UD 6-81-8 E

A Guide to Cold Weather Operations

Booklet 8

Fieldworks and Camouflage

HEADQUARTERS DEFENCE COMMAND NORWAY THE ARMY STAFF 1987

UD 6-81-8 E (English edition) A Guide to Cold Weather Opemtions - booklet 8 Fieldworks and Camouflage has been issued for use by the allied wintercourses and foreign units exercising under Norwegian command.
Oslo December 1987,

D. Danielsen

Major General Inspector General of

the Norwegian Army

A. Pran Brigader Inspector of Infantry

UD6-81 E A GUIDE TO COLD WEATHER OPERATIONS includes: UD6-81- l E UD6-81- 2 E UD6-81- 3 E UD6-81- 4 E UD6-81- 5 E UD6-81- 6 E UD6-81- 7 E UD6-81- 8 E UD6-81 9 E UD6-81-10E (Booklet (Booklet (Booklet (Booklet (Booklet (Booklet (Booklet (Booklet (Booklet (Booklet 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10)

Winter Conditions Personal Clothing Food Frostbite and Other Injuries Movement Bivouacs Cold Weather Equipment Field Works and Camouflage Snow, Avalanches and Rescue Weapon effects

CONTENTS

Para Page Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l 7

Field fortifications

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Firing positions in snow and frozen ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Shelters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Communication trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Explosives General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Explosives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Initiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blasting through frozen ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Placing of charges in frozen ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Blasting of hoies in frozen ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
lee demolition

2 5 9 12
13 14 16 19 20 21

8 9 11 13
14 14 14 14 15 15
18 18 20 20 22 22 22 24

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 Estimation and placing of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Blasting of gap in ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Tactical use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Artificial obstacles General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Infantry obstacles on frozen ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Infantry obstacles on snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anti-tank, anti-vehicle obstacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mines and minefields

33 34 36 41

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

44

27
27 27 28 28 29 29

Anti-personnel mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Improvised anti-personnel mine M1951C on ski trail . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Anti-personnel mine M2 in ski trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Trip-wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Anti-tank mines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Positioning of anti-tank mines M6A2 and M l 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Road Construction

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Snow-clearing equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Command responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Snow-clearing during advance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

53 54 55 56 57 58

32 32 32 32 33 33

Para Page Snow-clearing during offensive combat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 33 Snow-clearing during defensive operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 33 Snow-clearing during delaying battles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 34 Clearing of parking loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 34 Improving the BV trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 36 Road over ice and frozen marsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 37
Camouflage General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Firing positions and communication trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Decoy positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trail discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Noise discipline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Means og camouflage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Natural cover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Personal camouflage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Tents and matriel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Route selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

69 70 72 73 75 76 77 78 80 82 83

39 39 39 39 40 40 40 42 44 45 47

FIGURES Figure l. Bullet penetration table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2. Firing position in snow with splinter-proof shelter . . . . . . . . . . 3. Frontal cover - timber and packed snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Firing position with shelter beneath the frozen ground . . . . . . 5. 4-man shelter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6. Improvised shelters with protection against indirect fire . . . . . . 7. Position for prone rifleman, with splinter-proof overhead cover 8. Drilling plan for unit trench in frozen ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9. Use of pressure charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10. Preparation of hoie made by shaped charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11. Shaped charge - and main charge craters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12. Blasting a gap in the ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13. Table of charges - depth of water more than 2,5 m . . . . . . . . . 14. Table of charges - depth less than 2,5 m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15. Example of suspended charge for demolishing ice . . . . . . . . . . . 16. Timber obstacle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17. Infantry obstacle on snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18. Concertina wire on snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19. Trip-wire in ski trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20. Timber barricade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21. Snow barricade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22. Barricade of felled trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23. Improvised anti-personnel mine M1951C in ski trail . . . . . . . . 24. Anti-personnel mine M2A1 in ski trail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25. Placing of mines in less than 50 cm of snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26. Placing the M6A2 in 50-80 cm of snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27. Pfacing of mine in more than 80 cm of snow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28. Parking loop - plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29. Snow-clearing tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30. BV trail over a rise with snowdrift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31. B V trail across a slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32. Reinforcement of ice on frozen marsh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33. Bearing capacity of fast high quality ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34. BV camouflaged with net and pine branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35. Section tent in forest, not camouflaged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36. BV in forest, not camouflaged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37. Personnel in position - camouflaged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38. Personnel on the march, without camouflage smock . . . . . . . . 39. Tent with camouflage clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40. Materie! dump with nets - seen from air and ground . . . . . . . . 41. BV with net - seen from air and ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42. M621 with net - seen from the air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43. Personnel on the march . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44. BV trail along the edge of the forest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45. BV trail in a gully . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 8 9 10 11 12 12 13 15 16 17 17 18 19 19 20 22 23 23 24 25 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 34 35 36 37 38 38 41 41 42 43 43 44 45 46 47 47 48 48

INTRODUCTION Field preparations in cold weather conditions are basically the same as in temperate climates, but with certain variations. The cold weather conditions make it necessary to improvise. The most important factors to consider are: - frozen ground -snow -cold - darkness. The above factors lead to the following: - reduced work capacity - the need for heating at the field positions - digging made difficult because of frozen ground - increased need for explosives in building positions - reduced mobility - the necessity of snow clearing - lakes and rivers no longer hinder the enemy"s advance - trails are difficult to conceal - it is more difficult to make use of natural camouflage. The purpose of this booklet is to give some guidance in how best to manage in cold weather conditions with the means available.

