CHAPTER 1: 1.

PRINCIPLES OF SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR

Construction of Squirrel Cage Induction Motor

The three phase induction motor is by far the most common one used in industry. It is efficient, reliable and rugged. It is used to drive pumps, fans, conveyors, mixers, grinders, saws, and on all types of machinery. It is powered from the standard three phase industrial electricity supply.
STATOR STACK STATOR WINDINGS BEARING COOLING FAN FITTED TO SHAFT

SHAFT

BEARING

FRAME

ROTOR

4501-011 Rev B

Figure 1.1: Cross-Sectional View of 3-Phase Induction Motor

Refer to Figure 1.1. The body of the motor is called the frame. It is usually made of cast iron or aluminium. Fixed into the frame is a part in the shape of a hollow tube, called the stator. Spinning inside this is the rotor, which is as solid cylindrical item with a shaft through its centre. The shaft runs in low friction bearings.

1.2

Stator Construction and Excitation

Refer to Figure 1.2(a). The stator is built up a silicon steel punchings, and assembled as a hollow cylinder inside the motor frame. A distributed three-phase winding is arranged in slots on the inner circumference. Each of the three stator windings has two halves, on opposite sides of the stator. The windings are disposed 120 deg apart from each other. These windings are depicted in Figure 1.2(b). If electric current is passed through two coils on opposite sides of the stator, we have an electromagnet. This sets up a magnetic field like that of a horseshoe magnet. This field passes through the rotor. Thus each winding has two magnetic poles, thus the motor is known as a two pole motor.

4501-013 Rev B

Figure 1.2: Induction Motor Stator Construction and Windings

When the three windings are connected to a three-phase source, either in star or delta configuration, it can be shown that the magnetic field produced rotates. The speed of rotation of the field is directly related to the frequency of the voltage source. That is, a 50 Hz supply will cause a field rotation speed of 50 rev/sec, i.e. 3000 r.p.m. This is illustrated in Figure 1.3.

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Page 1

Figure 1.3: Generation of Rotating Stator Field

1.3

Rotor Construction and Action

The rotor is a cylinder of iron, with a shaft running through its axis. Parallel slots are cut to run the length of the outside. Copper bars are put into these slots, and the bars are shorted together at each end.

Figure 1.4: Induction Motor Rotor

Consider when the rotor is placed inside the stator. The rotating magnetic field set up by the three-phase current through the stator windings cuts the stator. This causes a current to be induced in the rotor bars, due to Flemings Law of Induction. Refer to Figure 1.5(a) for an illustration of this effect. The rotor current frequency is proportional to the difference in rotational speed between the rotor and the magnetic field generated by the stator. This is called the slip frequency. This rotor current induces a magnetic field in the rotor at the same speed as the stator field. The stator and rotor fields interact and produce a rotational torque on the rotor. Refer to Figure 1.5(b) for an illustration of this torque interaction.

Figure 1.5(a): Induction of Rotor CurrentFigure 1.5(b): Interaction Between Rotor and Stator Fields

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Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D

1.4

Torque And Current vs Speed

As the rotor increases in speed, the speed difference between the rotating stator field and the rotor bars gets less. This reduces the strength of the field induced in the rotor, and thus the rotor torque is reduced. When the rotor reaches the speed of the stator field, there is no field induced in the rotor, and the torque generated is zero. This is called the synchronous speed of the rotor. As the torque loading on the rotor increases, the rotor slows down, ie. the slip speed increases. This increases the strength of the rotor magnetic field, thus increasing the rotor torque. However at a certain point, the motor steel magnetically saturates and the available torque drops off. Refer to Figure 1.6(a) for a typical Torque vs Speed curve for a squirrel cage induction motor. As the rotor slows down, ie. as the slip speed increases, the rate of flux cutting the rotor squirrel cage increases, as does the rotor current. This is reflected as increased stator current. As the rotor is slowed to a standstill, with a 50 Hz supply, the stator current rises to quite a high level- typically six times full load current. Refer to Figure 1.6(b) for a typical Current vs Speed curve. Note that even when the motor is unloaded and running close to synchronous speed, it still draws a significant amount of current. This is in fact magnetising current, and is reactive, i.e. out of phase with the voltage. This magnetising component causes fluxing of the motor, and is reasonably constant over the normal range of motor loads. It is the reason why an induction motor always runs at a less than unity power factor (typically 0.86 at full load).

Figure 1.6(a): Motor Torque vs Speed

Figure 1.6(b) Motor Current vs Speed

1.5

Motor Poles

Figure 1.2 shows the stator winding arrangement for a two pole motor, where each of the three phases has two windings associated with it. Figure 1.7(a) depicts a four pole stator. In this stator, each winding has four sections. Each section is displaced by 90 deg from the other. Thus when current is passed through each winding, two magnetic fields are formed across the stator, at right angles from each other. Thus each winding has four poles, i.e. the motor is referred to as a four pole machine. It can be shown that when the windings are connected to a three-phase supply, the magnetic field rotates at half the frequency of the supply. Hence for a 50 Hz supply, the field rotation speed is 25 rev/sec, ie. 1500 r.p.m. Similarly, a six pole stator field rotates at one third of the supply frequency, (1000 r.p.m. for 50 Hz) and an eight pole stator field rotates at a quarter of the supply frequency (750 r.p.m. for 50 Hz). Refer to Figure 1.7(b) for a table of synchronous speeds versus number of stator poles, for a 50 Hz supply.

