Cooling Circuit Problems Treatment

COOLING CIRCUIT PROBLEMS TREATMENT & REMEDIES
How Does a Cooling Tower Work?
Cooling tower is a heat rejection device, which extracts waste heat to the atmosphere though the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. The type of heat rejection in a cooling tower is termed "evaporative" in that it allows a small portion of the water being cooled to evaporate into a moving air stream to provide significant cooling to the rest of that water stream. The heat from the water stream transferred to the air stream raises the air's temperature and its relative humidity to 100%, and this air is discharged to the atmosphere. Evaporative heat rejection devices such as cooling towers are commonly used to provide significantly lower water temperatures than achievable with "air cooled" or "dry" heat rejection devices, like the radiator in a car, thereby achieving more cost-effective and energy efficient operation of systems in need of cooling. Think of the times you've seen something hot be rapidly cooled by putting water on it, which evaporates, cooling rapidly, such as an overheated car radiator. The cooling potential of a wet surface is much better than a dry one.
Applications
Common applications for cooling towers are providing cooled water for air-conditioning, manufacturing and electric power generation. The smallest cooling towers are designed to handle water streams of only a few gallons of water per minute supplied in small pipes like those might see in a residence, while the largest cool hundreds of thousands of gallons per minute supplied in pipes as much as 15 feet (about 5 meters) in diameter on a large power plant.
Types of Cooling Circuit

Cooling towers can be classified based on different aspects: Material used. Water flow or capacity. Quality of the water to cool down. The basic cooling tower classification tends to be based on the following criteria: Natural or mechanical draft. Induced or forced draft. Open, closed cooling circuit. The cooling circuit type determines the exact heat exchange process.
Natural or mechanical draft

Natural draft cooling towers make use of the chimney operation of the cooling tower. The air flow is caused by the temperature difference between the air inside and outside the cooling tower. The fans used in mechanical draft cooling towers cause the air flow.
Natural draft cooling tower.
Induced or forced draft

Induced draft implies an inlet fan placed on top of the cooling tower and the creation of low pressure. Axial fans are always used for this type of draft. Forced draft means an exhaust fan placed at the base of the cooling tower which then causes overpressure. Both axial and centrifugal fans can be used.
Forced draft
Induced draft
Open, closed cooling circuit

Open Cooling Circuit
An open cooling tower is a heat exchanger that in order to cool down water makes use of the direct contact with the air. The heat transfer occurs partially thanks to a heat exchange between air and water, but mainly thanks to the evaporation of a small quantity of the water that needs to be cooled. This will allow cooling down to a temperature lower than the ambient temperature.
Operation
The water that needs to be cooled will be directed to the upper part of the cooling tower. The nozzles (A) distribute water over the tower packing (B). Water will be spread in a thin and even film over the packing thanks to its shape. This will result in a very large contact surface (heat exchange surface). The fan blows or extracts (depending on the type of fan) ambient air through the packing. This air will cool the water in 2 different ways. Part of the heat will be removed due to convection (contact between hot water and colder air), but the main cooling part will be because of evaporation. The air, which is now saturated with humidity, will be exhausted through the upper part. The cooled down water will be gathered in the basin (C) so it can be reused in the production process. The drop eliminators above the nozzles make sure that the water drops don't leave the cooling tower.
Closed Cooling Circuit

A cooling tower is a heat exchanger that uses the direct contact with the air to cool down water. The heat exchange happens partially through a heat exchange between air and water, but mainly through the evaporation of a small quantity of the water that needs to be cooled. This will allow cooling down to a temperature lower than the ambient temperature. When the water that needs to be cooled cannot get into contact with the air (e.g. in the food industry), it is necessary to use a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger separates the process water that needs to be cooled from the evaporation water of the cooling tower. This will avoid contact between the process water and the air.