FIELD FORTIFICATIONS
General 2. When field fortifications are to be constructed it is difficult to decide whether it is best to dig into the frozen ground, or build above ground. The decisive factor will normally be the amount of explosives that have been allocated for digging and ususally a compromise between the two options will have to be

reached.. Weapon siting, in particular the elevation and depression requirements of the various weapons, will be another important factor to consider when deciding to whether dig in or build up. Firing positions should not be built in such a manner that riflemen have to be in the prone position, because the risk of frostbite is reduced when kneeling or standing. In the prone positon there is little possibility of moving the body, and a large part of the body touches the cold surface beneath. The firing position should be built in such a manner that the soldier can stand up, and preferably move about within it, or in communication trenches. Snow reduces the penetration of small-arms fire and shell fragments (Figure 1).
Material

Minimum thickness
400 cm 200 cm

Newly fallen now Packed snow Frozen snow/water mixture fsnow-cretej Ice-crete
Figure I Sullet penetration fable

150 cm
50 cm

3. MG fire from 300 m range has the same effect as rifle fire. When the range is shorter, the penetration of machineguns is increased by about 50 per cent. If a firing position is to be spHnterproof, or reinforced splinterpoof, heavier material is required for revetting the firing position and shelter.

4. lee crete can be used for secondary fortification of a position. Sand and water are mixed and pressed within forms or containers (ammunition crates, etc), preferably reinforced with twigs, wire and similar things. Water can be poured over the frontal cover to make it stranger.

Firing positions in snow and frozen ground 5. Standard unit and firing positions are to be built as in summertime, but with modifications as demanded by cold weather conditions. The amount of snow, ground conditions and available construction equipment decide whether positions ought to be above ground, partially dug in, or completely dug in.

6. The following rules have to be observed when building a position in snow (above ground, or partially above ground): - the position should be sited in a place where the terrain can be used to the greatest advantage; and especially, the terrain ought to provide good frontal cover - the position ought to be as low as possible on the ground - natural camouflage should be used - the snow in front of the position should not be removed - the position can be strengthened with timber, sandbags and ammunition crates filled with sand or ice-crete - the height of the position must correspond to the amount of snow and the terrain, but the height inside the shelter must not be less than 70 cm - The snow around the position ought to be packed as hard a possible. If more snow is heaped on and the packing repeated, the snow will gradually freeze and become quite compact - sticks, twigs, earth etc., ought to be embedded towards the front of the snow defence, to stop projectiles and shell fragments as far forward as possible.

FRONT
210 cm

-J30-f- 170 cm -V

Figure 2 Firing position in snow with splinterproof shelter

10

7, If revetting material is in short supply, it is best to build an improvised firing position, and let the shelter wait. Priority must be given to building a strong frontal cover.

packed snow :

Figure 3 Frontal cover; timber and packed snow

8. When the position is to be completely dug in, the usual construction practice is followed. In such cases, and in cases when the frozen ground has been burst through, it is easy to improvise a good position; - the sides of the trench become excellent walls - if a larger position is wanted, a sheiter can be built below the layer of frozen ground - vertical supports are erected beneath to strengthen the overhead cover - the overhead cover is reinforced by placing timber on it, and by heaping the dug-out earth on top - it is important to camouflage all dug-out earth with snow Marsh areas are unsuitable for dug in positions, because the seepage of water is too great, and the layer of frozen ground too thin.

11

STONES MOSS ETC \

FROZEN GROUND

FRONT

Figure 4

Firing position with shelter beneath thefrozen ground

SheHers 9. Large shelters are built in the same manner as in summertime. The frozen gro und is dynamited, or broken through with pioneer platoon drilling equipment.

10. Small improvised shelters and covers can be built by modifying the 4-man shelter, which is built as a firing position but with a ver over the entire position. The height can vary according to the conditions. {Figure 5).

12

Figure 5 4-man shelter

Small improvised shelters can also be built by utilizing the terrain in such a manner that a complete built-up shelter becomes unnecessary. A splinterproof cover will in certain cases give full protection against indirect fire (Fig 6}.

ArtHIery fire

Figure 6 Improvised shelters with protection against indirect fire

In extreme cases a shallow shelter can be made for a soldier lying down or sitting, with splinterproof overhead cover.

13

Figure 7 Position for prone rifleman, with spiinter-pmof overhead cover

11. The improvised position is to meet the standard requirements as regards construction and protection. The need for thorough control and inspection becomes greater when improvising positions.
Communication trenches 12. Communication trenches in snow are built after the same principles as in earth.