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Figure 1.7(a): 4-Pole Stator Windings

Figure 1.7(b): Motor Speeds vs Number of Poles

1.6

Speed Control Of Squirrel Cage Motor

Inherently, the squirrel cage induction motor is a fixed-speed motor, whose speed is controlled by the number of poles, and the frequency of the supply to which it is connected. A small speed change is noticeable as the load on the motor changes, as a result of the slip. The equation for motor speed is: N = f x 120 p - s

N = motor speed in revs per minute f = frequency of supply to the motor in Hz p = number of poles on the stator s = slip of motor in revs per minute. From this equation, it can be seen that the speed of an induction motor can be controlled in three ways: (a) Change the number of poles.

This requires a rotor with two sets of windings, and a set of switchgear to enable energisation of either winding. Note that the speed is not continuously variable. For example, a 2 / 8 pole motor connected to 50Hz has two synchronous speeds, ie. 3000 and 750 r.p.m. (b) Change the amount of slip.

This can be done by adjusting the voltage supplied to the motor. This causes the torque vs speed curve to become less steep, thus causing more slip as the motor is loaded up. To work correctly, this method requires a load with a rising torque vs speed characteristic. Any variation in load torque will cause a variation in motor speed. (c) Adjust the frequency of supply to the motor.

This is the method used by electronic speed controllers. It generates a whole family of Torque vs Speed curves, each one with a synchronous speed corresponding to the frequency supplied to the motor at any instant. Refer to Figure 1.8. This is best method of speed control, for the following reasons: High efficiency is maintained throughout speed range. Continuously variable speed control is available. This can be controlled electronically, by (e.g.) 0 - 10V or 4 - 20 mA control signal. This makes a Variable Frequency Motor Controller ideal for process automation. The torque available from the motor is maintained, even at low speeds. Thus it is suitable for use with loads of any torque characteristic. Speeds above the 50 Hz "base speed" can be achieved, although at the cost of a reduction in the maximum torque available. Page 4 Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D

Figure 1.8: Torque vs Speed Curves for Motor Under Variable Frequency Control

1.7

Motor Equivalent Circuit

If we analyse the internal electrical circuit of an induction motor, by breaking it down into simple circuit elements (inductors and resistors), each winding appears similar to Figure 1.9(a). This simplifies to Figure 1.9(b). Note that each motor winding has two current paths.

Figure 1.9: Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor

Magnetising path: Each stator winding has an iron core, thus will have a high inductance. The inductances of each winding are important to the operation of the motor, because when drawing current they generate the rotating magnetic field(s) essential to the operation of the motor. The magnetising current is reactive, that is, it lags behind O the applied voltage by 90 . Load path: This current path transforms from the stator to the rotor by transformer action, and flows through the rotor bars. The more load on the motor, the higher the slip, and the higher the load current is. Load current is real, i.e., it is in phase with the applied voltage. Total current: The total current in each winding of a motor is the vector sum of the load current and the magnetising current, as shown in Figure 1.10. Generally the magnetising component is constant and does not change with load. It ensures that the motor always runs at a lagging power factor.

Figure 1.10: Components of Current in Induction Motor

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1. 8

Variable Frequency Controllers

To keep the magnetic fields inside the motor at the correct level, at the same time as adjusting the supply frequency to the motor, we also need to adjust the supply voltage. The requirement is to maintain a constant voltage-to-frequency (V/Hz) ratio. Too weak a field causes a loss in motor torque. Too strong a field causes magnetic saturation and motor overheating.

Figure 1.11: Variable Speed Drive Output Voltage vs Frequency

From the above figure, it can be seen that for increasing output frequency, the V/Hz ratio remains constant until the motor voltage reaches 100% of the (Drive input) voltage. For higher Drive frequency, the voltage to the motor cannot increase, and magnetic field weakening happens. Thus when the motor is oversped past its nominal operating frequency, its output torque capability reduces. We can improve low speed motor torque by applying BOOST. This is done by increasing output voltage at low speed, as shown in Figure 1.11. Boosting overcomes the voltage drop caused by the stator winding resistance, RS in Figure 1.9. This in turn causes torque loss at low speeds.

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Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D

CHAPTER 2: 2.1

PRINCIPLE OF VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE

Block Diagram of Variable Frequency Drive

Refer to Figure 2.1, which shows the block diagram of a typical PDL Variable Frequency Drive.

Figure 2.1: Block Diagram of PDL Variable Frequency Drive

Sections of the drive are: Rectifier: Filter: Converts the incoming AC (alternating current) into DC (direct current). For 400Vac mains, the DC level is approximately 560Vdc. The rectifier output has ripple (some AC voltage) superimposed on top of the DC. This needs to be filtered (smoothed) by a choke and electrolytic capacitors. The output of the filter is called the DC bus. Converts the DC bus voltage back into three phase AC. The frequency and voltage of the output from the inverter are adjustable, and if an induction motor is connected to it, the motors speed can be adjusted,

Inverter:

2.2

Rectifier

The rectifier has six diodes connected as a three phase bridge rectifier. A diode is a device that allows current to flow in one direction only.

