To be quoted as:

Thapa, Shanker, 'The Conceptual Paradigm of Identity and Study of Religious

Minorities', Rolamba, Vol. 24, No. 1 & 2, January-June 2004.

The Conceptual Paradigm of Identity and Study of

Religious Minorities

Prof. Shanker Thapa

Theoretical Framework of Identity:
The term identification itself is an inherent and unconscious behavioural imperative in all
concerned individuals or the group members. The group or other community members tend to
identify themselves in the broader socio-religious and cultural perspective in order to protect
their own existence, stability and emotional well being. This imperative works not only in the
groups but also within individuals and religious and cultural minorities in all the societies and
intends to maintain or bolster the continuity of religious and cultural tenets to achieve a
dependable psychological security. It is vital in the stability of minority group personality. As a
general, rule all the group members within the boundary of the society as such equally share the
identity.
The theory of identity of individuals or groups in terms of sociological, anthropological,
psychological, and religious connotations discussed in this paper is borrowed from the exegesis
of the identification theories developed and analyzed by Sigmund Freud, George Herbert Mead,
Erik Erikson, Talcott Parson, Jurgen Habermas, Richard Richardson and, to some extent Martin
Heideger. They are the patrons of the theory of identity who made identity crisis as the key
issues of contemporary social theory. Thus, it is the concept, which is crucial for sociologists to
analyze minority group behaviour. The individual members irrespective of majority-minority
dichotomy internalize their social values, norms and behaviour. Regarding the religious
minorities with unique social, cultural and religious characteristics, the of thinking of entire
community remains vital in identity.
The imported culture of religious minority such as the Muslims in non-Muslim societies is
always seen as the outside element. Therefore, the minorities need to emphasize identity and
preserve indigenous cultural and religious elements for their own existence. In this case, the
members of a minor religious groups attempt to come nearer to individuals or members of other
societies having same faith with which they share common culture, ideas or religion. The religion
alone brings people of different region together. But such a relationship alone is not adequate to
maintain prolonged identity of a religious minority. The total dependence or the lack of efforts by
the members as a minority group obviously leads to crisis of identity. In fact, it is a dynamic
human imperative. The identity as such occupies a central place in the analysis of cultural
behaviour. It was Erik Erikson who brought the term into common usage particularly in
association with the phrase "identity crisis" (Bloom:1933:34-40). If identity crisis is taken into
consideration, it demonstrates identity formation of a cultural or religious minority as the on
going process. The individual identity is, of course, tied with the group identity. The human
needs for psychological identity are anchored in nothing less than his socio-genetic evolution. An
inability or failure to hold on integrated and continuing sense of identity obviously leads to
personality breakdown. The evolving configuration which integrates idiosyncratic libidinal needs,
favoured capacities, significant identification, effective defenses, successful sublimation,
consistent roles, responded to inner drives and social pressure normally changes at different
stages in the life cycle as well as inter group or inter-group relations.
In fact, Eric Erikson is the source of both of these notions being abstracted to apply to
social groups as a whole e.g. 'the identity crisis of modernization (Erikson:1993:36). In analyzing
configurations of identity formation through life cycle component, it is required to focus upon
activities of the group as a whole. Whenever the group acts as a cultural unit, it integrates their
own inner drives with the expectations of the society. They always require remaining in contact
with their counterparts beyond the political border. Even if the minor group does not act as a
single whole and fragmented into different units (or segments of religious activities or ideological
division) due to differences of opinion in existing cultural and religious phenomenon, the identity
of minorities as such remains and still works as the marker of collective existence.
In this case, the identity itself is a "negative identity". In all such stages of development,
the groups are expected to understand their own existence and a separate identity within the
society. The individual and community leaders make orientation to contribute towards identity.
Of course, the former are expected to hold leadership and contribute more in the identity
behaviour. But on certain point of the development process, the group is preoccupied by the
identity crisis. It is in fact a general syndrome of having acute problem to synthesize social
realities, needs and problems with other psycho-phenomenal realities. He further argues -
Thus, identity or ideology is two aspects of the same process.
Both provide the necessary condition for further individual
maturation and, with it, next higher form of identification, namely,
the solidarity linking common identities (Erikson:1968:157).
Thus, Erikson found a clear continuum between identity, ideology and culture. Therefore, a
threat to ideology and culture is obviously a threat to identity. Similarly, an enhancement of
ideology or culture enhances identity. The diffusion of identity or identity crisis will trigger
anxiety and the crisis will be countered by a dynamic adaptive reaction in which either- already
held identity is protected or a new synthesis of identification is made appropriate to the situation
and its constraints (Bloom:1993:39). Equally, the individuals seek to enhance their sense of
identity and the psychological sense of security and well being that comes with it. Erikson's
interpretation is therefore concluded accordingly -
 1. The individuals seek to protect and enhance the sense of identity.
2 The individual group member either reinforces already held identity or actively seek an
opportunity to make a new identification.
3 The lack of a secure personal identity is experienced as a threat to survival and is also
felt as anxiety.
4 Identification, being the initial mechanism for the creation of social identity and
assurance of social survival, is also an on going process and dynamic adoptive
mechanism. It responds to changes in the life situation that threatens identity.
Talcot Parsons also deals with identity and identification mechanism. He argues that
identification theory moves from mainly being concerned with the formation of individual
identity to its position as a fundamental base in any general theory of social action. He defines
identification in the socio-cultural context.
The social scientists like Jurgen Habermas deals identification as an essential prerequisite
for an cohesive social system. He used Berger's ideas to retest Erikson's hypothesis of 'identity
diffusion' which ultimately leads to personality breakdown. He used the term - Identity Securing
Interpretive System (ISIS) to denote Erikson's ideology. Habermas further concluded if there is
not an appropriate symbolic mediation between the individual or the group and social structure,
the anxious need for a secure and meaningful identification will manifest itself in either the
change of the interpretive system that is the ISIS or a demand for change in the social structure
(Bloom:1993:48). He further says if the interests inherent in identification are not met then the
social system is not legitimated (Bloom:1993:48).
He is explicit that legitimization cases are to be understood and analyzed within the
identification paradigm. Only when members of a society experience structural alterations as
critical for continued existence then they feel their social identity threatened. Habermas opines -
Disturbances of system integration endanger continued existence
only to the extent that social integration is at stake, that is when the
consensual foundation of normative structures are so much impaired that
the society becomes anomie the crisis assume the form of a disintegration
of social institutions. Social systems too have identities and can base
them, historians are cable of differ entailing between revolutionary
change of a state or the downfall of an empire, and mere structural
alterations. In doing so, they refer to the interpretations that members of
a system used in identifying one another as belonging to the same group,
and through this group identity assert their own self identity. In
historiography, a rupture in tradition, through which the interpretive
system that guarantee identity loose their social integrative power serves
as an indicator of the collapse of social systems. From this prospective, a
social system has lost its identity as soon as later generations no longer
 recognize themselves within the once constitutive tradition
(Habermas:1976:4).
Habermas says that there must be a great historical and social distance between primitive
and industrial societies. But human beings manifest the same psychological syndrome: social or
cosmic reality must be satisfactorily mediated to them through a myth or ideology or identity
securing interpretive system which meets the behaviour imperatives to identify.