Dug-out snow is used to strengthen the side facing the enemy. Connecting trenches in snow are primarily used to provide concealment; it takes a lot of snow to provide protection against enemy fire. The bottom of the Communication trench ought to be covered with snow to make observation from the air difficult. The snow dug out near the firing position ought to be used to increase the thickness of the frontal cover.

14

EXPLOSIVES

General 13. During cold weather explosives have to be used in new ways to meet operational requirements. Frozen ground has to be blasted open in the building of positions, and gaps may have to be blasted in the ice on rivers or lakes to canalize eneray movement and reduce the need for own forces. Explosives and fuses are exposed to cold and dampness, and it is necessary to know how usage and handling are affected by this. Explosives that can stand the cold are called frost-free.
Explosives 14. Military explosives are frost-free. That applies also to the old readymade charges that are still in use. With the exception of geomite, military explosives are little affected by dampness. Trinol (TNT) will very slowly be ruined by dampness. Octogen (NM 91){plastic explosive), becomes hard and difficult to form in cold weather.
15. Norwegian civilian explosives nowadays contain so much anti-freeze that they are frost-free. The various kinds of dynamite become less elastic in cold weather. "Extra Dynamite" and "Bjnnit" (high nitroglycerin explosives, gelatinous) are very waterresistant. Dynamite is water resistant and Glynite is water resistant to a limited degree. (Dyno Industries Ltd.)

Initiation 16. The safety fuse and the detonating cord often become stiffer in the cold, and the cord must not be bent more than necessary. Their effect is not reduced in cold weather. Detonating cords are best joined together by clamps, as it is difficult to tie them together or to use tape {the tape does not stick in the cold). 17. Electric detonators are not affected by cold and dampness. 18. Non-electric fuses, the pentrite cap (initial booster for detonating cord) and the ignition deley for the detonating cord wili be ruined by dampness, but they withstand the cold. New ignition delays have been developed that can stand dampness because the delaying element has been sealed.

Blasting through frozen ground 19. The aim is to break through the iayer of frozen ground. The most difficuit part is to make the initial hoie through it, so that the charge can be inserted for further blasting. This can be done in the following ways: a. Drill a hoie with a pneumatic drill b. Blast a hoie for the main charge Ordinary hand-held drilling machines for earth or rock may be used, but they are poorly suited for the task.

15

Placing of charges in frozen ground 20. The hoie is made with pneumatic drill or other drilling equipment. The depth of the drillhole should be 9/10ths of the depth of the frozen ground. The interval between the hoies and between rows of hoies should not exceed the depth of the frozen ground. The charges should fill up 2/3rds of the depth of the hoies.

50 cm
50 cm i

Tamping Frozen ground

charge

Figure 8 Drilling plan for unit trench in frozen ground

When improvising a position a smaller trench is sufficient; the shelter can then be built underneath the iayer of frozen ground.
Biasting of hoies in frozen ground

21. Hoies are blasted in the frozen ground with the following means: - shaped charges (M72 or Energa warheads , beehive charges or improvised shaped charges). - pressure charges (has to be repeated several times) The cutting charge and the pressure charge {Figure 9) can be used when the Iayer of frozen ground is shallow; it is not described here.

16

1st time Sandbag Charge

Earth

2nd time Earth Frozen ground J$ Earth Charge

Figure 9 U se of pressure charge

Tests show that shaped charges are quite effective. Depending on the ground conditions, the M72 warhead mkes a hoie of about 80 cm in depth in frozen ground. A shaped charge of this size will normally make a hoie big enough to be charged with drilling shells or dynamite. After the hoie for the charge has been made, the frozen ground can be blasted away in the ordinary manner with a series of charges (as in section 22), or craters can be blasted (as in section 23).

22. Ordinarily the blasting of frozen ground will demand a number of charges, with an interval between them equal to the depth of the frozen ground. If the frozen ground is 50 cm deep, fourteen hoies are required, in two rows, with 50 cm intervals between the hoies and 50 cm between the rows. if the frozen layer is thick, it might be necessary ro repeat the blasting. The shaped charge will often pierce the layer of frozen ground. In that case, to achieve the full effect of the blast, the hoie has to be prepared as in Figure 10 before the second charge.

17

Tamping (sand)

Figure 10 Preparation of hoie made by shaped charge

23. If a unit trench is to be made by blasting craters, one to three hoies are needed. The hoies are blasted through the frozen ground; then the hollow blasted beneath the frozen ground is filled in to make it a suitable chamber for the main charge (Figure 11). If necessary the hoie can be enlarged by the use of dynamite.

