School of thought How you attain GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY: o An approach that focuses on the organization of perception and thinking

in a whole sense rather than on the individual elements of perception. Instead of considering the individual parts that make up thinking, gestalt psychologists concentrated on how people consider individual elements as units or wholes. They made great contributions to the understanding of the perceptual phenomena. o This school developed as a reaction to structuralism in the early !""s o In contrast to the structuralist approach of breaking down conscious e#perience into elements, or focusing upon the structure, the $estalt school emphasized the significance of studying any phenomenon in its overall form. o The word gestalt means Configuration o The main concept that the $estaltists posed was that the % WHOLE is more than the sum of its parts, and it is different from it too. o They concentrated on how people consider individual elements together as units or wholes.o The concept of $estalt applies to everything, ob&ects, ideas, thinking processes and human relationships. o Any phenomenon in its entirety may be much greater than when it is seen in a dis integrated form.o Three $erman psychologists 'a# (ertheimer, )urt )offka and (olfgang )ohler were regarded as the founders of gestalt school as each one of them had done significant work in his respective field. Ma W!rth!i"!r o The founder of $estalt *sychology, born in *rague in ++" o ,tudying at the -niversity of .rankfurt he became aware of a form of apparent motion that was called %Phi #h!no"!non o Phi #h!no"!non / when two lights are in close pro#imity to each other, flashing alternately they appear to be one light moving back and forth0 therefore the whole was different from the separate parts0 movement perceived whereas it never occurred o (e perceive e#periences in a way that calls for the simplest e#planation, even though reality may be entirely different0 this is $estalt 1aw of 'inimum *rinciple. (e tend to organize our e#perience so that it is as simple as possible. o 2#planation of phi phenomenon led to a separate school of thought i.e., $estalt school, that had deep rooted impact on learning, ethics, and social psychology.

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G!(talt Law( of Organi)ation*(e organize our e#periences according to certain rules, in a simple way3Pro i"ity3 4lose or nearer ob&ects are perceived as coherent and related. Si"ilarity3 Tendency to perceive ob&ects, patterns or stimuli as groups, which are similar in appearance55 parts of the visual field that are similar in color, lightness, te#ture, shape, or any other 6uality Goo' Continuation3 Tendency to group the stimuli into smooth and continuous patterns or parts. Clo(ur!3 It is the perceptual tendency to fill in the gaps and completing the contours0 enables us to perceive the disconnected parts as the whole ob&ect. +igur! an' Groun'3 7ur perceptual tendency to see ob&ects with the foreground as well as the background the ob&ect is being recognized with respect to its background. e.g. black board and chalk. ,urt ,off-a* (rote the famous %*rinciples of $estalt *sychology 8 !9:; o Talked about geographical versus behavioral environment3 people<s behavior is determined by how they perceive the environment rather than by the nature of the environment. Wolfgang ,ohl!r o $ave the concept of %insight and %transposition, as a result of his observations of a caged chimpanzee and e#periments with chickens .n(ight / spontaneous restructuring of the situation.Tran(#o(ition / generalization of knowledge from one situation to another. o )ohler also talked about Isomorphism0 changes in the brain structure yield changes in e#periences .7ther ma&or contributions G!(talt a##roach to !thic(3 Truth is truth when it is complete and corresponds fully to the facts of the situation. /!igarni-0( Eff!ct3 =luma >eigarnik<s e#periments0 we remember interrupted tasks better. The tension caused by unfinished tasks helps us in remembering. Grou# 1yna"ic(3 Instead of focusing on people<s individual attributes we should see them as whole person

Hu"ani(tic (chool of thought :

The %Third .orce The ?umanistic approach has emerged in the late !@"<s, primarily as a reaction to the two ma&or views of humanity popular at that time The .reudian perspective and its emphasis on unconscious se#ual and aggressive instincts0The behavioral perspective, and its emphasis on the mechanical nature of