Process side
The process water that needs to be cooled will be guided through the heat exchanger (A). This heat exchanger consists of stainless steel plates and is situated next to the cooling tower in a separate adjacent room. Inside the heat exchanger, the heat of the water from the process side is transmitted to the cooling water on the cooling tower side. The process water is now cooled down again and can be reused as cooling water in the process. Consequently, the cooling water circulates in a closed circuit between the consumers (production machines, condensers, etc.) and the heat exchanger.
Cooling tower side
Once the reheated cooling water has left the plate heat exchanger, it will be directed through the piping to the upper part of the cooling tower, where nozzles (B) will distribute the water over the tower packing (C). The cooled down water falls through the packing and is gathered in the basin. This is where the fresh water will be led back through the recirculation pump (D) to the heat exchanger in order to be reused. The water is cooled down by the air which is developed by the fan(s) in counter flow. This air will warm up and get saturated after contact with the water flowing over the packing. The air is exhausted through the top. The drop eliminators above the nozzles make sure that the water drops don't leave the cooling tower.
PROPERTIES OF WATER:
Most sources of water contain impurities. The most common are calcium and magnesium bicarbonates/sulphates. There are various other salts and impurities in various proportions. Bicarbonate and sulphates are the most insoluble salts. These tend to precipitate as CaCO3 /MgCO3 with increase of temperatures. It is important to understand the basic water chemistry, before we proceed further. In general, the important properties are: 1. Conductivity: A measure of waters ability to conduct electricity in cooling water. It indicates the amount of dissolved minerals in water. Conductivity is measured in micro-mhos and can vary from a few for distilled water to over 10000 for saline water. 2. pH: A measure of acidity or basicity of water. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14 with 0 representing the maximum acidity and 14, the maximum basicity. How pH does affect the system? Control of pH is critical for the majority of cooling water treatment programs. In general, when pH is below recommended ranges, the chances for corrosion increase and when pH is above recommended ranges, the chances for scale formation increase. The effectiveness of many biocides also depends on pH; therefore high or low. pHs may alleviate the growth of microbiological problems. 3) Alkalinity: In cooling water two forms of alkalinity play a key role. These are carbonate (CO3) alkalinity and bicarbonate (HCO3) alkalinity. Bicarbonate alkalinity is by far the most common. Alkalinity and pH are related because increase in pH indicates increases in alkalinity and vice versa. How does Alkalinity affect the system? When water with carbonate or bicarbonate alkalinity is heated, the alkalinity is broken down to carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide released, combines with the water to give carbonic acid, which can cause corrosion of iron or steel equipment. The corrosion products react further with alkalinity and the deposits can build up in the same manner as calcium carbonate scale.
4) Hardness: The hardness in water is the amount of alkaline-earth cations, calcium and magnesium minerals. The sum of these two is the total hardness. The hardness of natural waters can vary from a few parts per million (ppm) to over 800 ppm. The total hardness is then broken down into two categories:

a) The carbonate or temporary hardness. b) The non-carbonate or permanent hardness. How does Hardness affect the system? Hardness particularly the temporary hardness is the most common and is responsible for the deposition of calcium carbonate scale in pipes and equipment.
WATER RELATED PROBLEMS & CHEMICAL TREATMENTS

The chemistry of water has a direct impact on the four main problems of cooling water systems.
1.
SCALE
Scale deposits are formed by precipitation and crystal growth at a surface in contact with water. Precipitation occurs when solubilities are exceeded either in the bulk water or at the surface. The most common scale-forming salts that deposit on heat transfer surfaces are those that exhibit retrograde solubility with temperature.
Water impurities such as calcium and magnesium hardness can precipitate and deposit depending on their concentrations, water temperature, pH, alkalinity, and other water characteristics. The deposit forms a film inside the surfaces, technically known as scale that in addition to its high insulating value; progressively narrows pipe internal diameters, roughens tube surfaces and thereby impeding proper flow. Scale in cooling water systems is mainly composed of inorganic mineral compounds such as calcium carbonate (which is most common), magnesium silicate, calcium phosphate and iron oxide. These minerals are dissolved in the water, but if left to concentrate uncontrolled, they will precipitate. Scale occurs first in heat transfer areas but can form even on supply piping. Many factors Scaling of cooling tower fill by a combination of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate. affect the formation of scale, such as the mineral concentration in the cooling water. Water temperature, pH, availability of nucleation sites (the point of initial crystal formation) and the time allowed for scale formation to begin after nucleation occurs.
Principle Factors Responsible for Scale Formation