Figure 2.2: Operation of Rectifier Diode

Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D Page 7

Referring to Figure 2.2, on a positive half cycle of the mains, that is, when the top input is more positive than the bottom input, the diode is forward biased and will conduct current through the load. On a negative half cycle, when the top input is more negative than the bottom input, the diode is reverse biased and will block current from conducting. Thus in the circuit of Figure 2.2, the load will have half of the mains voltage across it. Thus if it was a lamp, it would glow with half brightness. Figure 2.3 shows a full wave three phase rectifier, where six diodes are used to convert AC into DC.

Figure 2.3: Drive Rectifier and Filter Circuit

For a standard 400Vac 50Hz 3 phase mains, the output of the drives rectifier is 560Vdc, with some ripple superimposed. The ripple is a small AC voltage at a frequency of 300Hz. UDi/MVi/MFi drives use three diodes and three silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) in their rectifier. This has no effect on the normal operation of the rectifier.

Filter
To get rid of the ripple on the rectifier output, a filter is used. The filter uses two chokes, one in the positive and one in the negative output of the rectifier. The filter also uses capacitors. The capacitors are electrolytic, i.e. they are polarised (can only go in the circuit in one direction) and have a large capacitance (ability to hold charge) for their size. The capacitors we use are rated at 400Vdc maximum each. Thus to withstand the DC bus voltage, they must be in sets of two in series. Resistors connected across the capacitors help each series pair of capacitors to share the DC bus voltage between them.

WARNING: The capacitors can hold a lethal charge for some minutes after power has been turned off.
Page 8 Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D

Soft Charge Circuit

The filter capacitors can draw a lot of current when first charging up. This inrush is noticeable when the drive is first switched on, and can blow fuses or damage the diodes. So a soft charge circuit helps to limit the inrush current to a safe level. The charging current flows through the soft charge resistor When the capacitors are charged up, the resistor is shorted out by a contactor or relay, and the drive can now be run. On UDi/MVi/MFi models, soft charging is done by phase controlling the rectifier SCRs during this inrush period.

2.3

Inverter Bridge

After smoothing by the filter, the DC voltage is applied to the inverter bridge consisting of six insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs).

Operation of IGBT
In an IGBT, the gate (g) and emitter (e) can be thought of as the control terminals, and the collector (c) and emitter (e) as the power terminals. By placing a voltage between g and e (Vge = 10Vdc) the resistance between c and e will go low and switch on any load in the collector circuit. The IGBT can thus act as a power switch - it can control high power in its collector circuit with low power in its gate circuit. This is similar to a relay, where low power in its coil will enable high power to be switched through its contacts. The advantages of an IGBT over a relay are its very fast speed and ease of driving. AN IGBT can switch on a load in 2 microseconds (millionths of a second), compared with a relay taking 10 milliseconds (thousandths of a second).

Figure 2.4: IGBT Symbol and Operation

Figure 2.5 shows the switching characteristics of an IGBT. Note that there is a finite (although small) time it takes to switch on and off. The shorter this time, the less the heating of the IGBT due to the switching. Also note that when switched on, the voltage across the switch (Vce) does not decrease to zero as would be expected in an ordinary switch. The lowest Vce goes to is approximately 2.5Vdc. This also causes heating in the IGBT. Thus the IGBTs need to be mounted on a heatsink, so that the internally generated heating is safely conducted away and does not destroy the IGBT.

Figure 2.5 IGBT Switching Characteristics

Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D Page 9

In a PDL Variable Speed Drive inverter bridge, six IGBTs are arranged in a bridge configuration. The switching of the IGBTs is arranged so that when the top IGBT in each leg (or phase) of the bridge is switched on, the bottom one is turned off, and vice versa. So if the centre point of each phase (where the motor is connected to) is observed, it switches periodically to the positive and negative sides of the DC bus.

Figure 2.6: Inverter IGBT Switches and Output Waveforms

If each of the three phases is switched in this manner, but with the switching of each phase delayed by one third of a cycle behind the previous phase, the three waveforms of the centre point (VAO, VBO, VCO) are as shown in Figure 2.6. The motor sees across its terminals the difference in voltage between any two outputs A, B, C, as shown in the figure as VAB, VBC, VCA. Thus the output of the inverter is a three phase waveform. The output voltage waveform is called a quasi square-wave and causes a motor current waveform as shown at the bottom of Figure 2.6.

Modulation
The above motor waveform is not very good for the motor because it has a high harmonic content, which causes the motor to be noisy and to get too hot. To improve this waveform we modulate the voltage waveform. This modulation is done to adjust the average output voltage and to make the output current waveform look more like a sine wave, which has less harmonics and causes less noise and heating in the motor. Figure 2.7 shows this modulation technique. The width and number of chops are electronically adjusted to make the output current closely approximate a sine wave. In this illustration, there are sixteen chops inserted in the cycle. In a practical drive, the number of chops may be 80 per cycle, giving an even smoother motor current waveform.

