and a calculator is useful for this, and many other, exercises. 1. Complete exercises 8 and 9 in your lab book. In exercise 9, you do not need to show your calculations. Also note, and do not be concerned by the contradictory phrasing of question 1g. 2. Examine the Fort Wayne West 7.5' quadrangle map. In what year was this map published? 3A. What was the mean declination of Fort Wayne in 1998 (2000 datum). (Report as degrees east or west of true north, e.g.; "Magnetic North is 2.5o W of True North".) 3B. Is this the same as recorded in earlier versions of the Fort Wayne West quad? 3C. Does the declination remain constant, or does it change with time? 3D. Is the declination the same everywhere in the US? 3E. If you follow your compass north from Fort Wayne, will you pass to the west, the east, or through Earth's rotational (geographic) north pole? 4. Examine the Fort Wayne West quad and find the centers of Northside High School and the largest building at the filtration plant. Report the distance between these two points. (I am asking about the distance in the real-world, not the inch or two they are separated on the map!) Convert among the various units and report your answers in the table. Use representative fractions. If you measure the distance on the map in cm and in you can use the RF of 1:24,000 and quickly convert to all other units in the table. Other approaches are going to waste your time. Pay attention to the proper precision as you report your answers. (There is guidance for proper precision in the table on the answer sheet.) 5. An area you are familiar with has very rugged terrain (lots of relief). Will the contour lines be closely or widely spaced?

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2. ____________________

3A____________________ 3B____________________ 3C____________________ 3D____________________ 3E____________________

4. Distance in:

___________________ Miles ___________________ Feet

___________________ 2 decimals Km ___________________ Nearest whole # Meters ___________________ Round to nearest 100 cm

Start here

___________________ in

5. _________________________________________________________________________

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Lab 8 Ground Water Flow

Complete exercise 14A from your labbook. When drawing your contour lines you need not concern yourself with any data other than the labeled lake levels. Work quickly, even if you miss a little detail. The contour lines you draw will be smoothly curving, and shouldnt have too many wi ggles. You may want to draw your lines with pencil at first, but in the end please make lines that stand out in sufficient contrast to be easily readable. All contour lines should be labeled with the correct elevation (in feet). Mark these elevations towards the top edge of your sheet. Please note that question 2 asks for the depth to the water table. That is not the same thing as asking for the elevation of the water table. Think about it.

Complete exercise 14B from your labbook. The flow lines need to be smooth and carefully drawn to meet the contour lines at 90o angles. Small mistakes can swiftly become significant errors. You should draw seven lines (one for each dot on the 800' contour). Be sure to extend the flow lines both NW and SE from these reference dots.

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LAB 9 Walking Tour of GeoGarden

Following your quiz we will take a walk through IPFW's GeoGarden. Please read detailed rock descriptions at http://www.geosci.ipfw.edu/geo_tours.html

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Lab 10 Glaciers and Glacial Rebound

There are many glacial features that can be identified on a topographic map. In today's exercise you will identify a few of them, and gain insight to some of the geologic history of the Great Lakes. To prepare, consider the information contained on pages 173-184 of your lab book and review the steps for constructing a topographic profile found on pages 83-86 of your lab book. Lake Erie is the last in a series of glacial lakes to occupy our region. Glacial Lake Maumee (which was the largest, having shores that extended to Fort Wayne), Glacial Lake Whittlesey and Glacial Lake Arkona are some of the Lakes that have occupied this area before Lake Erie. Each lake had its own unique elevation above sea level, size and complex history of development and destruction. The following selected excerpts are from documents of the Ohio Geological Survey. The complete article is at: http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/geosurvey/lakeerie/lefact1/tabid/7829/Default.aspx.