Figure II Shaped charge - and main charge craters

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ICE DEMOLITION
General

24. The purpose of blasting away ice is most often to open up a clear water gap to block the enemy. Detailed reconnaissance is necessary to get the gap opened where the current is strengest. An ice drill is needed, an axe, a tape measure, a sounding line (a piece of cord with a stone attached), and the blasting equipment. The thickness of the ice and the depth of the water are measured by drilling a series of sounding hoies (at intervals of 50-100 m). When the location of the gap has been decided, the centerline should be marked with a ski trail, twigs, or in some other manner.
25. When a charge is detonated underneath the ice, a circular mound of water is thrown up, breaking through the ice and partly removing it. If slush remains in the gap, it will freeze over again quickly.
Estimation and placing of charge

26. A gap is blasted in the ice by placing series of charges underneath it. (Figure 12)

Figure 12 Blasting a gap in the ice

27. If the depth of the water is greater than 2.5 m, the charge ought to be placed about 1.25 m beneath the ice. If the depth of the water is less than 2.5 m the charge ought to be placed at half the depth. The size of the charge ought to be as in the following table:

19

Thickness of ice
up to 40 cm up to 40 cm up to 40 cm 40-60 cm 60-100 cm

Width of the gap

5m 6m 8m 8m 8-10 m

Weight of charge

Intervals
4m

Ikg
2 kg 3 kg 4 kg 5 kg

5m 8m 8m 8m

Figure 13 Table ofcharges - dept of water more than 2,5 m

If the depth of the water is less than 2.5 m, the hoie in the ice made by any given charge becomes smaller. Therefore the interval between the charges is reduced as shown in the table below:
Depth of water
m 2,0 1,5 1,0 0,5 m m m m 3 kg charge

Interval between charges 4 kg charge 7m 6m 5m 4m 5 kg charge 8 8 6 5 m m m m

5m 4m 4m 3m

Figure 14 Table ofcharges - depths less than 2.5 m

If the charges are increased, the gap becomes deaner, but not wider.

28. If the charges are not to be detonated at once, cratering charges ought to be used. If the gap is to be blasted imrnediately the charges are in place, the dynamite has to be in waterproof wrapping. The charges are suspended as shown i Figure 15.

20

Suspensjon cord

electric fuse
charge (waterproofed)

weight

Figure 15 Example ofsuspended charge for demolishing lee

29. To make a hoie in the ice for the main charge, the following can be used; - motor-powered ice drill (drilling equipment ice/frozen earth) - ice drill - explosives - axe, pick, crowbar (if the ice is thin).

If explosives are to be used, a hollow ought first to be made in the ice, and the charge should be 100 grams per 10 cm of ice.
Blasting of gap in ice

30. It takes a demolition group of 6-8 men, divided into 3 teams; 1. 2-3 men drill hoies in the ice for the charges 2. 1-2 men roll out the detonating cord 3. 3 men place and connect up the main charges. All the equipment should be made ready beforehand, to minimize the time spent on the ice.
Tacticai use 31. The purpose of opening up clear water gaps is to protect units against frontal or flank attacks. Normally a gap is blasted close to own positions. But gaps can also be blasted in depth in front of own units to cut off parts of the attacking force. The gap is blasted only when a part of the attacking force has passed over the charges planted in depth. If the demolition has been planned in the best

21

possible way, it can help substantially in the defence a unit can put up within its boundaries. The execution requires great precision, and the work done must be under constant control. Fire from own weapons can easily destroy the detonation system, This is an important factor to be considered when siting the gap. 32. If it is possible to place an insulating layer (a mat or other bearing layer with snow on it) over the gap, it can be kept as an impassible antitank ditch for a long time, even in cold weather. The gap ought to be sited where there is natural current in the water. When this is impossible, freezing can be hindered by movement in the water; a perforated air hose on the bottom, or a pump that mkes a surface current. Diesel oil etc. can be poured into the gap to delay the freezing process.

22

AKTIFICIAL OBSTACLES

General 33. On the whole, the obstacles are built as in summertime, but with certain modifications made necessary by the snow and frozen ground.
Infantry obstacles on frozen ground 34. When timber cannot be driven into the ground because of frost, steel pickets or timber lashed together as shown can be used (also on rocky ground).

Figure 16 Timber obstade

35. When building timber obstacles on ice, the logs are put into hoies that are drilled only partially into the ice, and then filled with snow and water to cement them in place.
Infantry obstacles on snow 36. Timber obstacles often sink into the snow. This can be prevehted with a horizontal beam (Figure 17). The rear legs are lifted up so that the horizontal beam functions as a snowshoe, resting on the snow surface.

37. This kind of obstacle has to be firmly anchored at both ends. It can be made more effective by placing barbed wire on the inside of the legs.

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Enemy

Figure 17 Infantry obstacle on snow 38. Concertina wire can be put in place without timber. However, some timber should be placed at the bottom of the coils, to keep them in place, and lifting the coils up after a heavy snowfall, (See Figure 18)

Figure 18 Concertina wire on snow 39. Against skiers, even simple obstacles can be used to great effect, especially on downhill slopes. Sticks with trip wires are dug down on the slopes (see Figure 19). The stick is buried in such a manner that the wire catches the tip of the skis. This device can be used to advantage by patrols.