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Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D

Figure 2.7: Modulation of Output Waveform

2.4

Control Electronics

The Control Electronics in an AC Motor Speed Controller is the Brain of the controller. In its basic form, it performs the following functions:

Accepts a Speed Reference signal (0 to 10V or 4 to 20mA). Accepts user controls: stop, start, reset, invert direction, etc. Generates modulated waveforms, to drive the inverter switches to provide the correct output voltage and frequency to run the motor at the desired speed. Monitors motor current to provide motor and controller with protection against overloads. Provides application-dependent adjustments: acceleration and deceleration rates, minimum and maximum speeds, boost and overload levels, etc. Provides status outputs, e.g. motor current, drive frequency, start, run, overload, fault indication.

User Controls
In later model AC Motor Controllers, the function of the user input control switches can be customised in the software. This can eliminate the need for external logic control functions. Examples may be to provide a software motorised potentiometer, with one input switch to increase the reference, and one to decrease the reference. Similarly, analogue inputs can be configured as to type (0 to 10Vdc, 4 to 20mA, +/-10Vdc etc.) and function to suit what the control system has available. Output relays can be configured as to the status that they indicate, and analogue output(s) can have their type and function configured. Some controllers have a software process control loop available to enable closed loop applications such as constant pressure pumping, level control, load control, etc.

Motor Current Monitoring

The AC Motor Speed Controller output current is continuously monitored, to enable Controller, motor overload and load protection. Use of Hall Effect DC current transformer devices enable measurement and control of motor currents at low frequency and DC levels. Motor current imbalance and earth leakage can be monitored and protected against.

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2.5

220/240Vac Input Drives

Smaller AC Motor Speed Controllers are available for operation off 220/240Vac supplies, either single phase or three phase. Refer to Figure 2.8 for a block diagram. Single phase input Controllers have single phase rectifiers with four diodes in the rectifier instead of six. For 220/240V Controllers, the DC bus voltage is approximately 325Vdc and the maximum output voltage is 230Vac 3 phase.

Figure 2.8: Block Diagram of 220/240Vac Input Controller

220/240Vac input Controllers enable operation of small delta-connected motors. Refer to Figure 2.9 for details of the necessary winding connections.

Figure 2.9: Winding Connection for 230/400 Vac Motors

2.6

Regeneration and Dynamic Braking

When a motor is driving a high inertia load, then has its output frequency reduced, the motor may be running faster than synchronous speed, that is, at negative slip. The same effect may happen when lowering a hoist. Under this condition, the motor is now generating, and is absorbing mechanical energy from the load back into the Controller. This is called regeneration and is shown in Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: Regeneration Region of Induction Motor

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When regenerating, the energy flows back to the Controller, and is rectified by the transistors free-wheeling diodes, but cannot flow back to the mains because of the one-way input rectifier. The effect of this is to cause the DC Bus to pump up in voltage, and this may cause the Drive to trip out if unchecked. A solution is to put a Dynamic Brake across the DC Bus. This is a resistor connected to an electronic voltage-activated switch. Refer to Figure 2.11. When the DC bus voltage exceeds a preset level, the resistor is switched across the bus and dissipates the regenerative energy.

Figure 2.11: Use of Dynamic Brake

2.7

Derating and Types of Load

Up to fulll speed (100% or 50Hz), the torque available from the motor is essentially constant. Above 50Hz, the Controller enters field weakening where the available torque reduces. However, at reduced speeds, the induction motors cooling fan is not as effective. Thus the motor should not be continuously loaded to full torque at reduced speeds, unless supplementary cooling is provided. Refer to Figure 2.12 for an example of derating.

Figure 2.12: Torque Derating due to Motor Cooling

Figure 2.13: Constant Power Load

Figure 2.14: Constant Torque Load

Four basic types of load have been identified, in terms of the load vs speed characteristics. Figure 2.27 indicates a constant power load. The torque required by the load increases as the speed decreases, in such a way that the product of the torque and speed (ie. power) remains constant. Examples are centre driven winders and lathes. Figure 2.28 indicates a constant torque load. In this type of load, the torque require stays constant regardless of the speed. This is a very common characteristic. Examples are conveyors, hoists and printing presses. Care must be taken if intending to run for extended periods at low speeds.

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Figure 2.15: Load Proportional to Speed

Figure 2.16: Load Proportional to Square of Speed

Figure 2.15 indicates a load where torque is proportional to speed. Such loads include mixers, positive displacement pumps, compressors etc. Such loads do not normally cause a motor heating problem. Such loads should not require BOOST to be applied. Figure 2.16 indicates a load where torque is proportional to the square of the speed. This is a very common load type, and applies to centrifugal pumps and fans. Over 70% of loads used on motors controlled by AC Motor Speed Controllers are in this category. The torque required at low speeds is very small.

2.8

Six pole motor in a four pole application

Figure 2.17 4 pole motor

Figure 2.18 6 pole motor

The use of a 6 pole motor in a 4 pole application gives better motor cooling and hence a wider useful speed range. The starting torque is also 50% better.

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Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D

2.9

Full rated torque up to 87Hz

Many small motors can be connected in 230v delta, when this is combined with a 400 volt VSD the field weakening region is extended to 87Hz (3 x 50Hz) see figure 2.19. This allows full motor rated torque to be achieved up to 87hz. Since Power = 2Rad/Sec x Torque the output power from the motor is increased by 3 at 87Hz with no extra heat generated in the motor because the rated name plate current remains the same.