THE HISTORY OF LAKE ERIE

by Michael C. Hansen Lake Erie, the great body of fresh water forming Ohio's north coast, is the fourth largest of the five Great Lakes; nevertheless, Lake Erie should not be considered an also-ran, as it is the 12th largest freshwater lake in the world. Lake Erie provides a nearly unlimited water supply to communities along its shore, is an unmatched recreational and sport-fishing mecca, and provides significant quantities of sand and gravel for construction. The common perception maybe that Lake Erie is a timeless entity, formed in the distant past and as ancient as any visible rock or landscape, and a feature that will remain essentially unchanged for eternity. Geologists, however, view Lake Erie in its present form as a very recent feature---less than 4,000 years old--that is destined for a relatively short life, geological speaking. Indeed, the known history of the lake and its predecessors has taken place in the last 14,000 years; most of this time is within what geologists term the Recent. The history of Lake Erie within this brief span of geological time is remarkably complex, involving numerous lake-level stages that were at elevations different than the modern lake--some stages may have been as much as 230 feet higher. These higher lake stages have had a profound influence on the landscape, agriculture, transportation, and economy of northern Ohio, especially northwestern Ohio.

SETTING THE STAGE FOR A GREAT LAKE Erie owes its fundamental existence to the presence of a basin or lowland that originated long before the Pleistocene Ice Age began about 2 million years ago. This lowland was the valley of an east-flowing river, known as the Erigan River, that some geologists speculate was the downstream portion of the preglacial Teays River. "The detailed history of the Lake Erie basin can be surmised only from the time of retreat of the last Pleistocene glacier, the Wisconsinan, about 14,000 years ago. It is probable that the basin was occupied by lakes as each of the three earlier ice sheets retreated, but geologists can only speculate on these events because the evidence was destroyed by the succeeding glaciers."

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THE LAKE STAGES The initial phases of lake formation in the Erie basin began as soon as the ice had retreated north of the drainage divide and exposed a lowland in which water could accumulate. The complex series of lakes that occupied this expanding basin, apparently in rapid succession during a few thousand years, owe their existence to several factors. These factors include the configuration of the glacial ice to the north and the ice dams it created, low spots that filled with water until drainage divides were breached to form drainage outlets, and depression of the land surface by the weight of the glacial ice and the subsequent slow rise (rebound) after the ice retreated. Lake Maumee The earliest lake to form in the Erie basin, about 14,000 years ago, has been named Lake Maumee and is divided into three substages. The initial stage, known as Highest Maumee or Maumee I, formed beaches at an elevation of about 800 feet above sea level. As the Maumee waters rose, they eventually found an outlet through a low point in the Fort Wayne Moraine in Indiana and made their way along the Wabash River to the Mississippi drainage. As the ice receded northward, Lake Maumee expanded its surface area, but the lake level dropped to an elevation of 760 feet when a new and lower drainage outlet was exposed. This outlet was in central Michigan and allowed the waters of this lake stage, known as Lowest Maumee or Maumee II, to be discharged through the Grand River to Lake Michigan and then to the Mississippi River. The ice soon readvanced, closing part of the Grand River drainage outlet and raising the lake level to about 780 feet. The phase of Lake Maumee, known as Middle Maumee or Maumee III, was too low to discharge through the Fort Wayne outlet, but found an intermediate outlet in Michigan known as the Imlay channel. This westward-flowing drainageway eventually connected with the Grand River. There is some evidence that Lakes Maumee II and III may be reversed in sequence. Lake Arkona Lake Whittlesey A major pulsation of the Wisconsinan glacier known as the Port Huron readvance closed part of the Grand River drainage outlet and raised lake level to an elevation of about 738 feet about 13,000 years ago. The new lake stage was named Lake Whittlesey in honor of Charles Whittlesey, a geologist and topographer with the first Geological Survey of Ohio in 1837-1838. The outlet for Lake Whittlesey was a westward-flowing channel, known as the Ubly channel, that connected with the Grand River in central Michigan. The beach ridges that mark the former shoreline of Lake Whittlesey are some of the most prominent and well-preserved in Ohio. They are particularly well-developed in northeastern Ohio because, according to Dr. Jane L. Forsyth in Division of Geological Survey Information Circular No. 25, Beach ridges of northern Ohio, the fetch of the prevailing westerly winds was greater and larger beaches were produced. Lake Whittlesey came to an end when the glacier made a significant retreat. Lake level dropped dramatically, even below that of modern Lake Erie. It has been postulated that Lake Whittlesey was finally emptied through a drainage outlet (St. David Gorge) in the Niagara Gorge area. This outlet was, at the end of Lake Whittlesey time, much lower than today because it was still greatly depressed from the weight of recently retreated glacial ice. Lakes Warren, Wayne, Lundy and the modern Lake Erie