24

solid stick

Figure 19

Tripwire in ski trail

40. Obstacles on snow ought to have trip flares or anti-personnel mines attached to make it more difficult for the enemy to get through.
Anti-tank, anti-vehicle obstacles

41. Anti-tank obstacles ought to be built in summertime, if possible. In wintertime the deep snow wiJI in itself reduce the mobility of vehicles. When reconnoitering it is important to find lines of natural obstacles that require little improvment. The effort must be concentrated at the parts where the line is weakest.
42. The following are natural anti-tank and vehicle obstacles: - rivers and marshes
- slopes

- snow and ice

- forest.

When selecting a position, the location of natural obstacles must be carefully considered. Frequently there are more than one natural obstacle in the same place, eg., a slope may be forested or snow-covered. The total effect must be carefully weighed. 43. Natural obstacles are improved when necessary: - explosives can be used to break open rivers and marshes, ie., lnes, craters, or ditches - obstacles can be built on slopes to reduce the speed of advance; examples of these are the timber barricade (Figure 20), the snow barricade (Figure 21), and felled trees (Figure 22) - snow and ice (see snow barricade and breaking of ice) - forested areas are made more effective obstacles when trees are felled; this is also a good way to block forest roads (Figure 22).

25

Figure 20 Timber barricade

Enemy

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Figure 21 Snow barricade (the dimension can be reduced on slopes)

26

Figure 22 Barricade offelled trees

27

MINES AND MINEFIELDS

General

44. Mines are presently the most important passive means available for combat operations. The preparing, placing and concealing of mines must recieve particular attention in wintertime. The fuses, and the mechanical parts of the mine must be free of wax and storage grease, for these ingredients keep the mine from functioning in very cold weather. If the weather and the snow cause icing on mines, the mine unit ought to consider placing each mine in a white plastic bag. A dark mine placed just beneath the surface of the snow absorbs heat in sunshine and melts the surrounding snow, making the mine visible. Mines and fuses that are to be placed directly under the snow surface should be painted white. Mine fuses attached on the outside have to be tested after the paint has dried.
Anit-personnel mines

45. It is easy to conceal anti-personnel mines in snow, Trip wires ought to be attached to the mines. On ski trails, roads, paths, or in shallow snow, pressure mines can be used. The snow reduces the effect of mines; jumping mines are therefore useful in snow. Infantry obstacles, tree obstacles, etc., ought to have anti-personnel mines attached; improvised charges with trip-wires are useful. It is important to make a solid foundation for mines placed in snow.
Improvised anti-personnel mine M 1951C on ski trail 46. The mine is placed on a board, 10 cm wide, 30 cm long. On top of the lid, over the moveable part, a wooden peg is attached, 3 cm high and l cm wide. This peg will force the lid down and set off the mine when a skier moves over it. The placing of the mine is shown in Figure 23.

yt%%^^ Figure 23 Improvised anti-personnel mine M 1951C in ski trail

28 Anti-personnel mine M2 in ski trail 47. A hollow is dug between the ski trail and the trail left by one of the poles. The mine is put into it. If the snow is loose a piece of board is placed at the bottom of the hoie. The fuse is to be closest to the ski trail. (See figure 24). Snow is filled in around the mine and packed to cement it in place, Then a ditch is made across both ski trails, about 15 cm wide, 15 cm deep and 40 cm long. At the far end of the ditch a piece of board is placed vertically in the snow, so long that it does not sink down when pressure is exerted on it. Another piece of board, the trigger board, is placed horizontally so that it rests on the fuse at one end, and on the vertical board at the other end. Camouflage everything with !oose snow, but the space beneath the trigger board be empty. Remember to make fresh ski tracks. Finally, remove the safety pins.

Figure 24 Anti-personnel mine M2AI in ski trail

48. It is important to note that the skis can prevent the mine from jumping up. The correct placing of the mine is therefore very important.

Trip-wire 49. A trip-wire over the snow will often be covered with frost, and is then fairly easy to discover. Light-colored wire ought to be used, or the wire can be painted grey. If the trip wire is drawn quite taut, it is possibie to hide it under the surface of the snow. On a ski trail the trip wire ought to be used in places where it is difficult to stop (downhill slopes).

29
Anti-tank mines 50. It is difficult to camouflage an anti-tank minefield in wintertime. Moreover, it is difficult to get the mines placed in a snug position, so that they detonate whenever a vehicle passes. Therefore a mine-field ought to be sited in welltracked terrain. The vehicle tracks ought to cover a considerably larger area than that to be covered by the minefield.

Positioning the anti-tank mines M6A2 and M15 51. If the depth of the snow is less than 50 cm, the mines can be placed directly on the ground without reducing the effect (Figure 25), If the depth of the snow is between 50 and 80 cm the mines can still be placed on the ground. However, when the M6A2 is used, it takes two mines, one on top of the other, to get the desired effect (Figure 26). When the M51A is used, extra explosives have to be used.