Calcium content of water Alkalinity or pH of water Temperature of re-circulation water Higher concentration of solids (TDS) Insufficient bleed off from cooling towers
As any of above factors changes, scaling tendencies also change. Most salts become more soluble as temperature increases. However, some salts, such as calcium carbonate, become less soluble as temperature increases. Therefore they often cause deposits at higher temperatures. A change in pH or alkalinity can greatly affect scale formation. As alkalinity increases, calcium carbonatethe most common scale constituent in cooling systems-decreases in solubility and deposits. Some materials, such as silica (SiO2) are less soluble at lower alkalinities. Hardness levels are associated with the tendencies of cooling waters to be scale forming or not. Higher the level of scale forming solids, the greater the chances of scale formation
Chemical scale inhibitors Scale inhibitor chemicals - keep the scale forming materials in soluble form and do not allow
deposit to form. E.g. Organic phosphates, polyphosphates, polymer compounds. Scale conditioners - modify the crystal structure of scale, creating a bulky transportable sludge instead of hard deposit. E.g. Lignin, tannins, polymeric compounds.
Disadvantages of Scales:
The buildup of scale leads directly to Loss of heat transfer efficiency Loss of production Increased downtime and maintenance costs High-energy costs
Scales Control
The most direct method of inhibiting formation of scale deposits is to limit the concentration of scale forming materials by controlling cycles of concentration or by removing the minerals before they enter the system. A part of water is purposely drained off (blow down) to prevent minerals built up. Feed acid to keep the common scale forming materials in dissolved form. Make the mechanical changes in the system to reduce the chances for scale formation. Increased water flow and exchangers with larger surface areas are examples. Treat with chemicals (scale inhibitors) designed to prevent scale. Scaling can be controlled effectively by the use of sequestering agents and chelates, which are capable of forming soluble complexes with metal ions. The precipitation properties of these complexes are not the same as those of the metal ions. Classic examples of these materials are

ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) for chelating calcium hardness, and polyphosphates for iron. This approach requires stoichiometric chemical quantities. Therefore, its use is limited to waters containing low concentrations of the metal.
2.
CORROSION
Corrosion can be defined as the destruction of a metal by chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment. In cooling systems, corrosion causes two basic problems. The first and most obvious is the failure of equipment with the resultant cost of replacement and plant downtime. The second is decreased plant efficiency due to loss of heat transfer-the result of heat exchanger fouling caused by the accumulation of corrosion products.
Water tends to convert metals (such as mild steel) to their oxide states. The corrosion is a result of dissolved gases, improper pH control or formation of differential aeration cells under deposits. A localized effect of corrosion results in built up of holes; the phenomenon known as pitting. Failures of this type can be catastrophic, leading to costly downtime for repairs and equipment replacement and even total plant shutdown. Most cooling systems are very vulnerable to corrosion. They contain a wide variety of metals and circulate warm water at relatively high linear velocities. Both of these factors accelerate the Corrosion in Cooling Tower corrosion process. Deposits in the system caused by silt, dirt, debris, scale and bacteria, along with various gases, solids and other matter dissolved in the water all serve to compound the problem. Even a slight change in the cooling water pH level can cause a rapid increase in corrosion. Open recirculating systems are particularly corrosive because of their oxygen-enriched environment.
Causes of Corrosion
For corrosion to occur, a corrosion cell, consisting of an anode, a cathode and an electrolyte must exist. Metal ions dissolve into the electrolyte (water) at the anode. Electrically charged particles are left behind. These electrons flow through the metal to other points (cathodes) where electronconsuming reactions occur. The result of this activity is the loss of metal and often the formation of a deposit. Mild steel is a commonly used metal
8
Classic corrosion cell

in the cooling water system that is most susceptible to corrosion. Other metals in general, such as copper, stainless steel, aluminum alloys also do corrode but the process is slow. However in some waters and in presence of dissolved gases, such as H2S or NH3, the corrosion to these metals is more severe & destructive than to mild steel.
Types of corrosion exists in cooling water systems