38

BEACH RIDGES--FUNDAMENTAL EVIDENCE Beach ridges were recognized at an early date by the first geologists to traverse the region, but it took several decades of detailed field work before the beaches representing various stages of Lake Erie, and the other Great Lakes, could be mapped and correlated. Although other geologic evidence has been of great importance in deciphering lake history, the beach ridges have been the primary evidence of lake stages. A complicating factor in deciphering various lake stages, particularly in the northern Great Lakes, has been a phenomenon known as glacial rebound. When the beaches were being formed along the shorelines of various lake stages, the land surface was still greatly depressed from the tremendous weight of the recently departed glacier. As the land has slowly risen during the last 14,000 years, the beaches, which formed at equal elevation for each lake stage, have risen at unequal rated dependent upon the local degree of rebound. Consequently, a beach formed during a particular lake stage may be considerably higher in elevation to the east and north in comparison to the same beach to the west and south. Around 1900, the famous U.S. Geological Survey geologist G.K. Gilbert, who began his career with the Second Geological Survey of Ohio in the 1870's, developed a method for interpreting the degree and extent of glacial, or isostatic, rebound. This concept allowed geologists to begin meaningful mapping and correlation of beach ridges. The glacial ice was not of sufficient thickness in northern Ohio to cause extensive downwarping of the crust, so most beach ridges in Ohio do not exhibit significant deformation. Although it is unlikely that the history of Lake Erie and the other Great Lakes will undergo major revision, modern studies are continually fitting together more pieces of the complex puzzle. Additional detailed mapping of beach ridges and their associated deposits, such as that being carried out by Survey geologists in the statewide county geologic mapping program, may add significant new insights into the early history of Ohio's Great Lake. FURTHER READING Calkin, P. E., and Feenstra, B. H., 1985, Evolution of the Erie Basin-Great Lakes, in Calkin, P. E., and Karrow, P. F., Quaternary evolution of the Great Lakes: Geological Association of Canada Special Paper 30, p. 149-170. Forsyth, J. L., 1959, The beach ridges of northern Ohio: Ohio Division of Geological Survey Information Circular 25, 10 p. (out of print). __________ 1973, Late-glacial and post-glacial history of western Lake Erie: the Compass (Sigma Gamma Epsilon), v. 51, no. 1, p. 16-26 Hough, J. L., 1958, Geology of the Great Lakes: Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 313 p. Leverett, Frank, 1902, Glacial formations and drainage features of the Ohio and Erie basins: U.S. Geological Survey Monograph 41, 802 p. Leverett, Frank, and Taylor, F. B., 1915, The Pleistocene of Indiana and Michigan and the history of the Great Lakes: U.S. Geological Survey Monograph 53, 529 p. Totten, S. M., 1982, Pleistocene beaches and strandlines bordering Lake Erie, in White, G. W., Glacial geology of northeastern Ohio: Ohio Division of Geological Survey Bulletin 68, p. 52-60.