Example:

A 1 Kw 400v star 230v delta motor, is connected in delta at 400v to produce 1.73Kw at 87 Hz.

Star connected motor Power = 3x Vline X Iline

Delta connected motor Power = 3x Vline X Iline

Iline = Power / 3 x Vline Iline = 1 Kw / 3 x 400v Iline = 1.4 Amps

Phase current star connected motor Iline = Iphase Iphase = 1.4

Iline = Power / 3 x Vline Iline = 1.73Kw / 3 x 400v Iline = 2.5 Amps

Phase current delta connected motor Iline = 3 x Iphase Iphase= Iline / 3 Iphase= 2.5 / 3 Iphase= 1.44A

Net heating effect in a motor phase Power = I x RMotor Power = 1.4 x RMotor VSD Output Current Rating 1.4 Amps
2 2

Net heating effect in a motor phase Power = I x RMotor Power = 1.4 x RMotor VSD Output Current Rating 2.5 Amps
2 2

Figure 2.19 Field weakening

Voltage Field Weakening at 400v Field Weakening at 230v

400

230

50
4201-070A

87

Frequency

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CHAPTER 3: 3.1

PRINCIPLES OF FLUX VECTOR CONTROLLERS

Difference Between Scalar And Vector Control

As discussed in Section 1, the operation of the three phase induction motor is due to the interaction of the (excited) stator magnetic field with the (induced) rotor magnetic field. The stator excitation produces a magnetic field, which rotates at synchronous speed in the air gap between stator and rotor. This field induces currents in the rotor bars, so giving rise to another rotating magnetic field. These fields want to line up with each other, so the rotor experiences a torque, and tends to be dragged along with the stator field. As the rotor speed approaches that of the rotating stator field, the rotor bar currents will reduce. This reduces the rotor torque, until when rotating at synchronous speed, the rotor torque is zero. Under normal motoring conditions, the rotor will rotate at a speed slightly slower than that of the stator field. This speed difference is termed the slip, and the more slip, the more torque the motor will deliver to the load. By applying a variable voltage variable frequency (VVVF) controller, as discussed in Section 2, the stator field rotation speed can be changed, thus the rotor speed changes. This is done. For most motor speed control applications, e.g. pumps, fans, conveyors, etc., this is a satisfactory method of speed control. However there are some types of load where the performance of a VVVF controller is not good enough for operating the induction motor. One such application area is where very fast speed response is needed, e.g. in position control systems and flying shears. Under such highly dynamic conditions, the operation of a VVVF controller will be underdamped or even unstable. Another area where a VVVF controller is not particularly suitable is in torque control applications, e.g. rewinders, torque boosters, etc. Also the standstill torque and low speed torque capabilities of a VVVF controller on an induction motor are not very good, making it unsuitable for use on hoists and elevators. For high performance operation, closed loop torque control is required. This requires that the torque producing and magnetising components of stator current must be accurately and separately controlled as vectors, i.e. they are controlled in both magnitude and spatial position. The two components are kept in O quadrature, i.e. 90 electrical apart. This class of induction motor controller is referred to as a Field Orientated Flux Vector Controller, or simply Vector Controller, as represented by the PDL Microvector range. This type of controller has very fast torque response, making it suitable for precision torque, speed and position control applications. The ability to get up to full pull-out torque of the motor at all speeds, including standstill, makes this controller suitable for cranes, hoists and elevators.

3.2

Review of Basic Motor Principles

Figure 3.1: Force on Current-carrying Conductor in a Magnetic Field

All electric motors work on a basic principle of electromagnetism. According to this principle, when an electric current is passed through a conductor that is in a magnetic field, a force acts on the conductor. This is shown in Figure 3.1. If the current-carrying conductor is at right angles to the field, then the magnitude of the force can be calculated from the equation F = BxixL where F = force in Newtons, B = magnetic flux density in Teslas, L = conductor length in metres. Page 16 Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D

The direction of the force can be deduced from the left-hand motor rule. Extend the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left hand so they are mutually perpendicular. If the forefinger represents the direction of the magnetic flux lines, and the middle finger the direction of (conventional) current flow, then the thumb points in the direction that the conductor is pushed. Control of the torque output of a motor is by control of the above forces on the rotor conductors, by controlling either the field strength (B) or the rotor current (i). In a separately excited DC motor, torque control is comparatively straightforward, as discussed in Section 3.3. However in an AC induction motor, the rotor conductor current is achieved by induction, that is, by the stator field B cutting past the rotor conductors at slip speed and generating currents in the rotor bars. Thus the same current forced into the stator windings gives rise to the motor flux (B) and induces the rotor current (i). Thus to control the torque output of an AC induction motor, we need to control the instantaneous magnitude and phase of the three-phase stator currents to enable direct and independent control of B and I. This is called Field Orientated Flux Vector Control.

3.3

Review of DC Motor

The separately excited DC motor, as shown in Figure 3.2, is an example of a vector controlled motor. The armature (torque producing) current is kept in quadrature (at right angles) to the field producing current by the commutator and brushgear. The field flux is directly proportional to the field current, and can be controlled independently of the armature current. The shaft torque is proportional to the product of the field flux and armature current. If the field current is kept constant, the motor output torque can be controlled by controlling armature current. Response to a step change in armature current is fast and well damped.

