Global Outline Chapter 25: New worlds: The Americas and Oceania

Intro Malintzin, AKA Dona Marina, played pivotal role in Spanish conquest of Mexico Principal language of Aztec people was Nahuatl Sent to Mexican coast as slave, later sent to Yucatan Peninsula, became fluent in Maya Hernan Cortes arrived w/ his army, 1 soldier spoke Maya, communicated with Marina Soldiers were on their way to Aztect capital of Tenochtitlan Dona Marina learned Spanish and helped warn Cortes of attacks by the Natives Marina got the name La Malinche, or the traitor, for helping w/ Cortess invasions This represented 1 of the many problems Aztecs dealt with B/c of symbolic richness, Marina attained the status of mother of the Mexican peoples She had two children with Cortes, which symbolizes emergence of a mestizo population Some Norse sailors & Asian or Austronesian mariners probably had contact with American Indigenous peoples before Columbus, but not much interaction until 15thC Because of their advanced technology, weaponry, and immunity to diseases, Europeans established large presence throughout Americas & Pacific basin after 1492 Europeans didnt lead to immediate change in Australia and Pacific islands In western hemisphere, European migrants brought about transformation to form new worlds

I: Colliding Worlds More important than European technology were the divisions between indigenous peoples and the Europeans and the effects of epidemic diseases that devastated native societies Spanish conquerors then toppled the Aztec & Inca empires & took over Mexico & Peru Later, Portuguese planters built sugar plantations in Brazil European migrants displaced indigenous peoples in North America & established colonies

A: The Spanish Caribbean Europeans & Americans first interacted in Caribbean Spanish mariners interacted with the Taino (Arawaks)- most prominent people Taino ancestors sailed in canoes from Orinoco River valley (S. America) to C Islands Lived in small villages led by chiefs who allocated land & supervised community affairs Were interested in glass, beads, & metal tools brought by Spanish, showed little resistance Columbus made Hispaniola (Haiti & D.R.) base of Spanish operations in the Caribbean Spanish settlers established fort of Santo Domingo (capital) there Plan was to build ports where merchants could trade with natives, but Caribbean region offered no silks or spices for the European market First tried to support society by mining gold, but didnt have enough settlers They used the Taino people to mine gold- recruited via encomienda, which gave Spanish encomenderos (settlers) the right to make the Taino work their mines or fields

In exchange, Spanish looked after their health and encouraged conversion to Christianity Taino were punished harshly if they didnt work hard enough in the field Staged rebellions, but were no match for the armed Spanish Social disruption and abuse brought decline to Taino populations by 1515 To replace laborers lost by disease, Spanish made Taino slaves, which increased disease Native population went from 4 million to a few thousand in ~50 years Taino cultural elements that survived: canoe, hammock, hurricane, barbecue, maize, tobacco Spanish seeked treasure in Caribbean until silver was found in Mexico & Peru Then, the Caribbean became inactive except for pirates & was not a center of production In 1640s, French, English, & Dutch went to Caribbean to form plantations Supreme conditions to grow sugar & tobacco = high prices in European markets $$ Planters lacked labor since the indigenous population was killed out, so they imported millions of African slaves, who made up most of the Caribbean population

B: The Conquest of Mexico and Peru Spanish soon became more interested in American mainland, hoping to find more resources Conquistadores moved into Mexico & Panama & Peru Hernan Cortes & his men brought down the Aztec empire in Mexico Francisco Pizarro toppled the Inca empire in Peru Spanish found societies different in Mexico & Peru- agricultural societies & large states Mexica people founded Aztec empire that expanded to most of Mesoamerica Incas imposed rule from Ecuador to Chile (largest state in S. America) Both empires had large populations and govt could collect taxes, mobilize men, etc. In search of gold, Cortes led 450 men to Mexico, traveled from Veracruz to Tenochtitlan Seized emperor Motecuzoma II, who died during fight between Aztecs & Spanish Cuauhtemoc, nephew & son-in-law of Motecuzoma, offered leadership Cortes sieged the city in 1521 Steel swords, muskets, cannons, & horses helped Cortes overcome large native population Cortes benefited from divisions of the Aztec people- unwilling to band together Was helped by Dona Marina- got natives who resented govt to help fight w/ the Spanish Diseases (mainly smallpox) helped to kill tens of thousands of natives Smallpox caused Aztec society to be unable to function, thus they suffered defeat Francisco Pizarro led Spanish expedition from C. America to Peru w/ 180 soldiers in 1530 Later he was joined by reinforcements to make a force of 600 Arrive in Peru after a dispute b/t Huascar & Atahualpa, 2 brothers in ruling house Pizarros forces took advantage of the times & took Incan capital in Cuzco by 1533 Called Inca ruling elites together for a meeting and killed them Spared Atahualpa until he delivered a large quantity of gold (then strangled & decapitated) After conquering, Pizarro continued to look for treasure- took gold & silver plaques from public buildings, melted statuettes, took jewelry & ornaments from bodies of dead rulers Pizarros tiny force succeeded because many Incas hated the govt and didnt resist Spanish Epidemic disease helped kill off a lot of the population- ruled Peru by 1540 (took longer to conquer Peru than Mexico)