A.. L. Strauss concretely deals with identity on the psychological paradigm (Strauss:
959:118-124). He does not ignore or rule out man as a carrier of inalienable identity in the whole
process because the underlying implication namely indeterminacy element in human life enhances
the value (Gopalan:1978:122). His work goes into the implications of the symbolic interaction
approach to the concept of identity and attempts also to explicate the role of language, the
indeterminacy of human behaviour and the self being no more immune to re-examination from
new perspectives.
This approach, suggests a possible way of making the concept of identity more concrete.
The assertion of the self by the individual in social action, which is apparent in the insistence of
indeterminacy characteristic of human action, would indicate that identity refers to the core
element in a man which makes for the freedom of his will. His stress on indeterminacy
(indeterminate element) in human action highlights an aspect of identity which helps to
appreciate the deeper implications of a sociology of religion with an emphasis on metaphysical
dimension of the human personality (Gopalan:1978:122). Regarding his explanation from new
perspectives, the experts of identity argued that the 'identity' concept as such need not be
considered a purely metaphysical one with accessibility to it denied from all quarters. In effect, it
provides the rationale for the philosophical approach which stress the basic element in human
action by reiterating the projection of the self (Gopalan:1978:122-123). The role of self has
widened the scope of identity as a conceptual basis. Thus, theoretical approach of Strauss has
something to do with the sociological theory of identity. A sociological theory of identity need
not necessarily dwell all the time on more tangible, observable, empirical and social aspects of
human action. Strauss has equally emphasized on 'social aspect of philosophy' and 'philosophical
aspect of sociology' or described it as personal (which does not exclude the metaphysical as
unimportant) as well as the social. The socio-philosophical approach takes due note of the wider
connotation of the terminology of self- and consequently also of identity (Gopalan:1978:123).
Thus, the social psychologists such as Sigmund Frued, Erik H. Erikson, Jurgen
Habermas, George Herbert Mead, Talcott Parson and Strauss deal with different versions of
identity. Those exegeses brought to the following propositions -
- Identification is a psycho-biological imperative based on the earliest infantile need to
survive.
- It is a dynamic adaptive mechanism as much at work in adults as in infants.
- The synthesis of identifications or identity stability is crucial for a sense of
psychological security and well being.
 - Identity enhancement leads to a greater sense of well being and on contrary, identity
diffusion leads to anxiety and breakdown.
- Changes in circumstance leads to make new and appropriate identifications and the
individual society members seek to protect and enhance the identification already
established.
- Whenever the group shares a common identity, there are chances to act together to
strengthen and protect shared common identity, and
- Man is the carrier of inalienable identity (Gopalan:1978:120).
These propositions of identity behaviour in the cultural activities of the human society
lead to the clear corollary while taken into consideration of the religio-cultural analysis.
Any identification, which is made in the first instance, is psychologically beneficial for the
individual or the group to do so. From sociological viewpoint, the terminology does not
preclude the inner dimension of human behaviour or action. Thus, it remains significant in the
study of identity. The identity of human behaviour is studied in terms of present context social
actions of religion in the human society.
The concept of identity is crucial for sociologists, social theorists as well as the
psychologists. The nature of identification of an individual or a particular religio-cultural group is
similar with no basic differences. The identity of minorities as such is always over shadowed by
the activities of majority in the society by permitting the penetration of religio-cultural elements
within the main flow of minority culture thereby accelerating the process of cultural assimilation.
From the perspective of interactionists, identity is a meaning attributed to self as an
object (Burke and Tully:1977:880-97). Among varieties of identities, identity of minorities in
terms of religious behaviour and the belief system is just one among a host of identities in
salience hierarchy. While not denying the belief on the possibility of the God's existence, the
identity theory attempts to explain religious behaviour or the belief system without assuming the
truth of religion.
The analysis of different core of minority religion and culture concludes that
identification is a dynamic human imperative. The identity of individual members of a minor
religious group is largely determined by entire faith and belief reposed by the community.
Therefore, boundary of the religious belief and confinement of adherents in it is core to
individual identity.
The individual members of a group are linked within the same psychological syndrome
and will act together to preserve, depend and enhance their common identity through a shared
identification. The group of people no matter minority or the majority, who share common
identity will, within a certain configuration of circumstances, tend to act as one unit and mobilize
as a coherent mass movement. Therefore, cultural mobilization of a mass is possible only when
the individuals share common identification. Within majority or the minority groups,
identification can be shared even within the periphery of groups. People sharing same
identification will tend to act collectively to protect, foster or enhance the common identity.
In fact, sociology in general did not show much concern with the conceptual
phenomenon of identity as an independent area to study human behaviour until 1980s. However,
specially the symbolic interactionism has been maintained in identity construction (Robertson and
Holzner:1980:2). So, it does not exist as a core sociological concept in spire of its frequent
occurrence in different sociological writings. Therefore, it has not received adequate and
sustained attention. Thus, it has been centered only in the ego psychology. The continuous
concern of philosophers with identity has taken two major forms; firstly, the question of
identifying persons or individuals thus attributing to humans as subject or object; and secondly,
the relationship between reason and reality in terms of their being identical. This philosophical
interest on identity has permeated sociology. But the mainstream of sociological concern to
identity has been intermittent, tentative and discontinuous. So, sociologists, who deal with
identity, are social-psychologically inclined (symbolic interactionists). They emphasized that it
has been regarded by most of the sociologists as an extra-sociological issue. Identity differs to
personality attributing to the image of social objects, knowledge, positions and performances.
The 'personal identity' as such often placed between construction of personality and social
structure which is the subjected to evolutionary change. A conceptual framework of universal
applicability is required to speak intelligibly about it. The analysis of the term identity by Martin
Heidegger is relevant to quote there. He argues -
The usual formation of the principle of identity reads A=A. The
principle of identity is considered the highest principle of thought (but)
what does the formula A=A state which is customarily used to represent
the principle of 'identity'? The formula expresses the quality of A and
A. An equation requires at least two elements. One A is equal to
another. Is this what the principle of identity is supposed to mean?
Obviously not . . . for something to be the same one is always enough.
Two are not needed as they are in the case of equality.
(Heidegger:1969:23).
The formula A=A speaks of equality. It does not define A as the same. The common
formulation of the principle of identity thus conceals precisely what the principle is trying to say.
A is A, that every A is itself the same. The more fitting formulation of the principle of identity
A=A would accordingly mean not only every A is itself the same; but rather every A is itself the
same with itself. Sameness implies the relation of 'with', in this connection that is mediation,
connection, and synthesis: the unification into a unity. This is why throughout the history of
western thought identity appears as unity. The principle of identity, that is the sameness of every
A with itself requires through assessment.
Heidegger's explanation may provide certain suggestions for sociologists to interpret
identity. He suggests the concept to be something deeper than the unmistakable location of an
object in an analytical space so that it can be identified in the sense of located in a unique
manner. Without such locating assessment, there could be no conceptions of identity. Generally,
in the sociological interpretation of the concept of identity, two factors must inevitably be
considered, firstly, the object assessment in the field of social measurement and secondly, the
aspects of authenticity (Robertson et.al:1980:9). The identity of a particular person or a group
has always two aspects- i.e. determinations of persons' objective nature and their subjective
experience. The latter is sharpened in the notion of authenticity, by which it means a wholeness
or integration of identity experience. In every society, the collective identity is assessed in terms
of performances and attributes, and identified in the sense of "located" in this respect. Identity as
such is an entirely a private phenomenon. However, the degree to which there is a separation of
private domains from public ones, and hence a differentiation between public authenticity
performance and private authenticity experiences, is itself variable (Ibid: 9).