Many different type of corrosion exist, but the most common is often characterized as general, localized or pitting and galvanic. General attack: exists when the corrosion is uniformly distributed over the metal surface. The considerable amount of iron oxide produced contributes to fouling problems. Pitting attack: exists when only small area of the metal corrodes. Pitting may perforate the metal in short time. The main source for pitting attack is dissolved oxygen. Galvanic attack: can occur when two different metals are in contact. The more active metal corrodes rapidly. Common examples in water systems are steel & brass, aluminum & steel, Zinc & steel and zinc & brass. If galvanic attack occurs, the metal named first will corrode.
Corrosion chemical inhibitors

Chemical inhibitors reduce or stop corrosion by interfering with corrosion mechanism. Inhibiting usually affect either the anode or the cathode. Anodic corrosion inhibitors: establish a protective film on the anode. Though these inhibitors can be effective, they can be dangerous, if sufficient anodic inhibitor is present, the entire corrosion potential occurs at the unprotected anode sites. This causes severe localized (or pitting) attack. E.g. Chromates, Nitrites, Orthophosphates, and Silicates Cathodic corrosion inhibitors: form a protective film on the cathode. These inhibitors reduce the corrosion rate in direct proportion to the reduction of cathodic area. E.g. Bicarbonates, Metal cations, Polyphosphates
General corrosion inhibitors: protect by filming all metal surfaces whether anodic or cathodic. E.g.
Soluble oils, other organics
Disadvantages of corrosion
Damage to pump seals Plugged lines Loss if heat transfer efficiency High maintenance & replacement costs
Corrosion Control
An increase in water temperature causes an increase in corrosion. In a vented system, this tendency is reduced by the decreased solubility of oxygen at higher temperatures. This is the basis of mechanical deaeration. Untreated systems can suffer serious corrosion damage from oxygen pitting, galvanic action, and crevice attack. Closed cooling systems that are shut down periodically are subjected to water temperatures that may vary from ambient to 180F (82C) or higher. During shutdown, oxygen can enter the water until its saturation limit is reached. When the system is returned to high-temperature operation, oxygen solubility drops and the released oxygen attacks metal surfaces The three most reliable corrosion inhibitors for closed cooling water systems are chromate, molybdate, and nitrite materials. Generally, the chromate or molybdate types have proven to be superior treatments. For mixed metallurgy systems, the molybdate inhibitors provide the best corrosion protection. Chromate treatments in the range of 500-1000 ppm as Cr4O2 are satisfactory unless bimetallic influences exist. When such bimetallic couples as steel and copper are present, chromate treatment levels should be increased to exceed 2000 ppm. Maximum inhibitor effectiveness can be achieved if the pH of these systems is kept between 7.5 and 9.5. In a closed system, it can be quite difficult to prevent corrosion of aluminum and its alloys; the pH of the water must be maintained below 9.0. Aluminum is amphoteric-it dissolves in both acid and base, and its corrosion rate accelerates at pH levels higher than 9.0. The bimetallic couple that is most difficult to cope with is that of copper and aluminum, for which chromate concentrations even higher than 5000 ppm may not be adequate. Where circulating pumps are equipped with certain mechanical seals, such as graphite, chromate concentrations may not exceed 250 ppm. This is due to the fact that water leaking past the seals evaporates and leaves a high concentration of abrasive salts that can damage the seal.
3.
BIOLOGICAL GROWTHS
Uncontrollable biological growth (bacteria, algae, fungi) causes fouling, loss of heat exchange capacity, equipment failure and energy wastage.
Therefore, it is important that we understand the different types of microbiological growths found in cooling water and how they can be controlled. The make-up water supply, wind and insects can all carry microorganisms into a cooling water system.
Factors contribute to microbial growth

The main factors are: Degree of infected microbial contamination already build up
10

Nutrients: For instance, hydrocarbons or other carbon sources can serve as food for slime-forming organisms. Atmosphere: Organism growth depends upon the availability of oxygen or carbon dioxide. Location: The factors such as amount of light and moisture significantly affect growth rates. Temperatures: Organisms that compound into masses (slime) tend to flourish between 40 and 150 F.
Microbial slime impact scale formation and fouling