C: Iberian Empires in the Americas Conquests of Mexico and Peru result of individual efforts Originally, Cortes & Pizarro allocated lands and labor rights to their troops Eventually, land of the conquistadores under formal rule under the Spanish crown Bureaucrats implemented royal policy and replaced the soldiers who previously did Two main centers of authority- Mexico (New Spain) and Peru (New Castile) Mexico City and Lima Viceroys = kings representatives in the Americas, had considerable power Audencias were courts that reviewed policies and cases against viceroys Transportation and communication difficulties impeded viceroys supervisory powers Local administration fell to audencias in many regions Spanish monarchy in Spain didnt influence American affairs, didnt respond to queries Viceroys often altered kings orders Spanish rule in Americas led to establishment of cities Jurisdiction of viceroyality in New Spain- St. Augustine, Florida > Mexico City Jurisdiction of viceroyality in Peru- Panama > Concepcion & Buenos Aires Portuguese forces established an imperial presence in Brazil Treaty of Tordesillas, signed by Spain and Portugal, drew imaginary line 370 leagues west of the Azores and Cape Verde Islands- Spain had any land to west, so long as it was not already under Christian rule, and Portugal gained same rights for lands to the east. Portuguese mariner Pedro Alvares de Cabral sailed to Brazil- at first had no interest, then claimed the land. Eventually established a governor and gave land grants to nobles Cities of Iberian empires became centers of European-style society in the Americas Ways of indigenous people also existed- no agricultural surplus & no minerals Spanish and Portuguese colonists in Amazon basin & Paraguay, for example, adapted to indigenous societies- manioc flour bread, Guarani & Tupi languages, etc. Western hemisphere land to exploit and administer more than land to settle & colonize

D: Settler Colonies in North America During 16th century, explorers sought opportunities north of Mexico & Caribbean French, English, Dutch mariners sailed North Atlantic for fish, passage to Asia, and began to dislodge Spanish colonists French established permanent colonies at Port Royal (Nova Scotia) & Quebec- ---Canada English founded Jamestown in 1607 & Massachusetts Bay Colony- mainly in United States Dutch built settlement at New Amsterdam (seized by Englishbecame New York) Life in early settlements was difficult- hoped to sustain communities by valuable goods Relied on provisions sent from Asia, and sometimes avoided starvation thanks to indigenous 60 of 500 Jamestown inhabitants died during the Winter of 1609-1610 Some resorted to cannibalism to survive Whereas Iberian explorations had royal backing, French, English based on private investors French & English colonies were more self governed and people had more control, but still subject to royal authority

French and English colonies didnt not have large centralized states of indigenous peoples like the Iberian colonies had- many Natives moved villages frequently with hunting and there were many cultures Fertile farmland attracted many Europeans- land that Natives commonly crossed Europeans made treaties with the peoples whose lands they colonized Natives frequently raided English farms and villages b/c didnt like English law 1622- natives massacred 1/3 of Europeans in Chesapeake region Edward Waterhouse, raid survivor, advocated annihilation of indigenous population- had long quote of the ways he could be victorious and kill them Diseases and conflicts reduced indigenous populations- from 5-10 million to 600k

II: Colonial Society in the Americas Relations b/t Americans, Europeans, and Africans, led to mestizo population Europeans controlled economic affairs in Americas- brought supplies to European capitalist markets Established Christian religion as dominant faith