Figure 3.2: Separately Excited DC Motor

However DC motors have many disadvantages when compared to squirrel cage induction motors. Their brushes and armatures make them high maintenance motors. The armature windings are complicated and rewinding is expensive. The motors normally have a poor ingress protection (IP) rating, and brushgear arcing prevents their use in any hazardous area. The induction motor, by comparison, is much simpler in construction, and is available in waterproof, submersible, or flameproof formats. It is generally more mechanically rugged, and much less expensive than its DC counterpart.

3.4

Concepts of Induction Motor Vector Control

Figure 3.3: Steady-state Equivalent Circuit of Induction Motor

Figure 3.3 shows the equivalent circuit of a phase of an induction motor. Circuit parameters are as follows: stator leakage inductance - due to imperfect magnetic coupling between adjacent turns Lls = Rs = stator winding resistance - due to resistance of copper wire - cause of stator losses Lm = stator magnetising inductance - gives rise to rotating stator field Llr = rotor leakage inductance Rr = rotor resistance = equivalent load resistance - changes with motor slip Rr (1-s)/s Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D Page 17

There are two components of current into the motor: IM(t) magnetising current, i.e. flux producing current. This current is mainly imaginary, i.e. inductive. A small real, i.e. resistive, current component flows, due to iron losses in the stator. load current, i.e. torque producing current. This component is mainly real, IR(t) i.e. resistive or work-producing current. A small imaginary, i.e. inductive, current flows, due to rotor and stator leakage inductances. The produced torque can be expressed as: T = Ka x IM(t) x IR(t) x sin It must be remembered that these two quantities are alternating, having the same frequency but not O necessarily in quadrature. The phase difference between the two currents will vary from 90 due to the effects of the leakage inductances. This variance will be worse at low speeds and under heavy loads. In a AC induction motor, the same current forced into the three phase stator windings gives rise to the magnetising (air gap) flux (B) and induces the torque producing (rotor) current (i). It is not possible to separately and independently access these two quantities. The main function of the Vector Controller is to overcome this problem by maintaining a quadrature relationship between magnetising and torque producing components of the stator current, and decoupling the components in such a way that each can be independently controlled, even under highly dynamic conditions. Vector control needs to have a feedback from the motor of the magnitude and orientation of the air gap flux. This then enables the two current components to be controlled. Early Vector Controllers employed direct vector control, by using flux sensors in the air gap to produce the required signals. However this required a special motor and did not achieve acceptance. Later controllers employ indirect vector control, where the magnitude and orientation of air gap flux is computed from a knowledge of the motors parameters (called the motor map), and the instantaneous relative rotor position, measured using an incremental shaft encoder driven by the rotor. Complex and tedious calculations have to be carried out on-line and at high speed in order to achieve fast response. This has only been practical since the advent of fast and powerful microprocessors. The PDL Microvector is an example of a modern indirect Vector Controller.

3.5

Concept of Rotating Reference Frame

In the induction motor, the air gap flux rotates at synchronous speed. The rotor current and therefore rotor flux induced by this air gap flux travels past the rotor at slip speed. Thus the relative angular position of rotor flux is stationary with respect to the stator flux. Thus we can use a synchronously rotating reference frame as a reference co-ordinate system. With respect to this reference frame, both the rotor and stator fluxes are stationary and their mutual interaction produces torque. To achieve this rotating reference frame, a mathematical transformation is required between a three phase stationary reference frame and a two phase rotating reference frame with d and q axes. This is shown in Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.4: Vector Diagram of Stator Current Components Relative to Rotating Reference Frame
In this rotating reference frame, variables like voltages and currents are purely real currents (like DC quantities) without modulation. In this frame, the RMS values of IM(t) and IR(t) transform to Id and Iq. Thus our torque equation can be re-written: T = ka x Id x Iq The analogy to the DC motor is Id corresponds to field current If, and Iq corresponds to armature (torque producing) current Ia. Page 18 Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D

3.6

Synthesis of Stator Current

Referring to Figure 3.4, when the Vector Controller is operating below base speed, the magnitude of Id is fixed. The required magnitude of Iq can then be computed, based on the reference (required) torque. From these values, the magnitude of the required stator current can be calculated: (Id2 + Iq2) = Is Iq is a function of the slip of the rotor. The required slip frequency (in radians/sec) can be calculated from: s = Iq / (Tr x Id ) where Tr = rotor coupled time constant, ie., Lr / Rr, which depends on the motor design. This required slip speed can then be used to calculate the required instantaneous phase of the stator current, by integrating rotor speed (r) and generated slip (s). Once again, referring to Figure 3.4: where = =

(r + s)dt +

tan-1 (Iq / Id)

By combining the above equations, the instantaneous stator current magnitude and phase angle can be calculated. The accuracy of the calculations is dependent on the accuracy of the motor and shaft encoder parameters programmed into the Vector Controller, thus correct "tuning" of the controller is very important if good performance is required.