The assessment of personal or group behaviour or nature and the requirement for
authenticity come together in the conception of trust in identities. In every society, there is also
requirement for the assessment of authenticity, which in its form may vary. The individuals or
members of a group take the situation and objects as reliable and present themselves
authentically. Trust is an essential quality of social bonds and a constitutive element of the
society. Where condition of trust is established explicitly, as through measurements, the pressure
towards explicit and reflective construction of an individual (or group identity) becomes great.
The basis of trust will thus, be related to the modes of identity assessment through social
measurements and the (social) requirements for authenticity (Robertson:1980:6). In religious
behaviour of particular group members, the tenets as well as 'folk believes' have played
significant role in transformation of the society as a whole into a particular identity paradigm.
Thus, the nature of the belief system directly relates to emerging models of identity. Such
identities determined in relation to social measurement may be viewed as a consequence of
integrated belief system and the way of thinking or outlook occurring in the broader society. The
assessment of differences at the point of constraining boundaries leads to requirement to
determine the sameness of an individual over a period of time and also in regard to different
relations. The test of social boundaries and test of loyalty within the boundary are in the sense,
collective parallels to the developmental schemata of self and personhood in the individual.
Reflexivity in the establishment of social identities, therefore, will be a variable depending on the
nature of symbolism available for the establishment of social measurement and differences; the
perception of boundaries; and the multiplicity of boundaries to be considered. The entire analysis
has asserted that identity assessment occurs in terms of symbolism available for social
measurement.
Identification is a necessary and contingent feature of all forms of social life. The
boundary is a circumstance which denies the identity of all cultural principle and social practice.
Thus, it resides at the quasi-group membership. Identity as such is a relational construction and
relative to situations and contexts which have both temporal and spatial dimensions.
 The symbolic articulation of collective identity is most significant. The symbolic
articulation of past, present and future, their relations with models of decision making, or their
relation to patterns of mobilization can be seen as the central structure yielding interpretation of
a collective fate and of desirable actions. In this connection, the symbolization of collective
identity becomes an orientation pattern for the collective feeling and its response to new
situation.
Both Max Weber (1968) and Karl Marx dealt with individual and collective identity
construction. It is more abstractly prescribed in Marx's theory of class-consciousness. A class is
transformed from a category of persons sharing similar positions through the recognition of
grievances and interests, and the establishment of communication and organization pattern that
sustain capacity to make decision, and to engage in a collective struggle as a politico-economic
force. The transformation from a class in itself to a class for itself is the construction of a
collective actor. Marx and Weber have many differences in their analyses. But there are common
emphases on the establishment of common boundaries, organization capacity and emergence of a
collective identity in agreement (concert) with the collection of models for individual identity.
The models of identity can be viewed as cultural objects, which have certain probable
relations with the range of likely modes of experiencing on parts of individuals. An important
attribute of the personal identity model concerns the manner in which an individual may grow
into it or a conception of the process by which such an identity is acquired and fulfilled. This
links the models of identity to the domain of personal experience. It has implications both for the
modes of becoming socialized to the point of being able to enact the identity model and for the
manner in which authenticity demands are both subjectively experienced and socially assessed
(Robertson et.al:1980:29). The models of identity can also be seen as comprehensive
prescriptions for conduct. It works as code of conduct in managing socialization, social control
and authenticity. However, the enactment of an identity model in the alienated mode, creating
multiple, non-synchronized identities in coexistence with each other is a possibility as well. The
strategy for authenticity here rests in the withdrawal from the identity model without leading to
the innovation of a new identity. Acceptance of and alienation from identity models are, of
course processes that differ from the establishment of social identities through external
constraints.
Identity is interrelated with the existence not only of individuals but also of the entire
society. Therefore, the modern social scientists laid higher emphasis on the theory of identity to
understand behaviour of a particular religious community, cultural or other groups in general. It
has been a device that provides appropriate tools to penetrate inner side of a group either
majority or minority. If religion and religious behaviour is studied on the conceptual paradigm of
identity tested by the mechanism of sacralization, it can be better understood than looking
through any other paradigms existed so far. Obviously, it can be said that identity is the answer
to everything. There is nothing that can not be seen through the mirror of identity. We are not
going to pretend that there is the slightest argument about that.
 It makes clear the horizon and strength of the term "identity" as a mirror. Everything can
be seen through it. Thus, the theory itself is potential even to study religious minorities, examine
their holistic identity, identity crisis or identity management. The identity model of sociology of
religion became very effective. The sociologists use the model in the sense of stable niche
whereas the social psychologists tend to use it in the sense of something to be negotiated or
performed according to the circumstances. Allen Wheelis wrote -
Identity is founded on those values which are at the top of the
hierarchy. The beliefs and ideals integrate and determine other
subordinate values (Wheelis:1958:200).
The Identity Theory of Religions
People follow religion who are abide by various psycho-social phenomenon to do so.
They are at the same time found to be conscious and committed in their own way of belief. This
context of religious practice finds them juggled with their own belief system or other unique
characteristics. This uniqueness makes them alert in their own identity as a religious unit in the
broader social perspective. Each and every group always remains very conscious towards their
own identity. Even all the segments of the society are tied by identity consciousness in one way
or another. The components such as shrines, temples or places to offer prayer and perform
sacred performances, and sacred objects such as texts of pray or images of Gods etc. deserve
higher place with in the phenomenon of faith. A remarkable correspondence between those units
and the level on which people form a particular community are detected in several studies.
William A. Christian also found unique similarities between such things
(Christian:1992:XI-XII). This type of traditional relations or structures of the belief pattern
pushed forward the society to be more and more cautious to the sense of identity and
independent existence within the frame of indigenous culture. Buddhism, as such as a way of life
has similar correspondence with family identity (Morioka et.al:1971:185-200). In the same way,
a study on Muslim minority persuaded in different Muslim settlements in Nepal also pointed out
a very similar correspondence between Islam and collective identity (Thapa:1997:36-54).
However Muslim identity has to suffer from various problems in places where its status is that of
a minor religion. The religion considers the entire Muslims as a single brotherhood - thereby
emphasizing collective identity within the boundary. But the sectarian division such as the Shia
and Sunni remained very powerful. But the holy Quran, Allah, Prophet Muhammad, the Hadith,
the practices such as- the Prayer (Namaz), charity (Zakat), fasting (Roza), pilgrimawge (Hajj),
the creed of Islam (Kalimah), mosque (Masjid), the law (Sharia) and soon are sacred objects
which govern Muslim spirituality and their collective identity. All the Muslims as community
members proudly emphasize collective identity on this paradigm.