Slime can cause treatment chemicals for scale to be ineffective and hence promotes scale formation. Slime masses themselves are foulants. They provide excellent sites for the deposition of other foulants. Although many organisms tend to die at high temperatures the remaining debris fouls metal surfaces. Generally microbial organisms form colonies at points of low water velocity. Heat exchangers & cooling towers are therefore subject to microbial contamination. Ideally the cooling tower system should not be allowed to have bacterial/microbial growth beyond 50000 counts/ml.
Microbial treatments
Microbial treatments are selected by first analyzing representative water and slime samples to determine the types of organism present. Three general classes of chemicals are used in microbial control. Oxidizing biocides: literally burn up any microbe they come in contact with. Common oxidizers are chlorine, chlorine dioxide, and bromine, ozone, and organo-chlorine slow release compounds. Chlorine is one of the most widely used, cost effective biocides and is available in liquid, gaseous or solid form. Its effectiveness is increased when used with non-oxidizing biocides and biological dispersants. Ozone is now a day widely used to curb microbial growth. Non-oxidizing biocides: kill the micro-organisms. They are effective where chlorine may not be adequate. Bio-dispersants: These chemicals does not kill organisms, they loosen microbial deposits, which can then be flushed away. They also expose new layers of microbial slime or algae to the attack of oxidizing biocides. These are an effective preventive measure because they make it difficult for the microorganisms to attach to the metal surfaces to form deposit.
11
4.
SLUDGE OR FOULING
Fouling is the accumulation of solid material other than scale in a way that hampers the operation of plant equipment or contributes to its deterioration. Fouling occurs when insoluble particulates suspended in recirculating water form deposits on a surface. Fouling mechanisms are dominated by particle-particle interactions that lead to the formation of agglomerates.
Under this heading are included dirt, mud, sand, silt, clay, scale salts, and other particulates of airborne origin or entering the system with the makeup water. Very often these suspended solids are tightly bound and cemented by corrosion products and organic matter.
Factors influencing fouling in a cooling system

The most important factors influencing fouling are: Water characteristics: Distilled water will not foul. However, most waters contain the dissolved and suspended materials that can cause a significant fouling problem under certain conditions. Temperature: Increasing temperature increases the fouling tendency. Because heat transfer surfaces are hotter than the cooling water, they accelerate fouling. Flow velocity: At low flow rates typically 1 fps or less, fouling occurs due to natural settings of suspended material. At higher flow rates, 3 fps or more fouling can still Calcium and iron phosphate fouling due to low water velocity occur but usually is less sensitive. Microbial growths: Micro-organisms can form deposits on any surface. In addition corrosive or iron depositing bacteria cause or utilize corrosion products, which subsequently deposit as voluminous foulants. All microbial colonies act as a collection site for silt and dirt, causing a deposit of different foulants.
Corrosion: Corrosion can form insoluble corrosion products that migrate and mix with debris,
process contamination, or microbial masses to aggravate fouling.
Contamination: Materials often leak from the process side of heat exchange equipment and
can cause serious fouling problems in several ways. Depositing as insoluble products. Providing nutrient for micro-organisms and causing severe microbial growth. Reacting with scale or corrosion inhibitors to form insoluble foulants.
12
Fouling control
Fouling can be controlled mechanically or by the use of chemical treatments. The best method of control depends upon the type of fouling. Control of fouling in the cooling system involves three major tactics: Prevention: Whatever can be done to prevent foulants from entering the cooling system, this may require mechanical changes or addition of chemicals to clarify make-up water. Reduction: Steps taken to remove or reduce the volume of foulants that unavoidably enter the system. This may involve side stream filtering or periodic tower basin cleaning. Ongoing Control: Taking regular action to minimize deposition of the foulants in the system. This can include adding chemical dispersants and air rumbling or back-flushing exchangers. Charge-reinforcement and wetting agent dispersants act to keep foulants in suspension, preventing them from setting on metal surfaces or helping to remove fouling deposits that have already formed. The charge reinforcement dispersants cause the foulants to repel one another by increasing the electrical charges they carry. The wetting agents make the water wetter (reduce surface tension), inhibiting new deposit formation and possibly removing existing deposits. This action keeps the particles in the bulk water flow, where they are more likely to be removed from the system, either through blowdown or filtration.
Effects of Fouling on cooling water system