3.7

PDL "Microvector" Controller

The PDL Microvector Motor Controller is effectively a torque controller, which synthesises the stator current required by the connected induction motor to supply the reference (required) torque. Refer to Figure 3.5 for a block diagram of the control strategy.

Figure 3.5: Block Diagram of Microvector Control Algorithm

A microcontroller continuously computes the necessary values and distribution pattern of stator currents. This requires rotor change-of-position signals from an incremental shaft encoder mounted on the motor. The microcontroller runs an algorithm which converts the measured motor currents from three-phase rotating currents into two-phase direct currents, which are the equivalent of the armature and field currents in a DC motor. These are compared with the reference values needed to produce the required torque, and the errors are processed, reconverted to three-phase rotating voltage reference levels, and applied to the inverter bridge. An internal speed control loop can be selected to enable the Microvector to be configured as a precision speed controller if required. The incremental encoder is used as speed feedback for the control loop. The result is that precision torque and speed control can is achievable. The response of the motor is very fast - typically a 100% torque step can be applied to the load in less than 10 milliseconds.

3.8

Open Loop Vector Controllers

An open loop flux vector controller (also known as a tacholess vector controller) controls the speed of an induction motor using techniques similar to that of a Microvector, to synthesise stator currents to deliver the required motor torque. However a shaft encoder is not required on the motor. The result is an induction motor controller that has near-vector performance (both in speed response and low-speed torque capability) but without the problem of having to fit a shaft encoder to the motor. The rotor position is estimated by measuring the motors terminal voltage and applying a mathematical transformation. Such a controller requires a very powerful microprocessor to handle the extra maths routines in the short cycle time required. Open loop vector control is in its infancy but will probably be the control mode of the future. At the time of publication of this edition, PDL Electronics has released the first models in a range of open loop flux vector controllers, called the Microdrive Elite range. Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D Page 19

CHAPTER 4 4.1

PRINCIPLES OF REDUCED VOLTAGE STARTERS

DIRECT-ON-LINE STARTING

The direct-on-line starting characteristics of an induction motor can be better understood by studying the full equivalent circuit of the motor. Refer to Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Full Equivalent Circuit of One Phase of Induction Motor

Figure 4.1 represents the steady-state equivalent circuit of one phase of an induction motor. Circuit parameters are as follows: = stator leakage inductance - due to imperfect magnetic coupling between adjacent stator turns Rs = stator winding resistance - due to resistance of copper wire - cause of stator losses Lm = stator magnetising inductance - gives rise to rotating stator field Llr = rotor leakage inductance Rr = rotor resistance Rr (1-s)/s = RL = equivalent load resistance - changes with motor slip Lls On start up, slip is at a maximum (1.0) and RL becomes very small, and appears as a short circuit. The stator current on starting virtually all flows to the rotor and its magnitude is only limited by the stator and rotor reactances (RS, LlS, Rr, Llr). Also voltage divider effects between stator and rotor reactances will ensure that Lm does not get full input voltage supplied. Thus at start up, the field in the motor is weakened and the motors torque reduced to approximately 50% of peak. Refer to Figures 4.2, 4.3 for typical Torque vs Speed and Current vs Speed curves for squirrel cage motors.

Figure 4.2: Torque vs Speed Curve

Figure 4.3: Current vs Speed Curve

4.2

Problems With Direct-On-Line Starting

On starting an induction motor direct-on-line, (DOL), three effects are noticeable. The first effect is the large amount of excess torque available. Refer to Figure 4.2. Even though the starting torque is reduced, the torque does jump quickly to peak value as the rotor speed increases. This torque can be far in excess of what the load requires, as shown in the figure. This excess torque is represented by the area above the load torque requirement curve and below the motor torque curve. When DOL starting, this excess torque can cause mechanical shock, belt slippage, and stress in transmission components. It can cause water hammer in pipes connected to motor-driven pumps. DOL starting is essentially an uncontrolled start.

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Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D

The second effect is the large starting current drawn by the motor, as illustrated in Figure 4.3. This starting current is typically, at the instant of starting, six times full load current. It is because at start-up, the motor has full slip, and looks like a transformer with a shorted secondary (rotor). This high current can cause considerable voltage sags on a low capacity mains supply, and necessitates the rating of all induction motor switchgear and fusegear to handle this surge without damage. Local electricity distribution authorities usually insist that measures are taken to reduce this starting surge. The third effect is to cause additional heating in the motor. Rotor heating is made worse because the rotor usually has a higher effective resistance on starting compared with when running, because of the "skin effect" caused by the high slip frequency on the rotor. Overheating of the rotor can be severe with repeated starts, or with high load inertias or torques, and can cause rotor shorting ring failure or rotor cage melt-down.

4.3

Effect of Reduced Starting Voltage

It can be shown that if the starting voltage supplied to an induction motor is reduced, the torque available from the motor reduces as the square of the voltage reduction. Refer to Figure 4.4. If the input voltage to the motor is reduced to 71%, then the torque available is reduced to 50% (0.71 x 0.71) of its full value. The start current is also reduced, but not to the same extent as the torque. Any reduced voltage starting technique will cause the motor to operate at high slip for longer periods during start up. At high slip, the torque is only moderate, power factor is poor and rotor heating is very high.