At present, the identity theory to study religio-cultural or other social behaviour is
regarded as one of the important devices to analyze human behaviour. Thus, identity itself has
become one of the important models in sociological study of religion although sociologists pay
low attention to this conceptual paradigm. So, the identity model can be used to understand
religious phenomenon using identity as a basic variable. At the moment, this concept has gained
popularity in similar kinds of studies to analyze human religious behaviour. A professor in
Canada named Joannan J. (Hans) Mol first developed this idea. He synthesized, testified and
perfected the model to analyze identity. Since then, many researchers have studied different
religions on the basis of the identity paradigm. In this book, the validity of the theory is tested
through the study of Muslims as a religious minority living in non-Muslim societies. Even before
Hans Mol has refined this theory, a large number of sociologists studied identity of religious,
cultural or other psychological groups, which after all, rendered valuable contribution to Hans
Mol to perfect the theory to study a particular religious group. Thus, this theory was introduced
as a model of religious behaviour of individual members in a group. This model is an effective
tool to understand individual, society and their behaviour. In fact, religion (Dharma) represents
interaction between personal, group and social identity and also maintains the social order
(Gopalan:1978:119).
This is to say that religious behaviour itself is deeply imbedded in the social behaviour of
people. This is a variable that has built human society in a frame ultimately leading to spirituality.
Therefore, spirituality as such can also lead to identity of a person, group, society or community
as a single whole. But it is, of course, not worthy that the degree of faith and spirituality varies
from one group to another. It effects the identity of those people as well. The belief system
among the Hindus, Buddhists, Muslims, Christians (different sects), smaller nationalist religions
and totems varies to each other. It later introduces particular identity of its people through
sociological and psychological perspective. Hans Mol looked the concept of identity through the
perspective of sociology of religion. He analyzed identity of groups by defining religion as
sacralization of identity. His main thesis is that man's attempt to sacralization self-identity, group
identity and social identity result in transformation of personality. Thus, the relevance of religion
is perennial and categories implied by various religions need not be understood as abstract taking
man's thoughts and aspiration away from the society. Mol laid emphasis on sacralization process
but he did not disregard the sacred. Thus, both of the variables keep equal importance in the
everyday form of human living. Mol's theory primarily emphasizes on description of four basic
conceptual bases (Mol:1976:120 / Mol:1978:11-14, 119-150 and 179-202).
While studying Yoga on the basis of mechanism of sacralization, Manju and Braj Sinha
have added one more component to Mol's interpretation of the theory that is - 'Dialectic of
Appropriation'. The identity theory as such has in fact religious behaviour and individual identity
and at the same time provided frame of reference to analyze identity of a particular religious
group. This concept displays the meaning of sameness, boundary, wholeness and finally the
structure. These four basic conceptual parameters help to analyze and further understand
functions of religion (Mol:1979:12).
It refers to individuals, groups or social identity. The personal identity is wholeness of an
individual in so far as the person attempts to remain as a well functioning unit in his environment.
If a group doesn't maintain itself as available system in its surrounding the identity forces to
originate certain crisis. Various elements in individuals or group behaviour make the wholeness,
continuity and identity stronger. The human society has constantly been learning how to react to
the sources of change and situation proved to be a danger to the identity and existence.
The sociology of human behaviour can be understood applying various conceptual
frames. The identity under consideration is concerned with what it does rather than what it is
(Mol:1978:3). Therefore, it lays higher emphasis on the mechanism of sacralization. It gives a
more solid base to understand identity in terms of religious behaviour. This theory further
considered religion not as a product of human thinking but as a complete process. It defines the
religion as whatever sacralization. The context of sacralization as a system of meaning is defined
as a process, by which on the level of symbol systems, certain patterns acquire the same, taken
for granted, stable, eternal quality which, on the level of instinctive behaviour, was acquired by
the consolidation and stabilization of new genetic materials. Thus, it is a sort of brake applied to
unchecked infinite adaptations in symbol systems for which there is increasingly less evolutionary
necessity and which become more dysfunctional for the emotional security of personality and for
the integration of tribe or community (Mol:1978:13). Sacralization then is to the dysfunctional
potential of symbol systems. It produces immunity against persuasion, which is similar to the
biological immunization process. It has been an inevitable process that safeguards identity when
it is endangered by disadvantages of the infinite adaptability of symbol systems (Mol:1978 :13-
14). It prefects identity a system of meaning, or a definition of reality, and also modifies,
obstructs or legitimates changes. The sacralization process as such is comprised of certain
mechanisms which are -
- Objectification : It is the projection of order into a beyond where it is less vulnerable to
contradictions exceptions and contingencies, in other words- a refereed realm
where major outlines of order can be maintained in the facet of temporal, but all
absorbing dislocations of that order.

- Commitment: The commitment is emotional anchorage in various proliferating foci of

identity.
- Ritual: The ritual is the action, articulation and movements that keeps sacralization
objects from being lost and contributes to maintain 'sameness' and continuity of
religious tenets that helps to maintain identity.
- Myth : It is an integration of the various strains in a coherent and short hand symbolic
account.
Besides these four important conceptual mechanisms, another mechanism known as the
dialectic of appropriation is later added for its clearer understanding.
- Dialectic of Appropriation: A second moment in the dialectical growth of sacralization
process more explicit (Manju and Braj:1978:146).
 The identity of a particular group can be analyzed through the application of the
mechanism of sacralization. Regarding the Muslim identity, the activities inside Masjids and
other religious perceptions can be studied in this paradigm. The situation in Islamic and non-
Islamic societies is somewhat different in nature. Therefore, it should be taken into account while
analyzing its behavioral aspect. Of course, the faith is reposed so far but the consistency of faith
and belief influence identity of the group as a whole. Similarly, the commitment of group
members towards their own belief system also makes difference to great extent.
Taking into account, the importance and relevance of the theory of identity to analyze the
identity as such of a religious minority, all of the five mechanisms of the said theory are described
for easy understanding. Later, all the five conceptual bases are used to analyze different aspects
of minority religious behaviour, religiosity, belief pattern and secularization process within the
belief system. This explanation is the key to analyze identity of the particular religious group. In
the case of religious minorities such as the Muslims or even the followers of other religions, this
theory is applicable to the extent that it is sufficient to analyze the group identity as a particular
religious group.
For wider implications of the identity theory, these five mechanisms are frequently used
in studying the religious culture. The religious identity could well be judged from this 'Mollian
Concept'. Thus, all the mechanisms are equally important to study human behaviour of all
religions. Later, this chapter intends to evaluate Islamic theology as well as the religious
behaviour of Muslims as a minor religious group living in non-Muslim societies. For our concern
to review Muslim minorities, all the concepts are equally important and applied in different
contexts, so the identity theory as such can be interpreted from the point of view of Islam and
identity can be understood both in terms of individuality and collective feeling. The conceptual
basis of identity is effective if we take it with what it does rather than what it is.
The human social behaviour can be analyzed from different angles applying different
conceptual references. Thus, the belief system of any society is of no exception. The study of a
group within this theoretical paradigm of identity is concerned with evaluating and analyzing
identity phenomenon. At the same time, it is necessary to pay attention to individuals personal
development and personality integration.
The mechanism of sacralization, which perfectly examines the identity of individuals or
groups in a society is, discussed here.
1. Objectification :
The objectification is the projection of order in a beyond where it is less vulnerable to
contradictions, exceptions and contingencies. In other word, objectification is a rarefied realm
where major outlines of order can be maintained in the face of temporal.