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Figure 25 Placing of mine in less than 50 cm of snow

30

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Figure 26 Placing the M6A2 in 50-80 cm ofsnow

52. If the depth of the snow is over 80 cm, the mine must be placed on a wooden cross, on a foundation of hard-packed snow. The boards that make the cross ought to be l m long, 20 cm wide (or two 40 cm beams can be placed parallel to each other). The mine is fastened to the wooden foundation. Sandbags filled with snow can also be used as a foundation for the antitank mine. The built up foundation should be placed about 40 cm below the surface of the snow. This method of lying mines demands a lot of work and equipment, and is only feasible when a small number of mines are to be laid out. The laying of mines in deep snow ought to be done in areas where there already are plenty of BV tracks.

31

The mine is secured with wire to a wooden cross

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Figure 27 Placing of mine in more than 80 cm ofsnow

32

ROAD CONSTRUCTION
General 53. A task of primary importance during wintertime is the construction of routes for cross-country movement outside the permanent roads. The construction of routes generally falls into three categories: clearing of approach roads; breaking of trails for BVs (oversnow vehicles); reinforcement of ice or marsh. Good reconnaissance is of decisive importance for this work. Moreover the personnel have to be familiar with snow and avalanches, and know when frozen marshes, rivers and lakes can be used for movement. Planned approach roads over marshes have to be cleared of snow and reinforced with steel matting, to make the marsh bear the weight of heavy wheeled vehicles. If the snow has been removed in good time, the frost will deepen and in itself reinforce the marsh approach road.

Snow-cfearing equipment 54. The Norwegian infantry battalion has available the following snow-clearing equipment: - 2 combat tractors with shovel and plough - 2 digger tractors - 4 trucks M621 with snowplough. The combat tractors are especially well suited for the clearing of roads and parking loops. Depending on the depth of snow, the combat tractors can alternate in the use of plough and shovel. The digger tractors are best suited for the clearing of parking slots and other small areas and for keeping the intersections cleared. The plough-truck (truck with snowplough mounted in front) is best suited for maintenance clearing.

Organization 55. One digger tractor and one combat tractor are normally used together as a clearing group. This opens for the possibility of working two places at once, while at the same time the small size of the clearing group mkes it easy to manage. The plow trucks are normally tasked individuaily, eg, to keep open a given stretch of road.

Reconnaissance 56. Before the snow clearing is begun, careful reconnaissance ought to be carried out. Information should be gathered about forest roads, from the map and from the local people, so that these might be put to use. Marsh areas are also shown on the map. These ought to be avoided, unless it is known with certainty that the marsh is frozen to suen depth that it is sufficient to bear the weight of the equipment. In any case, tests ought to be made before snow clearing is begun. When surveying the terrain you should try to find out about the location of stones and stumps on the ground. If necessary a sounding rod or a ski pole without the disc should be used to locate ditches.

33

After marking the route, the clearing may start. After the first clearing by the cornbat tractor with plough, the road will be passable for light vehicles and weapon carriers. If the road is to be used by vehicles without four-wheel-drive, the clearing operation must be repeated 4 times to make the road passable. If obstacles are encountered when clearing a route, the plough should not be used as bulldozer. It is better to drive around the obstacle.
Command responsibilities 57. Snowclearing support is assigned for a given task or for a given length of time. The unit supported is responsible for detaching an officer or NCO to supervise the work connected with the clearing, such as: - reconnaissance and marking of parking loops and vehicle slots - gi v ing orders to the equipment opera tors - overseeing and supervising while the snowclearing is being carried out.
Snow-clearing during advance

58. During advance, the clearing equipment is deployed as follows: - one clearing group follows behind the battalion blocking force. This group clears the main axis; at every halt it clears vehicle slots wherever possible. The group may be reinforced by a truck and plough - another group follows the second-in-command and the recce team of the forward mortar platoon. The plough-trucks are kept in column to increase the width of the road, and to clear away fresh snow. When advancing otuside roads, the clearing group clears the necessary reloading places. Thereafter the clearing group will be deployed to clear roads through the terrain, if this is possible.
Snow-clearing during offensive combat 59. During an attack the clearing equipment is utiltzed as follows: -clearing of forming-up places - clearing of mortar positions - foliow-up clearing of supply roads and mortar positions during the attack. Trucks are used for maintenance work on the roads from the train area and forward.
Snow-clearing during defensive operations

60. In detense It is important to open up supply roads to all units. On account of the danger posed by enemy aircraft, the vehicles ought to be dispersed as much as possible. The clearing equipment ought therefore to be tasked in the following mannen - one clearing group is assigned to the train area, and to the units between the train area and the battalion HQ. Thereafter it supports other units and carries out maintenance as necessary. - one clearing group reinforced by plough-trucks is assigned to the units forward of the battalion HQ

34 - plough-trucks are used for maintaining the paved roads within the battalion area - alternative positions for the mortar platoons must be cleared as necessary. This must be done as soon as the exact location has been determined.
Snow-clearing during delaying battles 61. The tasks are similar to the tasks listed under defensive operations.