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responses to stimuli in the environment. The humanistic perspective, thus, as been called the %third force. $oot( of th! Hu"ani(tic A##roach: 23 E i(t!ntial Philo(o#hy 2#istential philosophy addresses many of the 6uestions that later became the cornerstone of the ?umanistic approach, such as, the meaning of our e#istence, the role of free will, and the uni6ueness of each individual. A. Th! clinical ! #!ri!nc!( of Carl $og!r( an' A%raha" Ma(low3 The founders of the ?umanistic Approach, 4arl Bogers and Abraham 'aslow, were both therapists0At that time, the .reudian model of therapy was popular, viewing the therapist as an e#pert who tells the client what is the problem. Bogers maintained that it was only the client that is responsible for the therapeutic direction,The therapist can create conditions for selfCe#ploration. ,!y El!"!nt( of th! Hu"ani(tic A##roach 0E"#ha(i( on #!r(onal r!(#on(i%ility 8Dou don<t %have to do your homework, you have chosen to do so;. Dou are not a victim of circumstancesE. A3 E"#ha(i( on th! n!!' to function in th! h!r! an' nowF Go not be a captive of your pastE 90Ac-nowl!'ging th! #h!no"!nology of th! in'i4i'ual* C the fact that it is only the client 8in therapy; that can make decision for himHherself. I3E"#ha(i( on #!r(onal growthJBogers called this becoming a fully functioning, while 'aslow referred to this idea as %selfCactualization. S!lf*Actuali)ation* There is more to life than the absence of problems,The ?umanistic perspective maintain that we all have a drive toward %selfCactualization To become that best we can become, in the conte#t of our life 8you do not have to receive the Kobel *rize;. Carl $og!r( an' P!r(on*C!nt!r!' Th!ra#y* The role of the therapist is to create an atmosphere of %unconditional positive regard to enable the client<s selfCe#ploration and becoming %fully functioning.*araphrasing and reflection of feelings were methods to facilitate selfCe#ploration3 Bogers described the %fullyC functioning person as an ideal for healthy personality.Bogers saw an#iety as resulting from our inability to incorporate information that is inconsistent with our selfCimage.The Bogerian therapist would say to a client3 %I do not like what you did, but I still respect you as a human being.

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School of thought A%raha" Ma(low Abraham 'aslow was interested in e#ploring the sources of happy, healthy personality.

?is approach was optimistic, regarding human beings as freeCwilled individuals, and not as captive by unconscious drives,?is contribution is in the hierarchy of needs, and in the study of the psychologicallyChealthy individuals. Ma(low0( Hi!rarchy of 5!!'( 'aslow distinguished between G 8deficiency; needs and = 8being; needs. *hysiological needs ,afety needs 1ove and =elongingness needs 2steem needs 8you value yourself, and others also value you; ,elfCActualization needs

Mi(conc!#tion( a%out Ma(low Hi!rarchy Dou do not have to fulfill all the needs in one level to %climb to the ne#t level ,ome people who starve for their loved one, or for their life work ,Te needs in each level are never fully satisfied,There are cultural differences in the ways the needs are regarded and are fulfilled,The %psychologicallyC?ealthy *eople .Th! P(ychology of O#ti"al E #!ri!nc! an' Po(iti4! P(ychology CThe legacy of the ?umanistic Approach is in the emergence of the new branch of psychology, *ositive *sychology.This branch focuses of human virtues, strengths, resilience, and coping with adversity A##lication( CBogers applied his ideas into a system of therapy that emphasizes the creation of the right conditions to allow the client to accept himHherself, and to achieve personal growth. 2#tending to the client %unconditional positive regard facilitates this goal. 'aslow<s hierarchy of needs has been applied into understanding &ob satisfaction and vocational choices. Li"itation( of th! Hu"ani(tic A##roach* 'any of the concepts do not lend themselves for operational definitions and for scientific study.A great deal of the studies conducted by 'aslow and Bogers to support their ideas were based on their own sub&ective impressions and intuition.The concept of free will has been challenged.

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cogniti4! #(ychology
The term cognitive psychology came into use with the publication of the book 4ognitive *sychology by -lric Keisser in !@L. 4ognitive *sychology revolves around the notion that if we want to know what makes people tick then we need to understand the internal processes of their mind. 4ognition literally means %knowing. In other words, psychologists from this approach study cognition which is the mental act or process by which knowledge is ac6uired.< 4ognitive psychology focuses on the way humans process information, looking at how we treat information that comes in to the person 8what behaviorists would call stimuli;, and how this treatment leads to responses. In other words, they are interested in the variables that mediate between stimulusHinput and responseHoutput. 4ognitive psychologists study internal processes including perception, attention, language, memory and thinking.The cognitive perspective applies a no"oth!tic a##roach to discover human cognitive processes, but have also adopted idiographic techni6ues through using case studies 8e.g. )., ?';.Typically cognitive psychologists use the laboratory e#periment to study behavior. This is because the cognitive approach is a scientific one. .or e#ample, participants will take part in memory tests in strictly controlled conditions. ?owever, the widely used lab e#periment can be criticized for lacking ecological validity 8a ma&or criticism of cognitive psychology;. 4ognitive psychology became of great importance in the mid !:"s. ,everal factors were important in this3 Gissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach in its simple emphasis on e#ternal behavior rather than internal processes.The development of better e#perimental methods.4omparison between human and computer processing of information.The cognitive approach began to revolutionize psychology in the late !:"<s and early !@"<s, to become the dominant approach 8i.e. perspective; in psychology by the late !L"s. Interest in mental processes had been gradually restored through the work of *iaget and Tolman. 7ther factors were important in the early development of the cognitive approach. .or e#ample, dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach in its simple emphasis on behavior rather than internal processes and the development of better e#perimental methods. =ut it was the arrival of the computer that gave cognitive psychology the terminology and metaphor it needed to investigate the human mind. The By $a%ia Sa&&a'