Where abrasive, sludge deposits can damage pump seals and in addition to their insulating nature can also promote "under-deposit" corrosion. The above mentioned problems created by scale, corrosion, bio-fouling and sludge is, of course, a comprehensive water treatment program comprising scale and corrosion inhibitors, micro biocides and dispersants coupled with adequate bleed off and appropriate equipment.
COOLING WATER TREATMENT APPROACHES

1. FILTRATION The objective of filtration is to remove the suspended solids up to 2-mg/l levels. 2. PRETREATMENT CLARIFICATION The objective of pretreatment clarification is to remove suspended solids and colloidal particles in water. 3. SOFTENING BY ION EXCHANGE The process involving removal of hardness producing salts from water is softening of water. The softening of water by ion exchange is relatively simple and effective. The process
13

consists of passing hard water through a column of cation-exchange resin in the sodium form. The sodium on the resin replaces the objectionable calcium and magnesium ions. 4. DEMINERALIZATION BY ION EXCHANGE Demineralization of water by ion exchange is achieved by passing the water through cation and anion-exchange resins. The cation exchanger in the hydrogen form exchanges hydrogen ions for the positively charged cations in the water. The effluent from such a unit is then carried forward to an anion-exchange resin. The anion-exchange resin in the hydroxide form exchanges hydroxide ions for the anions in the water. This might be either a weak-base or a strong-base resin. A weak-base resin adsorbs the entire acid molecule and not just the chloride ion. The process consists of a typical acid-base reaction, which forms the salt of that acid in water. In many applications, a strong-base anion resin follows the weak-base resin. The spent regenerant from the strong-base anion unit is sufficient to regenerant the weak-base anion resin in most cases. The net result of this operation is replacement of the dissolved salts with water. As mentioned before, it is possible to use many combinations of the various cation and anion-exchange resins to get the demineralized water. 5. REVERSE OSMOSIS (RO SYSTEM) Osmosis is the natural passage of a liquid through a semi-permeable membrane, during which the liquid flows from a state of low concentration of solids or impurities to a state of relatively high concentration. Reverse osmosis is the reverse of the natural osmosis process that occurs in nature. To treat water by the osmotic process, osmosis must be reversed to make the water flow from a state of high concentration of solids to a low concentration. This is done by applying pressure ranging from 400 to 2,000 psig to the high concentration side of the membrane; the result is high quality water. It is highly efficient method of obtaining high quality water & cost effective, particularly for situations where water TDS is above 2000 ppm.
Type of Cooling System Affects Treatment Application Principles

The choice of treatment is basically a matter of economics. In a once-through system, a very large volume of water passes through the system only once. Protection can be obtained with relatively few parts per million (ppm) of treatment because the water does not change in composition significantly while passing through the equipment. In an open re-circulation system, more chemical may be present because the water composition changes significantly through the evaporation process. Corrosive and scaling constituents are concentrated. However, treatment chemicals also concentrate by evaporation, therefore, after the
14

initial dosages only moderate dosages will maintain the higher level of treatment needed for these systems. In a closed re-circulation system, water composition remains fairly constant. There is very little loss of either water or treatment chemical. The best form of treatment recommendation for closed water system includes the dosage of film forming inhibitors such as nitrites and molybdate.
CONCLUSION
There are several known treatment approaches in vogue, but the application & selection depends on various conditions viz. year round atmospheric conditions, space availability, water quality and operational economics. A combination of mechanical as well chemical treatment is desired in certain cases. A filtration system does not replace the need for water treatment, or vice versa. Chemicals cannot remove dirt just as filters cannot control water chemistry. A filtration system shall only complement the water treatment program.
15

Cooling Circuit Problems Treatment

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Cooling Circuit Problems Treatment

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

COOLING CIRCUIT PROBLEMS TREATMENT & REMEDIES

How Does a Cooling Tower Work?

Types of Cooling Circuit