Clearing of parking loop 62. The loop is cleared by a clearing group. The combat tractor leads, in the direction the traffic is to move, clearing the loop. The tractor shovel follows behind, backing into the loop, and clearing parking slots on the sides at intervals of not less than 30 m.

Figure 28

Parking loop - plan

35

Clearing of road on terrain, per hour

Vehicle
Combat tractor with plough Combat tractor with shovel Digger tractor

Up to 80 cm of snow 3 km 0.5-1.5 km 0.5-1 km

Over 80 cm of snow

0.5-1 km

Clearing of road
Vehicle
Truck w/plough Combat tractor w/plough Combat tractor w/plough

Speed km/h 20-50 10-20 1-5 Clearing of locations / areas

Depth of snow
Max 40cm loose snow Max 50cm loose snow
up to 100 cm

Task Battalion logistic area

Battalion logistic area Battalion vehicle area Bn HQ

Snow condit.
100 cm easy terr.

Grouping Clearing group Engineer plant Clearing group Clearing group Clearing group Clearing group

Equipment

Time req. 5-10 hrs

Plough/shovel

Ammo Pt
M or ta r pos. {81 mm)

100 cm easy terr. 100 cm easy terr. 100 cm Easy terr. 100 cm easy terr. 100 cm

Plough/shovel Plough/shovel Plough/shovel Plough/shovel Plough/shovel

3-8 hrs 2-3 hrs

1-2 hrs

approx 1 hr

30 min

Figure 29 Snow-clearing fables

36
Improving the BV trail 63. It takes first rate reconnaissance to select a good BV (oversnow vehicle) trail.

The following must be kept in mind: - movement is to take place under cover and concealment as far as possible - unnecessary work on the trail ought to be avoided by going around the obstacles - the changing of altitude ought to be avoided, by going around heights and depressions - the trail should be able to stand usage - steep rises and snowdrifts are to be negotiated head on. For the necessary preparations of the trail see Figure 30 - when moving across the face of a slope, the trail must be prepared (See Figure
31) Small trees are placed on the trail, tucked into the sides.

Small trees are placed on the trall, tucked into the sides

Figure 30 BV trail over a rise with snowdrift

37

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Built-up

Small trees used for reinforcement

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Figure 31 EV trall across a slope
Road over ice and frozen marsh

64. Before building an ice road on lake or river, a thorough check must be made of the ice. Drill hoies about 10 m apart, about 5 m out on both sides of the planned road, and measure the thickness. This ought to be done twice weekly, and always after a considerable change in termperature. If thicker ice is needed, the road ought to be kept clear of snow. Also, the thickness of the ice can be increased by pumping water on it and letting it freeze. The width of the road ought to be about 7 m. 65. If the ice road is to be used in late winter, the ice has to be reinforced and insulated. Pump water onto the ice, put down twigs, coniferous branches etc. into the water so that it freezes into a mat. When the road bed is frozen through, it is covered with about 10 cm of sawdust or wood shavings and snow. The road has to be cSeared gently before use. A well-built ice road can be used after the ice on the sides has become unsafe. Normally the approaches have to be reinforced. When the sun begins to melt the ice, the ice road ought to be covered with a thin layer of snow.

38

66. Frozen marsh can be cleared at an early point to let the frost penetrate deeper into it. However, it is often impossible to get out on the marsh with the clearing equipment. Therefore, if the stretch to be covered is short, the frozen marsh can be reinforced with brush mats, metal tracks or by more permanent roads (Figure 32). Snow covered marshes will almost always be passable for oversnow vehicles.

Good ice

Insulating v(sawdust etc) \ Driving surface Expansion beam Bearing foundation

Figure 32 Reinforcement of ice or frozen marsh

67. Two-way traffic is not to go over the same road on ice or frozen marsh. The traf fic is to be directed into two spearate roads about 50 m apart. 68. When driving on ice-covered rivers or lakes, safety and control must be emphasized.

Type of traffic

Max weight (t) Minimum Minimum thickness good intervals (m) qualityice(cm) 0.1 0,25 4,3 2,5 8,4 (terrain) 10,7 (road) 20 40 5 10 25 15-20 30 35 45 65
2 5 15 15 20 20 25 40

Men on foot Motorcycle BV202 Light vehicle Truck M621 Truck M621 MBT 20 t MBT 40 t

Figure 33 Bearing capacity of fast high quality ice

39

CAMOUFLAGE
General

69. The terra winter in this context means terrain which is wholly or partially covered with snow. Trails, shadows, shapes and colours stand out far more clearly than otherwise, revealing one's presence.
Firing positions and communication trenches 70. Open firing positions must continually be covered with clean white snow, if they cannot be covered with other white comouflage against discovery from the air. The communication trenches are treated in the same manner when the snow becomes dirty, or vegetation appears at the bottom. The form of the trench is concealed by placing bushes in it at varying intervals,

71. Muzzle flashes from the weapons blacken the snow in front and the back blast from recoilless weapons does the same thing behind the firing position. Therefore, scatter on some clean snow after firing. The muzzle blast and the back blast will - especially when the snow is loose and dry - blow up a cloud of snow, which can easily give away the position. This effect can be reduced by packing the snow near the weapon.
Decoy positions

72. Decoy positions are easy to make, and ought to be used to draw the enemy's attention away from own positions. These positions must be made so shallow that they cannot be used by the enemy. Pine twigs are put into the bottom of the decoy positions to make them look deep. Dummy ammunition is put into place together with various crates to give the impression of well fortified positions. At night these position can be given away by careless use of light. However, this must not be exaggerated.
Trail discipline 73. Ski trails and snowshoe trails are easily seen - especially from the air. Therefore the trails ought to pass through forest or shaded areas. Through open terrain the visibility of the trail can be reduced if the last man pulls behind him a cutoff tree-top.