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start of the use of computers allowed psychologists to try to understand the comple#ities of human cognition by comparing it with something simpler and better understood i.e. an artificial system such as a computer. 4ognitive Approach )ey .eatures 'ediational *rocesses Information *rocessing 4omputer Analogy Introspection 8(undt; Komothetic 8studies the group; ,chema =asic Assumptions 4ognitive psychology is a pure science, based mainly on laboratory e#periments. =ehavior can be largely e#plained in terms of how the mind operates, i.e. the information processing approach. The mind works in a way similar to a computer3 inputting, storing and retrieving data. 'ediational processes occur between stimulus and response. ,trengths ,cientific ?ighly applicable 8e.g. therapy, 2(T; 4ombines easily with approaches3 behaviorism M 4og / ,ocial 1earning =iology M 4og / 2volutionary *sy 'ethodology 1ab 2#periments Introspection 8(undt; 'emory *sychology Interviews 8)ohlberg, *iaget; 4ase ,tudies 8)., ?' ; 7bservations 8*iaget; 4omputer 'odeling Areas of Application 'oral Gevelopment 8)ohlberg; 2yewitness Testimony 'emory .orgetting ,elective Attention *erception 4hild Gevelopment 8*iaget; 1anguage Ac6uisition 4ognitive =ehavioral Therapy 1earning ,tyles 8)olb; Information *rocessing 4ognitive Interview .ace Becognition 8=ruce and Doung; 1imitations Ignores biology 8e.g. testosterone; 2#periments C low ecological validity ?umanism C re&ects scientific method =ehaviorism C can<t ob&ectively study unobservable behavior

E4aluation of th! Cogniti4! A##roach =... ,kinner criticizes the cognitive approach as he believes that only e#ternal stimulus C response behavior should be studied as this can be scientifically measured. Therefore, mediation processes 8between stimulus and response; do not e#ist as they cannot be seen By $a%ia Sa&&a'

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and measured. ,kinner continues to find problems with cognitive research methods, namely introspection 8as used by (ilhelm (undt; due to its sub&ective and unscientific nature. ?umanistic psychologist 4arl Bogers believes that the use of laboratory e#periments by cognitive psychology have low ecological validity and create an artificial environment due to the control over variables. Bogers emphasizes a more holistic approach to understanding behavior. The informationCprocessing paradigm of cognitive psychology views that minds in terms of a computer when processing information. ?owever, there are important difference between humans and computers. The mind does not process information like a computer as computers don<t have emotions or get tired like humans. The cognitive approach does not always recognize physical 8re3 biological psychology; and environmental 8re3 behaviorism; factors in determining behavior.

P(ychoanaly(i(
,igmund .reud was the founder of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach to psychology. This school of thought emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. .reud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements3 the id, the ego, and the superego. .reudNs theories of psychose#ual stages, the unconscious, and dream symbolism remain a popular topic among both psychologists .Con(ciou( C In .reudNs psychoanalytic theory of personality, the conscious mind includes everything that is inside of our awareness. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about in a rational way. 1!f!n(! M!chani(" C A tactic developed by the ego to protect against an#iety. Gefense mechanisms are thought to safeguard the mind against feelings and thoughts that are too difficult for the conscious mind to cope with. In some instances, defense mechanisms are thought to keep inappropriate or unwanted thoughts and impulses from entering the conscious mind. Ego C The ego is the part of personality that mediates the demands of the id, the superego and reality. The ego prevents us from acting on our basic urges 8created by the id;, but also works to achieve a balance with our moral and idealistic standards 8created by the superego;..' C The personality component made up of unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic urges, needs and desires. By $a%ia Sa&&a'