The sociological significance of religion can be appreciated only when religion is not
considered merely as a product but looked at also as a complete process. Every day behaviour
and activities in the society in which they live construct the nature of identity of an individual. An
individual has dynamic nature reiterating to understand religion. This dynamism can be an
advantage as well as disadvantage with regard to the effectiveness of religion. In this context, it
seems to be an unrealistic to hold that religion has always helped mankind in achieving
personality integration, group cohesion and social unity as it is to point out an accusing finger at
religion and condemn it as having thwarted individuals' growth, marred group consolidation,
destroyed human unity and effectuated alienation and anomie in the individual
(Gopalan:1978:124-125).
In and through the conceptual tool of objectification, Hans Mol takes note of the
transcendental implications of morality and also indicates metaphysical roots of social life.
Although he took the concept in the context of explaining various mechanisms of sacralization, it
can also be applied to visualize the ways concerning ideas and idealization of inter-personal
relationship. Mol himself defined the objectification as - the tendency to sum up the variegated
elements of mundane existence in a transcendental frame of reference whereby they can appear
more orderly, consistent and more timeless (Mol:1976:264-66). He further says that the process
of objectification is symptomatic of man's progressive capacity for abstract thinking and ability to
use symbols.
Here it can be said that it necessarily functions to stick out or project a conception of
reality, a system of values or a meaning structure in a transcendental order as well as providing a
point of reference in terms of which the corruption, contingencies, chaos, and inconsistency of
the mundane realm come to be interpreted and appropriated (Manju and Braj:1978:136). Any
conceptual interpretation which lays emphasis to knowledge as an ultimate union with the
supreme is comparable to the process of objectification.
In popular religions, there are both transcendental and mundane things which are
objectified. Later those mundane objects retain sacralization and remain vital in identity. Thus,
symbols are used in religion which remains part of mundane experience and some how transcend
those experiences (Mol:1978: 180). Various mundane objects are objectified and remain as the
sacralization symbols of religious behaviour. In this case, the objectified components remain an
integral part of identity within the religious boundary. For Mol, objectification serves the purpose
of minimizing disruptive influence of meaninglessness of existence on the self. The function of
objectification, as Mol suggests, is to guarantee the incorruptibility of the transcendental order as
well as to provide a point of reference in terms of which corruption, contingencies, Chaos, and
inconsistencies of the mundane realm can be interpreted and appropriated (Mol:1976:265).
Different religions use symbols which are part and parcel of mundane experiences. They use
materials at hand and weave them into a coherent pattern (Mol:1978:180).
2. Commitment:
It is an emotional component of identity theory or the mechanism of sacralization.
Commitment as such is defined as the focused emotion or emotional attachment which is specific
to identity (Mol:1976:216). It reinforces identities, system of meaning and definition of reality.
The reinforcing process is seen as guaranteeing consistency and predictability of motivation and
behaviour. Thus, it has a stabilizing effect on system of meaning and actions and thereby ensures
personality integration and social cohesion. Commitment is primarily affirmative and identity
consolidating (Manju and Braj:1978:138-139). The practice of asceticism in itself is a
commitment. The ascetic practices either of Hindu ascetics or the Buddhist monks or the
renouncing worldly desires is self-surrender or sacrifice. The individual ascetics prompts to
renounce the worldly society and solely devote to the culmination of the ultimate truth
(Thapa:1995:11-33 and 52-71). Mol further observes asceticism as a way of clarifying personal
priorities and purifying one's loyalties (Mol:1976:229). The most important factor in the
formulation of commitment relates to the priority setting function and its relevance to the
sacralization of a system of meaning or value structure. Hinduism insists on the contribution of
Sradha (ritual anniversary for deceased one) in setting such priorities for spiritual realization
(Manju and Braj:1978:140). In priority setting function of the commitment links that on a
different plane, which enables aspirants to perceive immense possibilities for union with the
supreme in self-sacrifice. The later is guided by need to find oneself in the company of the divine
whose constant companionship is always desired by devotees. The death, instead of being an end
of life, is the beginning of a more meaningful life in the fellowship of the divine. Thus, sacrifice is
a form of commitment which reinforces a system of meaning or identity by clarifying priorities
(Manju and Braj:1978:14).
The commitment itself is crucial in identity. It is a prerequisite to have a commitment in
individual group members for social identity or to a system of meaning. In the lack of feeling of
loyalty, the belief, values, and norms of tribe, family and community are likely to crumble.
This has been the emotional part of the identity process. It is an emotional attachment to
the focus of identity. Then it reinforces identities, system of meaning and definitions of reality.
The reinforcing process is seen as guaranteeing consistency and predictability of motivation and
behaviour. Thus, it has a stabilizing effect on systems of meaning and actions, thereby ensures
personality integration and social cohesion. The commitment is primarily affirmative and identity
consolidating (Maju and Braj:1978:139).
3. Rituals:
The Human society performs different ritual practices based on prevalent belief system,
which further elaborates, and legitimizes it. The observance of religious and cultural rites
restores sameness through repetition of ritual action and provides a system of meaning to
memory. It also preserves identity by harnessing and guiding necessary changes from one pattern
to another (Mol:1978:191).
There are rites in different sects to reinforce sameness through repeated
observances. For an instance, such an identity is reinforced among the Muslims by collective
gatherings in prayers and festivals, offering prayers in congregation and so on. It reinforces
identity and distinguishes insiders and the outsiders. Emile Durkhim discussed power and
influence of rites in the following words -
A rite can have this character, in fact, the rite does not exist
which does not have it to a certain degree. If the Vedic sacrifices
 has had such an efficacy that it was the creator of the Gods, and
not merely a means of winning their favour, it is because it
possessed a virtue comparable to that of the most sacred beings
(Durkheim:1976:37).
The ritual practice has played eminently important contributory role in the
identity consolidation. Rites maximize order, reinforce the place of the individual in his
society and strengthen the bonds of a society vis-…-vis the individual. Through
repetitive emotion evoking action, social cohesion and personality integration are
reinforced. At the same time that aggressive or socially destructive actions are
articulated, dramatized and curbed (Mol:1976:13). Each ritual activities involves a
recommitment to memory of a system of meaning. So, a group periodically reviews
the sentiment which it has of itself and of its unity, at the same time, individuals are
strengthened in their social nature (Durkhem:1976:360-67).
4. Myth:
Myths express reality which provides basic personal and social experiences. It reinforces
men's place of making implicit or even explicit, statement about it. The mythic symbolism also
denotes a system of meaning in the identity. In some cultural or religious groups, it acts as a
separate mechanism. The basic function of emotional sublimation of the critical conflict situation
of human existence is accomplished through mythic symbolism over and against adaptation
through the instrumental symbol system (Manju and Braj:1978:144). The basic binary opposition
or conflict which is emotionally sublimated on a symbolic level constitutes the core of mythic
narration (Mol:1976:252-53).
5. Dialectic of Appropriation:
In the study of sacralization process, the aspect of the sacred which leads further
sacralization has received little attention. This dialectic, further emphasized by Manju and Braj
Sinha in their study of Hindu Yoga in the identity paradigm, drew more attention from scholars.
So, they proposed the fifth component of identity i.e. the dialectic of appropriation in order to
analyze the second stage of dialectical growth of the process in which sacred extends its reign
over profane and hereafter transforms profane into the sacred (Manju and Braj:1978:146-149).