74. A trained observer can easily interepret the tracks of vehicles in the snow (from an aerial photograph). It is impossible to conceal vehicle tracks, but they can be masked to distort their form and shadow. The tracks ought not to stop near a unit location or bivouac, but continue past in one or more loops. These can connect up with other tracks and roads in the area. If there is no great danger of mines, civilian roads and trails ought to be used as mush as possible. Entrance roads to own areas ought to be laid through forest or brush which make the camouflaging easier.

40

Noise discipline 75. Snowfall and bad weather muffle sounds considerably. Shots that are fired are heard as weak muffled cracklirig. In cold winter air, however, the sound carries very far. Ski poles on crusted snow can easily be heard by an alert sentry. The sharp sound from the poles can be avoided by lifting the poles up from the snow when moving up close to an enemy position. Means of camuflage 76. The basic rule is that personnel and materiel as far as possible are camuflaged to blend in with the colours found in the surroundings, lb do this the following can be used: - camouflage clothing, and cover for packs - white tape (weapons, helmet) - white cloth (helmet, various equipment) - white paint - camouflage net for vehicles, and if possible also for tents, materiel, field works etc - natural cover and concealment (vegetation) - snow. Natural cover 77. Natural cover will often have to be used as camouflage in wintertime; dense vegetation distorts shapes and colours. Remember that concealment against observation from the ground does not necessarily mean concealment from aerial observation.

4!

Figure 34 BV camoujlaged with net and pine branches - use the terrain, and take advantage of mounds and depressions

Figure 35 Section tent in forest. not camoujlaged: the right background colour gives good concealment

42

Figure 36 inforest, not camouflaged; consider the background befare using the white net

Personal camouflage 78. A soldier in white clothes is well camouflaged in entirely white surroundings, whatever the light conditions might be. Most often there will be other colours in the surroundings, which must be given due consideration, so that the use of white camouflage is not overdone. The basic equipment and the weapon ought as a rule to be camouflaged for winter.

79. Form and colour for personal camouflage can be adapted to the surroundings: - white camouflage clothes - in entirely white surroundings - combat equipment over the camouflage clothing - in mountainous terrain with little vegetation - camouflage smock and field trousers - belween Iow bushes and brush - camouflage trousers and field jacket - in forested areas - field uniform - in forest and underforest with brush

Figure 37 farsonnel in position - camouflaged

Figure 38 Personnel on the maren - withouf camouflage smock

44

Tents and matriel 80. Few means of camouflage are available for tents and matriel. Therefore natural cover has to be utilized as far as possible. Usuaily, a tent can be partially dug in and covered with snow. Pieces of camouflage clothing can be placed on the canvas to distort the form and colour of the tent, especially towards the side to distort the characteristic circular shape. Twigs and branches can be suspended over the tent on barbed wire for concealment against aerial observation.

Flgure 39 Tent with camouflage clothing

8J. Matriel ought to be dug down and covered with snow when it is possible. This will aslo give good protection against enemy fires. Dumps of matriel can also be camouflaged with nets, either in conneclion wilh vehicles, or with special purpose nets when these are available.

45

Materie! dump with nets - seenfrom air and ground

Vehicles 82. All vehicles are equipped with white camouflage nets. The net has to be used in the right way, with the vehicle partially dug into the snow, or in natural cover, etc. Not on ly is the net to cover the vehicle, it is to distort its characteristic shape. This is done by lifting the net from the vehicles and down to the ground, to avoid tell-tale shadows.

Figure 4f BV covered with net inforest, seenfrom the air and the ground. /((akes a lot of coniferous twigs and dark spots to make the white net conceal more than it reveals

47

Figure 42 M 621 with net. seen from the air - (he nei has (o be well stretched out ro conceal the shape Routc selection

83. Movement is easily detected, by direct observation, and from the trails left behind. Movement ought therefore to be carried out in darkness or bad weather to avoid direct observation, even il' the trails are left behind.

Figure 43 Personnel on the march - here the rucksack cover is revealing, bul how will il be when the personnel move into the prone positon?

48

It is important to select a route where the trails are concealed, at the same time as the possibility for direct observation is reduced. This is best achieved by selecting a route along the edge of the forest, through gullies and depressions, areas that are shaded in davtime.

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Figure 45 BV trail in a gully