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Su#!r!go C The component of personality composed of our internalized ideals that we have ac6uired from our parents and from society. The superego works to suppress the urges of the id and tries to make the ego behave morally rather than realistically. 6ncon(ciou( C A reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges and memories that outside of our conscious awareness. 'ost of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, an#iety or conflict. Thr!! -in'( of an i!ty7O%&!cti4!3 an#iety over real and immediate threats and danger in the world, such as war, crime, and accidents3 Moral An i!ty produced by oneNs overCI. (hen the I or selfCimage is threatened by same or guilt, an#iety is provoked. 5!urotic: An#iety that is developed by the It. Keeds stabilizing from the I. If neurotic an#iety is e#plored, it could e#plode into serious emotional dysfunction. 1r!a"wor-. .reud called dreams Othe royal road to the unconscious.O Manif!(t cont!t!nt of a 'r!a"3 (hat we remember of our dreams upon awakening. 'ay be a disguised fulfillment of repressed wishes.Lat!nt cont!nt of a 'r!a"3 The thoughts in the unconscious that contain a personNs wishes, symptoms, and memories. Ero( an' Thanato(: 2ros includes the comple#ities of love and affirmation of life0 thanatos is our destructive and aggressive impulses, the urge to in&ure or con6uer In classical psychoanalysis, therapy involves transference C the clientNs pro&ection and displacement of thoughts and feelings onto the analyst0 free association, where the client says whatever comes into hisHher mind, no matter how trivial or irrelevant it may seem0 and dream analysis, which involves the analyst, interpreting the content of the clientNs dreams.Though the psychoanalytic process may sound 6uite straightforward, it usually difficult and timeCconsuming. Critici("( of P(ychoanaly(i(7.reudNs theories overemphasized the unconscious mind, se#, aggression and childhood e#periences.'any of the concepts "f psychoanalytic theorists are difficult to measure and 6uantify.'ost of .reudNs ideas were based on case studies and clinical observations rather than empirical, scientific research. Str!ngth( of P(ychoanaly(i(7most psychodynamic theories did not rely on e#perimental research, the methods psychoanalytic thinking contributed to e#perimental psychology. 8in!lan' A'a#ti4! 9!ha4ior Scal!( :8in!lan'; Teacher Bating .orm -sed for Ages 9CA By $a%ia Sa&&a'

School of thought -sed to assess personal and social sufficiency +our 1o"ain( . 4ommunicationC how a student listens and pays attention A. Gaily 1iving ,killsC student<s daily habits and hygiene, time, money, and math, and ability to follow rules and routines 9. ,ocializationC how a student interacts with others, uses play and leisure time, and demonstrates responsibility and sensitivity to others I. 'otor ,killsC gross and fine motor skills

T!(t Co"#l!tion . 4omplete the front cover of the test book. Calculat! th! (tu'!nt0( ag! an' writ! in on th! front co4!r in th! A%out th! Stu'!nt (!ction. A. Getermine the ,tart *oint for each ,ubdomain Gecide what age to use as your start point taking into consideration the student<s level of functioning. The ob&ective is to start at a point where the student will almost certainly obtain full credit on the first several items. -nless you suspect a developmental delay or deficits in adaptive functioning, you should start at the student<s chronological age. Go not round up chronological age when determining start points. If you suspect a student<s behavior to be well below average for his chronological age, base start points on a younger age. Dou "u(t use the same start point in each domain. Writ! th! ag! u(!' at (tart #oint( on th! front co4!r of th! t!(t %oo-. 9. Kotice stop points in the (ritten ,ubdomain and Academic ,ubdomain. Th! Motor S-ill( 1o"ain i( only for (tu'!nt( un'!r th! ag! of <. All others can mark out this section. I. =eginning at your determined start point, answer 6uestions using a score of "CA. 4ircle only one response to each 6uestion. If you want to change an answer, mark an P through it and circle your new choice. :. 9! car!ful wh!n !(ti"ating r!(#on(!(. The test only allows up to I" estimated responses, depending on the age of the student, for the entire test. If the number of estimated items e#ceeds the limit for the student<s age, you cannot score the test. Scoring . 4omplete the top of page + with the Kumber of 2stimated Items from each subdomain. A. 4omplete page +C Baw ,core ,ummary by transferring the number of A<s and <s from each subdomain to this chart. Add numbers in each subdomain bo# to get a Baw ,core for each subdomain. All it!"( %!for! th! (tarting #oint r!c!i4! a (cor! of =. 9. 4omplete page !C QinelandCII Teacher Bating .orm ,core ,ummary a;Transfer raw scores from page + to page ! in the appropriate bo# for each subdomain. b;Getermine vC,cale ,cores for each raw score using Table =. in the 'anual 8page I:;. (rite this score in the appropriate bo# beside each Baw ,core for each subdomain. c;,um the vC,cale ,cores for each subdomain and write this in on the form.

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"

d; Getermine Gomain ,tandard ,cores for each sum by using Table =.A in the 'anual 8starting on page L";. (rite the standard score for each domain in the appropriate bo# on the form. e; Getermine the Adaptive 1evel for each subdomain by using Table 4.I in the 'anual 8page +!;. (rite this level in the appropriate space in the Adaptive 1evel column. I. Getermine the Adaptive =ehavior 4omposite by adding the domain standard scores. Befer back to Table =.A and determine the Adaptive =ehavior 4omposite ,tandard ,core using the sum of the domain standard scores. :. Getermine Adaptive =ehavior 1evel by using Table 4.I

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