A: The Formation of Multicultural Societies Europeans didnt enter interior of Americas until 19th century Adventurer Alvar Nunez de Vaca (Spanish nobleman) traveled w/ 300 to Florida Most of the people died- built boats to get across Gulf of Mexico when strong current of Mississippi River pushed flotilla (boats) into gulf and fierce storm destroyed boats Washed up near Galveston, Texas, and fell captive to natives (8 years as slaves, physicians) All European territories became multicultural societies- varied ancestry European or Euro-American dominance in all societies Spanish and Portuguese territories became ethnically mixed b/c of migration patterns Migrants to Iberian colonies were mostly men- had to have relations w/ indigenous women Gave rise to a mestizo (mixed) society Most Spanish migrants went to Mexicolarge mestizo population In Peru, more women- most people lived in cities, closer communities than in Mexico In the colonial cities, Spanish migrants married among themselves- less mestizos in Peru Few European women in Brazil- Portuguese men had relations with indigenous & Africans Brazil had large mestizo population, zambo population, and mulatto population Mulatto- born of Portuguese and African parents-- Zambo- born of indigenous and African parents Peninsulares- migrants born in Europe- stood at top of social class Those who were born in Americas from European parents- criollos or creoles Originally, mestizos lived on edges of society, but eventually became more important (Brazil and Mexico) Mulattoes and zambos, although had large populations, were subordinate Imported slaves and conquered peoples stood at the very bottom of social hierarchy Women were more numerous among the French and English- married w/ own groups

French fur traders associated with native women and produced metis (mixed) In French colonial cities (Port Royal and Quebec), mixed relations less common Mingling b/t peoples of difference ancestry least common in English colonies N. America English settlers attempted to maintain sharp boundaries b/t themselves & natives & slaves English settlers still interacted with Americans and Africans- borrowed cultural elements Took native terms to refer to unfamiliar things, adapted clothing, gave up European military customs, borrowed African food crops, cultivation techniques Still, unlike Iberians, discouraged relationships b/t two individuals of different ancestry

B: Mining and Agriculture in the Spanish Empire Greatest attractions of the Americas to the Spanish were metals Looted Aztec and Inca treasures and melted gold & silver to form ingots Other Spanish migrants opened mines to get more gold and silver Silver was most abundant American treasure- also outweighed in price and value Silver located in Mexican north (around Zacatecas), and high, cold, central Andes (Potosi) Both sites had many indigenous laborers- many went to Zacatecas voluntarily b/c home villages experienced conquest and disease Indigenous became pro miners, spoke Spanish, and lost touch with communities of birth Potosi was a boomtown- pop of 150k, relied mostly on voluntary labor, also used draft labor Mita system- draft labor, first used in Inca society, to get people to work in mines Required native village to send 1/7 of male pop to work for 4 months Laborers got paid, wages low, conditions harsh- death rates high- some fled to evade mita Draft laborers only represented 10% of workforce at Potosi Mining industries stimulated world economy- profits for private investors & for the crown Spanish govt reserved 1/5 of silver production for itself- known as quinto Quinto represented principal revenue that the crown got from American possessions Silver made its way to European markets- traded for silk, spices, porcelain- also Asian Apart from mining, principal occupations were farming, stock raising, & craft production These merchants^ made profits by selling things to mining towns Most of the agricultural and craft works was the estate, or hacienda- self sufficient Most food crops were of European origin- wheat, grapes, pig & cattle meat Indigenous population recruited via encomienda system (developed during Reconquista) Rewarded conquerors by getting labor and tribute from defeated Moorish populations Encomenderos required to look after the physical and spiritual welfare of workers After encomienda, Spanish resorted to system of debt peonage to recruit labor Landowners advanced loans to native people so they could buy supplies to farm Debtors were supposed to pay, but many never did b/c of low wages Some indigenous peoples resisted work by rebellion, halfhearted work, retreated into mountains & forestslike the Pueblo revolt, which was led by native shaman Pope Another rebellion of 60k people led by Tupac Amaru (last Inca ruler)- beheaded him Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala sent 1,200 page letter w/ 400 drawings to King Philip III of Spain asking for protection Told & warned king that women forced into prostitution, wives seized, over taxation, etc

C: Sugar and Slavery in Portuguese Brazil Portuguese empire in Brazil depended on production and export of sugar Relied on African slaves as laborers- Africans became majority Colonical Brazilian life revolved around the sugar mill, or engenho Engenho (engine) refers to sugar mill, but came to represent land, labor, buildings, animals, capital, and technical skills related to production of sugar- reqd extensive processing Thus, engenhos combined agricultural and industrial enterprisesvery complex Portuguese planters and owners of sugar mills were privileged class- had lots of power Got strong royal supportowners often had financial hardships Locals resisted working and retreated to interior lands Many diseases (smallpox) ravaged area and killed indigenous population- few laborers Used slaves since there were few local laborers- constantly needed more slaves Business of producing Brazilian sugar was brutal- every town of sugar cost one human life