In fact, sacralization process itself is so powerful and intrinsic which extends its reign to
the extent that it appropriates and assimilates all that comes into contact with it
(Durkheim:1965:358). Therefore, there is a process of appropriation in which profane becomes
sacred. Once they acquired sacredness in and through these mechanisms, they do not remain
totally confined to the transcendental locus. If those mechanism have relevance in the human
existence, it must participate in mundane life. It is done through the mechanism of the dialectic
of appropriation (Manju and Braj:1978:146). It can take place on different levels of economic,
political, cultural and artistic subsystems. The result of the dialectic of appropriation is always
integrative for understanding of group identity.
Muslim Minorities and Theory of Identity and:
The analysis of relationship between theology, brotherhood and cultural practices in
Islam denotes to communal identity of Muslims brethren. Islam as a cultural system prefers
fostering integrated communality unlike other religions such as Buddhism, Christianity and
Hinduism, which denotes to the personal and group identity. In fact, Islam prefers collective
identity. It is an identity with the foundation in a limited boundary of communality.
The aspects of Islam such as the interpretation of dogma, conservative attitude,
integration of politics and religion and religiously determined intolerant nature play important
role in the identity of Muslims. These variables are often persistent among the Muslims in the
places of its origin as well as in those places where they command majority. The concept of
identity can well be applied in a comprehensive way to study Muslims as a religious minority,
and maintain its significance. The importance and relevance of identity paradigm can be
explicated, thus by studying it as an integral part of sociology of religion that insists on necessity
of taking into account the various dimensions of human personality (Gopalan:1978:120-121).
The application of the theory of identity in the context of Islam with concern of what this
theory particularly explains, provides an appropriate base for more concrete interpretation.
Although various other religious communities were studied under the paradigm, the Korea
Muslim minority were studied for the first time using this theoretical model in 1999 in which a
comparison was also made with the Muslim minority of Nepal (Thapa:1999:1-166). In this
connection, Islam is not considered as a product of human thinking but a process. The
personality development in Islam does not merely relates to individual psychology but it
connotes the meaning to a stage which transcends the stage of obtaining the state of restfulness.
This is the stage in which perfect identity is realized. Hence, the practicality of Islam is
understood. The human attribute to Allah for His being everywhere and looking everything or
absoluteness, the one and only, has deep significance. It further leads to devotion, commitment
and transcendence of human mind. So, identity of an individual in Islam is associated with his
trust in God. Therefore, his true identity is possible only through devotion to the God-religion
dichotomy. The deeper significance of the religious philosophy is that it originates from Him and
revolves around Him. It provides proper base to find potential in an individual or group and find
true identity. It is an ideal for a devoted Muslim. It is not only an ethical category but also a
complete civilization in which lives of people are set. The holy Quran mentions that Allah is not
only the God of Muslims but of the entire humanity. However, his diversified role does not
influence non-followers beyond the boundary of Pan-Islamism. A true Muslim is fully devoted to
the will of God.
In general, an individual is concerned with the Almighty in such a way that identity of a
Muslim individual, thus is the reflection of devotion to Him and His extended sovereignty. He
commanded people to believe Him and obey his just orders. A true Muslim is supposed to repose
his ultimate faith in Allah. The faith derives from religion itself in His inmate nature i.e. his
existence and development. Since, individuals differ to each other in temperament, inclination,
ideals and aspirations, it can not be same for all and same for the person all the time. Religion as
such is dynamic. Consequently, the religious faith of individuals differ during different stages of
life (Gopalan:1978:129). The faith reposed in the five pillars of Islam largely determines the basis
in the interpretation of identity of Muslims. But regarding the Hindus, it is Svadharma (owns
own duty) that plays decisive role in the interpretation of individual identity. The five pillars,
which are the basis of Islam, are based on the unity of God and his extraordinary powers. In the
same way, it provided the basis for broader Islamic civilization where an individual maintains his
identity only through belief and dedication to those principles. But devotion of a Muslim religion
and commitment towards the words of the God and the sayings of the holy Quran, often results
in communality, militancy and fundamentalism because their identity can perfect itself only in the
political system set up by Islam. Therefore, identity of Muslims is visualized in the commitment
to faith without question in hand. There are practices in which collective unity in the society is
often attained or emphasized. The Hajj, Zakat and the concept of Islamic brotherhood, of
course, within the same sects, are practices that strengthen social unity and provide an
opportunity to make contribution or strengthen group identity. The practice of Namaz prayer
and observing Roza fasting always sacralizes the behaviour enlarging the area of concern in
which an individual is truly identified. Everything in Islam either sacred or profane is attributed
to the Allah and further integrated in a single whole. Since, Allah claims that He has created men
and women in the universe, entire humanity is believed to be his offspring. It has greater
connotation in different aspects of identity, which is associated with the ultimate being, and
strengthening of sacralization. This obviously means that the, true identity is realized only in this
way. The Islamic identity rests upon collective feeling making the world onto humanity and with
concern for entire Muslim brotherhood. So, it has intensive concern for society and humanity.
The theory thus can be applied in the study of various segments within the Muslim society in
varied geographical regions.
Islam as a full-fledged religion has developed socio-cultural traits, which abide all the
Muslims in a linear form of cultural unity. It contributed to strengthen identity. The entire
Muslim society is motivated to follow sacred rules and Quranic injunctions because Allah desired
so. The echo of identity components at the level of popular belief and practices consolidated
them under an umbrella of entirely unique and separate identity. Consequently, it separates a
particular society from rest of other worldly societies. This kind of consolidation is also prone to
identity alienation, which leads to bitter outside relations. The result of this kind of identity
phenomenon always leads to religious fundamentalism no matter the type of religion. As the
matter of fact, there are extremists or fundamentalists who manipulate social forces and confront
with outsiders in the name of protecting religion. It also plays certain kind of role in the identity.
The Ulemas (council of learned persons), Hindu sect leaders or ascetics as well as the
Protestants are representative examples of religious extremism. Islam as a religion reinforces
collective identity. It has developed or enforced powerful identity elements within the framework
of religion. The Muslims maintain both existence and collective identity through faith on the
tenets of religion.
 It is believed that the conceptual frames of modernization and post-modernism are not
helpful for humanity to resolve spiritual and emotional problems. Now, there has been a growing
realization that religion has to be taken out of its historical and material contexts. The
sociological aspect of religion has immense impact on the belief system as well as its structural
changes. Therefore, changes occurred due to historical and sociological contexts need to be
taken into consideration. The true essence lies in its sociology but not in its conservative factors
created at the time of its origin. Thus, the changing forces always remain powerful in the study
of religion and identity. So, the study of Islam in the form contained only in the compendium of
primary sources could be bias since it has been changed to greater extent from its originality at
the foot of practice. So, a comparison of Quranic citations and contemporary contexts is
preferable to analyze identification of groups on the basis of the theory of identity under
consideration. The fact to be taken into account is that religious as well as other concepts have
lost much of their purity in the process of materialization in time-space categories
(Moazzam:1995:113-114) while considering Islam in the identity perspective it is more
important to note that most of the basic concepts and beliefs are understood or even followed in
their original form. Muslims are widely divided on the matter of applied versions of Quranic
teachings. It has immense significance in the study of Islam on the identity theory paradigm.