Figure 4.4: Torque vs Speed Curves as Function of Voltage

A variable frequency drive is a most effective way of starting any induction motor. Because the drive is increasing the frequency at a controlled rate, the motor can be brought up to speed without incurring large slip, thus the starting current can be minimised and starting torque controlled. Also, once started, the motors speed can be continuously varied. The main disadvantage is the higher initial cost of such a drive. A cheaper option is to run the motor from an electronic reduced voltage starter (RVS). This supplies the motor from 3-phase mains, via a phase-controlled SCR stack. The triggering or gating of the SCRs can be controlled to control starting voltage or to limit starting current.

4.5

Principles of SCR Phase Control

An SCR (silicon controlled rectifier, or thyristor) is a semiconductor switching device, with two power terminals, called the anode (A) and cathode (K) and one control terminal called the gate (G). Operating Principles: Refer to Figure 4.5. If terminal K (cathode) is taken positive with respect to A, the SCR is reverse biased and will block current from flowing. If terminal A is taken positive with respect to K, the SCR is forward biased, and will block current flow until terminal G (the gate) receives a positive pulse with respect to K. This trigger pulse will trigger the SCR into conduction and current will pass from A to K. The SCR will continue to conduct after the trigger pulse has ceased, until current through the SCR ceases, at which point it returns to a blocking state.

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Figure 4.5: Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) Symbol and Characteristics

Inverse Parallel Connection: If two SCRs are connected in parallel, anodes to cathodes as shown in Figure 4.6, this is called an inverse parallel connection, (also called antiparallel). In this configuration, the SCRs can be used to control AC waveforms. On positive half cycles, SCR1 controls the current flow to the load. On negative half cycles, SCR2 controls the current flow. Phase Control: If the SCRs are connected in inverse parallel, and the triggering pulse for each SCR is at a controlled point in each half cycle of the AC. waveform, we have the means to control the average voltage applied to the load. Refer to Figure 4.7. This depicts the voltage appearing across the load in response to the adjustment of the firing point of the SCRs in each half cycle. Figure 4.7(a) shows the voltage on the load when the SCRs are triggered (fired) late in each half cycle. The average voltage on the load (represented by the black portion of the waveform) is comparatively low. Figure 4.7(b) shows the load voltage when the SCRs are triggered half way through each half cycle. The average load voltage is now 50% of the input voltage. Figure 4.7(c) shows the load voltage when the SCRs are triggered early in each half cycle. The average load voltage is approximately 80% of the input voltage. This method of controlling the load voltage by controlling the triggering points of the SCRs is called phase control, and is the principle behind PDL Electronics Reduced Voltage Starters.

Figure 4.6: SCRs in Inverse Parallel Connection

Figure 4.7: Phase Control of AC Waveform

4.6 Configuration of Electronic Reduced Voltage Starters

Refer to Figure 4.8. The PDL Electronic Reduced Voltage Starter has three pairs of inverse parallel SCRs, one pair in each line between the three phase supply and the three phase motor. These SCRs are phase controlled with the firing pulses generated by a Control Electronics PCB. These firing pulses are directed to each of the six SCRs by a pulse transformer or opto-coupler, to give galvanic isolation between the Control Electronics and power circuits. Thus the motor can be started and stopped, and the voltage to the motor can be controlled automatically, via the Control Electronics PCB. More sophisticated reduced Voltage Starters (eg. PDLs RVSi range) measure the current flowing to the motor, and can control this current and provide motor thermal overload protection. Input fuses are provided to protect the SCRs and motor against overloads and short circuits. Page 22 Principles of Induction Motors and Drives 4501-100 Rev D

Figure 4.8: Electronic Reduced Voltage Starter Circuit Configuration

4.7 Voltage Ramp Starting, Current Limit Starting

Voltage ramp starting is a starting method which applies a steadily increasing voltage to the motor. Refer to Figure 4.9(a). In this example the output voltage of the starter is ramped from 0 to 100% in four seconds. However it should be noted that there is a time delay between the ramp starting and the motor starting to rotate. The ramp time is user adjustable. Normally a user adjustable "Start Volts" level is applied. This causes the ramp to start at a preset level, and ramp up from there. In the example in Figure 4.9(b), this "Start Volts" level is set to 40%. This ensures that the motor starts turning immediately on start-up, but without "grabbing". In Current Limited Starting, the maximum required start current is preset by the user. When started, the Reduced Voltage starter will ramp up at the preset ramp rate until motor current reaches the preset level. At this point the output voltage ramp is automatically adjusted to hold the starting current at or below this level. This method is suitable if the maximum start current is to be limited due to, for example, inadequate mains capacity, or for starting high inertia loads which are loaded up only when they reach full speed, eg. fans, saw blades, etc.

Figure 4.9: Voltage Ramp Starting

Figure 4.10: Current Limited Starting

In Figure 4.10(a), a current limit of 400% has been set, and the load accelerates to full speed successfully. However in Figure 4.10(b), the current limit has been set down to 200%, and at a point in the start cycle, the torque required by the load exceeds the torque available from the motor. The motor will not accelerate beyond this point, and will enter a "rolling stall". The motor will continue to draw twice full load current, and because of its reduced speed will have reduced cooling. Thus the motor will overheat very quickly. This illustrates the danger of setting too low a current limit level.

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