D: Fur Traders and Settlers in North America European mariners traded fur w/ indigenous, then found rich fur lands near Hudson Strait Built forts and trading posts so they could get fur Traded fur pelts w/ indigenous for goods like wool, iron, guns, etc Beavers- chief targets of fur trade- often declined rapidly, causing Europeans to enter unknown lands in search of more beavers, thus sparking war Fur trade also took place in context of competition b/t European states Iroquois, who allied with Dutch, had firearms and almost annihilated Hurons during war European cultivators displaced indigenous peoples and rid hunting grounds Original colonies had difficulty growing crops- natives provided them w/ food In Virginia and Carolinas, English settlers produced tobacco (Colombus observed Taino smoking plant through Tobago pipe)nicotine named after French diplomat Jean Nicot Many associated healing powers w/ tobacco- called it the herb panacea, divine tobacco, or holy herb nicotine Southern plantations produced ride, indigo and tobacco, also cotton by 19th century Plantations = high demand for cheap labor- initially recruited indentured European servants Obliged to 4-7 years of work, then new, independent lifemany died before end of work Also used slave laborers from Africaeventually all blacks were slaves Not much slave labor in northern colonies since climate didnt permit plantations Economies of northern colonies benefited from slave labor- boats, rum (sugar from slaves)

E: Christianity and Native Religions in the Americas Explorers also had desire to spread Christianity Priests served as representatives of the crown and reinforced civil administrators Franciscan, Dominican, Jesuit, campaigned to Christianize indigenous peoples Franciscans made a school in Tlatelolco, Mexico- market district of Tenochtitlan Bernardino de Sahagun preserved info on language, customs, beliefs, literature, history of Mexico before arrival of Spanish forces- shed light on Aztec society and early missionaries

Indigenous peoples in Mexico & Peru resisted Christianity- practiced in caves, etc In wake of conquest and disease, some Mexicans believe their Gods hated them Adopted Christianity and blended it with their own interests Mestizo society of Mexico embraced the Virgin of Guadalupe VoG worked miracles on those who visited the shrine of meeting of Juan Diego and V Mary VoG symbolized distinctly Mexican faith & promise of salvation French and English missionaries didnt get many followers, since they didnt rule many conquered peoples and English also didnt care to convert indigenous peoples French worked to convert native communities in St Lawrence, Mississippi, Ohio River areas Although many natives didnt convert, guaranteed European religious traditions in America

III: Europeans in the Pacific Europeans explored Australia and Pacific islands Natives had no immunity to disease, thus were killed when Europeans arrived Had permanent settlements in Guam and the Mariana Islands Scouting of region led to intense interactions of Europeans, Euro-Americans, Asian, Oceanic

A: Australia and the Larger World Terra australis incognita- unknown southern land- thought there was a large S. landmass Dutch sailors made first recorded European sightings of continent in 1606 Dutch VOC authorized voyages, but not much to gain in Australia Dutch mariner Jan Carstenz reported he had seen no trees or anything man could use Still, many Dutch merchants traveled there- Australia became known as New Holland No one visited eastern coast of Australia until James Cook (English) European mariners didnt stay long enough to become familiar w/ indigenous peoples Considered indigenous as savages since they hunted- therefore Europeans didnt permanently settle there Cook anchored at Botany Bay and report region could be permanently settled British fleet brought convicts to Australia to form the first penal colony Australia wasnt linked to larger world until 19th and 20th centuries

B: The Pacific Islands and the Larger World Entry of European mariners into Pacific Ocean basin didn't bring immediate change Guam and Mariana Islands underwent dramatic change earlier- set stage for more islands Magellan encountered Marianas, dominated by Guam, in 1521 Spanish mariners used Manila galleon trade- Manila and Acapulco- in 1565 Since goal was to link New Spain to Asian markets, didnt explore more in Pacific Ocean Visited some Pacific islands, but found mostly nothing to interest them Manila galleons went to Guam, traded with indigenous Chamorro people Spanish govt wanted to bring Mariana Islands & Guam under control of viceroy Chamorro opposed, but they were harmed by smallpox epidemic At first, Europeans not interested in Pacific Islands, then in 18th century were interested English & French explored Pacific basin in search of commercial opportunities, NW passage

Frequently visited Tahiti, began to trade with the islanders Had sexual relations with Tahitian women in exchange for nails, knives, iron, etc. Trade was mostly peaceful, but occasional misunderstandings let to minor skirmishes James Cook happened across Hawaiian Islands- communicated w/ them on basis of familiarity w/ Tahitians and traded pigs and provisions for iron Sailors and island women had relations- disease spread When Cook revisited Hawaii in 1779, islanders were less accommodating Dispute over petty thefts escalated to larger conflict, taking Cooks life Eventually, many European & Euro-American whalers, missionaries, merchants, and planters became prominent figures in all major Pacific island groups Later, interactions among islanders, visitors, and migrants brought rapid & often unsettling change to Pacific islands societies