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1. Beach ridges are associated with the shorelines of large lakes. These ridges can be identified by their ridge-like shape and lateral continuity. Find the topographic expression of the Lake Whittlesey beach ridge on the maps provided in class. Trace its position from the Macon quad through the Wayne Quad (and perhaps into the Northville quad) onto the index map (Fig. 1). Use a dashed line where urbanization obscures the precise position of the ridge. Start where the ridge is easiest to find (either the Denton or the Macon, MI 7.5' quad). The information in the description of Lake Whittlesey provided by the Ohio Survey, and other information on the map, will help you get started. 2. You may have noticed that engineers frequently build roads along the crest of the Lake Whittlesey beach ridge. Consider the drainage in the area, the type of sediment and the morphology (shape) of a beach ridge. Give three good (and different) reasons why this is a superior place to build a road. 3. Figure 2 is a map of the Ohio-Michigan-Indiana area showing the limits of Glacial Lake Whittlesey about 13,000 years B.P. as indicated, in part, by the position of the Lake Whittlesey Beach Ridge. Draw a type of contour map by connecting similar elevations across the beach ridge. These lines should extend as staight lines across the lake, and should not extend beyond the end points noted on the map. 4. The lines you drew in question 3 connect points of equal elevation along the east and west sides of the Lake Whittlesey beach ridge. Draw an arrow, perpindicular to the general trend of the contours, that indicates the upward tilt direction of the beach ridge surface. _____________________________________________________________________________ Water in a lake spreads itself evenly across its surface, and all points on a lake surface (and the beach ridge at the water's edge) are at the same elevation when first formed. Clearly, the beach ridge tells us the land in this part of the world has become tilted up towards the north sometime since the lake drained out about 13000 years ago. Ponder this and consider an experiment involving a cork floating in a beaker of water. Give consideration to the movement of the cork if an "excess mass" in the form of a penny is added-to and removed-from the cork. The Earth's crust literally floats in the Earth's mantle, just as the cork floats in the water. (This is called ISOSTACY.) Glacial ice is an excess mass just like the penny. ______________________________________________________________________________ 5. Consider the information in your lab book, and the information gained in question 4, above. Write a short paragraph that explains the sequence of events that resulted in the tilting of the Lake Whittlesey Beach Ridge. (Hint: Give careful thought to the timing of the ice buildup, ice retreat, and the age of Lake Whittlesey. Be clear and explicit.

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6. Find the Denton, MI quad. Draw a topographic profile from the second 'R' in 'Superior' to the 'r' in 'Fowler Creek'. Use the cross-section template at the end of this exercise. Make the horizontal axis to a 1:24000 scale and line-up the 'R' in Superior with the indicated point on the profile. (BTW, remember, a 7.5' quad map is drawn to a 1:24000 scale!) Create an appropriate exaggerated scale for the vertical axis. A range from 700 to 810' works well. Ornament your cross-section by including proper labels for the vertical axis, a title, proper labels for the horizontal end point, etc. Use the available information and, on the section, label the Lake Whittlesey and possible Middle Lake Maumee ridges.

7. There is a geologic map of the Fort Wayne area in the hall. Find the location of beach ridges associated with the highest stand of ancient Lake Maumee. What U.S. highway is built along the southern Maumee beach ridge?

41

42

43

1. On index map, figure 1. 2. Reason 1. ___________________________________________________________________

Reason 2. ___________________________________________________________________

Reason 3. ___________________________________________________________________ 3. On Map, figure 2. 4. On Map, figure 2.

5. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________

6. See next page.

7. __________________________________________________________________

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Vreeland/ Harris

45

LAB 11 Geologic Maps

In this exercise we will look at geologic maps and aerial photographs. A geologic map shows information about the type and age of rocks exposed at the surface, and/or the structure of those rocks. For example, a symbol on a map might indicate the strike and dip of beds at the surface, or tell us the rock formation that is exposed. Geologists commonly use surface information to infer the 3-dimensional structure of an area. 1. Complete exercise 21, question 1, from your lab book. For diagrams A and B you can assume the beds are not overturned. 2. Complete exercise 22B. 3. Complete exercise 23A, questions 1 and 3. Remember the Quaternary Aluvium is a named geologic unit on the map, and must be represented in your geologic column along with the set of Ordovician units. 4. Complete exercise 23B.