Some conservative Islamic scholars are of opinion to avoid all such contemporary
considerations. They rather emphasized to maintain theocratic originality and study only that
Islamic material which is not hostile to Quranic teachings. But it is a prejudice to avoid these
factors occurred within the social sphere during its application. Islam, as a religion, is a complete
way of life, and a system of universals, recognizing religious pluralism. Religions may differ in
fundamental belief, objectives and ways to achieve those objectives. No religion can provide
conceptual room for enmity with those who differ to its world view. If a religion does so, it
would cease to be religion and degenerate into a short sighted anti-human ideology
(Moazzam:1995:114).
There is nothing more sacred Islam than the holy Quran itself. Thus, the higher emphasis
is laid upon the sacred objects on which the faith of the entire Islamic world rests. It represents a
basic uniformity in religious behaviour. There are persons (Maulvi, Imam, and Qadi) and sacred
alters (Shrines or the Majars, Masjids etc.) which constantly guide people on religious matter.
Those institutions further contribute to maintain existence and identity. But in both the Islamic
and non-Islamic societies where Muslims maintain a considerable numerical strength, they have
established various socio-religious and charitable institutions intended to foster religious
advancement. But, sometimes, those institutions have differences of opinion on working policies.
Such differences with each other act as instrumental factor in performing sacred jobs. But it is
less important than similarity in sacralization mechanisms, ordering objectification, loyal
sentiments, national rituals and myths (Mol:1979:32-33). The practical nature and basic content
of sacralization may differ from one religion to another. But its implication as a theoretical frame
of reference has similarities. The religious components such as Quranic ordinances, importance
of prayer, role of congregation, sacred personalities (Imams) rituals, religious ceremonies etc.
are components to reinforce significant effects in the life of Muslim individuals. These are the
bases that support and perfect Muslim identity. The trend of modernization brought about
significant changes in the perception of religion and belief. This situation remains vital in the
overall development of religion.
The weakening traits of devotion and commitment and 'the Muslims without prayer' play
the role of immense significance in the changing perception of religion. It further affected
identity of Muslims as a religious minority. The communal or denominational identity might get
benefit from the weaknesses of each other. So, the group identity could use social identity to its
own advantage leading to stronger workable and advanced identity. The religion of Muslims and
their way of thinking on communal basis are integrated in identity as an object.
In the Muslim societies, group identity is essentially reflected in the individual's identity.
However, the social identity as a whole is not focused in the identity of an individual. The
mission of Islam including all of its secondary efforts, by and large, provides spiritual strength to
its alienated followers. The leadership of Muslim World League (Rabita-al-alam-al-Islami) and
politico-religious leadership combined with economic strength in one side and appealing
opportunities on the other is proved to be an effective support to the 'Muslim Youth
Movements', in contemporary times. At the same time, this part of material culture welded them
in a rather modified, if not new, group identity. The opportunity and support extended by Arab
economies to the Muslims in other Asian countries including those in Nepal, Korea, Japan,
Taiwan and so on where Muslims constitute a religious minority, played significant role in
maintenance of existence, communal identity and the sacralization of religious behaviour. But
such types of material support do not always create positive results. Sometimes, it tend to create
negative impacts as well in the identity behaviour thereby creating negative nature of identity
necessarily a reversal trend of the sacralization process. In fact, this is opposed to the
components of conceptual frame of identity which help understand religious behaviour of
Muslims as a religious minority. The negative way of thinking is not friendly to the traditional
values and norms of religious culture. It may be termed as a kind of cocktail in the culture,
religion and identity.
The identity model in the sociology of religion is a process in which, on the level of
consciousness, reference to the supernatural, the holy and sacred and the other reality are being
lost. In fact, it is related to the growing independence of institutional spheres. Each of these
variables has developed its own rationale which implies rejection of over arching claims of
religion. Usually, it is accompanied by reduced involvement in community religious activities,
lesser community participation and a growing unbelief. This happens because of the dialectical
relationship between consciousness and the social and cultural structures (Dobbelaere:1979:1-2).
During the course of Islamic history, it is often found in both Islamic or non-Islamic
countries that the leadership always attempted to make expansion of religion by striping
membership of other non-Muslims. In this case, they successfully welded them in new identity.
Thereafter, the sects and sub-sets, ideas etc. further contribute to revitalize the social order and
guide to changes by detachment and attachment.
In Islamic countries and in other places where religion has forceful role in the social level,
the followers are committed to religion thereby following mandatory practices prescribed so far.
Therefore, the newborn are supposed to take to shrines sacred places for well being. It is the first
step to begin with individual identity as a group member. It has been a common practice among
the Muslims everywhere. Performing various rituals approves the admittance of a new Muslim in
the social order. But assimilation of tenets of alien culture within Islam in lesser societies proves
to be a threat to create undesired influences. As a minor culture, Islam is prone to cultural
assimilation without any other choice to avoid such influences. So, Muslim culture in non-
Muslim societies where it remains as a minor community has been assimilated with the local
indigenous majority culture such as Korea, Nepal, Japan, Taiwan and others. As a minor
religious group, Muslims have to under go through such situation without room for any kind of
changes. But, Islam is well equipped to maintain its identity even if other cultures influence it.
The local Muslims are careful enough to maintain their identity and defend any kind of undesired
cultural penetration from outside the boundary, which ultimately threatens to the basic
components of Islam and goes against its holiness. The integration of feeling and commitment
within the sphere of unity and identity in terms of belief system is spectacular during the Zumma,
Id and other routine and special prayers, and life cycle rituals are regulated by the Quranic
citations.
In all activities motivated by religion and culture, a Muslim is supposed to abide by
various sacred rules. The strict observance of rules leads to a sense of unity and integration of
cultural traits. But everywhere and in all ages, there are always certain groups of people who are
not fervent followers of the path set aside by the God. Those people are known as- Kafireen
(those who refused the Prophet's invitation) and Munafiqueen (who embraced Islam only
outwardly). The newly converts in East Asia in particular are likely to this situation. So, there is
always high possibility of breaking sacred rules. Obviously, higher emphasis is not laid upon such
rules. But it is not always necessary that they break customary rules. However, they prefer
flexibility of rules. Therefore, those people are already pre-occupied by tenets of their former
cultural background.
Majority chauvinism influences minority groups there by leading to the forceful cultural
assimilation. In the contexts of Korea and some other societies, it can be said that the temporal
or transcendental factors largely derived from national ideological homogeneity have superseded
Islamic identity. This situation is crucial in the study of the term itself. Obviously, this situation is
crucial in the study of identity of Muslim minorities living in non-Muslim countries such as
Korea, Japan, Nepal, Taiwan, Macao, mainland China and so on. Islam as an ideology
introduced egalitarianism in human relationship. Therefore, there is no distinction between its
followers as mentioned in the holy scripture. However, social dimension or hierarchical variation
in the Muslim society in the South Asian countries still exists. These components are, rather
found to be very powerful to act within the social boundary of Muslim society. (Thapa:1995:78-
87). This aspect of the Muslim social system is considered very important in the South Asian
countries. But it is obvious to note that Allah taught men which they did not know before; but
the servants of the literate Lord were nearly all illiterate. Hence, Islam, although in theory an
egalitarian religion, was stratified since the early days in terms of literate urban elite and an
illiterate tribal majority. There was the difference between direct and indirect access to God
(Gellner:1969:127-38).
The entire Muslims are considered to be the procreation of the Almighty. They emphasize
to live as a single brotherhood. This notion works without considering political boundaries.