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LAB 12 Geologic Maps with Fault Problems

Complete the following exercises in your lab book. 1. Exercise 24A, question 1 and 2. 2. Exercise 25. 3. Exercise 26. 4. Exercise 30A

47

LAB 13 Deep Sea Sediments

In this exercise you will examine some of the microscopic and macroscopic properties of three common deep sea sediments: calcareous ooze, siliceous ooze and red clay. There are vast quantities of these materials in the world's oceans. The calcareous oozes are accumulations of microscopic plants, animals and protists whose skeletal parts were made of calcium carbonate (mainly foraminifera and a group of organisms called calcareous nannofossils). The siliceous oozes are accumulations of plants and beasties whose skeletal parts were made from hydrated silica called opal (radiolaria, diatoms and sponge spicules dominate). Red clays are accumulations of finegrained terrigenous materials carried to the oceans by rivers and wind. These are unconsolidated sediments, but the process of lithification can eventually turn them into hard sedimentary rocks. Calcareous ooze may become chalk or limestone. Siliceous ooze may become chert. Red clays become a mudrock such as siltstone, claystone or shale. The sediments you see today were obtained from piston cores provided by the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University.

Left. Piston core recovery at sea. (Photo credit: Mitch Lyle, http://news.boisestate.edu/oceanvoyage.) Center. A view of the core repository at Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University. Right. A recently split core at LDEO. (Center and right credit: http://www.ldeo.columbia.edu.)

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The identification numbers are a code that designates the name of a research vessel, the cruise number and the core number. For example, RC21-15 stands for the 15th core of the 21st cruise of the R/V Robert Conrad. V22-70 stands for the 70th core of the 22nd cruise of the R/V Vema. When appropriate (but not on these particular samples) the subbottom depth, expressed in cm, is also indicated in the sample designation. The Materials ID# RC21-15 RC12-377 V22-70 V34-61 Latitude 23o34.6'N 37o35.0'N 28o46.5'S 05o51.5'S Longitude 60o05.4'W 132o15.0'E 32o38.0'W 88o29.5'E Water Depth (m) 5889 2226 2750 4397 Sed. Thickness (m) Sediment Type Red Clay Siliceous Ooze Calcareous Ooze Calcareous Ooze

1. Examine each core sample and indicate the position of the core hole on the two world maps provided as part of this exercise. Please be sure to use a marker that can be read through the colors of the maps. 2. Estimate the thickness of the sediment column at each locality. Enter this in the appropriate column of the table. 3. Examine the siliceous ooze from RC12-377 using the petrographic microscope. The slide was prepared from a coarse fraction (>62 m), using an epoxy fixative. Find on the web a nice scanning electron microscope (SEM) picture of a diatom or radiolarian. Print and include it in your report. 4. State two or three common uses for diatoms or diatomaceous earth. A web search using appropriate words should produce a good result. 5. Use the Geoscience Departments SEM to obtain a photograph of a calcareous nannofossil (coccolith or discoaster) from V34-61 on Ninetyeast Ridge in the Indian Ocean. Use the picture below to estimate and report the dimensions of a typical coccolith plate. The field of view is about 8 m across. 1 m is one millionth or 1 x 10-6 meter. (The picture you took will be returned next week.)

49

6. Estimate the number of individual coccolith plates occurring in one cubic meter (1m3) of a nanno chalk. Be sure to express your answer in appropriate scientific notation and show your work neatly and with enough detail to understand your approach. You will want to make several assumptions: 1. Assume each individual has the shape of a rectangular solid 2. Assume perfect packing. 3. Assume zero porosity.

50

51

52

1. On maps.

2. In table. 3. Attach to end of lab.

4. ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________ 5.

6.

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