Thus, Jame Masjids (Friday mosques) are usually found to be the center of international
interaction. It serves also as a place to foster brotherhood for both alien and native Muslims.
This feeling is well reflected in the Quranic citations as well as in practice reinforcing its identity.
The unity of god is the major concept which brings about unity in the belief system as well as
keeps the believers in a linear form. In fact, it keeps entire civilization winding in the same thread
as serial of cultural and religious integration. The guidance of Allah and Quran always expect
followers to be prepared for Jihad (the holy war) to strengthen Islamic identity. The Islamic
organization worldwide is linked with each other in a bond of universal brotherhood. There is a
kind of connection between all the Muslims but not a kind of discriminatory distinction at least in
theory. The practical aspect is varied to it, which has profound impact on identity consolidation.
The Islamic organization either liberal or conservative intends to foster identity. All these
activities, however lead to strengthen communal identity in a traditional way.
The performance of prayer, charity, pilgrimages and fasting signifies and strengthens
group identity. Such a practice also develops strong inter-group relations. It is very important to
examine its contribution in strengthening group identity.
The practical aspect of religion requires reciting various injunctions from the holy text of
Quran and follows the traditions (Hadith). The recitation of Quranic injunctions confirms their
firm devotion in religion and at the same time, it maintains its traditional values too. It has
something to do with integration of religious tenets in the diverse society. But at the same time,
the converted society still has various problems. Their behaviour sometimes varies to that of
traditional Muslim followers. The former is not orthodox but liberal in religious matter. In fact,
the indigenous traditional cultural values in non-Muslim societies have greater impact on
behaviour of converted Muslims.
The minority Muslim culture is a kind of assimilated cultural form. In the case of Nepal's
Muslim minority in remote hill villages, they are assimilated with the Hindu culture to the extent
that they are now completely on the verge of cultural disintegration. ( Thapa:1998:40-48 /
Siddika:1995:166-271). This is very important in the maintenance of identity. But the Muslims in
countries like Korea and Japan are in different situation. They still have to go a long way to
attain maturity. They are very liberal in religious system and their belief is designed accordingly.
 It, however does not mean that their faith is doubtful. Of course, they are faithful but
there is circumstance, which tends to create this kind of situation. A vast majority of population
is still unable to take on board the notion of Korean Muslims. So, the elements of
fundamentalism in that society is not strong enough to go hand in hand with conservatism
prevailed in other Muslim countries. The reasons are the lack of numerical strength and the
views the converts once shared with the secular society.
The identity model as such often takes religion as a dramatizing the evolutionary dialectic
(Mol:1979:35). The ways of negative and positive principles (Japanese: Onmyo ; Chinese: Yang
and Yin; Sanskrit: Purusha and Prakriti or existence and non-existence) also represent to this sort
of dialectic. Even very similar dialectic is found in the Islamic philosophy. It emphasizes on the
popular notion that "God has no shape and existence but exists everywhere".
When we discuss about Islam, it is obvious to discuss about fundamentalism too because
the term itself is very important while dealing with identity of a particular religious group. If
fundamentalism refers to doctrine of inerrancy, then all Muslims are fundamentalists
(Perry:1991:129). The personalization of faith in the level of identity is a core element of
fundamentalism. This very, personalization is effective and forceful in Islam as well as
Protestantism. This is ineffective among the Buddhist and the Jain monks.
This sort of nature of Islamic philosophical tradition and integration of individual to the
will of God is core to the identity of Muslims either individually or collectively. This conceptual
paradigm is very positive to study religious minorities.

Reference:

1. Bloom, William, Personal Identity, National Identity and International Relations, London,
Cambridge University Press, 1993.
2. Burk, Peter J., and Tully Judy, "The Measurement of Role and Identity", Social Forces, 55,
1977, pp. 280-297.
3. Christian, William, Person and God in a Spanish Valley, New York, Seminar Press, 1972.
4. Dobbelaere, Karel, Professionalization and Secularization in the Belgian Catholic Pillar, (A
Seminar Paper presented at the International conference in Tokyo organization by CISR
(Conference International de Sociologie Religien) Hosted by Japanese Institute for the
Study of Religions (JISR) 1979
5. Durkheim, Emile, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, New York, The Free Press,
1965.
6. Durkheim Emile, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life, London, George Allen and
Unwin, 1976.
7. Erikson, Erik, Identity, Youth and Crisis, New York, Faber Books, 1968.
8. Gellner, Ernest, 'A Pendulum Swing Theory of Islam', in Roland Robertson, Sociology of
Religion, Harmodsworth, 1969.
9. Gopalan, S., 'Identity Theory Against the Backdrop of Hindu Concept of Dharma: A
Socio-political Interpretation', in Hans Mol (ed), Identity and Religion: International
Cross-Cultural Perspective, London, Sage Publication, 1978
10. Grunebaum, G.E. Von, Modernization Islam-The Search for Cultural Identity, Berkeley,
University of California Press, 1962.
11. Haebarmass, Jurgen, Legitimization Crisis, London, Heinemann, 1976.
12. Heideggar, Martin, Identity and Difference, New York, Harper and Row, 1969.
13. Manju and Braj Sinha, 'Ways of Yoga and Mechanism of Sacralization', in Hans Mol (ed.),
Identity and Religion, London, Sage Publication, 1978.
14. Moazzan, Anwar, 'Islam and Plurality of Religions', in K.Sachitananda (ed.) The
Divine:Peackck-Understanding contemporary India, New Delhi, Indian Council of
Cultural Relations and Willey Eastern Limited, 1995.
15. Mol, Hans, 'The Identity Model of Religion: How it Compares With nine other Theories of
Religion and How it Might Apply to Japan', Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, Vol. 6,
Nos 1-2, IISR, March-June, 1979.
16. Mol, Hans, 'Maori Identity and Religion', in Hans Mol (ed.), Identity and Religion:
International Cross-Cultural Perspective, London Sage Publications, 1978.
17. Mol, Hans, The Sacralization of Identity, Oxford, Balckwell, 1976; Morioka Kiyomi and
Shimpo Mitsuru, 'The Impact of the Physical Movement of Population on Japanese
Religions After the World War II', in Jacques Verscheure (ed.), Acts of the 11th Conference
of the CISR, Lille, CISR, 1971.
18. Perry, G., The Islamic World-Egypt and Iran, in G. Moyester (ed.), Politics and Religion
in the Modern World, London, Rouletge and Kegan Paul, 1991.
19. Robertson, Roland and Holzner Buckhardt, Identity and Authority: Exploration in the
Theory of Society, Oxford, Basil Blackwell, 1980.
20. Siddika, Shamima, Muslims of Nepal, Kathmandu, Gazala Siddika, 1995.
21. Thapa, Shanker, Inter-Ethnic Stratification... Tribhuvan University Journal, Vol. XIII,
June 1995, Kathmandu.
22. Thapa, Shanker, Muslim Identity: The Theory of Religious Identity and A Comparison
Between Muslim Minorities in Korea and Nepal, (A Research Report Submitted to The
Korea Foundation), Seoul, 1999.
23 Thapa, Shanker, "Some Aspects of Muslim Minority and Problem of Identification", A
Research Report submitted to the Research Division, T.U., Kathmandu, 1997.
****